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Enchantia received only three stars out of six due to its " strange " design and despite Core Design 's " trademark " good graphics . A 1996 retro review by France 's PC Soluces gave it three stars out of five , stating that the game 's interesting characters , surrealist feel and varied graphics were dragged down by " a bit weak " plot and an interface that was not intuitive enough .
Retrospectively , the website GamersHell found the lack of any text messages and dialogue in the game to be " an interesting design element . " However , Gry @-@ Online included the lack of even partial descriptions of objects among the reasons why Curse of Enchantia failed to become an outstanding game , along with a too many user interface icons and " useless " features . Wirtualna Polska ranked it as the 27th best Amiga game , but noted that " proponents of adventure genre 's purity " to this day dislike the game for its " unwise flirt " with action @-@ adventure , as well as the 19th best adventure game in history , opining that the lack of written text " perfectly " fits with the game 's story and specific type of humor . It was also ranked as the 26th best Amiga game by Polish console gaming magazine PSX Extreme , noted for its strong playability . Curse of Enchantia was also the first Amiga video game owned by Ben " Yahtzee " Croshaw , who in 2012 made a Let 's Play video of the PC version of the game , saying it had " great graphics , great animation , appalling game design . " Yahtzee said , " it was a game I had difficulty putting down , with beautiful scenery and a great sense of humour , although I understand it 's looked down upon by modern standards . " An advertisement for Curse of Enchantia was featured in GamesRadar 's humor article about " what game ads looked like when the SNES was alive " .
= = Legacy = =
A direct sequel for the game was briefly planned by Core Design . Few details were made available , but it would continue Brad 's fight against the witches but his sister Jenny was considered to play a much larger role . However , it was never released ( in part because of Robert Toone 's departure from the company ) , as the new game " has grown up so much during the development that it has simply became a follow up . " Its working title has still remained " Curse of Enchantia 2 " , but only " for practical reasons " . This spiritual successor game ultimately became known as Universe . Released in 1994 , the game uses an upgraded game engine of Curse of Enchantia and a similar user interface . Responding to some of the criticism of directed at Curse of Enchantia , Core Design described Universe as being " a lot " more logical and less linear than their first adventure game . They also described the text @-@ based system as an improvement over the use of only icons , its benefits including allowing conversations between characters . They also acknowledged that Curse of Enchantia has " suffered considerably " due to inclusion of action sequences , something that " adventure gamers don 't want in their games . " The game 's plot premise has remained similar to that of Curse of Enchantia , featuring a young man ( the protagonist 's name was changed from Brad to Boris , but he also has a sister named Jenny ) who is transported to another world which has to save from an evil overlord . But Universe is more serious in its tone , as the game 's humor only serves as comic relief and " it was never intended to be as silly as Enchantia . "
Simon the Sorcerer , a 1994 adventure game similarly featuring a modern boy protagonist transported to a fantasy world where he has to vanquish an evil wizard , which was partially inspired by Curse of Enchantia , and a similar cover art was used for King 's Quest VII . The game has also inspired the name of the Polish reggae band Enchantia , who chose this name because they thought it " feels warm " . The game 's chief artist Rolf Mohr said the cover art for Disney 's 2007 film Enchanted could have been inspired by his cover art for Curse of Enchantia . He called it " a case of Art imitating Disney imitating Art , " since he has been himself " definitely " inspired by Disney while working on the game . The " magical world of Enchantia " is the setting of the video game Enchantia : Wrath of the Phoenix Queen , but it does not appear to be otherwise related . Curse of Enchantia was also a " pretty big " influence on Yahtzee 's own adventure games .
= Tenacious D =
Tenacious D is an American comedy rock duo that was formed in Los Angeles , California in 1994 . Composed of lead vocalist and guitarist Jack Black and lead guitarist and vocalist Kyle Gass , the band has released three albums – Tenacious D ( 2001 ) , The Pick of Destiny ( 2006 ) and Rize of the Fenix ( 2012 ) . Tenacious D 's studio releases , and ( as of 2006 ) its live performances , feature a full band lineup , including such musicians as guitarist John Konesky and bassist John Spiker . Drummer Dave Grohl ( Foo Fighters , Nirvana ) has played on every studio release .
The band first gained popularity in 1997 when they starred in their eponymous television series and began to support large rock acts . In 2001 , they released Tenacious D , their debut album featuring a full band . The first single , " Tribute , " was the band 's most successful achieving their only Top 10 in any chart , until they released " The Metal " , which was shown on Saturday Night Live . In 2006 , they starred in , and recorded the soundtrack for , the film Tenacious D in The Pick of Destiny . In support of the film , the band went on a world tour , appearing for the first time with a full band . They released their newest album Rize of the Fenix on May 15 , 2012 .
Tenacious D 's music showcases Black 's theatrical vocal delivery and Gass ' acoustic guitar playing abilities . Critics have described their fusion of vulgar absurdist comedy with rock music as " mock rock " . Their songs discuss the duo 's purported musical and sexual prowess , as well as their friendship and cannabis usage in a style that music critics have compared with the storyteller @-@ style lyrics of rock opera .
= = History = =
= = = Beginnings = = =
Jack Black and Kyle Gass initially met in Los Angeles in 1985 , both members of the theatre troupe , The Actors ' Gang . Black admits the duo did not see eye to eye due to animosity between the two as Gass — who was the main musician for the Actor 's Gang - felt threatened by Black . This all changed in 1989 in Edinburgh , Scotland , during the Edinburgh Fringe of 1989 . They were performing Tim Robbins ' and Adam Simon 's play Carnage . After arriving home from the trip , the two became very close friends and Black would regularly visit Gass 's Cochran Avenue studio apartment in the deal that Gass would teach Black guitar in return for food from fast food chain Jack in the Box . They would also work on productions at the theater group together regularly too .
The two were just friends between 1989 and 1994 and did not play any concerts or record any music . Gass and Black wrote their first song " Mellisa " in 1994 after Black had been dumped by a girlfriend , this song was scrapped aside from the pair playing it at later Tenacious D concerts as a joke and referencing it in interviews . Their second song came about when Black was listening to Metallica 's " One " in 1994 and told Gass that it was the " best song in the world " . Gass told Black that they couldn 't write the best song in the world but Black put a twist on it and said they could write a tribute . Gass played an A minor chord at his apartment and the two spent three full days crafting the song , when it was done Gass mentioned " they knew they had something " . The song was comedic and evolved their comedy music persona .
At their first concert , at Al 's Bar ( now an apartment complex ) , the band only played their one song " Tribute " and the duo also gave the audience the chance to vote for their name . Black and Gass gave them the choice between " Pets or Meat " , " Balboa 's Biblical Theatre " and " The Axe Lords Featuring Gorgazon 's Mischief " ( Gass ' personal favorite ) . " Tenacious D " — a basketball term used by commentators to describe robust defensive positioning in basketball — did not get the majority of votes , however , but according to Black " we forced it through " . The venue had become a hotbed for upcoming bands due to the success of Nirvana and the Red Hot Chili Peppers , so much so that in attendance was David Cross who later cast Jack Black in his sketch comedy television series , Mr. Show . Black and Gass recorded their songs " Tribute " , " Kyle Quit the Band " , " Krishna " and " History " and released them in a demo tape called Tenacious Demo , in the early @-@ to @-@ mid 1990s with Andrew Gross and distributed it to various record companies until HBO offered them a TV show based upon the tape and Black 's work on Mr. Show .
= = = Television series ( 1997 – 2000 ) = = =
Cross , with Mr. Show writer Bob Odenkirk , continued his involvement with Tenacious D by producing three half @-@ hour shows based on the band . The series , entitled Tenacious D , premiered on HBO in 1997 , immediately following an episode of Mr. Show . While a total of three episodes consisting of two shorts each , ten to twelve minutes in length , were produced , only the first was aired that year ; the final two episodes did not air until the summer of 2000 . According to Gass , the series was cancelled after HBO requested ten episodes with the stipulation that he and Black would have to relinquish their role as executive producers , and only write songs . After the series aired , the band continued to perform live . At a show at the Viper Room in Los Angeles , they met Dave Grohl , who remarked that he was impressed with their performance ; this led to their cameo in the Foo Fighters ' " Learn to Fly " music video . The popularity of Tenacious D further increased as they began to open for high @-@ profile acts , including Beck , Pearl Jam and Foo Fighters .
= = = First album Tenacious D ( 2001 – 03 ) = = =
In May 2000 , Tenacious D signed to Epic Records . As Black 's profile increased due to his roles in films such as High Fidelity the band worked on recording their first album with producers the Dust Brothers . In 2001 , they released their debut Tenacious D. It peaked at # 33 on the Billboard 200 on October 13 , 2001 . While Tenacious D usually appears as a duo , the album was backed by a full band , consisting of Dave Grohl on drums and guitar , keyboardist Page McConnell of Phish , guitarist Warren Fitzgerald of The Vandals , and bassist Steven Shane McDonald of Redd Kross . According to Black , they chose to use a band because " no one 's ever heard us with a band " . The majority of songs on the album were performed previously on their short @-@ lived television series .
Although the critical reaction varied , by November 2005 , the album had achieved platinum status in the US . Entertainment Weekly described the release as " hilarious " , and " no mere comedy record " . AllMusic wrote that the album " rocks so damn hard " , but lamented the absence of some of the songs from the television show . Flak Magazine criticised the band 's use of skits between songs , describing them as " distracting " and a " nuisance " . In addition , The Independent remarked that the album was full of " swearing and scatology " and was " bereft of even the slightest skidmark of humour " .
The first single from the album was " Tribute " : a tribute to the " greatest song in the world " which , in the song , Tenacious D claimed they had performed in order to save their souls from a demon . A music video , directed by Liam Lynch , was shot for the song . The video achieved success and was voted the fifth best music video ever by Kerrang ! readers . This was followed by the second single , " Wonderboy " , the music video of which was directed by Spike Jonze . A third video , an animation depicting Black and Gass as cherubs , was made for " Fuck Her Gently " , directed by Ren and Stimpy @-@ creator John Kricfalusi .
The album also included " Dio " , a song written as a tribute to rock singer Ronnie James Dio , which mocked him somewhat for being too old . Dio liked the song enough to ask the band to appear in the music video for his song , " Push " . An EP entitled D Fun Pak was released in 2002 . It featured a skit and acoustic versions of " Jesus Ranch " and " Kyle Quit The Band " , as well as a megamix by Mocean Worker . The Complete Masterworks , a music DVD featuring the entire run of their TV series , music videos , and a live performance from London 's Brixton Academy recorded in 2002 , was released on November 9 , 2003 .
= = = The Pick of Destiny ( 2003 – 08 ) = = =
On November 7 , 2000 , Tenacious D had just finished writing the rough first script for a movie . This script was later scrapped for a plot line about the two searching for a sacred guitar pick .
In October 2003 Black announced that the screenplay for The Pick of Destiny — a fictional portrayal of the band 's formation — had been completed . Again working with director Liam Lynch , the film was initially to be written and developed by Working Title Films , but Black and Gass decided to assume creative control when they were not satisfied with the writers ' ideas . Filming had been expected to take place by the end of 2003 ; however , it was delayed by almost a year due to Black being cast in Peter Jackson 's big budget remake of King Kong . The band started recording songs for the soundtrack of the film , their second studio album , The Pick of Destiny . The album had John Konesky and John Spiker from Trainwreck on electric guitar and bass respectively . Dave Grohl again played drums , and further lent vocals to " Beelzeboss ( The Final Showdown ) " as well as acting in the film , as Satan .
The film had its premiere at Grauman 's Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles on November 9 , 2006 . Many of the actors who had cameos in the film were in attendance ; including Ronnie James Dio , Dave Grohl , and Ben Stiller . The film was released worldwide on November 22 . The soundtrack had been released just over a week earlier , on November 14 . Tenacious D in the Pick of Destiny grossed US $ 8 @,@ 334 @,@ 575 in the US and Canada and a total of US $ 13 @,@ 426 @,@ 450 worldwide , falling well short of its US $ 20 million production budget and US $ 40 million in estimated marketing costs . Financially , it is regarded as a box office bomb . The soundtrack reached # 8 on the Billboard 200 in the US as well as topping the iTunes chart , and # 10 in the UK . The film was released globally on DVD on February 27 , 2007 . In an interview on the Daily Show on November 30 , 2006 , Black admitted the film had " bombed " , but has recently said that DVD sales have shown that the film has picked up a cult audience .
Kevin Crust of the Los Angeles Times said that the film " might best be enjoyed in an enhanced state of consciousness , a herbal supplement , and we aren 't talking ginkgo biloba . " Stephen Rae of The Philadelphia Inquirer said that the frequent drug @-@ use in the film gives " the term potty humor a new meaning . " Michael Phillips criticized the frequency of the drug @-@ use by saying : " This may be the problem . Pot rarely helped anybody 's comic timing . " Stephen Holden of The New York Times suggested that the film could be viewed as a " jolly rock ' n ' roll comedy " , but he also described the progression of the film as being a " garish mess . "
The soundtrack was produced by John King of the Dust Brothers , but the reviews were less favourable than for the band 's first album . Rolling Stone comments that the soundtrack " never quite takes off " . It criticises the reliance the album makes on a knowledge of the film , and some songs ' existence only to " advance the plot " . It summarizes by saying the album is inferior to the band 's previous effort . Allmusic also describes the follow @-@ up as less " satisfying " than Tenacious D , noting that the songs feel like " narrative filler " . Blender continues the criticism of the songs being plot devices calling them " plot @-@ nudging song @-@ sketches " . The Guardian views the album more positively , describing the album as a meeting of " old school riffology " and " schoolboy humour " .
To coincide with the release of their new film and album , Tenacious D embarked on their 2006 – 07 tour of the US , Canada , UK , Australia , and New Zealand . This tour included the band 's first appearance at New York City 's Madison Square Garden . Unlike other tours , this one featured a full backing band . Konesky and Spiker resumed their roles from the album , and Brooks Wackerman was added as drummer . Each member used a pseudonym ; Konesky as the Antichrist , Spiker as Charlie Chaplin , and Wackerman as Colonel Sanders . JR Reed also toured as Satan . Black has said that the band lost money on the tour due to the cost of touring with a full band for the first time .
= = = Rize of the Fenix and touring ( 2008 – 2015 ) = = =
In November 2006 , Black expressed wishes to take a year @-@ long break from acting , though Gass hinted a desire for Tenacious D to end at their current highpoint . However , Black confirmed that a third album would be recorded by announcing that a new song has been written for it entitled " Deth Star " . He said that the album would likely be released in 2010 , but on other occasions had mentioned the year 2012 . In early 2008 , Black announced that the band was working on a new album , and a DVD titled The Complete Masterworks Part 2 . The DVD was released later that year , and included a documentary of their world tour entitled D Tour : A Tenacious Documentary . The film focuses on the tour Tenacious D made in support of the film and soundtrack and the consequences of their film 's poor showing at the box office . Kyle has commented that the new album only has " one to one and a half " songs written for it , and would like to write between twelve and fifteen .
The band played the main stage at the 2008 Reading and Leeds Festivals in the UK , playing Leeds on Friday , August 22 and Reading on Sunday , August 24 . In addition to this , the band provided support for Metallica at Marlay Park , Dublin in Ireland on August 20 . They headlined the last night of the 2009 Outside Lands Festival in Golden Gate Park , San Francisco , on Sunday August 30 , 2009 . Music magazine Billboard quoted Black as revealing that " We just laid down a hot [ ... ] we 're calling it the bomb track . It 's a very powerful recording called " Deth Starr " [ ... ] so it has nothing to do with the Star Wars [ Death Star ] , " adding that " It 's kind of sci @-@ fi , doomsday rock . " Jack Black also stated on the Late Show with David Letterman that he had an idea for a song called " Rize of the Fenix " , which he described as a " rise from the ashes " workout song similar to " Eye of the Tiger " . He performed a vocal sample of the song along to keyboards . Tenacious D played the main stage at Bonnaroo music festival in 2010 , which featured the band playing the song " Dio " as a tribute to the late Ronnie James Dio .
Gass has hinted that the band 's third album may be called Tenacious D 3 @-@ D , reasoning that " It 's the third record , so it should probably be ' Tenacious 3 @-@ D. ' There 's going to be a ' 3' and a ' D , ' so you have to connect them . " Dave Grohl has confirmed that he will appear as the drummer on the album , after performing on both Tenacious D and The Pick of Destiny . In an interview with Spinner.com in December 2010 , Black revealed that the band was " about halfway through the writing process " for its new album , telling fans to expect the release of new material " at the end of 2011 " . In terms of lyrical themes for the new songs , Black noted that " We 're gonna be talking about love , there are gonna be some songs about sex and there 's gonna be songs about food " .
In a May 2011 interview at Attack of the Show , Black announced that three songs on their upcoming album would be named " Rize of the Fenix " , distinguishable by either letter or number . Also in the same interview , he named another song called " Señorita " . John Konesky estimated that the new album would come out " in spring 2012 " . Tenacious D also played at Download Festival . In February 2012 it was revealed that the title of the album would in fact be spelled Rize of the Fenix and will be released on May 15 , 2012 .
On March 26 , 2012 a 6 @-@ minute film was uploaded to the Tenacious D VEVO channel on YouTube . The mockumentary , titled ' Tenacious D - To Be the Best ' , documents the uncertain future Tenacious D faced after the box @-@ office failure of The Pick of Destiny , KG 's subsequent breakdown and incarceration in " an institution " , and Jack 's embracing of an indulgent Hollywood lifestyle . The film shows a deranged Kyle escaping the facility and attempting to kill Jack and then himself , before they each realize their importance to each other and revive the band . They produce a new album in 75 minutes in the studio , described as " awful " , but try again and emerge with another new album , described at the end of the film as " the greatest album recorded by anyone , ever " . The film features numerous cameo appearances , including Maria Menounos , Val Kilmer , Dave Grohl , Yoshiki Hayashi , Josh Groban , Richard Ghagan , Mike White , Tim Robbins and Jimmy Kimmel .
The band released the album on April 28 , 2012 in its entirety on their Soundcloud account . Rize of the Fenix was officially released on May 15 , 2012 with mostly positive reviews from music critics .
On the Rize of the Fenix commentary on Spotify , Black stated , " We 'll be coming out with another album probably in 2017 " .
Tenacious D provided a cover of " The Last in Line " on the Dio tribute album This Is Your Life . The recording won a Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance .
= = = Fourth album and touring ( 2015 – present ) = = =
In early 2015 , Black confirmed that after Tenacious D 's " Unplugged and Unprotected " European tour , the band would work on their fourth album , though no release date was announced . Prior to this confirmation , Gass and Black teased a 2015 release date the previous year in an interview . Also , it was announced that the band would perform at the Boston Calling Music Festival in May , the Amnesia Rockfest in June and Riot Fest in Chicago in September .
In December 2015 , Black and Gass auctioned off props and costumes in support of the Sweet Stuff Foundation in response to the November 2015 Paris attacks where an Eagles of Death Metal concert was attacked . Tenacious D 's 2014 Festival Supreme concert featured Eagles of Death Metal as an act on the main stage . The props auctioned include costumes worn on MTV 's Total Request Live in 2003 , JR Reed 's The Metal from The Pick of Destiny tour , the costumes from the Low Hangin ' Fruit music video and more .
The European tour will cover territories from Germany , Denmark , and Sweden in early summer 2016 .
In addition to playing their own European tour , the band has confirmed playing in two international festivals . The first one , is The Rosklide Festival in Denmark , which is hosted on June 30 , 2016 . In addition to this festival , the artists announced playing at the Bravalla Festival in Norrkoping , Sweden , only days after , on July 1 , 2016 .
On February 5 , 2016 , Black was a guest on BBC Radio 2 's Chris Evans Breakfast Show . When asked about the status of the band , Black confirmed that they were working on a new album . Stating that they were " very slow , " Black suggested that it would likely be completed in 2018 . Black also mentioned that so far they just had a few song titles .
= = Musical style = =
Satire and comedy are a major aspect of Tenacious D 's lyrical content . Gass said of their approach : " I 'd love to do the straight music thing , but that 's kind of against our mission , which is to rebel against the serious singer @-@ songwriter mentality . " Their songs evoke heavy metal clichés of bands like Iron Maiden and Judas Priest . In particular , the song " Dio " pokes fun at the idea of a torch being passed . Songs like " Friendship " parody the lack of real friendship , as well as point out the [ bromance ] traits in rock groups with the lyric " As long as there 's a record deal , we 'll always be friends " . Tenacious D also employs the technique of deliberate backmasking on " Karate " , a technique employed by other metal bands like Slayer , who recorded a message in Hell Awaits .
= = = Influences = = =
Black has said that the first song he enjoyed was ABBA 's " Take a Chance on Me " . His style was distinctly shaped by " big dinosaurs of rock " such as The Who and Led Zeppelin . In addition , Gass lists his influences as being Tom Waits and Tony Robbins . The band claimed that the inspiration for the song " Tribute " came after Black played Metallica 's " One " for Gass , describing it as " the best song in the world " , leading to an attempt to themselves write an even better song .
Gass has described Tenacious D 's comic assertion that they are the best band as being " ridiculous because it 's a matter of opinion " . Black characterizes Tenacious D 's comic nature as an antidote to " the masculinity of rock " , adding " There 's also something funny about the macho @-@ ness of rock . Like the bands that are the fucking hardest rocking are like , ' We 'll fucking kick your ass , dude ... with our rock . ' " Russell Brand , All Shall Perish , The Lonely Island , and Kanye West have in turn been influenced by the work of Tenacious D.
= = Appearances = =
= = = Film and television = = =
Black and Gass first performed together in Bio @-@ Dome ( 1996 ) , followed by The Cable Guy ( 1996 ) , Bongwater ( 1997 ) , Cradle Will Rock ( 1999 ) , Saving Silverman ( 2001 ) , Shallow Hal ( 2001 ) , School of Rock ( 2003 ) and Year One ( 2009 ) . Black has starred in a number of films himself , and he has provided voices for animated films . In 2006 , Tenacious D starred in their own film , Tenacious D in The Pick of Destiny , in which they set out to become the greatest rock band in the world , by means of a guitar pick with mystic powers .
Black and Gass have made several television appearances performing songs from their first album . On June 16 , 2001 , Tenacious D were featured as puppets performing " Friendship " on an episode of Crank Yankers . They were guest starred when they were taught by Zorak how to perform in an episode of the Cartoon Network / Adult Swim series Space Ghost Coast to Coast . In 2002 they guest starred on MADtv playing the songs " Tribute " , & " Lee " with Foo Fighters frontman Dave Grohl on drums . Later , Tenacious D made an appearance in the first episode of Tom Goes to the Mayor televised on Adult Swim .
In the run up to the release of the film The Pick of Destiny , Tenacious D performed the " Pick of Destiny " at the 2006 American Music Awards and on Late Night with Conan O 'Brien . Tenacious D was a musical guest on Saturday Night Live for the first time , although they had previously appeared as an uncredited musical guest on May 2 , 1998 . They also opened the 2006 Spike TV Video Game Awards with a performance of " The Metal " , and played " Friendship " at the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards . The band 's first television appearance of 2008 was in support of the Who at the VH1 Rock Honors .
= = = Internet = = =
Black and Gass were interviewed on August 29 , 2012 , by Tony Hawk as part of the " Dissent " series on the web channel , Ride . The interview was conducted in the Sirius / XM studios as part of the Hawk 's " Demolition Radio " program . The interview 's topics include comedy rock and Upland Skatepark .
= = = Live = = =
In 2001 , Tenacious D started their second nationwide concert tour , performing at larger venues , many of which sold out . Until 2006 , Tenacious D usually performed only with acoustic guitars , rarely with a full backing band . The band has also staged two international concert tours as well as numerous domestic tours , though they have rarely played in non @-@ English speaking countries . Black says this is because foreign concerts are " a little funky " because " the subtleties do get lost in translation " . In addition , he comments on the angst they experience before concerts saying : " We 're always looking for a loophole . Pretty much every concert we 've ever done , we 're trying to find a way to cancel the show at the last minute . " The band permits live recording during concerts if the venue allows recording . Many of these recordings have been recorded and released through Live Music Archive and are available for free digital download .
The band uses an electronic musical toy saxophone called a Sax @-@ A @-@ Boom on @-@ stage . Each of its keys plays a clip of music that sounds almost like a saxophone .
In August 2008 , the band performed on the main stages of the Reading and Leeds Festivals . The band played a Guns N ' Roses cover .
On October 23 , 2010 , the band performed live at the BlizzCon 2010 convention in Anaheim , California . The performance , featured the debut of new songs , and was viewed via an online stream ( BlizzCon Virtual Ticket ) at blizzcon.rayv.com and on DIRECTV as a Pay Per View event .
On Friday , June 11 , 2010 , Tenacious D was in the middle of their " One Day Tour " in Manchester , TN for the annual Bonnaroo Music Festival . The band opened for ' Kings of Leon ' , the first headliner of Bonnaroo 2010 .
Throughout November and December 2011 , the band supported Foo Fighters during their Wasting Light tour of Australia and New Zealand .
In June 2012 , Tenacious D played at the Rock am Ring music festival in Germany . This is the biggest event that Tenacious D have ever played with 86 @,@ 500 people in attendance .
On Saturday 9 June 2012 , Tenacious D played the main stage at Download Festival at Donington Park in Derbyshire , England .
On Sunday 11 August 2013 , Tenacious D played at a theme park Gröna Lund in Stockholm , Sweden . The area holding 17 @,@ 000 fans was quickly full , forcing Gröna Lund to close the gates 3 hours before the concert . Over 5000 fans were left outside with no chance to see Tenacious D. The Swedish Police called it " chaos " and some fans were even seen swimming into the theme park via the water entrance . Lots of fans also rented peddle boats to see the show from the water This is the biggest show that Tenacious D have ever played that has not been a collaboration with other artists such as a festival .
On November 27th 2015 , Tenacious D released their first live album , compiling some of their 2012 @-@ 2013 live performances , to vinyl and on January 15th 2016 , to all digital platforms , including iTunes , Spotify , Amazon , and Google Play . The live performances album is called Tenacious D Live , and contains music from all 3 albums .
= = Political activity = =
Tenacious D are supporters of cannabis legalization . They have also performed at a NORML benefit concert . Black described his view that allowing drug use would remove the stigma of feeling " naughty " attached to users , making the activity mundane and less attractive . Black was the executive producer for a documentary about Randy Credico entitled Sixty Spins Around the Sun . It calls for the so @-@ called Rockefeller drug laws to be repealed . Black said of it , " They 're populating our prisons with people , you know , first time drug offenders — single mothers that have a little bit of coke end up going to prison for 20 years or something . It 's just cruel and unusual punishment . "
In 2004 , Tenacious D supported John Kerry 's US presidential election campaign by playing a benefit concert for him . Black and Gass were also outspoken critics of George W. Bush 's presidency . The band performed a benefit concert for Barack Obama 's presidential campaign on November 2 , 2008 in Milwaukee . Other performers included Ben Harper and Relentless7 , David Crosby and Graham Nash , and the Beastie Boys . Tenacious D guested with Crosby and Nash on " Find the Cost of Freedom " which concluded the Crosby @-@ Nash set . In 2010 , Tenacious D agreed to boycott Arizona due to laws passed there concerning illegal immigration . In 2012 , Tenacious D performed at the House of Blues in Cleveland and did a surprise gig at Kent State University earlier on that day too to encourage voting . Tenacious D supported Barack Obama that year .
= = Other projects = =
Tenacious D have appeared in numerous music videos by other bands , including " Push " by Dio , and " Photograph " by Weezer . Black has appeared on his own in many music videos , including a cameo alongside Dave Grohl in the music video for the Eagles of Death Metal song " I Want You So Hard ( Boy 's Bad News ) " , alongside Grohl again in the music video for the Foo Fighters ' songs " Low " and " Learn to Fly " and a cameo in the music video for the song " Sexx Laws " by Beck .
In addition to appearing in videos , Black and Gass sang backup vocals on the 2002 Styx album Cyclorama , on the song " Kiss Your Ass Goodbye " . Tenacious D lent backing vocals to The Vandals album Look What I Almost Stepped In ... , on the song " Fourteen " . Tenacious D appeared on KROQ @-@ FM 's twelfth full @-@ length Christmas compilation , Swallow My Eggnog , with Sum 41 , on a song entitled " Things I Want " .
Gass appeared in the Good Charlotte music video for the song " Lifestyles of the Rich and Famous " . Gass also performed lead acoustic guitar and vocals for the band Trainwreck , under the pseudonym " Klip Calhoun " . The band also featured JR Reed under the pseudonym " Darryl Donald " , as well as John Konesky and John Spiker , who played lead guitar and bass , respectively , on The Pick of Destiny album . They have released a live album , Trainwreck Live , and were working on recording a studio album with producer John King . Black occasionally appeared with the band under the name " Tuffy McFuckelby " . Trainwreck has broken up as of early 2011 .
Gass also has a YouTube series called " Guitarings " , co @-@ hosted by Tenacious D touring and session guitarist John Konesky , in which they interview musicians , give guitar lessons and discuss a range of topics related to guitars , such as video lessons on the band 's songs such as the widely popular " Beelzeboss " from the album " The Pick of Destiny " . Jack Black , co @-@ founder of the band , has also appeared as a guest on the successful webseries a number of times before .
= = Band members = =
Official members
Jack Black – lead vocals , rhythm guitar ( 1994 – present )
Kyle Gass – lead guitar , backing vocals ( 1994 – present )
Additional members
John Konesky – electric guitar , backing vocals ( session and touring ) ( 2005 – present )
John Spiker – bass , backing vocals ( session and touring ) ( 2005 – present )
Brooks Wackerman – drums ( occasional session and touring ) ( 2006 – present )
Scott Seiver – drums , percussion ( occasional session and touring ) ( 2011 – present )
Dave Grohl – drums , percussion ( session and occasional live performances ) ( 2001 – present )
Former additional members
Page McConnell – keyboards ( session and occasional live performances ) ( 2001 – 2002 )
Warren Fitzgerald – electric guitar ( session and occasional live performances ) ( 2001 – 2002 )
Steve McDonald – bass ( session and occasional live performances ) ( 2001 – 2002 )
= = Discography = =
Tenacious D ( 2001 )
The Pick of Destiny ( 2006 )
Rize of the Fenix ( 2012 )
= Holy Jesus Hospital =
The Holy Jesus Hospital is a working office Newcastle upon Tyne , England , in the care of the National Trust .
The site of the hospital has been in use for 700 years helping the townspeople . There was an Augustinian friary on the site from the thirteenth century , then an almshouse for housing retired freemen , then a soup kitchen was built next to Almshouse in the nineteenth century , before the site acquired its current function as a working office . The building also serves as the basis of the Inner City Project of the National Trust . This project takes people of ages 12 – 25 and over 50 out to the countryside in order to increase appreciation of the city 's natural surroundings .
The building is of architectural interest because it still retains architectural elements from many previous centuries , including a 14th @-@ century sacristy wall and 16th @-@ century tower connected with the King 's Council of the North . It is also one of only two intact 17th @-@ century brick buildings that survive in the city , the other being Alderman Fenwick 's House .
= = Augustinian Friary ( 1291 – 1539 ) = =
In the 13th century , Newcastle upon Tyne had a population of around 4 @,@ 000 ; and it was difficult for the four parish churches to care for the needs of such a large population . The priests were expected to be educators , doctors and counsellors , as well as meeting the spiritual needs of their parishioners . Therefore , in 1291 land was donated by William Baron of Wark on Tweed to found an Augustinian friary on the land on which the museum now stands .
The Augustinian Friars were originally an order of hermits in northern Italy who Pope Alexander IV first congregated into a single body in 1256 . The Order spread to France and then to England after being invited by Richard de Clare , 6th Earl of Hertford , to found Clare Priory in Suffolk , by the River Stour . On 3 September 1249 , de Clare was able to obtain a writ of protection for the friars from the King . The brethren were clothed in black and observed the rule of St Augustine of Hippo . Augustianian friars had been in England since 1250 and they helped by preaching and healing in the community .
The friary was also used as a lodgings house because it was on one of the main roads to the north . On the day that King Edward I passed through Newcastle in December 1299 the brethren each received three shillings and four pence ( 3s . 4d ) . In 1306 , the King also granted the monastery additional lands to enlarge the burial ground . Richard II directed the bailiffs of the city to issue a proclamation against dumping waste near the site . Apparently some local people threw " excrements , filth , and garbage , in a certain way that led near to the house of the Austin Friars , to their great annoyance and peril . "
It is possible that the site was used by English kings before its later use as a temporary seat for the Council of the North after the Dissolution of the Monasteries . Henry Bourne , an 18th @-@ century historian of Newcastle Upon Tyne wrote of the site : " the Kings of England since the Conquest , kept house in it , whence they came with an Army Royal against Scotland , and since the Suppression of the Monasteries , made a Magazine and Store @-@ house for the North Parts . "
Bourne also suggests that the use of the site as a religious centre might predate the friary . He wrote , " the same authority tells us also , that there was an ancient Religious House founded by the Kings of Northumberland and that several of them were buried here ; but it cannot be true that they built any Thing for the St Austin Fryers , for they came not into England ' till long after the Conquest , in the year 1252 . "
= = Dissolution of the Monasteries ( 1539 ) = =
In 1539 , the friary was seized by the crown along with five others in the area including the Dominican monastery of Blackfriars . At the time of its capture the friary had seven brethren and three novices including the prior , Andrew Kell . The monks and nuns were pensioned and the friars received gratuities . Some took jobs as chantry priests or accommodation in parish livings . Those nuns who were of good birth returned to their families . The bells , lead plate and vestments were turned over to the crown . Most of the building and lands were sold to the lesser gentry , new nobility , and town merchants or to borough corporations . At the time of the Dissolution there were a prior , ten friars and three novices .
In 1537 , Thomas Cromwell was asked if the Austin Friary site could be left intact after the dissolution , to be used as northern headquarters of the King 's Council of the North when it was not sitting at York . It was rarely used for this purpose ( Elizabeth I decreed that the council spend 20 days a year there ) . It appears that in 1551 the site was granted to John Dudley , 1st Duke of Northumberland " as parcel of Tynemouth Monastery . " In 1553 , Richard Benson occurs as keeper of this house for the crown for a fee of 40s per annum . In the map of the city by John Speed in 1610 , the site appears as ' Kings Manour ' . It was much dilapidated by 1595 . During the confused period of the English Civil War , it passed into the hands of the Corporation . The area became known as Kings Manor which was a short lived counterpart to the famous King ’ s Manor at York . Military drills were performed by the townspeople at an area called the artillery ground . All that remains of the friary is part of the sacristy wall , though a model in the interpretation room gives a possible layout of some of the friary buildings .
= = = The tower = = =
The tower was constructed sometime between the Dissolution and the Union of the Crowns but the exact date is not known . It was probably constructed as a strong room to store munitions or provide a secure location if the city walls were breached . This turned the ground floor room into a lock up where troublesome citizens would be thrown until they came before the law to be punished . Much about the tower has changed . The wall to the right of the door is 13th @-@ century , while the dividing wall including the door is 18th @-@ century .
= = Private ownership ( 1605 – 1646 ) = =
In 1605 , the tower and friary buildings were given by James I of England to George Home , 1st Earl of Dunbar . In the same year , Home was also made a Knight of the Garter and received his Earldom of Dunbar . Bourne quotes one of his sources as saying , " a Scot did beg it ( the Hospital ) of King James ; after that took the lead off it and sold it ; but it was cast away before it came to its market . " Also in 1605 , Home consolidated all the lands given to him into a free Earldom , Lordship of Parliament and Barony of Dunbar . The site was one of many Home acquired under the patronage of the king including the Manor and Castle of Norlan and the Castle of St Andrews . Home died in Whitehall , London , in 1611 without a male heir and thus his Earldom and Barony became extinct . A Captain Dykes became the next owner of the land . Bourne wrote ' He ( George Home ) sold also some stones to Sir Peter Riddel , who with them built the south end of his fine house ; but now it belongs to Captain Dykes , and his posterity hath no right . ' The site disappears from the historical record until 1646 when it is recorded as being owned by the council .
= = The Hospital ( 1646 – 1825 ) = =
The Holy Jesus Hospital was built in 1681 by public subscription to house retired Freemen , their widows or unmarried sons or daughters . The hospital was commonly known by local people as the " Freeman 's Hospital " and the " Town 's Hospital " but on 26 March 1684 the building was incorporated by the name of the master , brethren , and sisters of the Hospital of the holy Jesus . The Mayor , alderman and Common Council of Newcastle were appointed as visitors and charged with setting the rules for the hospital . Shortly afterwards the founders bought a quay and garden , in the Close for £ 700 and an estate in Edderly , County Durham for £ 1610 , and another estate at Whittle , Northumberland for £ 1300 and the master and brethren of the hospital were settled across these properties . The building itself was constructed using brick construction which was then a relatively new method ( brick was usually used as an infill for timber @-@ framed buildings ) . Indeed the structure is one of only two 17th @-@ century brick buildings in Newcastle upon Tyne , the other being nearby Alderman Fenwick ’ s House in Pilgrim Street . To be allocated a room , one had to meet the committee ’ s criteria and once were admitted one had to abide by the master ’ s rules . It remained in use until 1937 , when the new hospital was built at Spital Towers . Strict rules governed the " inmates " including being locked in their rooms at 9 pm and having their doors unlocked again at 6 am . There were no children allowed , and the inmates were instructed to attend church each week and take the sacrament . Each year the residents would have been given a free suit of clothing , a measure of coal and , if the charity allowed it , some pocket money ( Alms ) .
The first master of the house was a man named Thomas Lewen , a merchant by trade . The master 's seal had a cross engraved on it and bore the words " Sigillum Hospitalis Sancti Jesu in Novo Castro . " The original allowance for the inmates of the hospital was 20 shillings per ' quarterly ' , while the master would get 30 shillings . On 2 January 1752 , the council decreed that forty ' fothers ' of coal be given to the hospital annually and , on 18 December 1769 , the master was required to be paid £ 8 , and each inmate sister £ 6 per annum . By the early 19th century this allowance had increased to £ 13 for each inmate per annum , four fothers of ' best Benwell ' coals as well as providing clothing . In addition to this the inmates were required to see the Mayor at the Guildhall once each quarter where grievances would be heard . The inmates could also receive money from charities , and this was often called escutcheon money .
In 1705 , the inmates of the Newcastle House of Correction were commissioned to produce ' purple and grey cloth ' for the uniforms of the widows of the Holy Jesus Hospital .
There is an inscription in Latin on the front on the building . Roughly translated it reads ;
" Hospital for poor people by the expense of the citizens and leaders of Newcastle upon Tyne in the year of salvation 1683 . Built by Timothy Robson , Mayor , John Squire Sheriff , but now only remains the three of Faith Hope and Charity , and the greatest of these is Charity . "
In 1646 , the council allowed the Barber Surgeons to build their hall just east of the site : this agreement was given on 15 March 1647 . In 1648 , the plot of land was leased to the barber surgeons on condition that they constructed their hall within two years and that part of the site was to be laid out as a garden for medicinal herbs . A second hall built in 1730 disappeared under the railway viaduct in the 1840s . The most aged claimants were preferred for placements at the Hospital and on 22 March 1779 , the Mayor and common council of Newcastle ordered that several candidates produce certificates to prove their respective ages , to be filed in the town @-@ clerk 's office .
= = Nineteenth century = =
While the modern site is heavily enclosed by modern constructions , particularly Swan House roundabout , Mackenzie , in 1827 , portrays a much more open space :
A soup kitchen was built in 1880 , replacing the police station which adjoined the hospital on the west side , by public subscription and dispensed soup to the ‘ deserving poor ’ until 1891 . The soup was not free : it cost half a pence per pint . People who had donated each had a number of tickets which they could give to those people who they believed qualified for the ration . The deserving poor in Victorian times were those unable to work during the winter months . Those individuals classed as undeserving were those whose poverty was deemed to be caused by indolence and alcoholism . A recent article has suggested that the soup provided by the kitchen was highly nutritious . The kitchen was open from December to March , seven days a week , weather permitting . Advertisements were placed in local newspapers such as the Daily Chronicle and The Journal and Courant to solicit donations for the kitchen . The donations were used to pay the kitchen staff and buy the provisions for the soup . The names of prominent contributors were also listed in those newspapers and annual receipts and expenditures were also published in the press . The kitchen was run by a committee of prominent townsmen , including Thomas Pumphrey , Henry E Armstrong , James Joicey and the banker Thomas Hodgkin .
Lynn Redhead , customer services administrator at the Holy Jesus Hospital , has described what the kitchen would have looked like in the following way :
" People wanting soup came in through an 18 @-@ inch wide brick @-@ lined corridor one at a time to be served from troughs . Nine copper boilers were on the first floor of the building with storage below where raw materials were weighed to be hoisted up . They were making 100 gallons of soup at a time , that ’ s 800 people all queuing at the back of the building . "
In 1881 , the committee from the Discharged Prisoner ’ s Aid Society asked to use the building when it was not in use for discharged female convicts from the prison at Carliol Square ( 1828 – 1925 ) to do laundry work and the Society continued to use it for this purpose until the turn of the century . Between 1882 and 1883 City Road was built over the front lawn of the Hospital .
The soup kitchen closed in 1891 . The building was leased to pork butcher F.G Thompson , who made alterations to the building presumably to separate his business from the laundry and ex @-@ convicts . Urwins Chemical Factory operated on the site from 1913 , producing industrial and domestic chemicals and pharmaceuticals as well as filing first aid boxes until 1961 when it moved to Stepney bank in Ouseburn . In 1937 , the Council decided that the hospital was no longer fit to house people because the area around the almshouse was very unhealthy . Therefore a new hospital was built at Spital Tongues . Some of the building 's original fixtures were moved to the new site at this time .
= = = The Peoples Kitchen = = =
The 19th @-@ century soup kitchen inspired ' The People 's Kitchen ' , a 20th @-@ century charity organization dedicated to helping Newcastle 's homeless . The People 's Kitchen was founded by 76 @-@ year @-@ old Alison Kay who was moved to help the homeless after finding an unidentified man dead under a bush in Newcastle . First she held a " friendship picnic " attended by four homeless men in which she delivered flasks of tea and sandwiches prepared in her own kitchen . Then , after liaising with the police and social services she inaugurated The People 's Kitchen . After occupying temporary premises in Blenheim Street , the people 's hospital moved its headquarters to Bath Lane , Newcastle , in 1997 and distributes clothing and equipment to the homeless .
= = The first museum ( 1950 – 1993 ) = =
In the late 1960s , the Museum Board was looking to have more museums in Newcastle and thought the Holy Jesus Hospital could be used . The fact that the building had stood empty for decades meant that the condition of the building had suffered greatly . The restoration cost £ 67 @,@ 000 , the money coming from the John George Joicey bequest and a new roof was needed . During the restoration some of the original fabric of the building such as door frames , doors and walls on the top floor were lost . In 1970 John George Joicey Museum opened . During this time the soup kitchens were joined to the Holy Jesus Hospital . The first floor rooms were used for teaching the history of Newcastle from the Roman period to the present date . There were period rooms illustrating living styles from the early Stuart to late Victorian periods . Much of the collection was donated by bequest by John George Joicey , a Gateshead businessman and owner of the mining company James Joicey & Co. ltd , and after whom the museum was named . Joicey was also a prominent donor to the Laing Art Gallery . The tower of the hospital had the Alnwick Armoury and the Shotley Bridge Sword makers displays on the first and second floors . The Shotley Bridge Sword makers were sword makers and knifemakers from Solingen , Germany who settled in Shotley Bridge , Durham , in 1690 . The soup kitchen was mainly used as a Victorian schoolroom where children were dressed and taught as Victorian children would have been . There were also audio @-@ visual presentations that illustrated the Tyne Flood of 1771 and the Great Fire of 1854 . Part of the museum was devoted to the Northumberland Hussars and the 15th and 19th Regiments of the King 's Royal Hussars . The museum 's location combined with the city ’ s underpasses and roads system made access to the museum difficult and it was little visited . In 1993 , the museum closed and all artifacts were taken to the Discovery Museum on Blandford Street . These included the effigy of a knight from the 15th century that was found next to the sacristy wall outside the tower .
= = The Inner City Project ( 2000 ) = =
The Holy Jesus Hospital has been the centre of the National Trust ’ s Inner City Project . By August 2004 , £ 800 @,@ 000 had been spent on renovating the building . Funds for the restoration of the site came from the Heritage Lottery Fund and the Tyne and Wear Partnership . The project been running since 1987 in the east end of Newcastle working with young people from 12 @-@ 25 and with the over 50s , taking them out to the countryside . The National Trust needed a central office to expand their work into other inner city areas , so a 25 @-@ year lease was negotiated with the council . The Exhibition Room on the site features touch screens and 3D models to help teach people about the site 's history of helping the townspeople . In the book The Remains of Distant Times : Archaeology and the National Trust , Priscilla Boniface criticizes what she believes to be the National Trust 's lack of interest in operating in urban environments but praises the Inner City Project as a step towards rectifying this . She wrote " Its occasional ventures - such as the Newcastle Inner City Project ... by their frequent mention in National Trust communications , merely serve to underline how few of their type the Trust has to call on for report . " She argues that although the aim of introducing town dwellers to the countryside is " laudable " , the " respectful and serious suggestion might be made , though , that a person or person 's might be usefully employed also with the objective of raising National Trust people 's understanding of and confidence in their ability to visit and enjoy , or at least encounter , the city . " However , Collins and Kay cite research suggesting that the scheme has been effective in promoting " social inclusion " . They note , however , that the project has been limited by the funds made available to it .
= = Notable visitors to the site = =
Princess Margaret Tudor – daughter of Henry VII spent four days there in 1503 on her journey north to marry James IV of Scotland
Thomas Howard , 4th Duke of Norfolk , stayed there in 1560 . As a result , £ 67 was spent on materials and repairs : the walls were re @-@ pointed , roof lead re @-@ laid , gutters and broken windows repaired , a chimney rebuilt , dining chamber on the Great Hall enlarged , two doors cut through a wall and the construction of a new stone window . Materials purchased included 4000 bricks and a considerable amount of glass from Hartlepool . Norfolk was imprisoned nine years later by Elizabeth I for plotting to marry Mary , Queen of Scots .
Eric XIV of Sweden visited in 1561 for which the Great Hall was whitewashed and hung with borrowed tapestries for his visit .
= 39th Battalion ( Australia ) =
The 39th Battalion was an infantry unit of the Australian Army . It was originally raised in February 1916 for service during World War I as part of First Australian Imperial Force . Making up part of the 10th Brigade , it was attached to the 3rd Division and served on the Western Front in France and Belgium before being disbanded in March 1919 . Following the re @-@ organisation of the Australian Army in 1921 , the battalion was raised again as a unit of the Citizens Force , known as the " Hawthorn – Kew Regiment " . In 1937 , it was amalgamated with the 37th Battalion to become the 37th / 39th Battalion . Later it was delinked with the 37th and amalgamated with the 24th Battalion to form the 24th / 39th Battalion , before being raised again as a single unit in October 1941 . During World War II the battalion was sent to New Guinea in 1942 and between July and August of that year the unit was heavily engaged in the defence of the Kokoda Trail during which time they fought several desperate actions against the Japanese as they attempted to hold out until further reinforcements could be brought up from Port Moresby . Such was their involvement in the battle that by the time they were withdrawn they could only muster 32 men and following its return to Australia , the unit was disbanded in early July 1943 .
= = History = =
= = = World War I = = =
= = = = Formation = = = =
The 39th Battalion was first formed on 21 February 1916 at the Ballarat Showgrounds , in Victoria , for service during World War I. Under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Robert Rankine , the battalion was raised as part of an expansion of the First Australian Imperial Force ( 1st AIF ) that took place at the conclusion of the Gallipoli Campaign . The majority of the battalion 's recruits came from the Western District of Victoria , and together with the 37th , 38th and 40th Battalions , it formed the 10th Brigade , which was part of the 3rd Division . Following a brief period of training in Ballarat , the 39th Battalion marched through Melbourne on 15 May as the city farewelled the unit and they subsequently embarked upon HMAT Ascanius on 27 May 1916 , bound for the United Kingdom . Sailing via Cape Town , the battalion landed at Plymouth on 18 July 1916 , and moved by train to Amesbury , before marching to Larkhill on Salisbury Plain , where they undertook a period of four months training before being sent to France in November . After completing the Channel crossing on 23 / 24 November , they landed at Le Havre and moved to the front by train . On the night of 10 December , the battalion took its place in the trenches along the Western Front , relieving its sister battalion , the 37th , around Houplines in the Armentieres sector . They remained at the front for the next week , as part of their introduction to trench warfare , during which time the battalion repelled a small German raid and sent out patrols into " no man 's land " .
= = = = Western Front = = = =
After having endured a long winter in Flanders serving in mainly a defensive role , the battalion 's first major engagement came at Messines , in Belgium in early June 1917 . The battle began badly for the 39th . Near Ploegsteert Corner , during the march to the line of departure , the battalion suffered a high number of casualties following a German gas attack which subsequently resulted the 39th only being able to muster about a third of its manpower for the attack , amounting to an assault force of only 120 men . Despite this , the 39th was quickly reorganised into a single wave , and attacking on the 10th Brigade 's right , it subsequently overcame the initial German opposition facing them and then , during the second phase of the battle advanced south of Douve , on the southern edge of the Messines Ridge . It was involved in further fighting north of Grey Farm , where they were initially held up by German machine @-@ gun fire , but after this was overcome they continued to advance to their final objective , eventually digging @-@ in 100 yards ( 91 m ) beyond the farm , having managed to capture all of its objectives . Later , in October , the 39th Battalion took part in two other major attacks in that same sector , firstly at Broodseinde and then at Passchendaele , the first of which was a brilliant success , while the second was a disastrous failure .
During the fighting around Broodseinde on 4 October , the 39th formed the third wave of the 10th Brigade 's attack , which went in around 6 : 00 am . Following up the 37th and 38th Battalions , they advanced against strongly held pill @-@ boxes towards the
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50 @-@ 900s , Boeing 777 @-@ 200LRs and Bombardier equipment .
In late September 2010 ( 2010 @-@ 09 ) , Ethiopian Airlines was officially invited to join Star Alliance under the mentoring of Lufthansa . The carrier became a member of the alliance in December 2011 ( 2011 @-@ 12 ) , the third Africa @-@ based carrier in doing so — following EgyptAir and South African Airways — and the 28th member worldwide .
= = Corporate affairs = =
= = = Management and ownership = = =
As of July 2016 , the CEO of Ethiopian Airlines was Tewolde Gebremariam ; he replaced Girma Wake in 2011 . The airline , which is wholly owned by the Government of Ethiopia , has traditionally been unfettered by government intervention , even during times of significant turmoil and domestic hardship . Whereas many African state owned airlines were and remain often poorly run , with staffings often serving nepotistic purposes , and business decisions being made on political grounds , Ethiopian Airlines remained professionally run and managed , leading the Christian Science Monitor to term it in 1988 a " capitalist success in Marxist Ethiopia " .
The Derg , after expanding the airline 's workforce , which had resulted in a decline in service quality and revenues , allowed the airline to be run on a " strictly commercial basis " . Captain Mohammed Ahmed was appointed CEO in 1980 , and slashed the workforce by 10 % . The airline continued the acquisition of Western , rather than Soviet aircraft , despite the links between the communist government and the Soviet Union , purchasing the Boeing 727 in 1979 and the Boeing 767 in 1984 . Despite famine , unfavorable exchange rates , and general economic disarray , the airline managed to retain its reputation , particularly in the provision of maintenance and training . The Financial Times noted that it managed to remain one of the most profitable airlines in Africa throughout the decade .
Despite the violent overthrow of the communist government by the Ethiopian People 's Revolutionary Democratic Front in 1991 , the airline managed to post a profit for the fiscal year . The market @-@ oriented policies of the new government meant that the airline would remain operationally independent , and under Captain Bisrat Nigatu the airline remained fiscally sound , despite disruptions caused by the Eritrean @-@ Ethiopian War .
= = = Head office = = =
Ethiopian Airlines currently has its head office at Bole International Airport , Addis Ababa , but intends to build a new head office facility . A contest for the design was held in 2009 , but none of those plans were proceeded with . On 16 February 2011 it held a second round , and in September 2011 it was announced that BET Architect Plc won the contest . The airline stated that the estimated Br300 million complex will be constructed on a 50 @,@ 000 m2 ( 540 @,@ 000 sq ft ) plot at Bole International Airport . The company that received 4th place in the competition 's second round has threatened to take legal action , accusing the airline of not giving due consideration to the proposed design .
= = = Business trends = = =
Performance figures for the government @-@ owned Ethiopian Airlines are available in Annual Accounts and occasional press reports . Available trends are ( as at year ending 30 June ) :
= = = Strategic ambitions and landmarks = = =
The airline was featured by The Economist as an example of excellence in late 1987 , and economist Paul B. Henze recognised it in 2000 as being " one of the most reliable and profitable airlines in the Third World " . In July 2011 ( 2011 @-@ 07 ) , Ethiopian was named Africa 's most profitable airline for the year 2010 by Air Transport World , and it has also been praised by AFRAA for its sustained profitability over recent years .
As a long term company policy , in addition to the carrier 's main activities , revenues are also generated by providing aircraft maintenance to foreign airlines , and specialist training for both Ethiopian and foreign trainees . Every year , pilots and technicians graduate from both the Pilot School , inaugurated in 1964 , and the Aviation Maintenance Technician School , established in 1967 . The American Federal Aviation Administration accredited the airline 's maintenance division with license No . ETIY 102F .
Ethiopian Airlines started “ Vision 2010 ” in 2005 , which aimed to increase passenger traffic to 3 million , revenue to US $ 1 billion and employees to 6 @,@ 000 by 2010 . By the year 2010 Ethiopian had exceeded all goals set in “ Vision 2010 ” , and the company 's net profit for the fiscal year ended 2010 @-@ 6 @-@ 30 was US $ 121 @.@ 4 million . The results were attributed in part to an aggressive marketing campaign and major cost cutting measures .
In 2010 Ethiopian adopted " Vision 2025 " , a 15 @-@ year development strategy , under which the airline anticipates increasing its fleet to 120 , the number of destinations to 90 , carrying more than 18 million passengers and 720 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 710 @,@ 000 long tons ; 790 @,@ 000 short tons ) of cargo , with 17 @,@ 000 employees . ″ Vision 2025 ″ also considers a fourfold expansion of the capacity building for trainees in the airline 's aviation academy .
Ethiopian signed in July 2013 ( 2013 @-@ 07 ) a deal for the acquisition of 49 % of the Malawian carrier Air Malawi . The new airline will be named Malawian Airlines . The remaining shareholding will be held by the government of Malawi and private Malawian investors . Malawian Airlines started operations in January 2014 ( 2014 @-@ 01 ) . For the operation year 2013 @-@ 14 , Ethiopian Airlines was ranked the most profitable airline in Africa and 18th most profitable airline in the world with a profit of $ 228 million .
= = Destinations = =
As of September 2014 , the passenger network comprises 83 international destinations and 20 domestic ones , including 49 cities in Africa ( excluding Ethiopia ) , 13 in Europe and the Americas and 21 in the Middle East and Asia ; the cargo network serves 24 destinations , including 15 in Africa , seven in the Middle East and Asia and two in Europe . Ethiopian serves more destinations in Africa than any other airline . As of April 2013 , the carrier 's five densest routes were Addis Ababa – Dubai , Addis Ababa – Johannesburg , Addis Ababa – Guangzhou , Addis Ababa – Nairobi and Addis Ababa – Beijing .
In late April 2012 ( 2012 @-@ 04 ) , the airline said it planned to start serving the Latin American market but no firm dates were disclosed . In August that year , Abuja , Accra , Douala , Dubai , Entebbe , Frankfurt , Johannesburg , Harare , Kilimanjaro , Lagos , Lomé , London , Luanda , Lusaka , Malabo , Maputo , Mombasa , Mumbai , Nairobi and Rome would be served on an rotational basis with the first Boeing 787 Dreamliner , and that upon delivery of the second aircraft of the type these would be assigned on fixed scheduled routes .
In February 2013 ( 2013 @-@ 02 ) , unofficial reports disclosed the carrier 's plans to launch new services to Ho Chi Minh City , Manila and Seoul starting in June the same year , as well as the company 's intention to start flying the 9 @,@ 899 @-@ nautical @-@ mile ( 18 @,@ 333 km ; 11 @,@ 392 mi ) -long São Paulo – Lomé – Addis Ababa – Guangzhou run in July 2013 ( 2013 @-@ 07 ) . In June 2013 ( 2013 @-@ 06 ) , unofficial sources reported that the launch of flights to both Ho Chi Minh City and Manila were cancelled , and that they will be replaced with a flight to Singapore starting in September 2013 ( 2013 @-@ 09 ) ; as announced , flights to Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo commenced in July the same year . Flights to Singapore were launched in December 2013 ( 2013 @-@ 12 ) . A new link to Shanghai was launched in March 2014 ( 2014 @-@ 03 ) , while new services to Vienna started in June 2014 ( 2014 @-@ 06 ) and to Doha in December the same year .
Tokyo @-@ Narita was added on 20 April 2015 . Other new destinations are Los Angeles ( the carrier 's fifth point to be served in the Americas ) and Dublin . A new service to Manila was launched in July 2015 ( 2015 @-@ 07 ) . The Addis Ababa – Lomé – Newark run is set to commence on 3 July 2016 ( 2016 @-@ 07 @-@ 03 ) .
= = = Alliances and codeshare agreements = = =
= = = = Alliances = = = =
In October 2007 ( 2007 @-@ 10 ) , Ethiopian Airlines ' frequent flyer programme Shebamiles and Lufthansa 's Miles & More entered into partnership , allowing members of each programme to earn and spend miles on both airlines ' networks . In July 2008 ( 2008 @-@ 07 ) , the carrier entered a strategic partnership with Lomé @-@ based start @-@ up airline ASKY Airlines , in which Ethiopian holds a 40 % stake . Ethiopian Airlines is responsible for aircraft maintenance and operational management . The plan is to turn Lomé into Ethiopian Airline 's regional hub for the West African market . ASKY started operations in January 2010 and became profitable after a few months . Ethiopian officially joined Star Alliance in December 2011 ( 2011 @-@ 12 ) .
= = = = Codeshare agreements = = = =
As of June 2014 , the Ethiopian Airlines has codeshare agreements with the following airlines :
= = Fleet = =
= = = Recent developments = = =
In February 2005 ( 2005 @-@ 02 ) , Ethiopian Airlines signed a preliminary agreement to buy up to ten Boeing 787 Dreamliner aircraft ( five firm orders plus five options ) , becoming the first African carrier to order this kind of equipment . On 31 May 2005 ( 2005 @-@ 05 @-@ 31 ) , Boeing announced that Ethiopian had exercised its purchase rights and confirmed a firm order for ten aircraft . The carrier also became the first African airline to order the Boeing 777 @-@ 200LR , and the first of these aircraft Ethiopian took possession of , in November 2010 ( 2010 @-@ 11 ) , was the 900th model of the type delivered by Boeing . Furthermore , upon delivery Ethiopian became the first African airline to operate the type .
The company ordered eight Bombardier Q400s for US $ 242 million in November 2008 ( 2008 @-@ 11 ) and took options on four additional aircraft of the type . During the 2009 Dubai Air Show , Ethiopian placed an order for 12 Airbus A350 @-@ 900s , initially scheduled for delivery between 2016 and 2019 . To date , this order is the largest placed by the airline , and it evidenced the company 's dissatisfaction with Boeing for the delays in the delivery of the Dreamliners , initially scheduled to enter the fleet in June 2010 ( 2010 @-@ 06 ) . In January 2010 ( 2010 @-@ 01 ) , Ethiopian Airlines announced a firm order for ten Boeing 737 – 800 Next Generation aircraft in a deal worth US $ 767 million . The first 78 @-@ seater Q400 entered the fleet in March ; in August , Ethiopian and the Ex @-@ Im Bank signed an agreement worth US $ 1 @.@ 6 billion for a loan to finance the acquisition of the ten Dreamliners — the first of them scheduled for delivery in mid @-@ August 2012 ( 2012 @-@ 08 ) — , and the five Boeing 777s the carrier already has in the fleet .
In October 2011 ( 2011 @-@ 10 ) , the company announced an order for four Boeing 777Fs in a deal worth US $ 1 @.@ 1 billion ; the move positioned Ethiopian Airlines as the first African carrier in ordering the type . These four aircraft will join another two ones of the same type the airline will lease from GECAS . Ethiopian received the first of these aircraft in mid September 2012 ( 2012 @-@ 09 ) .
Five Q400 NextGens were ordered in February 2012 ( 2012 @-@ 02 ) for US $ 160 million at list prices , whereas in July 2012 ( 2012 @-@ 07 ) , an additional Boeing 777 @-@ 200LR was ordered in a deal worth US $ 276 million . In August 2012 ( 2012 @-@ 08 ) , the first Dreamliner was delivered to the company , which became the first airline outside Japan in operating the type on scheduled flights , after All Nippon Airways and Japan Airlines . Also in October 2012 ( 2012 @-@ 10 ) , the first Q400 NexGen was delivered , and in November the same year the airline confirmed that three additional Dreamliners will be leased from ILFC , the first of them entering service in 2015 .
In April 2013 ( 2013 @-@ 04 ) , Air Lease Corporation and Ethiopian Airlines announced the lease of two Boeing 777 @-@ 300ERs , with deliveries in May and June 2015 ( 2015 @-@ 06 ) . In early July the same year , it was informed that the Ex @-@ Im Bank approved around US $ 130 million for Boeing in order for this aircraft manufacturer to support the development of GE90 @-@ equipped long @-@ haul aircraft for Ethiopian Airlines . The airline took delivery of its first Boeing 777 @-@ 300ER in November 2013 ( 2013 @-@ 11 ) . That month , during the Dubai Air Show , Palma Holding signed a letter of intent with Bombardier for eight Q400s to be leased to Ethiopian ; the order was firmed up in February 2014 ( 2014 @-@ 02 ) . In September 2014 ( 2014 @-@ 09 ) the carrier announced a firm order for 20 Boeing 737 MAX 8s plus commitments for 15 more aircraft of the type . At January 2015 ( 2015 @-@ 01 ) , Ethiopian Airlines was the largest African carrier in terms of fleet size . In 2015 the airline planned to buy 15 to 20 of Boeing 's new 777X planes worth about $ 7 @.@ 4 billion at list prices . Although the airline had initially planned buying Airbus ' A350 @-@ 1000 planes , it switched to the Boeing 777X as the aircraft is more suitable for operations at their high @-@ altitude hub in Addis Ababa . It became the first airline in Africa to acquire a Boeing 787 full @-@ flight simulator .
The airline received its first Airbus A350 XWB in late June 2016 ( 2016 @-@ 06 ) .
= = = Current fleet = = =
As of June 2016 , the Ethiopian Airlines fleet consists of the following aircraft :
Aside from the equipment shown above , the airline uses a number of DA40NGs for training purposes . Ethiopian Airlines had the largest dedicated cargo fleet in Africa , as of December 2013 .
= = = Historic fleet = = =
Following is a list of equipment previously operated by Ethiopian . Helicopters and light aircraft were available for leasing to Government agencies as well as to be used on natural resources projects .
= = Services = =
Cloud Nine and Economy Class are the two classes available on most of Ethiopian Airlines ' flights , with the exception of those operated with Dash 8 equipment , for some of these aircraft are configured in an all @-@ economy layout .
= = = Food and drinks = = =
On all flights , passengers are provided with food and complimentary beverages on board , in both classes . The food service consists of hot meals , hot or cold snacks , or light refreshments , depending on the length of the flight and the time of the day . The choice of acquiring complementary drinks at an extra cost is available too . The airline also offers assorted menus for passengers having special meal requirements .
= = = In @-@ flight entertainment = = =
= = = = Cloud Nine = = = =
Ethiopian Airlines ' Business Class is named Cloud Nine . Passengers travelling in this class are provided with onboard amenities and a wide variety of reading material . On routes operated with Boeing 777 @-@ 200LR equipment passengers are provided with sleeper seats and on @-@ demand audio and video services , with 85 channels on 15 @.@ 4 inch IFE screens .
= = = = Economy Class = = = =
A variety of meals — ranging from light snacks to hot dishes — and amenities are provided to passengers flying on this class , both depending upon the length of the flight . Reclining seats and on @-@ demand audio and video , with 80 channels and 8 @.@ 9 @-@ inched screens , are available on Boeing 777 @-@ 200LR services .
= = = Lounges = = =
Ethiopian Airlines passengers are offered two lounges at Bole International Airport . Cloud Nine passengers can wait for the departure of flights at the Cloud Nine Lounge , where they are provided with a wide variety of amenities , as well as personal computers or wireless connection . Likewise , ShebaMiles cardholders with Gold or Silver status can make use of the Sheba Miles Lounge facilities . Customer Service agents are available at both lounges in order to assist passengers with any query regarding their flights .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
According to the Aviation Safety Network , Ethiopian Airlines records 60 accident / incident events since 1965 , plus six more for Ethiopian Air Lines , the airline 's former name . As of January 2013 , the number of people that lost their lives in occurrences related to either carrier aircraft totals 337 . The company suffered several hijacking episodes throughout its history , with one of them ending up in the carrier 's deadliest accident , when the plane plunged into the Indian Ocean due to fuel starvation in 1996 . The second most deadly accident took place in 2010 , when an aircraft crashed into the Mediterranean Sea , shortly after it departed Beirut – Rafic Hariri International Airport , killing all 90 people on board . The crash of a Boeing 737 – 200 that took place in 1988 and led to 35 fatalities ranks as the third worst deadly accident experienced by the company . Despite this , Ethiopian Airlines has a good safety record , in contrast to other African airlines .
= New Jersey Route 64 =
Route 64 is a 0 @.@ 32 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 51 km ) long state highway in the U.S. state of New Jersey . It is a state @-@ maintained bridge over Amtrak and New Jersey Transit 's Northeast Corridor line in West Windsor . Route 64 begins at an intersection with County Route 526 and County Route 571 in West Windsor . It heads along the bridge to an intersection with County Route 615 , where Route 64 ends . County routes 526 and 571 , which are unofficially concurrent with Route 64 , continues to Hightstown .
Route 64 was designated originally as an alignment of Route 31A , a spur off of State Highway Route 31 ( currently U.S. Route 206 ) from Princeton eastward to Hightstown , where it met State Highway Route 33 . The state planned on turning the alignment into a full @-@ fledged expressway for several decades , including constructing the alignment that Route 64 currently uses in 1939 . The route was amended in 1941 , and was renumbered from Route 31A to Route 64 in the 1953 renumbering . Route 64 was proposed to become part of the Princeton – Hightstown Bypass ( later designated New Jersey Route 92 ) , but completion never occurred . Currently , the route remains the bridge over the Northeast Corridor . However , it is not currently planned that Route 64 will receive an extension of sorts from the proposed Penns Neck Bypass to U.S. Route 1 , a proposed realignment of County routes 526 and 571 .
= = Route description = =
Route 64 begins at an intersection with County Route 526 , County Route 571 , and Mercer County Route 615 in the community of West Windsor . From this point , County Routes 526 and 571 continue along the right @-@ of @-@ way towards U.S. Route 130 . The route heads north crosses over the Amtrak and New Jersey Transit @-@ used Northeast Corridor Line and passes to the north of a local bus depot . Route 64 continues westward for a short distance , crossing through a local woodland and behind several local homes . The route makes a gradual curve to the west off the railroad bridge and passes behind a couple of homes before heading to the south slightly at an intersection . Route 64 reaches its northern terminus and County Route 526 and County Route 571 make a right turn to head northwest toward U.S. Route 1 and Princeton .
= = History = =
= = = Route 31A and the original freeway = = =
In the late @-@ 1920s , the state proposed a bypass along the alignment . In 1938 , the New Jersey State Highway Department and New Jersey General Assembly put forth a proposal detailing that a highway from State Highway Route 31 ( co @-@ signed with U.S. Route 206 ) in the city of Princeton eastward through Mercer County onto current @-@ day County Route 571 . From there , it would follow an alignment of highway to the intersection with State Highway Route 33 in the community of Hightstown . The original proposal for the highway was to turn the road into a limited @-@ access freeway along its entirety . The route was designated as State Highway Route 31A , a suffixed spur of State Highway Route 31 that year . A portion of the highway was constructed in 1939 , when a bridge over the Pennsylvania Railroad was constructed from Washington Road 's former alignment to the current intersection with Route 615 . This new , 104 @.@ 00 feet ( 31 @.@ 70 m ) long bridge replaced the at @-@ grade crossing on Washington Road , which is now a dead @-@ end . The state highway law was amended just three years later , with the freeway option removed and the extensions remaining .
The new bridge remained in place along Route 31A , however , no new portions of the freeway were constructed in terms of creating the Route 31A Freeway , as proposed in 1938 . In 1950 , then @-@ governor of New Jersey , Alfred E. Driscoll , cited the need for the expressway as an important truck and passenger car highway from Trenton to the Jersey Shore . Route 31A itself was decommissioned in the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , and replaced by the designation of Route 64 . The route was truncated from both ends toward Princeton and Hightstown , leaving just the bridge in West Windsor . Route 31A remained in the state highway statutes for several decades after decommissioning , with a bill in 1991 being proposed . The bill passed , and Route 31A was stripped from the statutes on January 18 , 1992 .
= = = Route 92 and future changes to CR 571 = = =
Route 64 , after designation in 1953 , remained a short bridge along the highway . However , the need for an expressway from Trenton to the Jersey Shore remained , and in the late 1950s , the State Highway Department brought about plans for the Princeton – Hightstown Bypass , a four @-@ lane freeway that would head for 14 miles ( 23 km ) from U.S. Route 206 in Montgomery Township to New Jersey Route 33 in Hightstown . In the length , the freeway was to interchange with U.S. Route 1 , U.S. Route 130 and New Jersey Route 27 . The route was re @-@ designated as Route 92 , and remained a high priority project for several decades . Even after changes in alignment , Route 64 was still an alternative . However , Route 92 was shelved on December 1 , 2006 in favor of widening the New Jersey Turnpike mainline , and only New Jersey Route 133 was constructed for the proposal .
As part of the proposed Penns Neck Bypass on U.S. Route 1 , the New Jersey Department of Transportation plans on realigning County Route 571 and Route 526 from the western terminus of Route 64 to a northerly route to Route 1 . Although Route 571 and Route 526 are proposed to be realigned onto the new alignment , there is no designated change proposed for Route 64 . On the contrary to this , one state figure shows Route 64 running along Washington Road , where the two county routes currently run .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in West Windsor , Mercer County .
= The Shape of Things to Come ( Lost ) =
" The Shape of Things to Come " is the 81st episode of the American Broadcasting Company 's Lost and is the ninth episode of the fourth season . It aired on April 24 , 2008 , on ABC in the United States and on CTV in Canada . The episode was written by co @-@ executive producer Drew Goddard and co @-@ producer Brian K. Vaughan in late February 2008 and directed by executive producer Jack Bender in mid @-@ March . The narrative centers on Ben Linus ( played by Michael Emerson ) as he and the Oceanic Airlines Flight 815 crash survivors at the Barracks come under attack in December 2004 , while flashforwards to late 2005 show him recruiting Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) as a hitman and confronting his enemy Charles Widmore ( Alan Dale ) .
" The Shape of Things to Come " is one of a few Lost episodes to contain footage filmed outside Hawaii . The episode aired as the first of the second batch of fourth season episodes that were originally planned to air uninterrupted by a hiatus with the rest of the season ; however , the 100 @-@ day 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike paused production and caused the writers to condense the second half of the season , which aired after a four @-@ week break . " The Shape of Things to Come " received positive critical reviews and the original broadcast was watched by 14 million Americans . Much praise was directed at Emerson 's acting skills , particularly in his reaction to the execution of his character 's daughter Alex ( Tania Raymonde ) . His performance in this specific episode received a nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series for the 60th Primetime Emmy Awards ; the episode was also nominated in the category of Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series .
= = Plot = =
The episode is set on December 27 , 2004 , the survivors ' 97th day on the island . At the beach camp , the corpse of Ray ( Marc Vann ) , the freighter Kahana 's doctor , washes ashore . Daniel Faraday ( Jeremy Davies ) calls the freighter and asks what happened to Ray via morse code . Daniel lies about the response , saying that rescue helicopters will be sent soon ; however , Bernard Nadler ( Sam Anderson ) calls him on this and correctly interprets the freighter 's message : " What are you talking about ? The doctor is fine . " Jack Shephard ( Matthew Fox ) , who suffers from stomach pains throughout the day , forces Daniel to reveal that it was never their intention to rescue the survivors .
Meanwhile , Alex is captured by Martin Keamy ( Kevin Durand ) and others from the freighter . As they take her to the Barracks , she sets off an alarm heralding the arrival of Ben 's enemies . Ben , John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) , and Hugo " Hurley " Reyes ( Jorge Garcia ) fortify Ben 's house , while James " Sawyer " Ford ( Josh Holloway ) goes to retrieve the other survivors in the Barracks . He is partially successful , as he saves Claire Littleton ( Emilie de Ravin ) from her exploded and burning house , but three survivors ( portrayed by extras ) are shot to death by the mercenaries . Keamy finds and frees Miles Straume ( Ken Leung ) , giving him a walkie @-@ talkie to take to Ben . Ben communicates with Keamy , who threatens to kill Alex if Ben does not surrender . Ben attempts to negotiate and is shocked when Keamy executes Alex . Locking himself in the house 's secret room , Ben enters a hidden chamber to summon the smoke monster . Ben emerges covered in soot and the monster attacks Keamy 's henchmen . The survivors flee for the forest , with Ben lingering briefly to grieve over Alex 's body . Afterward , Ben and Locke depart to locate Jacob for further instructions . Sawyer , Hurley , Claire and Aaron turn to return to the beach with Miles , but Locke holds them at gunpoint , successfully demanding that Hurley goes with him ( as he has found Jacob 's cabin before ) .
Flashforwards show Ben on three continents in autumn 2005 . Ben is startled when he wakes up in the Sahara Desert wearing a winter jacket and with a large cut on his upper arm ; challenged by two armed locals , he kills one of them ( Nick Hermz ) and knocks the other ( Sammy Sheik ) unconscious and travels on horseback to Tozeur , Tunisia on October 24 , 2005 . Ben journeys to Tikrit , Iraq , where the funeral of Sayid 's wife Nadia Jazeem ( Andrea Gabriel ) is taking place . Ben tells Sayid that Widmore ordered Ishmael Bakir ( Faran Tahir ) to kill Nadia . Ben lures Bakir into a trap to be killed by Sayid , who shoots Bakir repeatedly . Ben recruits him to become his assassin , and leaves for London , England , where he breaks into Widmore 's penthouse ; although he cannot kill Widmore , he states that he is going to kill Widmore 's daughter Penelope ( Sonya Walger ) in retribution for Alex 's death . In their conversation , Widmore claims that the island is his and that he will take it back from Ben one day .
= = Production = =
The Writers Guild of America went on strike on November 4 , 2007 , by which time only eight of the planned sixteen episodes of Lost 's fourth season had been written . These episodes aired from January to March 2008 . After the strike ended on February 12 , 2008 , the writers found that there was only enough time to produce five episodes , although the fifth episode would later be expanded to two episodes — and they proceeded to compress most of the storylines of the planned eight episodes into six , with some carrying over into the fifth season . Executive producer / head writer Damon Lindelof stated that " we are going to execute our full story plan for season four . This simply requires a shift from high @-@ octane storytelling to superhigh @-@ octane storytelling . It requires no cramming , only a slightly heavier foot on the gas pedal ... so , hold on to your hats . Those of you waiting for the long @-@ anticipated [ Jin Kwon ( Daniel Dae Kim ) ] and Hurley Ping @-@ Pong tournament , however , will be very disappointed . " The writers expressed interest to air the eighth episode with the second batch of episodes , but ABC did not comply and " The Shape of Things to Come " served as the mid @-@ season premiere . The writers realized some advantages to the strike : they were able to use actors whose shows had been canceled during the strike , and they were able to respond to confusion from the audience . They would later even conclude that the season was better as a result of the strike , as they were able to discard " languid , contemplative material " and felt " recharged [ with ] a real energy to attack [ the ] last six episodes " . The first three seasons were broadcast on Wednesdays in the United States and Canada ; the pre @-@ strike fourth season episodes aired on Thursdays at 9 : 00 p.m. , a time @-@ slot normally occupied by Grey 's Anatomy . " The Shape of Things to Come " and the following three episodes were broadcast on Thursdays at 10 : 00 p.m. after Grey 's Anatomy .
" The Shape of Things to Come " was written alongside " Something Nice Back Home " and " Cabin Fever " in February and March 2008 . Its title is derived from the 1933 science fiction novel of the same name by H.G. Wells . Co @-@ executive producer / writer Drew Goddard called the episode " maybe my favorite thing I 've done on Lost , and I 've been lucky with all the episodes I 've gotten so far " . Shooting began on March 10 and continued through March 25 , alongside filming of " Something Nice Back Home " . The scene where Ben confronts Widmore was actually filmed in London , England , because actor Alan Dale was unable to fly to Hawaii as he had been appearing in a production of the play Spamalot . Several crew members and Michael Emerson flew to London to film the scene . A scene in which Claire has a prophetic vision was produced ; however , it was cut due to runtime constraints .
A shoot @-@ out early in the episode sees the end of the three background survivors who joined Locke in his trip to the Barracks in the early fourth season . One of them , Doug , played by Sean Douglas Hoban received credit as a co @-@ star for the first time in his run on the show , having been cast in the pilot as " Passenger # 4 " . Hoban later also acted as a stunt double for Dominic Monaghan , who plays Charlie Pace , a major character in the first three seasons . Hoban has one line in " The Shape of Things to Come " and he had to audition for it against the other background actors .
The episode 's flashforwards commence with Ben waking up alarmed in the Sahara with a wounded right arm and vapor rising from him . The Dharma Initiative parka that he wears was codenamed " Dharka " by the writers . A couple Easter eggs are present in this scene : Ben 's parka has a name tag that indicates that it was formerly owned by Edgar Halliwax ( François Chau ) and it displays the first appearance of the logo for a Dharma station called the " Orchid " that would not be seen until the episode titled " There 's No Place Like Home " . Another Easter egg is glimpsed in the next scene , when Ben reveals his forged Canadian passport previously seen in " The Economist " for his alias Dean Moriarty , which is also the name of the central character in the Jack Kerouac 's 1951 novel On the Road . Among the most frequent questions that the writers are asked is whether they have planned out future storylines , so the writers try to allude to future plot points , such as with the Dharka scene , that they can later call on as proof that they do know where the story is headed . Director Jack Bender described the scene , which was filmed in a Hawaiian rock quarry , as especially hard to shoot because the actors had to ride horses and use guns , the crew had to relocate due to rocks present that were unsuitable for the scene , and Bender walked head @-@ first into a crane . Emerson stated that the set is " definitely a no @-@ glamour zone ... I thought we would ease into things . Instead , I get this all @-@ Ben extravaganza : combat , riding horses , foreign languages . And piano playing ! All waaaay outside my comfort zone . How can you work two weeks and feel like you need a vacation already ? "
= = Reception = =
" The Shape of Things to Come " was viewed live or watched within five hours of broadcast by 12 @.@ 075 million Americans , ranking Lost as the fourteenth most watched program of the week . A total of 14 @.@ 067 million Americans watched the episode live or within seven days ; this number was factored into the season 's average . This was an improvement over the previous Lost episode that had aired six weeks earlier . Lost also improved its Canadian ratings with 1 @.@ 443 million viewers . In Australia , " The Shape of Things to Come " was watched by only 683 @,@ 000 viewers , but Lost was nominated in the same week for two Sun @-@ Herald Bogie Awards — a parody of the Australian Logie Awards — in the categories of " Most Underrated " series and " Most Jerked Around by the Networks " .
The Shape of Things to Come received critical acclaim . Karla Peterson of The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune gave " The Shape of Things to Come " an " A + . " Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly called " The Shape of Things to Come " " one of those deliciously dense episodes in which the nourishment of revelation is mixed with huge chunks of sugary intrigue " and speculated that the scene in which Alex is executed will be " sitting very high on this ranking of all @-@ time pivotal Lost moments " by the series ' May 2010 end . Before the season finale aired , Jensen ranked this as the second best moment of the season and put the scene in which the monster attacks the mercenaries in ninth place . Dan Kois and Lane Brown of New York magazine thought that this " episode didn 't exactly feel like the usual moderately paced , secret @-@ revealing drama Lost usually is ; it felt like an action movie ... it was like watching Die Hard on an island " . Chris Carabott of IGN gave the episode a 9 @.@ 3 / 10 , concluding that " if ' The Shape of Things to Come ' is any indication of the level of quality that [ the audience ] should expect from here on out then we are in for some incredible storytelling " and " Alex 's death will probably be remembered as one of the more pivotal scenes in the entire series [ because ] it is such a phenomenally shot , edited and acted moment ... it would be incredibly hard not to feel for [ Ben ] here . " Upon grading the best episodes of the first five seasons , the episode ranked second , beating episodes like " Through the Looking Glass " and " Pilot " and losing to " The Constant . " Erin Martell of AOL 's TV Squad summed up " The Shape of Things to Come " as " a brilliant episode ... [ with ] tons of action , several big revelations , and more questions to ponder " . Don Williams of BuddyTV decided that the episode was " worth waiting five weeks for " and " so jam packed that I need to give my brain time to rest " . Williams 's colleague Oscar Dahl ranked the scene in which Alex is killed as the fifth best moment of the season , noting that " it was perfectly paced ... and provided a huge shock ... and some of the best acting you 'll ever see " . Jay Glatfelter of The Huffington Post wrote that " ' The Shape of Things to Come ' was the perfect episode to get everyone back into the swing of Lost . It wasn 't a mindfuck à la ' The Constant ' . It was an edge @-@ of @-@ your @-@ seat thrill ride , which to me matched the ' Pilot ' ' s bombastic grandeur " .
Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger wrote that the episode " was overflowing with manna from post @-@ strike heaven : lots of action , lots of intrigue [ and ] the odd answer or three " ; however , he criticized the deaths of the three 815 survivors played by extras and survival of main characters , saying that " that sequence with Sawyer dodging bullets was supposed to be tense and frightening ; instead , it was funny " . Kristin Dos Santos of E ! agreed with Sepinwall 's latter assessment . Although Jamie Poniewozik of Time worried about the show 's direction in which Widmore is suddenly the antagonist and Ben travels the globe to seek revenge . He said that it " looks a little too much like Alias " ; Poniewozik enjoyed the island drama . Daniel of TMZ called " The Shape of Things to Come " " another solid episode of Lost " , grading it as a " B " and claiming that " I enjoyed it the whole way through , even if it never gave me that ' OH MY GOD ! ! ! ! ' moment , though I loved the Alex execution scene . "
Before the episode began shooting , Michael Emerson had already decided to submit his performance in this episode for consideration in the drama supporting actor category of the Primetime Emmy Awards because of the script 's strength . He received his second consecutive Emmy nomination for this role ; however , he lost to Željko Ivanek of the FX series Damages . Emerson would win the next year for the episode " Dead is Dead " . Kevin Thompson of The Palm Beach Post wrote that " with those big ol ' eyes of his , [ Emerson ] could always say more with a lengthy stare than he could with twenty pages of dialogue .... [ He has ] , once again , proved why he has become Lost 's star as well as its heart and soul .... an Emmy should belong to [ him ] . " Jennifer Godwin of E ! wrote that " no one has ever done better work humanizing a supervillain . " Among those who also praised Emerson 's performance as Ben were Robert Bianco of USA Today , Matt Roush of TV Guide , Ben Rawson @-@ Jones of Digital Spy , who gave the episode a perfect rating of five stars , John Kubicek of BuddyTV and aforementioned critics from The Star @-@ Ledger , The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune , Time , Entertainment Weekly , IGN and TV Squad .
= Youngstown , Ohio =
Youngstown is a city in the U.S. state of Ohio and the county seat of Mahoning County . It also extends into Trumbull County . The municipality is on the Mahoning River , approximately 65 miles ( 105 km ) southeast of Cleveland and 61 miles ( 100 km ) northwest of Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . Youngstown has its own metropolitan area , but is often included in commercial and cultural depictions of the Pittsburgh Tri @-@ State area and Greater Cleveland . Youngstown lies 10 miles ( 16 km ) west of the Pennsylvania state line , midway between New York City and Chicago via Interstate 80 .
The city was named for John Young , an early settler from Whitestown , New York , who established the community 's first sawmill and gristmill . Youngstown is in a region of the United States that is often referred to as the Rust Belt . Traditionally known as a center of steel production , Youngstown was forced to redefine itself when the U.S. steel industry fell into decline in the 1970s , leaving communities throughout the region without major industry . Youngstown also falls within the Appalachian Ohio region , among the foothills of the Appalachian Mountains . The 2010 census showed that Youngstown had a total population of 66 @,@ 982 , making it Ohio 's ninth largest city . The city has experienced a decline of over 60 % of its population since 1959 .
According to the 2010 Census , the Youngstown @-@ Warren @-@ Boardman , OH @-@ PA Metropolitan Statistical Area ( MSA ) contains 565 @,@ 773 people and includes Mahoning and Trumbull counties in Ohio , and Mercer County in Pennsylvania . The Steel Valley area as a whole has 763 @,@ 207 residents .
= = History = =
= = = Early years = = =
Youngstown was named for New York native John Young , who surveyed the area in 1796 and settled there soon after . On February 9 , 1797 , Young purchased the township of 15 @,@ 560 acres ( 6 @,@ 300 ha ) from the Western Reserve Land Company for $ 16 @,@ 085 . The 1797 establishment of Youngstown was officially recorded on August 19 , 1802 .
The area constituting present @-@ day Youngstown was part of the Connecticut Western Reserve , a section of the Northwest Territory reserved for settlers from the state of Connecticut . While many of the area 's early settlers came from Connecticut , Youngstown attracted a significant number of Scots @-@ Irish settlers from neighboring Pennsylvania . The first European Americans to settle permanently in the area were Pittsburgh native James Hillman and wife Catherine Dougherty . By 1798 , Youngstown was the home of several families who were concentrated near the point where Mill Creek meets the Mahoning River . Boardman Township was founded in 1798 by Elijah Boardman who was a member of the Connecticut Land Company . Also founded in 1798 was Austintown by John McCollum who was a settler from New Jersey .
As the Western Reserve 's population grew , the need for administrative districts became apparent . In 1800 , territorial governor Arthur St. Clair established Trumbull County ( named in honor of Connecticut Governor Jonathan Trumbull ) , and designated the smaller settlement of Warren as its administrative center , or " county seat " . In 1813 , Trumbull County was divided into townships , with Youngstown Township comprising much of what became Mahoning County . The village of Youngstown was incorporated in 1848 , and in 1867 Youngstown was chartered as a city . It became the county seat in 1876 , when the administrative center of Mahoning County was moved from neighboring Canfield . Youngstown has been Mahoning County 's county seat to this day .
= = = Industrial age = = =
The discovery of coal by the community in the early 19th century paved the way for the Youngstown area 's inclusion on the network of the famed Erie Canal . The Pennsylvania and Ohio Canal Company was organized in 1835 , and the canal was completed in 1840 . Local industrialist David Tod , who was later Ohio governor during the Civil War , persuaded Lake Erie steamboat owners that coal mined in the Mahoning Valley could fuel their vessels if canal transportation were available between Youngstown and Cleveland . The arrival of the railroad in 1856 smoothed the path for further economic growth .
Youngstown 's industrial development changed the face of the Mahoning Valley . The community 's burgeoning coal industry drew hundreds of immigrants from Wales , Germany , and Ireland . With the establishment of steel mills in the late 19th century , Youngstown became a popular destination for immigrants from Eastern Europe , Italy , and Greece . In the early 20th century , the community saw an influx of immigrants from non @-@ European countries including what is modern day Lebanon , Palestine / Israel , and Syria . By the 1920s , this dramatic demographic shift produced a nativist backlash , and the Mahoning Valley became a center of Ku Klux Klan activity . The situation reached a climax in 1924 , when street clashes between Klan members and Italian and Irish Americans in neighboring Niles led Ohio Governor A. Victor Donahey to declare martial law . By 1928 the Klan was in steep decline ; and three years later , the organization sold its Canfield , Ohio , meeting area , Kountry Klub Field .
The growth of industry attracted people from within the borders of the United States , and from Latin America . By the late 19th century , African Americans were well represented in Youngstown , and the first local congregation of the African Methodist Episcopal Church was established in 1871 . In the 1880s , local attorney William R. Stewart was the second African American elected to the Ohio House of Representatives . A large influx of African Americans in the early 20th century owed much to developments in the industrial sector . During the national Steel Strike of 1919 , local industrialists recruited thousands of workers from the South , many of whom were Black . This move inflamed racist sentiment among local Whites , and for decades , African @-@ American steelworkers experienced discrimination in the workplace . Migration from the South rose dramatically in the 1940s , when the mechanization of southern agriculture brought an end to the exploitative sharecropping system , leading onetime farm laborers to seek industrial jobs .
The city 's population became more diverse after the end of World War II , when a seemingly robust steel industry attracted thousands of workers . In the 1950s , the Latino population grew significantly ; and by the 1970s , St. Rose of Lima Roman Catholic Church and the First Spanish Baptist Church of Ohio were among the largest religious institutions for Spanish @-@ speaking residents in the Youngstown metropolitan area . While diversity is among the community 's enduring characteristics , the industrial economy that drew various groups to the area collapsed in the late 1970s . In response to subsequent challenges , the city has taken well @-@ publicized steps to diversify economically , while building on some traditional strengths .
= = = Redevelopment = = =
Downtown Youngstown has seen modest levels of new construction . Recent additions include the George Voinovich Government Center and state and federal courthouses : the Seventh District Court of Appeals and the Nathaniel R. Jones Federal Building and U.S. Courthouse . The latter features an award @-@ winning design by the architectural firm , Robert A. M. Stern Architects .
In 2005 , Federal Street , a major downtown thoroughfare that was closed off to create a pedestrian @-@ oriented plaza , was reopened to through traffic . The downtown area has seen the razing of structurally unsound buildings and the expansion or restoration of others .
In 2004 , construction began on a 60 @-@ home upscale development called Arlington Heights , and a grant from the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development allowed for the demolition of Westlake Terrace , a sprawling and dilapidated public housing project . Today , the site features a blend of senior housing , rental townhouses and for @-@ sale single @-@ family homes . Low real @-@ estate prices and the efforts of the Youngstown Central Area Improvement Corporation ( CIC ) have contributed to the purchase of several long @-@ abandoned downtown buildings ( many by out @-@ of @-@ town investors ) and their restoration and conversion into specialty shops , restaurants , and eventually condominiums . Further , a nonprofit organization called Wick Neighbors is planning a $ 250 million New Urbanist revitalization of Smoky Hollow , a former ethnic neighborhood that borders the downtown and university campus . The neighborhood will eventually comprise about 400 residential units , university student housing , retail space , and a central park . Construction for the project began in 2006 .
New construction has dovetailed with efforts to cultivate business growth . One of the area 's more successful business ventures in recent years has been the Youngstown Business Incubator . This nonprofit organization , based in a former downtown department store building , fosters the growth of fledgling technology @-@ based companies . The incubator , which boasts more than a dozen business tenants , has recently completed construction on the Taft Technology Center , where some of its largest tenants will locate their offices .
In line with these efforts to change the community 's image , the city government , in partnership with Youngstown State University , has organized an ambitious urban renewal plan known as Youngstown 2010 . The stated goals of Youngstown 2010 include the creation of a " cleaner , greener , and better planned and organized Youngstown " . In January 2005 , the organization unveiled a master plan prepared by Urban Strategies Inc. of Toronto , which had taken shape during an extensive process of public consultation and meetings that gathered input from citizens . The plan , which included platforms such as the acceptance of a reduced population and an improved image and quality of life , received national attention and is consistent with efforts in other metropolitan areas to address the phenomenon of urban depopulation . Youngstown 2010 received an award for public outreach from the American Planning Association in 2007 .
= = Geography and climate = =
= = = Geography = = =
According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 34 @.@ 60 square miles ( 89 @.@ 61 km2 ) , of which 33 @.@ 96 square miles ( 87 @.@ 96 km2 ) is land and 0 @.@ 64 square miles ( 1 @.@ 66 km2 ) is water .
Located in the Cleveland tri @-@ state area , Youngstown is in the Mahoning Valley on the Glaciated Allegheny Plateau . At the end of the last Ice Age , the glaciers left behind a uniform plain with valleys eroded by the Mahoning River crossing the plain . Lakes created by glaciers that dammed small streams were eventually drained , leaving behind fertile terrain .
= = = Climate = = =
Youngstown has a humid continental climate ( Köppen Dfb ) , typical of the Midwest , with four distinct seasons , and lies in USDA hardiness zone 6a . Winters are cold and dry but typically bring a mix of rain , sleet , and snow with occasional heavy snowfall and icing . January is the coldest month with an average mean temperature of 25 @.@ 8 ° F ( − 3 @.@ 4 ° C ) , with temperatures on average dropping to or below 0 ° F ( − 18 ° C ) on 4 @.@ 1 days and staying at or below freezing on 43 days per year . Snowfall averages 62 @.@ 7 inches ( 159 cm ) per season , significantly less than the snowbelt areas closer to Lake Erie . The snowiest month on record was 53 @.@ 1 inches ( 135 cm ) in December 2010 , while winter snowfall amounts have ranged from 118 @.@ 7 in ( 301 cm ) in 2010 – 11 to 25 @.@ 2 in ( 64 cm ) in 1948 – 49 . Springs generally see a transition to fewer weather systems that produce heavier rainfall . Summers are typically very warm and humid with temperatures exceeding 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) on 7 @.@ 7 days per year on average ; the annual count has been as high as 40 days in 1943 , while the most recent year to not reach that mark is 2014 . July is the warmest month with an average mean temperature of 70 @.@ 5 ° F ( 21 ° C ) . Autumn is relatively dry with many clear warm days and cool nights .
The all @-@ time record high temperature in Youngstown of 103 ° F ( 39 ° C ) was established on July 10 , 1936 , which occurred during the Dust Bowl , and the all @-@ time record low temperature of − 22 ° F ( − 30 ° C ) was set on January 19 , 1994 . The first and last freezes of the season on average fall on October 10 and May 6 , respectively , allowing a growing season of 156 days ; freezing temperatures have been observed in every month except July . The normal annual mean temperature is 49 @.@ 0 ° F ( 9 @.@ 4 ° C ) . Normal yearly precipitation based on the 30 @-@ year average from 1981 – 2010 is 38 @.@ 91 inches ( 988 mm ) , falling on an average 160 days . Monthly precipitation has ranged from 10 @.@ 66 in ( 271 mm ) in June 1986 to 0 @.@ 16 in ( 4 @.@ 1 mm ) in October 1924 , while for annual precipitation the historical range is 54 @.@ 01 in ( 1 @,@ 372 mm ) in 2011 to 23 @.@ 79 in ( 604 mm ) in 1963 .
= = Demographics = =
The 2010 United States Census population estimate was 65 @,@ 062 people . The Steel Valley area as a whole has 763 @,@ 207 residents .
The United States Census Bureau 's 2011 American Community Survey estimated a median household income of $ 24 @,@ 006 . A 2007 report by CNNMoney.com stated that Youngstown has the lowest median income of any U.S. city with more than 65 @,@ 000 residents . Between 1960 and 2010 , the city 's population declined by over 60 % . Youngstown 's vacant @-@ housing rate is twenty times that of the national average .
= = = 2010 census = = =
According to the 2010 Census , Youngstown has 26 @,@ 839 households and 15 @,@ 150 families in the city . The population density is 755 @.@ 2 / km ² ( 1958 @.@ 5 / sq mi ) . There are 33 @,@ 123 housing units at an average density of 968 @.@ 5 per square mile ( 373 @.@ 4 / km ² ) . The racial makeup of the city was 47 @.@ 0 % White , 45 @.@ 2 % African American , 0 @.@ 4 % Native American , 0 @.@ 4 % Asian , 0 @.@ 02 % Pacific Islander , 3 @.@ 3 % of some other race , and 3 @.@ 7 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 9 @.@ 3 % of the population . Among the White population , 10 @.@ 8 % were of Italian , 10 @.@ 8 % Irish , 10 @.@ 0 % German , and 4 @.@ 2 % English ancestries . Among the Hispanic population , 5 @.@ 7 % are Puerto Rican , 1 @.@ 9 % Mexican , 0 @.@ 1 % Cuban , and 0 @.@ 7 % some other Hispanic or Latino .
Records suggest that 28 @.@ 6 % of the households have children under the age of 18 . Of these , 25 @.@ 6 % are married couples living together , 24 @.@ 8 % have a female householder with no husband present , and 43 @.@ 6 % are non @-@ families . Meanwhile , 37 @.@ 8 % of all households comprise a single person , and 14 @.@ 5 % of households comprise a person over 65 years of age living alone . The average household size is 2 @.@ 28 and the average family size is 3 @.@ 02 .
The population is spread out with 22 @.@ 8 % under the age of 18 , 10 @.@ 8 % from 18 to 24 , 24 @.@ 3 % from 25 to 44 , 26 @.@ 2 % from 45 to 64 , and 15 @.@ 8 % who are 65 years of age or older . The median age is 38 years . For every 100 females there are 96 @.@ 9 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there are 95 males .
= = Economy = =
= = = History = = =
Endowed with large deposits of coal and iron as well as " old growth " hardwood forests needed to produce charcoal , the Youngstown area eventually developed a thriving steel industry , starting with the area 's blast furnace in 1803 by James and Daniel Heaton . By the mid @-@ 19th century , Youngstown was the site of several iron industrial plants , and because of easy rail connections to adjacent states , the iron industry continued to expand in the 1890s despite the depletion of local natural resources . At the turn of the 20th century , local industrialists began to convert to steel manufacturing , amid a wave of industrial consolidations that placed much of the Mahoning Valley 's industry in the hands of national corporations .
In the late 1930s , the community 's steel sector gained national attention once again , when Youngstown became a site of the so @-@ called " Little Steel Strike " , an effort by the Steel Workers Organizing Committee , a precursor to United Steelworkers , to secure contract agreements with smaller steel companies . On June 21 , 1937 , strike @-@ related violence in Youngstown resulted in two deaths and 42 injuries . Despite the violence , historian William Lawson observed that the strike transformed industrial unions from " basically local and ineffective organizations into all @-@ encompassing , nationwide collective bargaining representatives of American workers " .
Between the 1920s and 1960s , the city was known as an important industrial hub that featured the massive furnaces and foundries of such companies as Republic Steel and U.S. Steel . At the same time , Youngstown never became economically diversified , as did larger industrial cities such as Chicago , Pittsburgh , Akron , or Cleveland . Hence , when economic changes forced the closure of plants throughout the 1970s , the city was left with few substantial economic alternatives . The September 19 , 1977 , announcement of the closure of a large portion of Youngstown Sheet and Tube , an event still referred to as " Black Monday " , is widely regarded as the death knell of the old area steel industry in Youngstown . In the wake of the steel plant shutdowns , the community lost an estimated 40 @,@ 000 manufacturing jobs , 400 satellite businesses , $ 414 million in personal income , and from 33 to 75 percent of the school tax revenues . The Youngstown area has yet to fully recover from the loss of jobs in the steel sector .
= = = Current economy = = =
Youngstown is the site of several steel and metalworking operations , though nothing on the scale seen during the " glory days " of the " Steel Valley " . The largest employer in the city is Youngstown State University ( YSU ) , an urban public campus that serves about 15 @,@ 000 students , located just north of downtown .
The blow dealt to the community 's industrial economy in the 1970s was slightly mitigated by the presence of auto production plants in the metropolitan area . In the late 1980s , the Avanti , an automobile with a fiberglass body originally designed by Studebaker to compete with the Corvette , was manufactured in an industrial complex on Youngstown 's Albert Street . This company moved away after just a few years . A mainstay of Youngstown 's industrial economy has long been the GM Lordstown plant . The General Motors ' Lordstown Assembly plant is the largest industrial employer in the area . One of the nation 's largest auto plants in terms of square feet , the Lordstown facility was home to production of the Chevrolet Impala , Vega , and Cavalier . It was recently expanded and retooled with a new paint facility .
The largest industrial employers within the Youngstown city limits are Vallourec Star Steel Company ( formerly North Star Steel ) , in the Brier Hill district , and Exal Corporation on Poland Avenue . The latter has recently expanded its operations .
Youngstown 's downtown , which once underscored the community 's economic difficulties , is a site of new business growth . The Youngstown Business Incubator (
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two people . In Parrita , an ambulance carrying four people was struck by a fallen tree , while in Puntarenas , another vehicle was struck by a tree , killing one of its occupants . Transport was disrupted in widespread areas in the north and south of the country due to landslides blocking roads . Across the country , the floods compromised roads in 174 locations and damaged 32 bridges . Flooding isolated about 6 @,@ 900 people in 75 communities , and about 77 @,@ 000 people were forced to leave their homes . Power outages affected 89 communities , and 424 water wells along the Pacific coast were polluted . Nationwide , the floods damaged 1 @,@ 396 houses and 39 schools .
In early October , heavy rainfall began affecting Nicaragua , causing mudslides and flooding . The tropical depression added to weeks of heavy rainfall that killed 16 people , many caused by people attempting to cross swollen rivers . Toward the end of October 2008 , Lake Managua overflowed , causing flooding in the capital city of Managua . Across the country , 2 @,@ 273 people evacuated to storm shelters after the floods damaged or destroyed 1 @,@ 333 houses . Transportation was disrupted when the floods wrecked four bridges and 154 mi ( 248 km ) of highways . Classes were canceled in León and Chinandega departments . The crops in the latter department were almost entirely destroyed .
Following months of drought conditions , the heavy rainfall in Honduras caused flooding , initially in the southern and central portions , although the entire country experienced rainfall , with 40 % of municipalities experiencing flooding . The rains caused widespread landslides , particularly in the western and central portions . In the capital city Tegucigalpa , the rainfall in October was estimated to have been twice the average annual total . In two locations , the Pan @-@ American Highway was disrupted by either landslide or flooding , and widespread areas were isolated nationwide by flooded roads . According to Reuters , about 50 % of the roads in Honduras were damaged during the floods , with 227 roads and 106 bridges damaged . A landslide near Corquín blocked a river and created a natural dam , forcing hundreds of nearby residents to leave . In Colón Department , the Tocoa River overflowed , while flooding in Atlántida damaged crop lands . A total of 101 @,@ 107 ha ( 249 @,@ 840 acres ) of crops were damaged , mostly in Comayagua Department . 14 water systems were damaged , and 150 @,@ 000 people lost power in Olancho Department . Landslides in Tegucigalpa killed six and displaced about 500 people . In El Progreso , 375 inmates from a jail had to be evacuated to another facility . A total of 50 @,@ 676 people were forced to evacuate in the country , most of whom stayed in shelters . 2 @,@ 474 homes were destroyed in Honduras , with another 8 @,@ 688 damaged or flooded . In addition , at least nine schools were damaged or destroyed . Nationwide , the floods killed 60 people , and damage was estimated at about 3 billion lempiras ( HNL , $ 225 million USD ) . The low death toll compared to Hurricane Mitch was largely due to the widespread evacuations .
Floods in Guatemala overflowed rivers and caused landslides in Izabal and Petén departments , blocking many roads . The rising rivers damaged about 175 houses , forcing hundreds of people to leave their homes . About 67 @,@ 000 ha ( 170 @,@ 000 acres ) of crop fields were damaged or destroyed , including corn , rice , and beans , and crop damage nationwide was estimated at Q128.9 million ( 2008 GTQ , $ 16 @.@ 8 million USD ) . About 2 @.@ 5 % of the national corn crop and 3 @.@ 7 % of the rice crop were wrecked during the floods . Nationwide , about 4 @,@ 000 houses and 82 roads were damaged or destroyed , and 17 people died in the country from the floods . In neighboring El Salvador , floods affected the houses of about 600 families . High levels forced officials to release water from several dams , causing urban flooding . Along the coastline , the floods damaged maize and bean crops . The average rainfall across El Salvador for the month of October was 475 mm ( 14 @.@ 76 in ) . This was the third highest for October since such record keeping began in 1971 , after 2005 when Hurricane Stan struck and 1998 when Hurricane Mitch crossed the area . The tropical depression killed one person in the country .
In Belize , the rainfall in one week represented the average monthly values at some stations . Heavy rainfall from the depression caused levels to rise along rivers and creeks . A bridge that had been rebuilt following earlier Tropical Storm Arthur was flooded , prompting the Belize Defence Force to assist in crossings . This isolated much of Cayo District from the rest of the country until the bridge was repaired . On the western portion of the district , flooding along the Macal River damaged a bridge crossing into northern Guatemala , which restricted traffic only to people returning home . Levels along the Macal and the Belize River were higher than the floods of Hurricane Mitch in 1998 , but less than that of Hurricane Keith in 2000 . The floods caused residents to evacuate after over 1 @,@ 000 homes were flooded ; 311 people stayed in shelters , while the remainder stayed with families and relatives . Of the affected houses , 12 were destroyed and 802 were severely damaged . Most of the affected population was in rural areas of western Belize . One village in Orange Walk District had to be quarantined due to the health threat from the floods for 25 days . Many roads were closed , and there were widespread school closures . Overall , the floods killed two people in the country and caused BZ $ 54 @.@ 1 million ( BZD , $ 27 @.@ 1 million USD ) in damage . Most of the damage was agricultural , accounting for BZ $ 28 @.@ 2 million ( BZD , $ 14 @.@ 1 million USD ) , or 25 % of the country 's agricultural gross domestic product . Other damage included BZ $ 11 @.@ 7 million ( BZD , $ 6 @.@ 3 million USD ) to roads and bridges . The ongoing floods caused BZ $ 2 @.@ 7 million ( BZD , $ 1 @.@ 5 million USD ) in tourism losses , due to closed facilities and water damage .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the floods in Costa Rica , the country 's Red Cross opened shelters to house storm victims . The government advised residents not to drink water out of fear it could be polluted from the flooding . A state of emergency was declared on October 18 due to the effects in Costa Rica . In Nicaragua , officials deployed about 3 @,@ 000 soldiers to assist in flood operations . The World Food Programme provided about 8 tons of food to families in El Salvador affected by the flooding . Then @-@ president of Honduras Manuel Zelaya declared a national state of emergency on October 19 . In Honduras , pre @-@ positioned supplies from UNICEF quickly diminished due to the widespread distribution of blankets and medical kits , raising fears for the spread of disease . The World Food Programme provided about 58 tons of food to 5 @,@ 500 families in Honduras . Residents returned home as floodwaters gradually receded . The Mercy Corps later provided corn and bean seeds to 1 @,@ 300 Honduran farmers to regrow the damaged crops . In May 2009 , the World Bank provided $ 25 million ( USD ) to Honduras to rebuild damaged roads and bridges . Workers in Guatemala airlifted food to storm victims due to residual flooding . The Guatemalan government provided $ 6 @.@ 6 million to residents in the northern portion of the country , including medical supplies and seeds to regrow crops . A state of emergency was declared for Cayo District in Belize . Search and rescue teams were deployed to the district , and medical crews visited several towns , providing help to 3 @,@ 000 people . The Belize National Emergency Management Organization provided meals to about 9 @,@ 000 people following the floods .
Across the affected areas , the Red Cross spent about $ 247 @,@ 000 to provide food and blankets . In the weeks and months following the flooding , various international groups provided aid totaling nearly $ 11 million . The United States donated $ 622 @,@ 732 worth of assistance , mainly to help with logistical work and relief efforts . The United States military also worked to purify drinking water in Honduras . Canada donated $ 412 @,@ 201 worth of assistance , including providing shelter in Honduras and rebuilding schools . The country of Brazil donated about $ 1 @.@ 68 million worth of food . The Humanitarian Aid and Civil Protection department of the European Commission provided nearly $ 2 @.@ 2 million for relief efforts . Other European country donations included nearly $ 500 @,@ 000 from Ireland for hygiene and food supplies , $ 675 @,@ 675 from the Netherlands for general relief efforts , $ 154 @,@ 570 from Spain through the World Food Programme , $ 159 @,@ 559 from Germany for shelters , and $ 892 @,@ 468 from Sweden . Several Asian countries donated to the relief efforts , including $ 123 @,@ 810 from Japan to Honduras to purchase emergency goods , $ 22 @,@ 000 from South Korea , and $ 10 @,@ 000 from Singapore to Honduras . Non @-@ governmental organizations and other groups providing aid included $ 1 @.@ 5 million from the Central Emergency Response Fund , $ 300 @,@ 000 from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation , $ 120 @,@ 000 from Catholic Relief Services , and $ 289 @,@ 000 from ACT Alliance .
In November , weeks after the tropical depression struck Honduras , Tropical Storm Paloma formed in the western Caribbean and caused additional rainfall in the region .
= Jack the Bulldog =
Jack the Bulldog is the official mascot of the Georgetown University Hoyas athletic teams . Jack has been the name of at least five live Bulldogs since 1962 , when the name first came into use , though Georgetown counts seven official bulldog mascots including the two living ones . The current incarnation of Jack is an English Bulldog born in 2013 whose full name is John B. Carroll .
A puppy born in 2012 named Jack Junior , or J.J. , began assisting Jack in April 2012 , allowing the older Jack to retire after the 2012 – 13 school year and transfer his duties to Jack Junior . However , university administrators determined in July 2013 that J.J. would not be the school 's mascot going forward . By the end of August 2013 , a new puppy had been identified from the same breeders , and John B. Carroll was introduced to the campus in October 2013 .
Jack was not always the name of the Georgetown Hoyas ' mascot , nor was the mascot always a bulldog , as other types of dogs , particularly bull terriers , were associated with the sports teams before 1962 . In 2009 , the American Kennel Club ranked Jack as the 8th most popular dog in American culture . Today , Georgetown is among thirty @-@ nine American universities to use a bulldog as their mascot , with Georgia , Butler , Mississippi State , Yale and James Madison being the only others with a live bulldog . Jack is also portrayed by a costumed character Bulldog mascot , a tradition dating to 1977 .
= = Early dogs = =
Dogs have been associated with the school 's sports teams on an unofficial basis since the late nineteenth century . Early dog mascots may have included a mutt called Hoya around 1900 , a Borzoi named Richmond Jack in 1906 , a bulldog named Hoya in 1907 , and a Boston Bull Terrier in 1911 . At that time , most mascots were primarily associated with the school 's football team , and were cared for by students or individual sports teams , rather than the administration .
Sergeant Stubby , a part bull terrier and a decorated World War I war dog , came to campus in 1921 with J. Robert Conroy who was attending Georgetown Law at the time . The school football team used Stubby as a popular halftime show where he would push a football across the field , which established him as a campus celebrity . After Stubby died in 1926 , the team then chose a female bull terrier named Jazz Bo , who had been brought to campus by Georgetown College student Paul Van Laanen . Jazz Bo was retitled " Hoya " by the students , after the traditional " Hoya Saxa " school cheer . The athletic teams are possibly named , in turn , for this dog . When " Hoya " gave birth to a daughter , students named the puppy " Saxa " .
Other bull terriers like Saxa filled in as mascot until World War II , when athletics at the school paused during the war . After the war , a series of Great Danes , named Bo , Butch , and Hobo , served as mascot . William Peter Blatty , author of The Exorcist , was one of the students to care for Butch . During this time period mascot abductions by rival schools became a common threat to the animal 's safety . A bull terrier costume was also briefly used by the school , but in 1951 , the school suspended the football program as part of a larger backlash against university sports . This left the school without a mascot .
= = Royal Jacket = =
In 1962 , with the resumption of football , students Stan Samorajczyk and John Feldmann , editors of The Hoya campus newspaper , founded a committee to raise money for the purchase of a new mascot dog in time for the first new games in 1964 . This committee chose a purebred English Bulldog as the dog which would represent Georgetown students because of their " tenacity . " Samorajczyk also followed the sports team jerseys , which may have previously had an image of a bulldog on them . Around this time the school also adopted as the official logo of the athletics program a new drawing in blue and gray school colors of the bulldog . This logo dog wears a cap typical of the beanie which other freshman at the time had to wear .
For $ 150 the committee bought a two @-@ year @-@ old blue @-@ ribbon @-@ champion show dog named " Lil @-@ Nan 's Royal Jacket , " named because the colors of his coat looked like a jacket . This dog was to be renamed " Hoya " like his 1926 predecessor , but refused to respond to any name other than his call name " Jack . " Jack lived outside New South Hall in a heated doghouse . In 1967 , Royal Jacket retired and was replaced by a second bulldog who continued under the simple name " Jack . " In 1977 , as the basketball program gained popularity , the costumed mascot took over duties as Jack . The costume , first worn by student Pat Sheehan , has been updated numerous times , most recently in 2013 . Other live bulldogs owned by students at times joined the costumed Jack , including one named Rocky from 1982 to 1985 and one named Daisy in 1997 .
= = John P. Carroll = =
In 1998 , Michael Boyle , Austin Martin , and Kathleen Long , co @-@ founders of the Hoya Blue fan club began a campaign to revive the tradition of an official live mascot with the assistance of English professor Father Scott R. Pilarz , S.J. The " Bring Back Jack " Campaign initially sought to find a suitable dog among the students and faculty , as the university did not want to use school funds for the purchase . Ultimately , Hoya Blue raised $ 1 @,@ 500 to purchase a new puppy named Jack ( officially , John P. Carroll ) and placed him in the care of Father Pilarz on February 16 , 1999 . However , after four years , Jack left Georgetown with Pilarz , who was named president of the University of Scranton in Pennsylvania in 2003 , and then president of Marquette University in 2011 . John P. Carroll died on September 16 , 2011 at the home of Pilarz 's parents in Voorhees Township , New Jersey , at the age of 12 .
Donations from Hoya Blue , the Hoya Hoop Club , the Office of the President , and alumni allowed for the purchase of the current third incarnation of Jack ( born 2003 ) .
= = John S. Carroll = =
Jack was born May 3 , 2003 at Brookhollow Kennel in Freehold Township , New Jersey as a litter of one . He was the son of champion bulldog Copper Kid and a relation of Rocky the 1983 mascot . He was brought to campus on July 19 , 2003 and placed in the care of Father Christopher Steck , S.J. , a theology professor . His official name , as registered with the American Kennel Club was Brookhollow 's John S. Carroll , which allows for the nickname Jack . This referred to Georgetown founder John Carroll , while " S. " stood for Steck . Similarly the previous mascot was officially John P. Carroll , for Pilarz . He was also infrequently referred to as Jack IV , as the school was unsure of the exact number of dogs used as Jack in the 1970s .
Jack lived with Father Christopher Steck in New South Hall , but spent time in Wolfington Hall Jesuit Residence . In 2003 , Father Steck started the " Jack Crew " , a six @-@ student organization of Jack 's walkers and caretakers . Crew members were required to be able to show their school spirit and their ability to control Jack , including being aware of his affinity for orange traffic cones . Jack had both an email address , a Facebook profile , a student ID card , and a local phone number , and the campus directory listed him as part of the theology faculty , like Father Steck .
Jack attended home basketball games at the Verizon Center , where he entertained fans by attacking a cardboard box decorated with opponents ' logos . This tradition developed after Steck discovered Jack 's propensity for attacking boxes of brownie mix , and he originally decorated boxes for the games himself . Jack wore a leather collar studded with Georgetown pins , and occasionally wore a team jersey sporting the number one , which Steck purchased at the school bookstore . On campus , Jack attended student meetings and could be booked for social functions . He weighed 55 pounds ( 25 kg ) and his color was described as " red fawn . " Jack 's personality was described as very social , but imperious and stubborn with " a sense of entitlement . "
On March 11 , 2012 , Jack tore his ACL , and had to have surgery to repair it on April 23 , 2012 . In March 2013 , school announced that Jack would " retire " from gameday duties after the end of the 2012 – 13 basketball season , and officially take a smaller role . Jack continued to live on campus with Steck until his death on June 2 , 2015 .
= = Jack Junior = =
On March 30 , 2012 , Georgetown announced the donation of a new bulldog puppy from San Diego breeders Janice and Marcus Hochstetler , whose children Nathan and Rachel attend the school . The school named the puppy Jack Junior , or " J.J. " , and his father was a breed champion , while his mother , named Treasure , and grandmother still live with the Hochstetler family . The puppy , who has been described as " laid back , " was introduced to the community at a ceremony on April 13 , 2012 .
Students discovered during Homecoming 2012 that J.J. has an affinity for balloons , and during Midnight Madness he attacked blue and orange balloons , colors of Georgetown 's arch @-@ rival , Syracuse University . He had his debut at the Verizon Center on January 26 , 2013 during a men 's basketball victory over the Louisville Cardinals . On February 8 , 2013 , Jack and J.J. met with Butler University 's mascots , Blue II and Blue III , who were in town on a goodwill tour to Atlantic 10 Conference members .
However , during the summer 2013 , trainers at the school determined that , given the " exciting and hectic " life required of the school 's mascot , it would be best for J.J. to return to a home environment , announcing their decision on July 31 , 2013 . An incident involving a small child during the fall 2012 semester , and a subsequent settlement with the child 's family , may have contributed to the school 's decision , though Georgetown spokesperson Rachel Pugh said it wasn 't the only factor . Caretaker Rev. Christopher Steck , S.J. was surprised by the schools decision , and published a letter expressing his disappointment . In an editorial in The Hoya , Steck also lamented the school 's choice not to involve the Bulldog Advisory Committee , which began meeting earlier in the summer , in its decision . After a search by Steck , J.J. was adopted by a family close to the Georgetown campus on August 18 , 2013 .
= = John B. Carroll = =
On August 30 , 2013 , Pugh announced the arrival of a new puppy , also from the Hochstetler family and an offspring of Treasure , J.J. ' s mother , though they come from different litters . Officially named Compatible 's John B. Carroll , the dog 's middle name stands for " Bulldog " , unlike his predecessors , where the middle name referred to the caretaker 's name . He was born on June 29 , 2013 and was introduced on campus in late October 2013 with appearances at a men 's soccer game against DePaul on October 23 , and around Copley Lawn and Leo J. O 'Donovan Hall . Jack weighs 50 pounds ( 23 kg ) and his color is described as " fawn . "
In early October 2013 , the school announced that Steck would not be the new mascot 's caretaker , but that another , not necessarily a Jesuit , would be selected from the Georgetown community . On November 5 , 2013 , the school choose 2013 graduate McKenzie Stough as the bulldog 's caretaker . Besides being an alumna , McKenzie works as a Communications Specialist in the university 's Office of Communications . Responding to criticism , the school involved the fourteen @-@ member Bulldog Advisory Committee in the replacement process and selection of the caretaker . The Jack Crew will also be downsized from twenty students to " four or five " with the selection of this new caretaker .
Starting in December 2014 , Jack began performing at home basketball games by riding a skateboard across the court . For the opening game of the 2015 – 16 season , the school produced bobblehead dolls of Jack on a skateboard , wearing jersey number 89 in honor of the year of the school 's founding , 1789 .
= Quantitative precipitation forecast =
The Quantitative Precipitation Forecast ( abbreviated QPF ) is the expected amount of melted precipitation accumulated over a specified time period over a specified area . A QPF will be created when precipitation amounts reaching a minimum threshold are expected during the forecast 's valid period . Valid periods of precipitation forecasts are normally synoptic hours such as 0000 , 0600 , 1200 and 1800 GMT . Terrain is considered in QPFs by use of topography or based upon climatological precipitation patterns from observations with fine detail . Starting in the mid @-@ to @-@ late 1990s , QPFs were used within hydrologic forecast models to simulate impact to rivers throughout the United States . Forecast models show significant sensitivity to humidity levels within the planetary boundary layer , or in the lowest levels of the atmosphere , which decreases with height . QPF can be generated on a quantitative , forecasting amounts , or a qualitative , forecasting the probability of a specific amount , basis . Radar imagery forecasting techniques show higher skill than model forecasts within 6 to 7 hours of the time of the radar image . The forecasts can be verified through use of rain gauge measurements , weather radar estimates , or a combination of both . Various skill scores can be determined to measure the value of the rainfall forecast .
= = Use of radar = =
Algorithms exist to forecast rainfall based on short term radar trends , within a matter of hours . Radar imagery forecasting techniques show higher skill than model forecasts within 6 to 7 hours of the time of the radar image .
= = Use of forecast models = =
In the past , the forecaster was responsible for generating the entire weather forecast based upon available observations . Today , meteorologists ' input is generally confined to choosing a model based on various parameters , such as model biases and performance . Using a consensus of forecast models , as well as ensemble members of the various models , can help reduce forecast error . However , regardless how small the average error becomes with any individual system , large errors within any particularly piece of guidance are still possible on any given model run . Professionals are required to interpret the model data into weather forecasts that are understandable to the lay person . Professionals can use knowledge of local effects which may be too small in size to be resolved by the model to add information to the forecast . As an example , terrain is considered in the QPF process by using topography or climatological precipitation patterns from observations with fine detail . Using model guidance and comparing the various forecast fields to climatology , extreme events such as excessive precipitation associated with later flood events lead to better forecasts . While increasing accuracy of forecast models implies that humans may no longer be needed in the forecast process at some point in the future , there is currently still a need for human intervention .
= = = Nowcasting = = =
The forecasting of the precipitation within the next six hours is often referred to as nowcasting . In this time range it is possible to forecast smaller features such as individual showers and thunderstorms with reasonable accuracy , as well as other features too small to be resolved by a computer model . A human given the latest radar , satellite and observational data will be able to make a better analysis of the small scale features present and so will be able to make a more accurate forecast for the following few hours . However , there is now expert systems using those data and mesoscale numerical model to make better extrapolation , including evolution of those features in time .
= = = Ensemble forecasting = = =
The detail that can be given into a forecast decreases with time as these errors increase . There becomes a point when the errors are so large that the forecast has no correlation with the actual state of the atmosphere . Looking at a single forecast model gives no indication of how likely that forecast is to be correct . Ensemble forecasting entails the production of many forecasts in order to reflect the uncertainty in the initial state of the atmosphere ( due to errors in the observations and insufficient sampling ) . The uncertainty in the forecast can then be assessed by the range of different forecasts produced . Ensemble forecasts are increasingly being used for operational weather forecasting ( for example at European Centre for Medium @-@ Range Weather Forecasts ( ECMWF ) , National Centers for Environmental Prediction ( NCEP ) , and the Canadian forecasting center ) . Ensemble mean forecasts for precipitation have the same problems associated with their use in other fields , as they average out more extreme values , and therefore have limited usefulness for extreme events . In the case of the SREF ensemble mean , used within the United States , this decreasing usefulness starts with values as low as 0 @.@ 50 inches ( 13 mm ) .
= = Probability approach = =
In addition to graphical rainfall forecasts showing quantitative amounts , rainfall forecasts can be made describing the probabilities of certain rainfall amounts being met . This allows the forecaster to assign the degree of uncertainty to the forecast . This technique is considered to be informative , relative to climatology . This method has been used for years within National Weather Service forecasts , as a period 's chance of rain equals the chance that 0 @.@ 01 inches ( 0 @.@ 25 mm ) will fall in any particular spot . In this case , it is known as probability of precipitation . These probabilities can be derived from a deterministic forecast using computer post @-@ processing .
= = Entities which generate rainfall forecasts = =
= = = Australia = = =
The Bureau of Meteorology began a method of forecasting rainfall using a combination , or ensemble , of different forecast models in 2006 . It is termed The Poor Man 's Ensemble ( PME ) . Its forecasts are more accurate over time than any of the individual models composing the ensemble . The PME is quick to produce , and is available through their Water and the Land page on their website .
= = = Hong Kong = = =
The Hong Kong Observatory generates short term rainstorm warnings for systems which are expected to accumulate a certain amount of rainfall per hour over the next few hours . They use three levels of warning . The amber warning indicates that a rainfall intensity of 30 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) per hour is expected . The red warning indicates rainfall amounts of 50 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) per hour are anticipated . The black warning indicates that rainfall rates of 70 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) are possible .
= = = United States = = =
Within the United States , the Hydrometeorological Prediction Center , River Forecast Centers , and local forecast offices within the National Weather Service create precipitation forecasts for up to five days in the future , forecasting amounts equal to or greater than 0 @.@ 01 inches ( 0 @.@ 25 mm ) . Starting in the mid @-@ to @-@ late 1990s , QPFs were used within hydrologic forecast models to simulate impact of rainfall on river stages .
= = Verification = =
Rainfall forecasts can be verified a number of ways . Rain gauge observations can be gridded into areal averages , which are then compared to the grids for the forecast models . Weather radar estimates can be used outright , or corrected for rain gauge observations .
Several statistical scores can be based on the observed and forecast fields . One , known as a bias , compares the size of the forecast field to the observed field , with the goal of a score of 1 . The threat score involves the intersection of the forecast and observed sets , with a maximum possible verification score of 1 . The probability of detection , or POD , is found by dividing the overlap between the forecast and observed fields by the size of the observed field : the goal here is a score of 1 . The critical success index , or CSI , divides the overlap between the forecast and observed fields by the combined size of the forecast and observed fields : the goal here is a score of 1 . The false alarm rate , or FAR , divides the area of the forecast which does not overlap the observed field by the size of the forecasted area . The goal value in this measure is zero .
With tropical cyclones which impact the United States , the GFS global forecast model performed best in regards to its rainfall forecasts over the last few years , outperforming the NAM and ECMWF forecast models .
= The Emancipation of Mimi =
The Emancipation of Mimi is the tenth studio album by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey , released through Island Records on April 12 , 2005 . The Emancipation of Mimi was considered Carey 's " comeback album " by critics and became her highest @-@ selling release in the US in a decade . In composing the album , the singer collaborated with many songwriters and producers throughout 2004 , including Jermaine Dupri , Snoop Dogg , Twista , Nelly , Pharrell Williams , and James " Big Jim " Wright , many of whom appeared as featured guests on select tracks .
Carey opted to use her personal nickname ' Mimi ' in the title , revealing a more intimate side of the singer , as seen in the album 's declarative theme of emancipation from her personal and commercial setbacks . Although it has similar vocal production to her previous works and an inclination towards her signature ballads , the album encompasses dance @-@ oriented and uptempo styles in keeping with its celebratory motif . Critics noted the theme of independence and lack of restraint , dubbing the album a " party " record . In contrast to the R & B and pop @-@ rock music styles that framed her previous releases , The Emancipation of Mimi showcases a wider range of genres , exploring R & B @-@ related styles , such as 1970s retro gospel and soul .
The album debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 with the highest first @-@ week sales of Carey 's career at the time . It entered in the top five on the albums charts in Canada , Denmark , France and Japan . The Emancipation of Mimi was the best @-@ selling album of 2005 in the US , and the second @-@ best seller worldwide . By April 2008 , it had sold 12 million copies .
" It 's Like That " became one of her highest @-@ charting songs in years , reaching the top twenty in several countries . " We Belong Together " accumulated 14 weeks at number one in the US , and was later hailed " song of the decade " by Billboard . It reached number one in Australia , number two in New Zealand , and achieved top @-@ five positions in several European countries . To promote the album , Carey performed at the 48th Grammy Awards , the MTV Movie Awards 2005 , the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards and the American Music Awards of 2005 . In 2006 , she embarked on her sixth concert tour , The Adventures of Mimi .
= = Background = =
In 2001 , Carey had experienced critical , commercial , personal , and professional struggles , following the poor reception to her debut film Glitter ( 2001 ) . The picture was panned by critics and earned less than eight million dollars at the box office . After posting a personally expressive letter on her official site , Carey checked into a hospital in Connecticut because of an " emotional and physical breakdown " . Following the film 's and soundtrack 's poor performance , Virgin Records America bought out Carey 's unprecedented $ 100 million recording contract . The company paid her $ 50 million to part ways . Carey flew to Capri , Italy , after her two @-@ week hospitalization . During her five @-@ month stay , she began to write a new studio album , using experiences she had gone through in recent months as inspirational themes . After being signed by Island Records and starting her own imprint , MonarC Entertainment , Carey released her intended " comeback " album Charmbracelet . Critics deemed it a strong improvement over Glitter , but not something that would re @-@ establish her popularity as in the early stages of her career .
After enduring three years of " carping " from critics , Carey planned her return to music . On November 18 , 2004 , she revealed on her website that the name of the album would be The Emancipation of Mimi . While Carey was recording the album , Island Records executive L.A. Reid had learned that close friends referred to the singer as " Mimi " . He had told Carey , " I feel your spirit on this record . You should use that name in the title , because that 's the fun side of you that people don 't get to see – the side that can laugh at the diva jokes , laugh at the breakdown jokes , laugh at whatever they want to say about you and just live life and enjoy it . " Carey explained that Mimi is a " very personal nickname " only used by those in her inner circle , and thus the title meant she was letting her guard down and inviting her fans to be that much closer to her . She thought that naming her album The Emancipation of Mariah Carey would be " obnoxious " .
= = Writing and recording = =
During a visit to a recording studio , Carey was given a beat by The Legendary Traxster . On a later date , she met with American rapper Twista backstage after a show . When Carey mentioned the track , Twista told her that the beat had been originally intended for him , and that he had already written lyrics for it . They decided to collaborate on the track , which later was titled " One and Only " . In the following months , Carey wrote and co @-@ produced several songs including " Say Somethin ' ( with Snoop Dogg and The Neptunes ) , " To the Floor " ( with Nelly ) , and " Fly Like a Bird " with James " Big Jim " Wright . By November , she felt that she had composed enough good material for The Emancipation of Mimi . After Reid listened to the album , however , he suggested the singer compose a few more " strong " singles to ensure the project 's commercial success . Based on his recommendation , Carey met with Jermaine Dupri in Atlanta for a brief studio session , since Reid felt she had written some of her best work with him . During this two @-@ day trip , Carey and Dupri wrote and produced " Shake It Off " and " Get Your Number " , which were released as the album 's third and fourth singles . Following this recording session , " Shake It Off " was briefly selected as the album 's lead single , replacing the other contenders , " Stay The Night " and " Say Somethin ' " . Carey later returned to Atlanta for a second meeting with Dupri ; they then penned the last two songs for the album : " We Belong Together " and " It 's Like That " . In an interview for Billboard , Carey described her sentiments regarding " It 's Like That " during the production stage :
I had the chills . I had a great feeling about it when we finished writing the song , and I was flying back from Atlanta at some crazy hour of the morning ... But we were listening to it on the plane ride on the way home , and even from the demo version , I really felt something very special .
Carey and her management then decided to release " It 's Like That " as the album 's lead single , calling it " the right fire @-@ starter " . The singer has praised Dupri for being " focused " , and felt that together they had composed some of her favorite songs on the album . She has told MTV , " The album is not about making the older executives happy by making a bring @-@ down @-@ the @-@ house , tearjerker ballad , or [ something ] steeped in the media dramas of my life . What I tried to do was keep the sessions very sparse , underproduced , like in ' 70s soul music ... " According to Reid , Carey intended for the album to feature a more unpolished sound than her previous releases . The singer had been frustrated with the overproduction on many of her previous records , due to the inclusion of what she considered unnecessary " bells and whistles " . She opted to record the majority of The Emancipation of Mimi live , alongside the band . Reid agreed with this decision and felt that the live vocals made the album sound more authentic .
= = Musical style = =
The Emancipation of Mimi was Carey 's most expressive album to that point according to Fox News ; it signified her creative freedom , as she had been oppressed by the expectations of record executives in the past . They noted the album 's motif of professional and cultural emancipation throughout many songs . In an interview with the Hartford Courant , Carey spoke about the album 's lack of creative restraint she felt was not featured on Charmbracelet . The latter album harbored on reviving Carey 's popularity among the adult contemporary radio audience , following her decline with Glitter , which found the singer sampling 1980s melodies . While featuring ballads similar to those on Charmbracelet , the songs on The Emancipation of Mimi drew influence from R & B and hip hop , and were composed at an elevated tempo . According to Dimitri Ehrlich , an editor from Vibe , the album includes many musical facets :
Mimi pulls Carey in two opposite directions . Most of the tracks find her paired with the hottest hip hop producers of the day ; there , she exercises restraint and settles into a groove . But on the rest , she does what comes most naturally to her — belting to her heart 's desire , perhaps to mollify those who don 't care much for her detours into raunchier rap territory .
The Emancipation of Mimi explores various genres ; Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune felt that the album effectively combines " elements of hip @-@ hop and rhythm and blues into pop songs that appeal to a broad cross @-@ section of listeners . " Aside from the ballads and uptempo tracks , The Emancipation of Mimi incorporates elements of soul and 1970s @-@ inspired genres , evident on the gospel @-@ tinged closing track , " Fly Like a Bird " . While most tracks derive instrumentation from live bands and musical instruments , some of the uptempo songs feature computerized arrangements and synthesizers . Stylistically , critics considered the album Carey 's most diverse record in years , and one that highlighted many different production choices and techniques .
= = Songs = =
" It 's Like That " was written and produced by Carey and Jermaine Dupri . It features hand claps and whistles , as well as ad @-@ libs and verses from Dupri and Fat Man Scoop . The song 's bassline and chord progression are aligned with piano and string notes . Its lyrics are arranged to portray the singer during a celebration : " I came to have a party / Open off that Bacardi ... Purple taking me higher / I 'm lifted and I like it . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine praised its lyrics and beat , and felt the song prepares listeners for the album 's " party theme " . Lyrically , " We Belong Together " was described as a " broken @-@ hearted lament for love " ; it features finger @-@ snaps , kick drums , and a piano @-@ driven melody . Carey composed the gospel @-@ influenced ballad " Fly Like a Bird " with James Wright . The lyrics are in the form of a prayer that conveys a message of unconditional love for God . The song features a verbal recording of Carey 's pastor , Clarence Keaton , who reads two verses from the Bible . The singer wrote the album 's fifth cut " Say Somethin ' " , which features rap verses from Snoop Dogg and was produced by The Neptunes . Vibe writer Dimitri Ehrlich described it as " a musical oddity " , and characterized the production as " strange instrumentation , weird melodic shifts , hectic drum patterns and a bed of synths . " Lyrically , the protagonist makes sexual advances to a romantic interest with the line " If it 's worth your while , do something good to me . " When interpreting the lyrics in the female role , Cummings noted " a shy woman who doesn 't need to say anything at all to get a man 's attention . "
Carey wrote " Mine Again " alongside producer James Poyser . The ballad has electronic keyboard notes , a rhythmic vinyl sound , and melodies from gospel and R & B genres . " Stay the Night " was produced by Carey and Kanye West , and samples a piano loop from Ramsey Lewis 's 1971 cover version of " Betcha by Golly , Wow " . In the lyrics , the protagonist faces the dilemma of spending the night with an ex @-@ lover , although he is in another relationship . " Get Your Number " samples the hook from British band Imagination 's 1982 single " Just an Illusion " , and derives its production from " ' 80s @-@ esque synthesizers " and computerized musical instruments . Lawrence Ferber from the Windy City Times described " Shake It Off " as a " playful approach to bitterness — and , more specifically , a cheatin ' bad apple " , with lyrics such as " I gotta shake you off / Just like a Calgon commercial " . In an interview with Ferber , Carey described the track as her favorite from The Emancipation of Mimi : " ' Shake It Off ' can apply to anything . Whatever personal dramas we go through , put that song on and you lose the anxiety or intensity of the moment . I 'll listen to that song when I 've just come out of an annoying meeting . I gotta shake this off . " Editor Jon Pareles from The New York Times felt that the album follows a formula that was most apparent on " Shake It Off " : " On this album , the verses stay in a narrow range , the choruses glide higher , and at the ends of some songs , Ms. Carey gives herself a few of her old sky @-@ high notes as a background flourish . "
= = Release and promotion = =
The Emancipation of Mimi was released by The Island Def Jam Music Group for download and as a CD in Mexico on March 30 , 2005 . On April 4 , 2005 , the album was released in Australia and New Zealand . In the United Kingdom , The Emancipation of Mimi was distributed through Mercury Records . The following day , the album was made available in Canada through the Universal Music Group . On April 12 , 2005 , it became available in France , Japan , and the United States , and was released on May 11 , 2005 , in China . On British and Japanese versions of the album , " Sprung " and " Secretlove " were included as bonus tracks .
A special edition of The Emancipation of Mimi , titled the Ultra Platinum Edition , was released on November 15 , 2005 , to accompany the premiere of Carey 's single " Don 't Forget About Us " . The album was released in two versions . The first was a CD with four bonus tracks : " Don 't Forget About Us " ( co @-@ written and co @-@ produced by Carey with Jermaine Dupri ) , the album 's only single ; " Makin ' It Last All Night ( What It Do ) " , featuring Dupri ; the " We Belong Together " remix , featuring American rappers Styles P and Jadakiss ; and a new version of the 2006 single " So Lonely " by Twista ( which originally featured Carey ) , in which she sings an additional verse . The second version of the album was a limited @-@ edition set of the CD and a DVD , which includes the videos from The Emancipation of Mimi that had then been released ( " It 's Like That " , " We Belong Together " , " Shake It Off " , and " Get Your Number " ) , along with the then @-@ recently filmed video for " Don 't Forget About Us " . The album became the first domestic release of the video for " Get Your Number " , which had previously been released only in Europe .
Carey began a promotional tour in support of the album , beginning on April 2 , 2005 at the German Echo Awards . Two days later , she performed " It 's Like That " on the game show Wetten , dass .. ? . In the UK , the singer filmed a two @-@ part appearance on the British music program Top of the Pops , performing the album 's first three singles . Carey launched the stateside release of the album on Good Morning America with an interview and a five @-@ piece outdoor concert . Taking place in Times Square and attracting the largest crowd to the plaza since the 2004 New Year 's Eve celebration , the concert featured the first three singles from the album in addition to " Fly Like a Bird " and " Make It Happen " ( 1991 ) . During the following week , she performed " We Belong Together " at the 2005 BET Awards , and appeared at the annual VH1 Save the Music special , which was broadcast live on April 17 . Throughout May , Carey performed " We Belong Together " on the Late Show with David Letterman ( May 5 ) , The Tonight Show with Jay Leno ( May 11 ) , The Ellen DeGeneres Show ( May 13 ) and on The Oprah Winfrey Show ( May 24 ) .
During the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards , Carey performed at the National Hotel in South Beach . Accompanied by Dupri , she sung " Shake It Off " and the official remix version of " We Belong Together " . She was a headlining performer at the 2005 Fashion Rocks , in Monaco . On November 15 , 2005 , Carey performed " Shake It Off " and her newly released single from the album 's re @-@ release , " Don 't Forget About Us " , during half @-@ time of the Thanksgiving game between the Detroit Lions and the Atlanta Falcons . On November 22 , 2005 , she opened the 33rd annual American Music Awards with " Don 't Forget About Us " . Two months later , she placed as the featured performer at the Times Square Ball drop on New Year 's Eve in New York . At the 48th Grammy Awards , on February 8 , 2006 , Carey returned to the Grammy stage for the first time since 1996 . Her performance began with a pre @-@ taped video in which she discussed the importance of God and religion in her life . She then came to the stage , and sang a shortened version of " We Belong Together " , followed by " Fly like a Bird " . The performance induced the only standing ovation that night , and earned praise from critics .
= = = Singles = = =
" It 's Like That " was released as the album 's lead single on January 7 , 2005 . Critics predicted that the song would re @-@ ignite Carey 's popularity among MTV viewers . It became her highest @-@ charting song internationally in years , and peaked at number sixteen on the US Billboard Hot 100 .
" We Belong Together " , the album 's second single , became one of the biggest hits of Carey 's career . It became her sixteenth chart topping single in the US , spending fourteen weeks on the Hot 100 's peak ; the longest stay of any song during the 2000s . Aside from breaking several Nielsen BDS records , the song was named " song of the 2000s decade " by Billboard . " We Belong Together " topped the singles charts in Australia , New Zealand , and the Netherlands , and attained a top @-@ five peak in Denmark , Spain , Switzerland , and the UK .
" Shake It Off " was the third single released from The Emancipation of Mimi . It peaked at number two on the Hot 100 , being barred from the top position by Carey 's previous single , " We Belong Together " . It became the first and only time in Billboard history that a female artist occupied the top two spots on the chart as a lead artist . It was released as a double A @-@ side with " Get Your Number " in the UK and Australia , where it reached the top ten .
" Don 't Forget About Us " was the fourth release from the album and the first from the Ultra Platinum Edition . The song became Carey 's seventeenth chart topper in the US , tying her with Elvis Presley for the most number @-@ one singles by a solo artist ( a record she surpassed in 2008 with " Touch My Body " ) . " Say Somethin ' " was released as the fifth single from the album in the US , at the same time " Fly Like a Bird " ' s was released as a promotional single . " Mine Again " was not released as a single , but peaked at number 73 on Billboard 's Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart due to sales .
= = = Tour = = =
Sixteen months after the release of the album , Carey announced her first headlining tour in three years , named The Adventures of Mimi : The Voice , The Hits , The Tour after a " Carey @-@ centric fan 's " music diary . Beginning on July 22 , 2006 and ending on October 28 , the tour spanned forty stops , with thirty @-@ two in the US and Canada , two in Africa , and six in Japan . The tour featured the singer 's long @-@ time friend Randy Jackson as the musical director . In an interview for the Associated Press , Carey described the tour 's direction , as well as the music she would perform :
With this tour , I 'm going to be working on some different arrangements for some of the older songs , to ... give it a little more life to them . That 's not to say they 're going to sound totally different and to freak anybody out ... I love re @-@ singing songs to different music . I genuinely want to tour with these new songs , as well as older hits . These new songs mean so much to me , this time of my life has been so wonderful for me , and I want to experience that with my fans .
The tour received a generally mixed reception from critics ; while the singer 's vocals were deemed a highlight , reviewers felt the show 's excesses , such as the singer 's frequent costume changes and pre @-@ filmed clips , were distracting . In Tunis , Carey played to 80 @,@ 000 people during two concerts . Midway through the tour , she booked a two @-@ night concert in Hong Kong , scheduled for after her Japanese shows . The performances were cancelled after tickets went on sale ; Carey 's then @-@ manager Benny Medina said the cancellation was because the concert promoter refused to pay the agreed compensation . The promoter blamed poor ticket sales ( allegedly , only 4 @,@
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communications support in order to sustain worldwide special operations missions as directed by Commander , U.S. Marine Corps Forces Special Operations Command ( COMMARFORSOC ) .
The Marine Special Operations School ( MSOS ) performs the screening , recruiting , training , assessment and doctrinal development functions for MARSOC . It includes two subordinate Special Missions Training Branches ( SMTBs ) , one on each coast .
The Special Mission Training Branch — East provide special operations training in tactics , techniques and procedures , and evaluation and certification of MARSOC forces to specified conditions and standards for SOF . The Marines of MSOS are operators with the training , experience and mature judgment to plan , coordinate , instruct and supervise development of SOF special reconnaissance and direct action skills .
= = = Navy = = =
The United States Naval Special Warfare Command ( NAVSPECWARCOM , NAVSOC , or NSWC ) was commissioned April 16 , 1987 , at Naval Amphibious Base Coronado in San Diego as the Naval component to the United States Special Operations Command . Naval Special Warfare Command provides vision , leadership , doctrinal guidance , resources and oversight to ensure component special operations forces are ready to meet the operational requirements of combatant commanders . Today , SEAL Teams and Special Boat Teams comprise the elite combat units of Naval Special Warfare . These teams are organized , trained , and equipped to conduct a variety of missions to include direct action , special reconnaissance , counter @-@ terrorism , foreign internal defense , unconventional warfare and support psychological and civil affairs operations . Their highly trained operators are deployed worldwide in support of National Command Authority objectives , conducting operations with other conventional and special operations forces .
Units
United States Navy SEALs have distinguished themselves as an individually reliable , collectively disciplined and highly skilled special operations force . The most important trait that distinguishes Navy SEALs from all other military forces is that SEALs are maritime special operations , as they strike from and return to the sea . SEALs ( SEa , Air , Land ) take their name from the elements in and from which they operate . SEALs are experts in direct action and special reconnaissance missions . Their stealth and clandestine methods of operation allow them to conduct multiple missions against targets that larger forces cannot approach undetected . Because of the dangers inherent in their missions , prospective SEALs go through what is considered by many military experts to be the toughest training regime in the world .
Naval Special Warfare Development Group ( DEVGRU ) , referred to as SEAL Team Six , the name of its predecessor which was officially disbanded in 1987 .
SEAL Delivery Vehicle Teams are SEAL teams with an added underwater delivery capability who use the SDV MK VIII and the Advanced SEAL Delivery System ( ASDS ) , submersibles that provides NSW with an unprecedented capability that combines the attributes of clandestine underwater mobility and the combat swimmer .
Special Warfare Combatant @-@ craft Crewmen ( SWCC ) operate and maintain state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art surface craft to conduct coastal patrol and interdiction and support special operations missions . Focusing on infiltration and exfiltration of SEALs and other SOF , SWCCs provide dedicated rapid mobility in shallow water areas where larger ships cannot operate . They also bring to the table a unique SOF capability : Maritime Combatant Craft Aerial Delivery System — the ability to deliver combat craft via parachute drop . Like SEALs , SWCCs must have excellent physical fitness , highly motivated , combat @-@ focused and responsive in high stress situations .
= = = Air Force = = =
Air Force Special Operations Command was established May 22 , 1990 , with headquarters at Hurlburt Field , Florida . AFSOC is one of the 10 Air Force Major Commands or MAJCOMs , and the Air Force component of United States Special Operations Command . It holds operational and administrative oversight of subordinate special operations wings and groups in the regular Air Force , Air Force Reserve Command and the Air National Guard .
AFSOC provides Air Force special operations forces for worldwide deployment and assignment to regional unified commands . The command 's SOF are composed of highly trained , rapidly deployable airmen , conducting global special operations missions ranging from precision application of firepower via airstrikes or close air support , to infiltration , exfiltration , resupply and refueling of SOF operational elements . AFSOC 's unique capabilities include airborne radio and television broadcast for psychological operations , as well as aviation foreign internal defense instructors to provide other governments military expertise for their internal development .
The command 's core missions include battlefield air operations ; agile combat support ; aviation foreign internal defense ; information operations ; precision aerospace fires ; psychological operations ; specialized air mobility ; specialized refueling ; and intelligence , surveillance and reconnaissance .
Units
Combat Controllers ( CCT ) are ground combat forces specialized in a traditional pathfinder role while having a heavy emphasis on simultaneous air traffic control , fire support ( via airstrikes , close air support and command , control , and communications in covert or austere environments .
Pararescuemen ( PJ ) are the only Department of Defense specialty specifically trained and equipped to conduct conventional and unconventional personnel recovery operations . A PJ 's primary function is as a personnel recovery specialist with emergency trauma medical capabilities in humanitarian and combat environments .
Special Operations Weather Technicians ( SOWT ) gather , assess , and interpret weather and environmental intelligence from forward deployed locations , working alongside special operations forces .
Organization
The 1st Special Operations Wing ( 1 SOW ) is located at Hurlburt Field , Florida . Its mission focus is unconventional warfare : counter @-@ terrorism , combat search and rescue , personnel recovery , psychological operations , aviation assistance to developing nations , " deep battlefield " resupply , interdiction and close air support . The wing 's core missions include aerospace surface interface , agile combat support , combat aviation advisory operations , information operations , personnel recovery / recovery operations , precision aerospace fires , psychological operations dissemination , specialized aerospace mobility and specialized aerial refueling . Among its aircraft is the MC @-@ 130 Combat Talon II , a low @-@ level terrain following special missions transport that can evade radar detection and slip into enemy territory at a 200 @-@ foot ( 61 m ) altitude for infiltration / exfiltration missions , even in zero visibility , dropping off or recovering men or supplies with pinpoint accuracy . It also operates the AC @-@ 130 Spooky and Spectre gunships that provide highly accurate airborne gunfire for close air support of conventional and special operations forces on the ground .
The 24th Special Operations Wing ( 24 SOW ) is located at Hurlburt Field , Florida . It 's composed of the 720th Special Tactics Group , 724th Special Tactics Group , Special Tactics Training Squadron and 16 recruiting locations across the United States . The Special Tactics Squadrons , under the 720th STG and 724th STG , are made up of Special Tactics Officers , Combat Controllers , Combat Rescue Officers , Pararescuemen , Special Operations Weather Officers and Airmen , Air Liaison Officers , Tactical Air Control Party operators , and a number of combat support airmen which comprise 58 Air Force specialties .
The 27th Special Operations Wing ( 27 SOW ) is located at Cannon AFB , New Mexico . Its primary mission includes infiltration , exfiltration and re @-@ supply of special operations forces ; air refueling of special operations rotary wing and tiltrotor aircraft ; and precision fire support . These capabilities support a variety of special operations missions including direct action , unconventional warfare , special reconnaissance , counter @-@ terrorism , personnel recovery , psychological operations and information operations .
The 193d Special Operations Wing ( 193 SOW ) is an Air National Guard ( ANG ) unit , operationally gained by AFSOC , and located at Harrisburg International Airport / Air National Guard Station ( former Olmsted Air Force Base ) , Pennsylvania . Under Title 32 USC , the 193 SOW performs state missions for the Governor of Pennsylvania as part of the Pennsylvania Air National Guard . Under Title 10 USC , the 193 SOW is part of the Air Reserve Component ( ARC ) of the United States Air Force . Its primary wartime and contingency operations mission as an AFSOC @-@ gained unit is psychological operations ( PSYOP ) . The 193 SOW is unique in that it is the only unit in the U.S. Air Force to fly and maintain the Lockheed EC @-@ 130J Commando Solo aircraft .
The 919th Special Operations Wing ( 919 SOW ) is an Air Force Reserve Command ( AFRC ) unit , operationally gained by AFSOC , and located at Eglin AFB Auxiliary Field # 3 / Duke Field , Florida . The 919 SOW flies and maintains the MC @-@ 130E Combat Talon I and MC @-@ 130P Combat Shadow special operations aircraft designed for covert operations .
The 352d Special Operations Wing ( 352 SOW ) at RAF Mildenhall , United Kingdom serves as the core to United States European Command 's standing Joint Special Operations Air Component headquarters . The squadron provides support for three flying squadrons , one special tactics squadron and one maintenance squadron for exercise , logistics , and war planning ; aircrew training ; communications ; aerial delivery ; medical ; intelligence ; security and force protection ; weather ; information technologies and transformation support and current operations .
The 353d Special Operations Group ( 353 SOG ) is the focal point for all U.S. Air Force special operations activities throughout the United States Pacific Command ( USPACOM ) theater . Headquartered at Kadena AB , Okinawa , Japan the group is prepared to conduct a variety of high @-@ priority , low @-@ visibility missions . Its mission is air support of joint and allied special operations forces in the Pacific . It maintains a worldwide mobility commitment , participates in Pacific theater exercises as directed and supports humanitarian and relief operations .
The United States Air Force Special Operations School ( USAFSOS ) at Hurlburt Field , Florida is a primary support unit of the Air Force Special Operations Command . The USAFSOS prepares special operations Airmen to successfully plan , organize , and execute global special operations by providing indoctrination and education for AFSOC , other USSOCOM components , and joint / interagency / coalition partners .
= = List of USSOCOM Combatant Commanders = =
= = USSOCOM medal = =
The United States Special Operations Command Medal was introduced in 1994 to recognize individuals for outstanding contributions to , and in support of , special operations . Since it was created , there have been more than 50 recipients , four of which are not American . Some of which includes : Generał broni Włodzimierz Potasiński ( Poland , 2010 , posthumously ) , Kaptein Gunnar Sønsteby ( Norway , 2008 ) , Generał brygady Jerzy Gut ( Poland , June 2014 ) and Generał dywizji Piotr Patalong ( Poland , October 2014 ) .
= Sherman Minton =
Sherman " Shay " Minton ( October 20 , 1890 – April 9 , 1965 ) was a Democratic United States Senator from Indiana and an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States .
After attending college and law school , he served as a captain in World War I , following which he launched a legal and political career . In 1930 , after multiple failed election attempts , and serving as a regional leader in the American Legion , he became a utility commissioner under the administration of Indiana Governor Paul V. McNutt . Four years later , Minton was elected to the United States Senate . During the campaign , he defended New Deal legislation in a series of addresses in which he suggested it was not necessary to uphold the Constitution during the Great Depression crisis . Minton 's campaign was denounced by his political opponents , and he received more widespread criticism for an address that became known as the " You Cannot Eat the Constitution " speech . As part of the New Deal Coalition , the fiercely partisan Minton championed President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's unsuccessful court packing plans in the Senate and became one of his top Senate allies .
After Minton failed in his 1940 Senate re @-@ election bid , Roosevelt appointed him as a judge to the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit . After Roosevelt 's death , President Harry Truman , who had developed a close friendship with Minton during their time together in the Senate , nominated him to the Supreme Court . He was confirmed by the Senate on 4 Oct 1949 , by a vote of 48 to 16 , 15 Republicans and one Democrat ( Harry Flood Byrd of Virginia ) voting against him . He served on the Supreme Court for seven years . An advocate of judicial restraint , Minton was a regular supporter of the majority opinions during his early years on the Court ; he became a regular dissenter after President Dwight Eisenhower 's appointees altered the Bench 's composition . In 1956 , poor health forced Minton 's retirement , after which he traveled and lectured until his death in 1965 .
Historians note the unusual contrast between his role as a partisan liberal Senator and his role as a conservative jurist . They attribute his shift in position as a reaction to the relationship between the New Deal senators and the conservative 1930s Court , which ruled much of the New Deal legislation unconstitutional . When Minton became a Supreme Court Justice , the Senate had become more conservative and the Court more activist , causing him to support conservative minority positions . As a Justice , Minton frequently played the role of peace @-@ maker and consensus builder during a period when the Court was riven with feuds . He generally ruled in favor of order over freedom as a result of his broad interpretation of governmental powers . These rulings and their limited impact lead some historians to have a negative opinion of his judicial record . Other historians point out Minton 's strong commitment to his judicial principles as a valuable attribute . In 1962 , the Sherman Minton Bridge in southern Indiana and the Minton @-@ Capehart Federal Building in Indianapolis were named in his honor .
= = Early life = =
= = = Family and background = = =
Sherman Minton was born on October 20 , 1890 , to John Evan and Emma Livers Minton , in their Georgetown , Indiana , home . He was the third of the family 's five children and was nicknamed Shay because of his younger brother 's inability to properly pronounce " Sherman " . Minton 's paternal grandfather , Jonathan Minton , was killed during the American Civil War and his father grew up on his own . Minton 's parents married in 1883 .
Minton received his basic education in a two @-@ room schoolhouse in Georgetown , which he attended through eighth grade . He was exposed to politics from an early age ; his father took him to several political rallies , including an 1895 speech by Democratic Party leader William Jennings Bryan . His father was a day laborer for the New Albany and St. Louis Air Line Railway . In 1898 , he became disabled when he suffered heat stroke while working . His condition meant he could not work ; the family became impoverished and had to subsist on the limited yield of their small farm . Minton 's mother developed breast cancer in 1899 . A traveling doctor attempted to remove her tumors in April 1900 , performing the operation with her laid on the family dinner table , but she died during the procedure . The death was an emotional blow to Minton ; thereafter , he refused to attend church and spoke against God , whom he blamed for his mother 's death . Minton 's father married Sarah Montague on December 3 , 1901 .
As Minton grew older , he was frequently in trouble with the people in his neighborhood . In 1904 , he was arrested for disregarding a town ordinance forbidding bicyclists to ride on the sidewalk . He was taken before a justice of the peace and fined three dollars , an incident he later credited with changing his outlook on life and sparking his desire to become a lawyer . To accomplish that goal , and continue supporting his family , he traveled with his older brother Herbert to Fort Worth , Texas , to take a job at the Swift and Company meat packing plant . His father and younger siblings soon joined him in Texas after the two brothers ' income was able to cover their expenses . After saving enough money to help establish the family in a new home , Minton returned to Indiana to attend high school , leaving his family in Texas .
= = = Education = = =
Minton started at Edwardsville High School in 1905 , aged fourteen . The following year the school was consolidated with nearby New Albany High School . There , he participated in the football , baseball , and track teams . He founded the school 's first debate club , the Wranglers , which won several awards . He worked in a local arcade , and during summer vacations returned to Fort Worth to work at the Swift plant . He was briefly expelled from school after committing a prank in February 1908 . The school was under the guidance of the innovative Superintendent Charles Allen Prosser , who only let Minton return after he formally apologized before the entire school a week later . Minton began dating Gertrude Gurtz in his senior year , and the two remained in regular correspondence after he left for college . He graduated high school at the top of his class in 1910 .
Minton was intent on attending college ; during the summer of 1910 , he took a job as a Swift Company salesman in the Fort Worth area to help pay his way . He returned to Indiana and enrolled at Indiana University in September 1911 , taking enough classes to complete his first three years of courses in two years . Despite the heavy workload , he joined the school 's baseball and debate teams , and participated in the campus ' Jackson Club , an organization for Democrats . His college years were formative and had significant influence on his future political career . He became friends with future Governor of Indiana Paul V. McNutt , future presidential candidate Wendell L. Willkie , and several other men who later became influential in the state . During his second year he ran out of money , but could not return to Texas to earn more because of his class schedule . He lodged in the Phi Delta Theta ( ΦΔΘ ) international fraternity house and subsisted mostly on wild berries , leftover bread from the cafeteria and free milk . He completed undergraduate school at the top of his class in 1913 . In 1915 , he graduated from the Indiana University School of Law in Bloomington , at what is now known as the Indiana University Maurer School of Law . During law school , he played end and fullback for the Indiana University football team .
Minton ranked first in his class . This placement entitled him to serve as librarian at the legal college . The position paid a fair salary and allowed him to live more comfortably for his last two years of school . He graduated from law school in 1915 , again at the top of his class , and won a one @-@ year scholarship to take post @-@ graduate courses at Yale Law School . There , he focused on studying constitutional law and attended the regular lectures of former President of the United States and future Chief Justice of the United States William Howard Taft . Taft remarked that Minton 's post @-@ graduate thesis was among the best he had ever read . Minton continued to improve his oratory skills and continued debating at Yale ; he won the Wayland Club prize for extemporaneous public speaking , and helped organize the university 's legal aid society . He earned a post @-@ graduate master 's degree from Yale Law School in 1916 .
= = = Legal career and World War I = = =
In May 1916 , Minton returned to New Albany , where he opened a law practice and renewed his relationship with Gurtz . He took several cases and gained experience working pro bono to assist the local county prosecutor . He joined the Chautauqua lecture circuit , and traveled to several cities to give speeches . During one lecture circuit , he met William Jennings Bryan . The three @-@ time Presidential candidate advised the young Hoosier about politics , inspiring him to consider a career in public life .
In 1917 , just after the United States declared war on Germany and entered World War I , Minton enlisted in the United States Army . He took an officers training course at Fort Benjamin Harrison in hope of earning a commission , but was not among the those chosen to become an officer . In August he was granted a brief leave of absence ; he returned to New Albany , where he married Gurtz on August 11 . He returned to camp in September and requested to repeat his training course , still hoping to receive a commission ; after finishing the training he was commissioned as a captain . The American Expeditionary Forces , Eighty @-@ fourth Division , to which Minton belonged , was dispatched to France in July 1918 . Minton and his unit served on the Western Front at Verdun , Soissons , and later protecting supply lines in Belgium . During most of his time in the war , his unit was responsible for scouting roads to ensure safe transport of men and supplies to the front lines . He saw no combat .
When President Woodrow Wilson came to Paris in 1919 , Minton was in charge of a security detail guarding the negotiation hall and was able to meet Wilson . When the war ended , Minton remained briefly with the Army of Occupation in Germany before being discharged in August 1919 . He chose to remain in Paris for several months to study Roman law , international law , civil law and jurisprudence at the University of Paris . He returned home in March 1920 . The first of Minton 's three children , Sherman Jr . , was born while he was away . Minton 's daughter Mary @-@ Anne was born in 1923 , and his second son , John , in 1925 .
= = Political career = =
When Minton returned home he reopened his law practice and decided to enter politics . He ran for office in Indiana 's 3rd congressional district , but lost the Democratic primary , despite significant campaigning and his war record . He lost to John Ewing , 6 @,@ 502 votes to 3 @,@ 170 , second place in a field of five candidates . After the loss , he briefly joined the Indiana law firm of Stonsenburg and Weathers , two politically active lawyers , before moving to Miami , Florida , where he joined another firm , Shutts & Bowen . In January 1928 , he left the Miami practice and returned to Stonsenburg and Weathers . He attempted to secure the Democratic nomination to run for Congress in 1930 , but was again defeated , this time by the former state party chairman Eugene B. Crowe .
The following year , Minton became a local commander of the American Legion . The group had a large and active membership in the state at the time , and he used his position to encourage support of Democratic Party agenda . Paul McNutt was the national commander , and the two men became political allies . When McNutt became governor in 1930 , he offered Minton a position at the head of a new utility regulation commission . As commissioner , Minton successfully imposed regulations that reduced state telephone bills by a combined total of $ 525 @,@ 000 . The cuts received widespread media coverage , and Minton was credited in the reports with the success .
= = = Senate campaign = = =
Becoming popular among the party leadership during his two years as commissioner , Minton was encouraged by party leaders to run for the United States Senate in 1934 . At the state Democratic Party Convention he ran against Earl Peters , a former chairman of the state party . With the support of McNutt , Minton won the nomination on the third ballot with 827 votes to Peters ' 586 .
Minton launched a statewide campaign in August 1934 and began delivering speeches in defense of the New Deal . He blamed Republicans for the conditions of the Great Depression . His opponent , incumbent Republican Senator Arthur R. Robinson , accused Minton of playing " Santa Claus " by trying to give everyone " presents " . He also criticized Minton 's support of the New Deal , which Robinson and Republicans called unconstitutional . Minton 's initial campaign slogan was " You can 't offer a hungry man the Constitution " , a slogan he unveiled in a debate with Robinson in Corydon on August 11 . He continued using the slogan , and on September 11 , Minton delivered his infamous " You Cannot Eat the Constitution " speech , in which he concluded the urgent needs of the masses outweighed the need to uphold the constitution . The speech backfired wildly and papers and opponents across the state called Minton 's remarks traitorous . Minton stopped using the slogan and explained his position again using new terms , but his opponents continued to dog him over the issue . The Republicans also faulted popular governor McNutt and his reorganization of the government , and McNutt became more personally involved in the election . With the state party 's more direct involvement , Minton won the election with 52 percent of the vote .
= = = Lobby Investigation Committee = = =
Minton took his Senate seat in January 1935 . As a freshman , he sat in the back row of the chamber next to fellow freshman Harry Truman , and the pair quickly became friends . Minton was made a member of a special Lobby Investigation Committee chaired by Senator Hugo Black , that was set up to look into questionable lobbyist groups . According to professor of political science Linda C. Gugin , a Minton biographer , in practice the committee 's investigations were politically motivated and directed against groups that were challenging New Deal legislation .
William Randolph Hearst , a prominent and wealthy media magnate , began using his newspapers to deride the committee 's " reckless attacks on freedom " . Minton led the effort to counter Hearst and delivered a speech criticizing his support of the Republican Party . In 1937 , Senator Black was appointed to the Supreme Court and left the Senate , and Minton secured his post as chair of the committee . Minton immediately began a full @-@ scale investigation of the media conglomerate controlled by Frank E. Gannett , accusing him of publishing Republican Party propaganda . For several weeks , Minton delivered speeches against Gannett in the Senate , and Gannett responded in kind in his newspapers . Minton finally introduced legislation that would have made it " illegal to publish information known to be false " . Gannett , and a large number of allies in newspapers and on radio , immediately began to charge Minton and the Democratic Party with an assault on the freedom of the press . Minton 's allies in Congress asked him to withdraw the bill because of its political repercussions , and he dropped the matter .
Minton tried again to expose what he believed to be Republican control of the media . He led the committee to target a newspaper with national circulation , Rural Progress . Minton accused the publishers of improperly accepting large sums of money from corporations and the editors of undue influence from this money . The owner of the paper , Maurive V. Renolds , was summoned before the committee for a hearing , where Minton demanded to know why he was accepting money from corporations . When Renolds asked his manager , Dr. Glen Frank , to help him answer the questions , Minton and fellow Democratic senators began to shout Dr. Frank down . As he was saying that the money from the corporations was for advertising in the magazine , Minton beat his gavel and yelled , " This committee doesn 't intend to permit you to use this as a forum to air your Republican views . "
Minton did not realize that Frank was also president of the University of Wisconsin , and soon suffered retaliation for the way he had treated Frank . Frank went on NBC radio stations around the country and lambasted Minton for his rudeness . He made lengthy arguments accusing Minton of attempting to violate the Bill of Rights . Minton was outraged , but the arguments had an effect among voters in Indiana . In 1938 , he sought funding to launch a massive nationwide investigation of media conglomerates for proof of Republican interference in the press . Democratic Senator Edward R. Burke led an effort to defeat the measure and privately accused Minton of damaging the Democrats ' cause , which led Minton to leave the Lobby Investigation Committee .
Minton was a fierce partisan during his time in the Senate , and regularly abused his opponents verbally . Democratic Senator Huey Long became one of Minton 's favorite targets because of Long 's often @-@ threatened filibusters . During one of the filibusters , Long threatened to join the Republican Party . After most senators had left the chamber , Minton remained for several hours to periodically taunt Long . After tiring of the taunts , Long launched a rebuttal from the podium , calling Minton a vicious politician whose positions would cost Minton re @-@ election . The exchange was unusual for its tone and later made national news .
Minton was involved in many such exchanges , including a particularly fierce one with Republican Senator Lester J. Dickinson in March 1936 . Dickinson delivered a speech in the Senate castigating President Franklin D. Roosevelt for carrying out what he termed illegal and unconstitutional acts . Minton responded with a range of accusations , some personal , against Dickinson and his " political naivety " .
= = = Court packing = = =
In 1936 , the United States Supreme Court ruled the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933 unconstitutional . For the first time , Minton gave speeches criticizing the court for overriding the will of Congress . He accused the court of allowing itself to be influenced by political motives rather than the law . In response to the court ruling , Minton began drafting a bill which would allow the Supreme Court to declare a law unconstitutional only if seven out the nine justices supported the decision . In February 1937 , before Minton introduced his bill , President Roosevelt introduced a plan of his own to deal with the Supreme Court . Roosevelt proposed adding more justices to the court and creating a mandatory retirement age ; the changes would allow him to appoint an overwhelming majority to the court , more sympathetic to his agenda , ensuring the safety of legislation passed by his party .
Minton was pleased with Roosevelt 's bill and quickly became its leading supporter in the Senate . The measure was placed in an omnibus bill designed to reform judicial salaries and districting , among many other measures . Republicans quickly discovered the court @-@ packing provision and targeted the bill . Democrats had overwhelming super @-@ majorities in Congress , and passage of the bill at first seemed assured . Minton 's support of the bill helped him earn the position of Senate majority whip , allowing him to more effectively push for its passage . Minton delivered six radio addresses on behalf of his party in support of the bill , but public opinion could not be swayed in the Democrats ' favor .
Minton received a death threat in the form of an envelope containing a shotgun shell and a message advising him to not vote for the court packing plan . Many Democrats , fearing their re @-@ election prospects , joined with Republicans and defeated the bill . Minton was unhappy with the loss and it cost him considerable support among his voters , but as a result of his close connection with the bill and the leaders of his party , he gained more influence with the Democrats .
Although Minton supported the Roosevelt Administration and became a regular guest at the White House , Minton opposed the president on some measures . He voted to override a presidential veto of a grant of $ 2 @.@ 5 ( $ 43 billion in 2015 dollars ) in bonus pay for World War I soldiers ( Bonus Army ) . He supported the Dyer Anti @-@ Lynching Bill , which Roosevelt feared would cost the party support in the southern states . He also supported an extension of the Hatch Act of 1939 , a law that prevented federal employees from being forced to take part in state election campaigns , effectively lessening the influence of federal patronage .
As World War II neared , Minton took a cautious position on United States involvement . When the Soviet Union invaded Finland , Minton voted against granting a loan to Finland to help finance its defense efforts . He also opposed selling munitions and weapons to the Allies or the Axis powers . He advocated and supported expanding the American military and believed that American entry into the war was inevitable , but should be delayed as long as possible . He voted in favor of the Smith Act , which made it a crime to advocate the overthrow of the government , a law specifically targeted at communists and fascists in the United States . In his final year in office , there was considerable speculation in the press that Minton would be named to higher office by Roosevelt , including cabinet positions and the Supreme Court , but neither happened .
= = = Re @-@ election campaign = = =
Minton ran for re @-@ election to his Senate seat in 1940 . McNutt was challenging Roosevelt for the Presidential nomination , forcing Minton to choose between the administration and his allies in the state party . Minton sided with Roosevelt , which cost him McNutt 's and the Indiana Democratic Party machine 's support in his re @-@ election bid .
The Republican presidential candidate , Wendell Willkie was also a native of Indiana , and Minton faced a difficult challenge to win re @-@ election . He referred to Willkie as a " sycophant for the rich and famous " . Willkie never responded to Minton 's taunts , leaving Minton 's opponent in the Senate race , Raymond E. Willis , to respond to Minton 's charges . Willis had run for the Senate two years earlier but was defeated by Democrat Frederick Van Nuys . Willis faulted Minton on a range of topics but focused on the legislation Minton supported while in the Senate . Willis claimed that much of the legislation was unconstitutional and Minton 's positions were detrimental to the nation . Minton responded by pointing out Willis 's connections to wealthy corporations and accused him of not caring for the people . Minton 's campaign focused on the achievements of the New Deal programs . He claimed farm income in Indiana had doubled since 1932 , and highlighted the passage of the Old Age Pension laws . His support for conscription and military preparedness for the coming war proved unpopular with voters and cost him considerable support , but according to historian William Radcliff it was Wilkie 's favorite son status , which led many Hoosiers to vote Republican , that proved to be the election 's deciding factor . Despite Minton 's heavy campaigning , he lost the close election to Willis by 5 @,@ 179 votes out of over 1 @.@ 5 million cast .
Roosevelt won the 1940 presidential election . After Minton left office in January 1941 , he was given a position in the Roosevelt administration as a reward for his loyalty during the court packing failure . He served as one of the president 's advisers and a liaison between the White House and Congress . The extent of his duties is not fully known ; Linda Gugin has speculated that he may have managed Roosevelt 's patronage system . Minton was responsible for getting several officials appointed to high offices in the federal bureaucracy and numerous others appointed to lower ranking positions . He also convinced Roosevelt to support the creation of a Senate defense committee chaired by Truman , a position that brought Truman into the national spotlight and helped him gain the vice presidency .
= = Seventh Circuit = =
= = = Appointment = = =
On May 7 , 1941 , Roosevelt announced Minton 's nomination to the Chicago @-@ based Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals . Minton was confirmed unanimously by the Senate on May 12 . Minton resigned from his post in the administration , but even after he began working on the court , Minton remained active in Democratic politics behind the scenes and was in regular correspondence with Roosevelt to make patronage suggestions .
Minton was sworn in on May 29 , but the court was in recess at the time . He took his seat when it returned to session on October 7 . The court had the highest court load of all the appellate courts in the nation at that time , averaging 40 cases per judge annually . The men on the court were close friends , and Minton developed a particularly close friendship with Judge J. Earl Major ; Major offered Minton financial assistance during his later illnesses . Major had been on the court for several years and held a judicial philosophy similar to Minton 's . The two men regularly attended baseball games and were frequent guests in each other 's homes .
World War II broke out shortly after Minton joined the court , creating a flood of cases in which legal precedent provided little guidance , including challenges to wartime measures , selective service laws , price controls , rationing and civil liberties . In the majority of these cases , the court affirmed the decisions of the district courts , but in several the court was required to establish a precedent . Minton stated on several occasions his personal preference to affirm the decisions of the lower courts . He believed that the court that heard the case and pronounced judgment was generally able to make a decision that was superior to appellate courts ' decisions . He believed the appellate process should be reserved for the more serious cases and cases where the lower court had clearly made a mistake .
= = = Jurisprudence = = =
Minton was described by William Radcliff as a " faithful disciple of judicial restraint , " an unexpected development when compared to his overtly partisan political career . Radcliff attributed Minton 's conservative position to the distaste he developed for the courts when they overturned legislation passed while he was in the Senate . The courts actions led him to strongly believe in the limited exercise of judicial power when evaluating the constitutionality of governmental conduct . Much of the recently passed New Deal legislation was being tried in the courts for constitutionality and enforcement , putting Minton in the uncommon position of adjudicating cases depending on legislation he had helped write .
During his time on the Seventh Circuit , Minton authored 253 of the court 's opinions , including twelve dissenting opinions . Some of his opinions won praise ; the editors of Tax Magazine commented favorably on Minton 's opinions on tax law , calling them " direct Hoosier logic " . Other court reporting papers made similar comments , applauding the manner in which he turned complex issues to simple questions that could easily be understood .
In the case of Sunkist v. Sunkist and Quaker Oats Co. v. General Mills , the court created a long @-@ standing precedent in their decision making it possible for different companies to use the same brand and product name as long as they produced dissimilar products . In another case , the court set a short @-@ lived precedent allowing companies to artificially raise prices in local markets if the purpose was to artificially lower prices in another market to remain competitive . After Minton joined the U.S. Supreme Court , the decision was appealed to that body ; Minton recused himself from the case , which the court decided to overturn . In another decision , Minton was in the majority that ruled under the Sherman Antitrust Act that the New York Great Atlantic and Pacific Tea Company was a monopoly , ordering the company to break up its grocery business . Minton was also in the majority in several cases filed to enforce decisions made by the National Labor Relations Board , usually to end worker strikes .
In the case of United States v. Knauer , the government was denying the wife of a United States citizen entry into the country because of her possible ties to Nazism . In a much criticized majority opinion which Minton co @-@ authored with Judge Major , he stated that the " alien did not have any legal right — [ her ] status was a political decision to be made by officials in government . " Many liberals condemned the court at the time of the decision . The case ruling was upheld by the Supreme Court in a 1946 appeal .
One of Minton 's favorite cases was that of Modernistic Candies , Inc. v. Federal Trade Commission . The candy company produced a one @-@ cent gumball dispenser in which almost all the gumballs were the same color . A few different @-@ colored gumballs were included which , when dispensed , entitled the purchaser to a prize from the merchant who owned the machine . The FTC had an injunction put in place barring the company from producing the machines because they claimed it violated anti @-@ gambling laws . Minton wrote the majority opinion and sided with the majority to keep the injunction in place , but dryly mocked the counsel for the defense and the gambling law , stating :
Counsel for the petitioner discussed at great length from a sociological point of view , of the age @-@ old problem of the gambling instinct in the human being . According to his analysis , gambling pervades our entire economic system ; thus insurance contracts are a gamble , stock and grain exchange transactions are gambles , and the farmer 's dependence on weather is a gamble . Counsel 's attempt to apply this analysis to the present case left us cold and unimpressed . He even reminded us that our great idol , Mr. Chief Justice John Marshall , in his day attended the horse races and wagered with his clergyman . In fact , they ran a book . As indicating how times have changed and how even our coarse nature has yielded to the protecting care of governmental policy , we confess we do not even know a bookmaker , clerical or otherwise , and our passes to the beautiful race tracks around Chicago lie in our desk unused .
Minton often lamented that he was required to " pronounce the law as it was written , but on no occasion [ c ] ould he make the law . "
= = = Clemency board and failing health = = =
After Roosevelt 's death and Truman 's
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succession to the Presidency , Minton continued offering advice to the new administration on a range of topics , including patronage and political maneuvering . Truman appointed Minton as head of the War Department Clemency Board , a panel of judges charged with overseeing reviews of decisions made by the courts @-@ martial . The panel met every two weeks which , along with his responsibilities on the circuit court , kept Minton very busy and afforded him little rest , leading to a deterioration in his health . While yachting with President Truman on Memorial Day in 1945 , Truman asked Minton to accept an appointment to the position of Solicitor General of the United States . Minton declined because of his health , but he told Truman he would be interested in a seat on the Supreme Court .
In September 1945 , Minton suffered a heart attack while in Washington ; he was hospitalized for three months at Walter Reed Hospital . After returning to work , he was forced to rest regularly due to gradually worsening anemia , and he sought to lessen his workload . To further complicate his health , on August 5 , 1949 , Minton tripped over a stone in his yard and broke his leg . The injury forced him to walk with a cane for the remainder of his life .
= = Supreme Court = =
= = = Nomination and confirmation = = =
At a September 15 , 1949 , news conference , Truman announced Minton 's nomination to the Supreme Court , succeeding the deceased Justice Wiley Rutledge . Minton had already privately accepted the nomination several days earlier after a telephone conversation with Truman . Truman touted Minton 's extensive law education and his years of experience on the circuit courts as the reason for his nomination .
News of Minton 's appointment received mixed reviews nationally . The New York Times said that Truman had allowed personal and political friendship to influence his choice . The New Republic said " the President is again reverting to his deplorable habit of choosing men for high post because they happen to be his friends ... " . The Washington Post raised questions about Minton 's ability to be confirmed by the Senate due to the power many of his foes held in the body . The Indianapolis Star offered a more sympathetic opinion , pointing out Minton 's qualifications and the pride Indiana could take in having a native on the Supreme Court . The article noted that he would be the most educated justice on the court , should he be confirmed .
Indiana Senator William E. Jenner led opponents of Minton 's nomination , including some of Minton 's old foes , in an attempt to bring him before the body for hearings . Minton wrote a letter to the Senate Judicial Committee answering several of their questions , but refused to submit himself to a hearing . He mentioned his broken leg and hinted in his letter that it could be detrimental to his health to travel in his condition . He also stated that , as a sitting judge and former member of the Senate , it would be improper for him submit to a hearing . Although hearings had occurred irregularly in the past , it was not customary at that time to have a hearing on a nominee . During an absence of Jenners , Minton 's allies worked to have the hearing request dropped and the Judicial Committee sent the measure to the full Senate in a vote of 9 to 2 . Senator Homer Ferguson attempted to have the nomination returned to committee but the motion failed , 45 – 21 . The long debate over Minton 's appointment focused on his partisanship , support of the court packing plan during his time in the Senate , and poor health . His opponents launched numerous delaying tactics ; the Senate session before the vote to confirm Minton lasted until midnight . His confirmation was approved 48 – 16 on October 3 . To date , Minton remains the last member of Congress , sitting or former , to be appointed to the United States Supreme Court , and he is the only native of Indiana to be appointed to the court .
= = = Judicial restraint = = =
Minton 's central judicial philosophy was to ascertain and uphold the original intent of legislation . He continued to take a broad view of governmental powers , demonstrated in his dissenting opinion in the case of Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer , which ruled unconstitutional President Truman 's wartime seizure of several steel mills to avert a workers ' strike . Of all the cases in which Minton was involved , he disagreed most with the Youngstown decision and " went into a tirade " during the conference where the decision was made . He argued that there " could be no vacant spot in power when the security of the nation is at stake . " Despite his strong protest , he could not influence the Court to permit the president to seize the plants without congressional approval . Minton joined with Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson and Justice Stanley Forman Reed in the dissenting opinion that the President had the authority through the war powers clause of the constitution .
Minton abhorred racial segregation and provided a solid vote to strike down the school segregation practices at issue in 1954 's landmark case of Brown v. Board of Education ; it was among the few decisions in which he sided against the government . According to William Radcliff , the majority opinion authored by Minton in the 1953 case Barrows v. Jackson was his most skillfully written opinion . He framed the complex question of the case as : " Can a racially restrictive covenant be enforced at law by a suit for damages against a co @-@ covenantor who allegedly broke the covenant ? " The Court decided the answer in the negative .
In the area of civil liberties , Minton adhered to the doctrine of " fundamental fairness " , a test established by the Supreme Court in 1937 . In one decision , Minton stated that the right of free speech was not an absolute right , and could be regulated so as not to violate the rights of others . In United States v. Rabinowitz , Minton wrote the Court 's opinion upholding a lower court ruling which allowed police to search automobiles without a warrant , provided there was probable cause to justify the search .
Minton voted to uphold anticommunist legislation during the period of the " red scare " , siding with the majority in 1951 's Dennis v. United States , which upheld the conviction of the leader of the US Communist Party . During the same period , the Court was split over the legality of governmental loyalty tests . Many agencies had programs in place to ensure that members of the government were not communists . Minton 's vote proved to be the deciding factor in cases regarding loyalty tests . In the case of Bailey v. Richardson , Minton 's vote upheld the legality of the loyalty tests , while in the decision he authored in the case of Joint Anti @-@ Fascist Refugee Committee v. McGrath , he voted to uphold the plaintiff 's position that he had been terminated illegally because of his support of fascist ideology . Minton 's position gradually shifted to allowing the loyalty tests to take place , and in Adler v. Board of Ed. of City of New York he wrote the majority opinion allowing the tests and upholding New York 's Feinberg Law . This proved to be the most important vote as it allowed the tests to be given with only minimal suspicion of a person 's disloyalty to the government .
Because of Minton 's previous Congressional partisanship , many liberals believed he would support their positions when on the Court . Throughout his tenure , Minton regularly disappointed them , leading many to rail against him . A lawyer writing for the New Jersey Law Journal labeled Minton a " spokesman against freedom " , calling him " a man of conspicuous judicial shortcomings , whose votes against civil liberties exceeded those of any other man on the Court , and who wrote comparatively few opinions of other kinds . " Linda Gugin pointed out that Minton was a disappointment to liberals because he consistently chose order over freedom . Gugin also concludes that Minton had the strongest commitment to judicial restraint and ideological neutrality of any justice , past or present .
= = = Politics = = =
Although Minton was on the Supreme Court , he remained casually involved in Democratic internal politics . He wrote Truman several letters criticizing Justices Robert H. Jackson and Hugo Black , referring to Black as a demagogue . He also offered advice on dealing with Republican opposition in the Senate . In a 1954 letter , after Truman left office , he urged Truman to help focus public attention on the economy and away from communism , a threat he claimed the Republicans were exaggerating to avoid confronting their own problems .
After Truman 's withdrawal from the 1952 presidential campaign , Minton made remarks indicating he had advised Truman to stay out of the contested New Hampshire primary election to begin with . In August 1956 , a reporter asked Minton about his preferred candidate in the upcoming presidential election . Minton answered , " I have great confidence in Adlai Stevenson . " He also remarked that Dwight D. Eisenhower was politically handicapped . Minton was lambasted in the media for his endorsement , which he attempted to retract a few days later after being advised to do so by other members of the Court .
= = = Regular dissenter = = =
Truman 's other appointees to the Court provided consistent conservative votes , and during Minton 's first years on the Court it was returned to the conservatism of the William Howard Taft era . While on the Court , Minton transformed from a New Deal senator into an almost reactionary judge as an ally of Justice Felix Frankfurter . Empirical coding of votes shows that Minton was the most conservative justice on the Court during his first year , and remained in the conservative half of the court for the duration of his career .
Minton did not enjoy the limited influence of his judicial role in the later years of his term , when he was more frequently in the minority in voting on cases . After the deaths of Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson and Justice Robert Jackson , Minton found himself with little support for many of his opinions , which led him to begin considering retirement .
The shifting position of the Court led to personal animosity between members of its two wings . Despite his disappointment over the Court 's positions on some issues , Minton remained popular among his colleagues on the Court as he didn 't take sides in their personal disagreements ; he proved a soothing presence during a period marked by bitter personal feuds between strong personalities such as William O. Douglas and Felix Frankfurter .
Minton informed Eisenhower of his intention to retire in a letter on September 7 , 1956 , in which he dryly stated his retirement was authorized by law . Eisenhower responded with a brief note wishing him a happy retirement . Although he did not tell the president , Minton informed the members of the Court that his duties were too taxing on his health . His anemia had steadily worsened , slowing him physically and mentally . Minton served as a Justice until October 15 , 1956 , retiring after 7 years and 3 days of service . He was succeeded by William J. Brennan , Jr .
= = Later life = =
= = = Retirement = = =
Announcing his departure , Minton remarked , " There will be more interest in who will succeed me than in my passing . I 'm an echo . " Despite the health difficulties , Minton regretted his decision almost immediately .
Minton returned to his New Albany home , where he took a much lighter workload . He gave occasional lectures at Indiana University and continued to give public speeches from time to time . For several years after retiring from the Supreme Court , Minton occasionally accepted assignments to serve temporarily on one of the lower federal courts . He received an honorary doctorate degree from the University of Louisville . He took many trips around the United States , and two trips to Europe . In England , he received an honorary doctorate from Oxford University in 1956 .
Despite his failing health , Minton remained active in the Democratic Party . He was most concerned with President Eisenhower , who he believed was incompetent . He remained in regular correspondence with Truman , and the two met on several occasions at Democratic Party functions .
= = = Death and legacy = = =
In late March 1965 , Minton was admitted to Floyd Memorial Hospital in New Albany , where it was found he was suffering internal bleeding . He died in his sleep early in the morning of April 9 . Minton 's wife was Catholic ; his funeral was held at Holy Trinity Catholic Church and was attended by many dignitaries , including several sitting members of the Supreme Court , the governors of Indiana and Kentucky , and several members of Congress . He was buried in the Holy Trinity Cemetery . Minton himself was nominally Catholic and had shunned Christianity for most of his life ; he only began to occasionally attend mass following his retirement . He left most of his personal papers and judicial records to the Truman Presidential Library .
Minton is the eponym of the Sherman Minton Bridge , which carries Interstate 64 across the Ohio River , connecting western Louisville , Kentucky with New Albany , Indiana . Minton attended the dedication of the bridge at a 1962 ceremony . He is also the namesake of the annual Sherman Minton Moot Court Competition , held at the Indiana University Maurer School of Law . He is also honored ( with Indiana Senator Homer E. Capehart ) — in the " Brutalist " style designed by Woollen , Molzan and Partners and with architectural art by Milton Glaser — in the centrally located Minton @-@ Capehart Federal Building on Indiana World War Memorial Plaza in Indianapolis . A bronze bust of Minton was created and put on display in the Indiana Statehouse .
While some writers like Linda Gugin and legal historian William Radcliff have given high praise to Minton 's logic in his written opinions , they point out that his positions had little long @-@ term impact . Other legal historians , like Bernard Schwartz , have more negative opinion of Minton 's judicial career . Schwartz wrote that Minton " was below mediocrity as a Justice . His opinions , relatively few for his tenure , are less than third rate , characterized by their cavalier approach to complicated issues . " Schwartz went on to say , " he ranks near the bottom of any list of Justices . " Most of the precedents Minton helped establish were overturned by the Warren Court in the years immediately following his retirement . In total he wrote sixty @-@ seven majority opinions along with several of the dissenting opinions . Gugin authored a work in rebuttal to Schwartz 's harsh critique , saying that Minton 's rulings were " predictable based on the principles of deference , precedent , and strict interpretation " ; she attributed his poor ranking to the bias of reviewers in favor of judicial activism .
Minton 's time on the court marked the end of a transitory period in the judiciary . Since Minton , justices have tended to serve increasingly longer terms on the court , which has had strong political science implications on the Supreme Court . The growing concept of judicial non @-@ partisanship became the norm in American politics after Minton — he was the last member of Congress of be appointed to the court . Linda Gugin and Professor James St. Clair have noted that the federal courts have lost a valuable point of view by not having experienced legislators among their ranks .
Minton played an important role behind the scenes of the Court as a peacemaker between its two opposing factions . These attempts to keep the peace led Justice Frankfurter to remark that while Minton would never be remembered as a great justice , he would be remembered as a great colleague by his fellow justices .
= = Electoral history = =
= Tom Crean ( explorer ) =
Thomas " Tom " Crean ( Irish : Tomás Ó Croidheáin ; 25 February 1877 – 27 July 1938 ) , was an Irish seaman and Antarctic explorer from Annascaul in County Kerry . He was a member of three major expeditions to Antarctica during the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration , including Captain Scott 's 1911 – 13 Terra Nova Expedition . This saw the race to reach the South Pole lost to Roald Amundsen and ended in the deaths of Scott and his polar party . During this expedition , Crean 's 35 statute miles ( 56 km ) solo walk across the Ross Ice Shelf to save the life of Edward Evans led to him receiving the Albert Medal for Lifesaving .
Crean had left the family farm near Annascaul to enlist in the Royal Navy at the age of 15 . In 1901 , while serving on Ringarooma in New Zealand , he volunteered to join Scott 's 1901 – 04 Discovery Expedition to Antarctica , thus beginning his exploring career . After his Terra Nova experience , Crean 's third and final Antarctic venture was as second officer on Ernest Shackleton 's Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition , on Endurance . After Endurance became beset in the pack ice and sank , Crean and the ship 's company spent months drifting on the ice before a journey in boats to Elephant Island . He was a member of the crew which made an open boat journey of 800 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 500 km ) from Elephant Island to South Georgia , to seek aid for the stranded party .
Crean 's contributions to these expeditions sealed his reputation as a polar explorer , and earned him a total of three Polar medals . After the Endurance expedition , he returned to the navy ; when his naval career ended in 1920 he moved back to County Kerry . In his home town of Annascaul , Crean and his wife Ellen opened a pub called The South Pole Inn , where he lived quietly and unobtrusively until his death in 1938 .
= = Early life and career = =
Thomas Crean ( generally known as Tom Crean ) was born on 25 Feb 1877 , in the farming area of Gurtuchrane near the village of Annascaul on Corca Dhuibhne in County Kerry , Ireland , to Patrick Crean and Catherine , née Courtney . One of ten children , he attended the local Brackluin Catholic school , leaving at the age of 12 to help on the family farm . At the age of 15 , Crean enlisted in the Royal Navy at the naval station in nearby Minard Inlet , possibly after an argument with his father . His enlistment as a boy second class is recorded in Royal Navy records on 10 July 1893 , 10 days before his 16th birthday ; lacking his parents ' consent , he probably lied about his age .
Crean 's initial naval apprenticeship was aboard the training ship Impregnable at Devonport . In November 1894 , he was transferred to Devastation . By his 18th birthday , in 1895 , Crean was serving in Royal Arthur , and rated ordinary seaman . Less than a year later , he was in Wild Swan as an able seaman , and later joined the Navy 's torpedo school ship , Defiance . By 1899 , Crean had advanced to the rate of petty officer , second class and was serving in Vivid .
In February 1900 , Crean was posted to the torpedo vessel Ringarooma , which was part of the Royal Navy 's New Zealand Squadron based in the South Island . On 18 December 1901 , he was demoted from petty officer to able seaman for an unspecified misdemeanour . In December 1901 , the Ringarooma was ordered to assist Robert Falcon Scott 's ship Discovery when it was docked at Lyttelton Harbour awaiting to departure to Antarctica . When an able seaman of Scott 's ship deserted after striking a petty officer , a replacement was required ; Crean volunteered , and was accepted .
= = Discovery Expedition , 1901 – 1904 = =
Discovery sailed for the Antarctic on 21 December 1901 , and seven weeks later , on 8 February 1902 , arrived in McMurdo Sound , where she anchored at a spot which was later designated " Hut Point " . Here the men established the base from which they would launch scientific and exploratory sledging journeys . Crean proved to be one of the most efficient man @-@ haulers in the party ; over the expedition as a whole , only seven of the 48 @-@ member party logged more time in harness than Crean 's 149 days . Crean had a good sense of humour and was well liked by his companions . Scott 's second @-@ in @-@ command , Albert Armitage , wrote in his book Two Years in the Antarctic that " Crean was an Irishman with a fund of wit and an even temper which nothing disturbed . "
Crean accompanied Lieutenant Michael Barne on three sledging trips across the Ross Ice Shelf , then known as the " Great Ice Barrier " . These included the 12 @-@ man party led by Barne which set out on 30 October 1902 to lay depots in support of the main southern journey undertaken by Scott , Shackleton and Edward Wilson . On 11 November the Barne party passed the previous furthest south mark , set by Carsten Borchgrevink in 1900 at 78 ° 50'S , a record which they held briefly until the southern party itself passed it on its way to an eventual 82 ° 17'S .
During the Antarctic winter of 1902 Discovery became locked in the ice . Efforts to free her during the summer of 1902 – 03 failed , and although some of the expedition 's members ( including Ernest Shackleton ) left in a relief ship , Crean and the majority of the party remained in the Antarctic until the ship was finally freed in February 1904 . After returning to regular naval duty , Crean was promoted to petty officer , first class , on Scott 's recommendation .
= = Between expeditions , 1904 – 10 = =
Crean came back to regular duty at the naval base at Chatham , Kent , serving first in Pembroke in 1904 and later transferring to the torpedo school on Vernon . Crean had caught Captain Scott 's attention with his attitude and work ethic on the Discovery Expedition , and in 1906 Scott requested that Crean join him on Victorious . Over the next few years Crean followed Scott successively to Albemarle , Essex and Bulwark . By 1907 , Scott was planning his second expedition to the Antarctic . Meanwhile , Ernest Shackleton 's Nimrod Expedition , 1907 – 09 , despite reaching a new furthest south record of 88 ° 23'S , had failed to reach the South Pole . Scott was with Crean when the news of Shackleton 's near miss became public ; it is recorded that Scott observed to Crean : " I think we 'd better have a shot next . "
= = Terra Nova Expedition , 1910 – 13 = =
Scott held Crean in high regard , so he was among the first people recruited for the Terra Nova Expedition , which set out for the Antarctic in June 1910 , and one of the few men in the party with previous polar experience . After the expedition 's arrival in McMurdo Sound in January 1911 , Crean was as part of the 13 @-@ man team who established " One Ton Depot " , 130 statute miles ( 210 km ) from Hut Point. so named because of the large amount of food and equipment cached there on the projected route to the South Pole . Returning from the depot to base camp at Cape Evans , Crean , accompanied by Apsley Cherry @-@ Garrard and Henry " Birdie " Bowers , experienced near @-@ disaster when camping on unstable sea ice . During the night the ice broke up , leaving the men adrift on an ice floe and separated from their sledges . Crean probably saved the group 's lives , by leaping from floe to floe until he reached the Barrier edge and was able to summon help .
Crean departed with Scott in November 1911 , for the attempt at the South Pole . This journey had three stages : 400 statute miles ( 640 km ) across the Barrier , 120 statute miles ( 190 km ) up the heavily crevassed Beardmore Glacier to an altitude of 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) above sea level , and then another 350 statute miles ( 560 km ) to the Pole . At regular intervals , supporting parties returned to base ; Crean was in the final group of eight men that marched on to the polar plateau and reached 87 ° 32'S , 168 statute miles ( 270 km ) from the pole . Here , on 4 January 1912 , Scott selected his final polar party : Crean , William Lashly and Edward Evans were ordered to return to base , while Scott , Edgar Evans , Edward Wilson , Bowers and Lawrence Oates continued to the pole . Crean 's biographer Michael Smith suggests that Crean would have been a better choice for the polar party than Edgar Evans , who was weakened by a recent hand injury ( of which Scott was unaware ) . Crean , considered one of the toughest men in the expedition , had led a pony across the Barrier and had thus been saved much of the hard labour of man @-@ hauling . Scott 's critical biographer Roland Huntford records that the surgeon Edward L Atkinson , who had accompanied the southern party to the top of the Beardmore , had recommended either Lashly or Crean for the polar party rather than Edgar Evans . Scott in his diary recorded that Crean wept with disappointment at the prospect of having to turn back , so close to the goal .
Soon after heading north on the 700 @-@ statute @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) journey back to base camp , Crean 's party lost the trail back to the Beardmore Glacier , and were faced with a long detour around a large icefall . With food supplies short , and needing to reach their next supply depot , the group made the decision to slide on their sledge , uncontrolled , down the icefall . The three men slid 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 600 m ) , dodging crevasses up to 200 feet ( 61 m ) wide , and ending their descent by overturning on an ice ridge . Evans later wrote : " How we ever escaped entirely uninjured is beyond me to explain " .
The gamble at the icefall succeeded , and the men reached their depot two days later . However , they had great difficulty navigating down the glacier . Lashly wrote : " I cannot describe the maze we got into and the hairbreadth escapes we have had to pass through . " In his attempts to find the way down , Evans removed his goggles and subsequently suffered agonies of snow blindness that made him into a passenger . When the party was finally free of the glacier and on the level surface of the Barrier , Evans began to display the first symptoms of scurvy . By early February he was in great pain , his joints were swollen and discoloured , and he was passing blood . Through the efforts of Crean and Lashly the group struggled towards One Ton Depot , which they reached on 11 February . At this point Evans collapsed ; Crean thought he had died and , according to Evans 's account , " his hot tears fell on my face " .
With over 100 statute miles ( 160 km ) still to travel before the relative safety of Hut Point , Crean and Lashly began hauling Evans on the sledge , " eking out his life with the last few drops of brandy that they still had with them " . On 18 February they arrived at Corner Camp , still 35 statute miles ( 56 km ) from Hut Point , with only one or two days ' food rations left and still four or five days ' man @-@ hauling to do . They then decided that Crean should go on alone , to fetch help . With only a little chocolate and three biscuits to sustain him , without a tent or survival equipment , Crean walked the distance to Hut Point in 18 hours , arriving in a state of collapse to find Atkinson there , with the dog driver Dmtri Gerov . Crean reached safety just ahead of a fierce blizzard , which probably would have killed him , and which delayed the rescue party by a day and a half . Atkinson led a successful rescue , and Lashly and Evans were both brought to base camp alive . Crean modestly played down the significance of his feat of endurance . In a rare written account , he wrote in a letter : " So it fell to my lot to do the 30 miles for help , and only a couple of biscuits and a stick of chocolate to do it . Well , sir , I was very weak when I reached the hut . "
Scott 's party failed to return . The winter of 1912 at Cape Evans was a sombre one , with the knowledge that the polar party had undoubtedly perished . Frank Debenham wrote that " in the winter it was once again Crean who was the mainstay for cheerfulness in the now depleted mess deck part of the hut . " In November 1912 , Crean was one of the 11 @-@ man search party that found the remains of the polar party . On 12 November they spotted a cairn of snow , which proved to be a tent against which the drift had piled up . It contained the bodies of Scott , Wilson , and Bowers . Crean later wrote , referring to Scott in understated fashion , that he had " lost a good friend " .
On 12 February 1913 Crean and the remaining crew of the Terra Nova arrived in Lyttelton , New Zealand , and shortly after returned to England . At Buckingham Palace the surviving members of the expedition were awarded Polar Medals by King George and Prince Louis of Battenberg , the First Sea Lord . Crean and Lashly were both awarded the Albert Medal , 2nd Class for saving Evans 's life , these were presented by the King at Buckingham Palace on 26 July 1913 . Crean was promoted to the rank of chief petty officer , retroactive to 9 September 1910 .
= = Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition ( Endurance Expedition ) , 1914 – 17 = =
Ernest Shackleton knew Crean well from the Discovery Expedition , and also knew of his exploits on Scott 's last expedition . Like Scott , Shackleton trusted Crean : he was worth , in Shackleton 's own word , " trumps " . Crean joined Shackleton 's Imperial Transantarctic Expedition on 25 May 1914 , as second officer , with a varied range of duties . In the absence of a Canadian dog @-@ handling expert who was hired but never appeared , Crean took charge of one of the dog @-@ handling teams , and was later involved in the care and nurture of the pups born to one of his dogs , Sally , early in the expedition .
On 19 January 1915 the expedition 's ship , the Endurance , was beset in the Weddell Sea pack ice . In the early efforts to free her , Crean narrowly escaped being crushed by a sudden movement in the ice . The ship drifted in the ice for months , eventually sinking on 21 November . Shackleton informed the men that they would drag the food , gear , and three lifeboats across the pack ice , to Snow Hill or Robertson Island , 200 statute miles ( 320 km ) away . Because of uneven ice conditions , pressure ridges , and the danger of ice breakup which could separate the men , they soon abandoned this plan : the men pitched camp and decided to wait . They hoped that the clockwise drift of the pack would carry them 400 statute miles ( 640 km ) to Paulet Island where they knew there was a hut with emergency supplies . But the pack ice held firm as it carried the men well past Paulet Island , and did not break up until 9 April . The crew then had to sail and row the three ill @-@ equipped lifeboats through the pack ice to Elephant Island , a trip which lasted five days . Crean and Hubert Hudson , the navigating officer of the Endurance , piloted their lifeboat with Crean effectively in charge as Hudson appeared to have suffered a breakdown .
On reaching Elephant Island , Crean was one of the " four fittest men " detailed by Shackleton to find a safe camping @-@ ground . Shackleton decided that , rather than waiting for a rescue ship that would probably never arrive , one of the lifeboats should be strengthened so that a crew could sail it to South Georgia and arrange a rescue . After the party was settled on a penguin rookery above the high @-@ water mark , a group of men led by ship 's carpenter Harry McNish began modifying one of the lifeboats — the James Caird — in preparation for this journey , which Shackleton would lead . Frank Wild , who would be in command of the party remaining on Elephant Island , wanted the dependable Crean to stay with him ; Shackleton initially agreed , but changed his mind after Crean begged to be included in the boat 's crew of six . The 800 @-@ nautical @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 500 km ) boat journey to South Georgia , described by polar historian Caroline Alexander as one of the most extraordinary feats of seamanship and navigation in recorded history , took 17 days through gales and snow squalls , in seas which the navigator , Frank Worsley , described as a " mountainous westerly swell " . After setting off on 24 April 1916 with just the barest navigational equipment , they reached South Georgia on 10 May 1916 . Shackleton , in his later account of the journey , recalled Crean 's tuneless singing at the tiller : " He always sang when he was steering , and nobody ever discovered what the song was ... but somehow it was cheerful " .
The party made its South Georgia landfall on the uninhabited southern coast , having decided that the risk of aiming directly for the whaling stations on the north side was too great ; if they missed the island to the north they would be swept out into the Atlantic Ocean . The original plan was to work the James Caird around the coast , but the boat 's rudder had broken off after their initial landing , and some of the party were , in Shackleton 's view , unfit for further travel . The three fittest men — Shackleton , Crean , and Worsley — were decided to trek 30 statute miles ( 48 km ) across the island 's glaciated surface , in a hazardous 36 @-@ hour journey to the nearest manned whaling station . This trek was the first recorded crossing of the mountainous island , completed without tents , sleeping bags , or map — their only mountaineering equipment was a carpenter 's adze , a length of alpine rope , and screws from the James Caird hammered through their boots to serve as crampons . They arrived at the whaling station at Stromness , tired and dirty , hair long and matted , faces blackened by months of cooking by blubber stoves — " the world 's dirtiest men " , according to Worsley . They quickly organized a boat to pick up the three on the other side of South Georgia , but thereafter it took Shackleton three months and four attempts by ship to rescue the other 22 men still on Elephant Island .
= = Later life = =
After returning to Britain in November 1916 , Crean resumed naval duties . On 15 December 1916 he was promoted to the rank of warrant officer ( as a boatswain ) , in recognition of his service on the Endurance , and was awarded his third Polar Medal . On 5 September 1917 Crean married Ellen Herlihy of Annascaul .
In early 1920 , Shackleton was organising another Antarctic expedition , later to be known as the Shackleton @-@ Rowett Expedition . He invited Crean to join him , along with other officers from the Endurance . By this time , however , Crean 's second daughter had arrived , and he had plans to open a business following his naval career . He turned down Shackleton 's invitation .
On his last naval assignment , with Hecla , Crean suffered a bad fall which caused lasting effects to his vision . As a result , he was retired on medical grounds on 24 March 1920 . He and Ellen opened a small public house in Annascaul , which he called The South Pole Inn . The couple had three daughters , Mary , Kate , and Eileen , although Kate died when she was four years old .
Throughout his life , Crean remained an extremely modest man . When he returned to Kerry , he put all of his medals away and never again spoke about his experiences in the Antarctic . Indeed , there is no reliable evidence of Crean giving any interviews to the press . It has been speculated that this may have been because Kerry had long been a centre for Irish republicanism , and it would have been inappropriate for an Irishman to speak of his achievements on polar expeditions organised by a once occupying power . In fact , Crean and his family were once the victims of a Black and Tan raid during the War of Independence . The raiders ransacked his property and the Creans felt threatened until the Black and Tans happened across a framed photo of Crean in Royal Navy dress uniform and medals . They then left his inn .
Crean 's older brother was Cornelius Crean , a sergeant in the Royal Irish Constabulary ( RIC ) . Cornelius was based in West Cork , where he served with the RIC during the War of Independence . Sgt. Crean was killed during an IRA ambush near Upton in West Cork on 25 April 1920 .
In 1938 Crean became ill with a burst appendix . He was taken to the nearest hospital in Tralee , but as no surgeon was available to operate , he was transferred to the Bon Secours Hospital in Cork where his appendix was removed . Because the operation had been delayed , an infection developed , and after a week in the hospital he died on 27 July 1938 , shortly after his sixty @-@ first birthday . He was buried in his family 's tomb at the cemetery in Ballynacourty .
Crean is commemorated in at least two place names : Mount Crean 8 @,@ 630 feet ( 2 @,@ 630 m ) in Victoria Land , and the Crean Glacier on South Georgia . A one @-@ man play , Tom Crean – Antarctic Explorer , has been widely performed since 2001 by its author Aidan Dooley , including a special showing at the South Pole Inn , Annascaul , in October 2001 . Present were Crean 's daughters , Eileen and Mary , both in their 80s . Apparently he never told them his stories ; according to Eileen : " He put his medals and his sword in a box ... and that was that . He was a very humble man " .
In July 2003 , a bronze statue of Crean was unveiled across from his pub in Annascaul . It depicts him leaning against a crate whilst holding a pair of hiking poles in one hand and two of " his " beloved sled dog pups in the other .
= FIFA World Cup =
The FIFA World Cup , often simply called the World Cup , is an international association football competition contested by the senior men 's national teams of the members of Fédération Internationale de Football Association ( FIFA ) , the sport 's global governing body . The championship has been awarded every four years since the inaugural tournament in 1930 , except in 1942 and 1946 when it was not held because of the Second World War . The current champion is Germany , which won its fourth title at the 2014 tournament in Brazil .
The current format of the competition involves a qualification phase , which currently takes place over the preceding three years , to determine which teams qualify for the tournament phase , which is often called the World Cup Finals . 32 teams , including the automatically qualifying host nation ( s ) , compete in the tournament phase for the title at venues within the host nation ( s ) over a period of about a month .
The 20 World Cup tournaments have been won by eight different national teams . Brazil have won five times , and they are the only team to have played in every tournament . The other World Cup winners are Germany and Italy , with four titles each ; Argentina and inaugural winners Uruguay , with two titles each ; and England , France and Spain , with one title each .
The World Cup is the most widely viewed and followed sporting event in the world , exceeding even the Olympic Games ; the cumulative audience of all matches of the 2006 FIFA World Cup was estimated to be 26 @.@ 29 billion with an estimated 715 @.@ 1 million people watching the final match , a ninth of the entire population of the planet .
= = History = =
= = = Previous international competitions = = =
The world 's first international football match was a challenge match played in Glasgow in 1872 between Scotland and England , which ended in a 0 – 0 draw . The first international tournament , the inaugural edition of the British Home Championship , took place in 1884 . As football grew in popularity in other parts of the world at the turn of the 20th century , it was held as a demonstration sport with no medals awarded at the 1900 and 1904 Summer Olympics ( however , the IOC has retroactively upgraded their status to official events ) , and at the 1906 Intercalated Games .
After FIFA was founded in 1904 , it tried to arrange an international football tournament between nations outside the Olympic framework in Switzerland in 1906 . These were very early days for international football , and the official history of FIFA describes the competition as having been a failure .
At the 1908 Summer Olympics in London , football became an official competition . Planned by The Football Association ( FA ) , England 's football governing body , the event was for amateur players only and was regarded suspiciously as a show rather than a competition . Great Britain ( represented by the England national amateur football team ) won the gold medals . They repeated the feat in 1912 in Stockholm .
With the Olympic event continuing to be contested only between amateur teams , Sir Thomas Lipton organised the Sir Thomas Lipton Trophy tournament in Turin in 1909 . The Lipton tournament was a championship between individual clubs ( not national teams ) from different nations , each one of which represented an entire nation . The competition is sometimes described as The First World Cup , and featured the most prestigious professional club sides from Italy , Germany and Switzerland , but the FA of England refused to be associated with the competition and declined the offer to send a professional team . Lipton invited West Auckland , an amateur side from County Durham , to represent England instead . West Auckland won the tournament and returned in 1911 to successfully defend their title .
In 1914 , FIFA agreed to recognise the Olympic tournament as a " world football championship for amateurs " , and took responsibility for managing the event . This paved the way for the world 's first intercontinental football competition , at the 1920 Summer Olympics , contested by Egypt and 13 European teams , and won by Belgium . Uruguay won the next two Olympic football tournaments in 1924 and 1928 . Those were also the first two open world championships , as 1924 was the start of FIFA 's professional era .
= = = World Cups before World War II = = =
Due to the success of the Olympic football tournaments , FIFA , with President Jules Rimet as the driving force , again started looking at staging its own international tournament outside of the Olympics . On 28 May 1928 , the FIFA Congress in Amsterdam decided to stage a world championship itself . With Uruguay now two @-@ time official football world champions and to celebrate their centenary of independence in 1930 , FIFA named Uruguay as the host country of the inaugural World Cup tournament .
The national associations of selected nations were invited to send a team , but the choice of Uruguay as a venue for the competition meant a long and costly trip across the Atlantic Ocean for European sides . Indeed , no European country pledged to send a team until two months before the start of the competition . Rimet eventually persuaded teams from Belgium , France , Romania , and Yugoslavia to make the trip . In total , 13 nations took part : seven from South America , four from Europe and two from North America .
The first two World Cup matches took place simultaneously on 13 July 1930 , and were won by France and USA , who defeated Mexico 4 – 1 and Belgium 3 – 0 respectively . The first goal in World Cup history was scored by Lucien Laurent of France . In the final , Uruguay defeated Argentina 4 – 2 in front of a crowd of 93 @,@ 000 people in Montevideo , and in doing so became the first nation to win the World Cup .
After the creation of the World Cup , the 1932 Summer Olympics , held in Los Angeles , did not plan to include football as part of the schedule due to the low popularity of the sport in the United States , as American football had been growing in popularity . FIFA and the IOC also disagreed over the status of amateur players , and so football was dropped from the Games . Olympic football returned at the 1936 Summer Olympics , but was now overshadowed by the more prestigious World Cup .
The issues facing the early World Cup tournaments were the difficulties of intercontinental travel , and war . Few South American teams were willing to travel to Europe for the 1934 and 1938 tournaments , with Brazil the only South American team to compete in both . The 1942 and 1946 competitions , which Nazi Germany and Brazil sought to host , were cancelled due to World War II and its aftermath .
= = = World Cups after World War II = = =
The 1950 World Cup , held in Brazil , was the first to include British participants . British teams withdrew from FIFA in 1920 , partly out of unwillingness to play against the countries they had been at war with , and partly as a protest against foreign influence on football , but rejoined in 1946 following FIFA 's invitation . The tournament also saw the return of 1930 champions Uruguay , who had boycotted the previous two World Cups . Uruguay won the tournament again after defeating the host nation Brazil , in the match called " Maracanazo " ( Portuguese : Maracanaço ) .
In the tournaments between 1934 and 1978 , 16 teams competed in each tournament , except in 1938 , when Austria was absorbed into Germany after qualifying , leaving the tournament with 15 teams , and in 1950 , when India , Scotland , and Turkey withdrew , leaving the tournament with 13 teams . Most of the participating nations were from Europe and South America , with a small minority from North America , Africa , Asia , and Oceania . These teams were usually defeated easily by the European and South American teams . Until 1982 , the only teams from outside Europe and South America to advance out of the first round were : USA , semi @-@ finalists in 1930 ; Cuba , quarter @-@ finalists in 1938 ; North Korea , quarter @-@ finalists in 1966 ; and Mexico , quarter @-@ finalists in 1970 .
= = = Expansion to 32 teams = = =
The tournament was expanded to 24 teams in 1982 , and then to 32 in 1998 , also allowing more teams from Africa , Asia and North America to take part . Since then , teams from these regions have enjoyed more success , with several having reached the quarter @-@ finals : Mexico , quarter @-@ finalists in 1986 ; Cameroon , quarter @-@ finalists in 1990 ; South Korea , finishing in fourth place in 2002 ; Senegal , along with USA , both quarter @-@ finalists in 2002 ; Ghana , quarter @-@ finalists in 2010 ; and Costa Rica , quarter @-@ finalists in 2014 . Nevertheless , European and South American teams continue to dominate , e.g. , the quarter @-@ finalists in 1994 , 1998 , and 2006 were all from Europe or South America and so were the finalists of all tournaments so far .
Two hundred teams entered the 2002 FIFA World Cup qualification rounds ; 198 nations attempted to qualify for the 2006 FIFA World Cup , while a record 204 countries entered qualification for the 2010 FIFA World Cup .
= = = Possible expansion to 40 teams = = =
In October 2013 , Sepp Blatter spoke of guaranteeing the Caribbean Football Union 's region a position in the World Cup . In the 25 October 2013 edition of the FIFA Weekly Blatter wrote that : " From a purely sporting perspective , I would like to see globalisation finally taken seriously , and the African and Asian national associations accorded the status they deserve at the FIFA World Cup . It cannot be that the European and South American confederations lay claim to the majority of the berths at the World Cup . " Those two remarks suggested to commentators that Blatter could be putting himself forward for re @-@ election to the FIFA Presidency .
Following the magazine 's publication , Blatter 's would @-@ be opponent for the FIFA Presidency , UEFA President Michel Platini responded that he intended to extend the World Cup to 40 national associations , increasing the number of participants by eight . Platini said that he would allocate an additional berth to UEFA , two to Asia Football Confederation and Confederation of African Football , two shared between CONCACAF and CONMEBOL , and a guaranteed place for the Oceania Football Confederation . Platini was clear about why he wanted to expand the World Cup . He said : " [ The World Cup is ] not based on the quality of the teams because you don 't have the best 32 at the World Cup ... but it 's a good compromise . ... It 's a political matter so why not have more Africans ? The competition is to bring all the people of all the world . If you don 't give the possibility to participate , they don 't improve . "
In 2016 FIFA president Gianni Infantino stated his support for a 40 @-@ team World Cup in 2026 .
= = = 2015 FIFA corruption case = = =
By May 2015 , the games were under a particularly dark cloud because of the 2015 FIFA corruption case , allegations and criminal charges of bribery , fraud and money laundering to corrupt the issuing of media and marketing rights ( rigged bids ) for FIFA games , with FIFA officials accused of taking bribes totaling more than $ 150 million over 24 years . In late May , the U.S. Justice Department announced a 47 @-@ count indictment with charges of racketeering , wire fraud and money laundering conspiracy against 14 people . Arrests of over a dozen FIFA officials were made since that time , particularly on May 29 and December 3 .
By the end of May 2015 , a total of nine FIFA officials and five executives of sports and broadcasting markets had already been charged on corruption . At the time , FIFA president Sepp Blatter announced he would relinquish his position in February 2016 .
On 4 June 2015 Chuck Blazer while co @-@ operating with the FBI and the Swiss authorities admitted that he and the other members of FIFA 's executive committee were bribed in order to promote the South African , 1998 and 2010 World Cups .
On 10 June 2015 Swiss authorities seized computer data from the offices of Sepp Blatter .
Also , on 10 June 2015 FIFA postponed the bidding process for the 2026 FIFA World Cup in light of the allegations surrounding bribery in the awarding of the 2018 and 2022 tournaments . Then @-@ secretary general Jérôme Valcke stated , " Due to the situation , I think it 's nonsense to start any bidding process for the time being . "
On 28 October 2015 , Blatter and FIFA VP Michel Platini , a potential candidate for presidency , were suspended for 90 days ; both maintained their innocence in statements made to the news media .
On 3 December 2015 two FIFA vice @-@ presidents were arrested on suspicion of bribery in the same Zurich hotel where seven FIFA officials had been arrested in May . An additional 16 indictments by the U.S. Department of Justice were announced on the same day .
= = = Other FIFA tournaments = = =
An equivalent tournament for women 's football , the FIFA Women 's World Cup , was first held in 1991 in China . The women 's tournament is smaller in scale and profile than the men 's , but is growing ; the number of entrants for the 2007 tournament was 120 , more than double that of 1991 .
Football has been included in every Summer Olympic Games except 1896 and 1932 . Unlike many other sports , the men 's football tournament at the Olympics is not a top @-@ level tournament , and since 1992 , an under @-@ 23 tournament with each team allowed three over @-@ age players . Women 's football made its Olympic debut in 1996 , and is contested between full national sides with no age restrictions .
The FIFA Confederations Cup is a tournament held one year before the World Cup at the World Cup host nation ( s ) as a dress rehearsal for the upcoming World Cup . It is contested by the winners of each of the six FIFA confederation championships , along with the FIFA World Cup champion and the host country .
FIFA also organises international tournaments for youth football ( FIFA U @-@ 20 World Cup , FIFA U @-@ 17 World Cup , FIFA U @-@ 20 Women 's World Cup , FIFA U @-@ 17 Women 's World Cup ) , club football ( FIFA Club World Cup ) , and football variants such as futsal ( FIFA Futsal World Cup ) and beach soccer ( FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup ) . The latter three do not have a women 's version , although a FIFA Women 's Club World Cup is planned for 2017 .
When the U @-@ 20 Women 's World Cup is held the year before the Women 's World Cup , both tournaments are awarded in a single bidding process . The U @-@ 20 tournament serves as a dress rehearsal for the larger competition , the same role as the Confederations Cup plays in the men 's game .
= = Trophy = =
From 1930 to 1970 , the Jules Rimet Trophy was awarded to the World Cup winning team . It was originally simply known as the World Cup or Coupe du Monde , but in 1946 it was renamed after the FIFA president Jules Rimet who set up the first tournament . In 1970 , Brazil 's third victory in the tournament entitled them to keep the trophy permanently . However , the trophy was stolen in 1983 and has never been recovered , apparently melted down by the thieves .
After 1970 , a new trophy , known as the FIFA World Cup Trophy , was designed . The experts of FIFA , coming from seven countries , evaluated the 53 presented models , finally opting for the work of the Italian designer Silvio Gazzaniga . The new trophy is 36 cm ( 14 @.@ 2 in ) high , made of solid 18 carat ( 75 % ) gold and weighs 6 @.@ 175 kg ( 13 @.@ 6 lb ) . The base contains two layers of semi @-@ precious malachite while the bottom side of the trophy bears the engraved year and name of each FIFA World Cup winner since 1974 . The description of the trophy by Gazzaniga was : " The lines spring out from the base , rising in spirals , stretching out to receive the world . From the remarkable dynamic tensions of the compact body of the sculpture rise the figures of two athletes at the stirring moment of victory . "
This new trophy is not awarded to the winning nation permanently . World Cup winners retain the trophy only until the post @-@ match celebration is finished . They are awarded a gold @-@ plated replica rather than the solid gold original immediately afterwards .
Currently , all members ( players , coaches , and managers ) of the top three teams receive medals with an insignia of the World Cup Trophy ; winners ' ( gold ) , runners @-@ up ' ( silver ) , and third @-@ place ( bronze ) . In the 2002 edition , fourth @-@ place medals were awarded to hosts South Korea . Before the 1978 tournament , medals were only awarded to the eleven players on the pitch at the end of the final and the third @-@ place match . In November 2007 , FIFA announced that all members of World Cup @-@ winning squads between 1930 and 1974 were to be retroactively awarded winners ' medals .
= = Format = =
= = = Qualification = = =
Since the second World Cup in 1934 , qualifying tournaments have been held to thin the field for the final tournament . They are held within the six FIFA continental zones ( Africa , Asia , North and Central America and Caribbean , South America , Oceania , and Europe ) , overseen by their respective confederations . For each tournament , FIFA decides the number of places awarded to each of the continental zones beforehand , generally based on the relative strength of the confederations ' teams .
The qualification process can start as early as almost three years before the final tournament and last over a two @-@ year period . The formats of the qualification tournaments differ between confederations . Usually , one or two places are awarded to winners of intercontinental play @-@ offs . For example , the winner of the Oceanian zone and the fifth @-@ placed team from the Asian zone entered a play @-@ off for a spot in the 2010 World Cup . From the 1938 World Cup onwards , host nations receive automatic qualification to the final tournament . This right was also granted to the defending champions between 1938 and 2002 , but was withdrawn from the 2006 FIFA World Cup onward , requiring the champions to qualify . Brazil , winners in
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= = = Foul play = = =
Although the evidence in Gibraltar failed to support Flood 's theories of murder and conspiracy , the suspicion of foul play lingered . Insurance fraud on the part of Winchester was briefly suspected , on the grounds of newspaper reports that Mary Celeste had been heavily over @-@ insured . Winchester was able to refute these allegations , and no inquiry was instituted by the insurance companies which had issued the policies . In 1931 an article in the Quarterly Review suggested that Morehouse could have lain in wait for Mary Celeste , then lured Briggs and his crew aboard Dei Gratia and killed them there . Paul Begg , in his account of the mystery , comments that this theory ignores undisputed facts : Dei Gratia left New York eight days after Mary Celeste , was a slower ship , and would not have caught Mary Celeste before the latter reached Gibraltar . Another theory posits that Briggs and Morehouse were partners in a conspiracy to share the salvage proceedings . The unsubstantiated friendship between the two captains has been cited by commentators as making such a plan a plausible explanation . Hicks comments that " if Morehouse and Briggs had been planning such a scam , they would not have devised such an attention @-@ drawing mystery " , and also asks why , if Briggs was intending to disappear permanently , he left his son Arthur behind .
Other theories of foul play have suggested an attack by Riffian pirates , who were active off the coast of Morocco in the 1870s . Charles Edey Fay , in his 1942 account , observes that pirates would have looted the ship , yet the personal possessions of captain and crew , some of significant value , were left undisturbed . In 1925 , the historian John Gilbert Lockhart surmised that Briggs , in a fit of a religious mania , had slaughtered all on board and then killed himself . In a later edition of his book Lockhart , who had by then spoken to Briggs 's descendants , apologized and withdrew this theory .
= = = Natural phenomena = = =
Commentators generally agree that , to precipitate such a course of action as abandonment of an apparently sound and seaworthy ship , with ample provisions , some extraordinary and alarming circumstance must have arisen . In his evidence to the enquiry , Deveau ventured an explanation based on the sounding rod found on the derelict 's deck . He suggested that Briggs abandoned ship after a sounding which , because of a malfunction of the pumps or other mishap , had given a false impression that the vessel was taking on water rapidly . A severe waterspout strike before the abandonment could explain the amount of water in the ship , and the ragged state of her rigging and sails . The low barometric pressure generated by the spout could have driven water from the bilges up into the pumps , leading the crew to assume the ship had taken on more water than she had , and was in danger of sinking .
Other proffered explanations are the appearance of a displaced iceberg ; the fear of running aground while becalmed , and a sudden " seaquake " . Hydrographical evidence suggests the improbability of an iceberg drifting so far south , and had it done so it would have been spotted by other ships . Begg gives more consideration to the theory that Mary Celeste , while becalmed , began drifting towards the Dollabarat reef off Santa Maria Island . Fearing she would run aground , Briggs launched the yawl in the hope of reaching land . The wind then picked up and blew Mary Celeste away from the reef , but in the rising seas the yawl was swamped , and sank . The weakness of this theory is that if the ship had been becalmed , all sails would have been set to catch any available breeze , yet the ship was found with many of its sails furled .
As to the seaquake theory , this disturbance – an earthquake on the sea bed – could , it is surmised , have caused sufficient turbulence on the surface to damage parts of the cargo , thus releasing noxious fumes . The displaced hatches might indicate that an inspection , or an attempted airing , took place . Rising fears of an imminent explosion could plausibly have led Briggs to order the abandonment . The New York World of January 24 , 1886 , drew attention to a case where a vessel carrying alcohol had exploded . The same journal 's issue of February 9 , 1913 , cited a seepage of alcohol through a few porous barrels as the source of gases that may have caused or threatened an explosion in the hold . Briggs 's cousin Oliver Cobb was a strong proponent of this theory as providing a sufficiently alarming scenario — rumblings from the hold , the smell of escaping fumes and possibly an explosion — for Briggs to have ordered the evacuation of the ship . The lack of damage from an explosion and the generally sound state of the cargo upon discovery tend to weaken this case . In 2006 an experiment was carried out for Channel Five television by Andrea Sella of University College , London , the results of which helped to revive the " explosion " theory . Sella built a model of the hold , with paper cartons representing the barrels . Using butane gas , he created an explosion , which caused a considerable blast and ball of flame , but contrary to expectation , no fire damage within the replica hold . " What we created was a pressure @-@ wave type of explosion . There was a spectacular wave of flame but , behind it , was relatively cool air . No soot was left behind and there was no burning or scorching " .
Cobb believed that the transfer of personnel to the yawl may have been intended as a temporary safety measure . He speculated from Deveau 's report on the state of the rigging and ropes that the ship 's main halliard may have been used to attach the yawl to the ship . Thus , when the danger had passed , the company could return on board . The line could subsequently have parted , whereupon Mary Celeste sailed away empty while the yawl foundered with its occupants . Begg notes the illogicality of attaching the yawl to a vessel that the crew thought was about to explode or sink , while the modern writer Macdonald Hastings asks whether Briggs , an experienced captain , would have effected a panicky abandonment of the ship when , " if the Mary Celeste had blown her timbers , she would still have been a better bet for survival than the ship 's boat " . If this is what happened , Briggs " behaved like a fool ; worse , a frightened one " .
= = Myths and false histories = =
In the decades that followed , fact and fiction became intertwined . As early as June 1883 , the Los Angeles Times retold the Mary Celeste story with invented detail : " Every sail was set , the tiller was lashed fast , not a rope was out of place ... The fire was burning in the galley . The dinner was standing untasted and scarcely cold ... the log [ was ] written up to the hour of her discovery " . Twenty years later , in the November 1906 Overland Monthly and Out West Magazine , Mary Celeste was recorded as drifting off the Cape Verde Islands , some 1 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 600 km ) south of the actual location . Among many inaccuracies , the first mate was " a man named Briggs " , and there were live chickens on board .
The most influential retelling , which according to many commentators ensured that the Mary Celeste affair would never be forgotten , was a story in the January 1884 issue of the Cornhill Magazine . This was an early work of Arthur Conan Doyle , then a 25 @-@ year @-@ old ship 's surgeon . Doyle 's story , entitled " J. Habakuk Jephson 's Statement " , did not adhere to the facts ; he renamed the ship " Marie Celeste " , the captain 's name was " J. W. Tibbs " , the fatal voyage took place in 1873 and was from Boston to Lisbon . The vessel carried passengers , among them the eponymous Jephson . In the story , another passenger , a fanatic named Septimus Goring with a hatred of the white race , has suborned members of the crew to murder Tibbs and take the vessel to the shores of Western Africa . Here , the rest of the ship 's company is killed , save for Jephson who is spared because he possesses a magical charm that is venerated by Goring and his accomplices . Doyle had not expected his story to be taken seriously , but Sprague , still serving as the US consul in Gibraltar , was sufficiently intrigued to inquire if any part of the story might be true .
In 1913 , The Strand Magazine provided another alleged survivor 's account , from one " Abel Fosdyk " , supposedly Mary Celeste 's steward . In this version all on board ( except Fosdyk ) were drowned or eaten by sharks , when a temporary platform , on which they had crowded to watch a swimming contest , collapsed into the sea . Unlike Doyle 's story , this was proposed by the magazine as a serious solution to the enigma , but it contained many simple errors : " Griggs " for Briggs , " Boyce " for Morehouse , Briggs 's daughter as a seven @-@ year @-@ old child rather than a two @-@ year @-@ old , a crew of 13 and an ignorance of nautical language . Many more people were convinced by a plausible literary hoax of the 1920s , perpetrated by an Irish writer , Laurence J. Keating . Again presented as a survivor 's story — one " John Pemberton " — this told a complex tale of murder , madness and collusion with the Dei Gratia . It included basic errors such as using Doyle 's name " Marie Celeste " , and misnaming key personnel . Nevertheless , the story was so convincingly told that the New York Herald Tribune of July 26 , 1926 , thought its truth beyond dispute . Hastings describes Keating 's hoax as " an impudent trick , by a man not without imaginative ability " .
In 1924 , the Daily Express published a story from a retired naval war hero , Captain R. Lucy , whose informant , allegedly , was Mary Celeste 's former bosun — no such person is recorded in the registered crew list . In this tale , Briggs and his crew are cast in the role of predators ; they sight a derelict steamer , which they board and find deserted , with £ 3 @,@ 500 @-@ worth of gold and silver in its safe . They decide to split the money , abandon Mary Celeste , and seek new lives in Spain , which they reach by using the steamer 's lifeboats . Hastings finds it astonishing that such an unlikely story was , for a time , widely believed ; readers , he says " were fooled by the magic of print " .
Chambers 's Journal of September 17 , 1904 , suggests that the entire complement of Mary Celeste was plucked off one by one by a giant octopus or squid . According to the Natural History Museum , giant squid , or Architeuthis dux , can reach 49 feet ( 15 m ) in length ; they have been known to attack ships . Begg remarks that while such a creature could conceivably have picked off a crew member , it could hardly have taken the yawl and the captain 's navigation instruments . Other explanations have suggested paranormal intervention ; an undated edition of the British Journal of Astrology describes the Mary Celeste story as " a mystical experience , connecting it by processes of reasoning beyond the power of ordinary human understanding , with the Great Pyramid of Gizeh , the lost continent of Atlantis , and the British Israel Movement " . The Bermuda Triangle has been invoked , even though Mary Celeste was abandoned in a completely different part of the Atlantic . Similar fantasies have considered theories of abduction by aliens in flying saucers .
= = Later career and final voyage = =
Mary Celeste left Genoa on June 26 , 1873 , and arrived in New York on September 19 . The Gibraltar hearings , with newspaper stories of bloodshed and murder , had made her an unpopular ship ; Hastings records that she " rotted on wharves where nobody wanted her " . In February 1874 , the consortium sold the ship , at a considerable loss , to a partnership of New York businessmen .
Under this new ownership , Mary Celeste sailed mainly in the West Indian and Indian Ocean routes , regularly losing money . Details of her movements occasionally appeared in the shipping news ; in February 1879 , she was reported at the island of St. Helena , where she had called to seek medical assistance for her captain , Edgar Tuthill , who had fallen ill . Tuthill died on the island , encouraging the idea that the ship was cursed — he was her third captain to die prematurely . In February 1880 , the owners sold the Mary Celeste to a partnership of Bostonians headed by Wesley Gove . A new captain , Thomas L. Fleming , remained in the post until August 1884 , when he was replaced by Gilman C. Parker . During these years , the ship 's port of registration changed several times , before reverting to Boston . There are no records of her voyages during this time , although Brian Hicks , in his study of the affair , asserts that Gove tried hard to make a success of her .
In November 1884 , Parker conspired with a group of Boston shippers , who filled Mary Celeste with a largely worthless cargo , misrepresented on the ship 's manifest as valuable goods and insured for US $ 30 @,@ 000 ( $ 790 @,@ 100 today ) . On December 16 , Parker set out for Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , the capital and chief port of Haiti . On January 3 , 1885 , Mary Celeste approached the port via the channel between Gonâve Island and the mainland , in which lay a large and well @-@ charted coral reef , the Rochelois Bank . Parker deliberately ran the ship on to this reef , ripping out her bottom and wrecking her beyond repair . He and the crew then rowed themselves ashore , where Parker sold the salvageable cargo for $ 500 to the American consul , and instituted insurance claims for the alleged value .
When the consul discovered what he had bought was almost worthless , the insurance company began a thorough investigation , which soon revealed the truth of the over @-@ insured cargo . In July 1885 , Parker and the shippers were tried in Boston for conspiracy to commit insurance fraud . Parker was additionally charged with " wilfully cast [ ing ] away the ship " , a crime known as barratry and at the time carrying the death penalty . The conspiracy case was heard first , but on August 15 , the jury announced that they could not agree on a verdict . Some jurors were unwilling to risk prejudicing Parker 's forthcoming capital trial by finding him guilty on the conspiracy charge . Rather than ordering an expensive retrial , the judge negotiated an arrangement whereby the defendants withdrew their insurance claims and repaid all they had received . The barratry charge against Parker was deferred , and he was allowed to go free . Nevertheless , his professional reputation was ruined , and he died in poverty three months later . One of his co @-@ defendants went mad , and another committed suicide . Begg observes that " if the court of man could not punish these men ... the curse that had devilled the ship since her first skipper Robert McLellan had died on her maiden voyage could reach beyond the vessel 's watery grave and exact its own terrible retribution . "
In August 2001 , an expedition headed by the marine archaeologist and author Clive Cussler announced that they had found the remains of a ship embedded in the Rochelois reef . Only a few pieces of timber and some metal artifacts could be salvaged , the remainder of the wreckage being lost within the coral . Initial tests on the wood indicated that it was the type extensively used in New York shipyards at the time of Mary Celeste 's 1872 refit , and it seemed the remains of the Mary Celeste had been found . However , dendrochronological tests carried out by Scott St George of the Geological Survey of Canada showed that the wood came from trees , most probably from the US state of Georgia , that would still have been growing in 1894 , about ten years after the ship 's demise .
= = Legacy and commemorations = =
Mary Celeste was not the first reported case of a ship being found strangely deserted on the high seas . Rupert Gould , a naval officer and investigator of maritime mysteries , lists several such occurrences between 1840 and 1855 . Whatever the truth of these stories , it is the Mary Celeste that is remembered ; the ship 's name , or Doyle 's version of it , has become fixed in people 's minds as synonymous with inexplicable desertion . The Oxford English Dictionary includes an entry for the term Marie Celeste , defining it as " Allusively : a place suddenly and inexplicably deserted " , with citations from 1966 onwards using this spelling ; Mary Celeste is shown as an alternative spelling .
In October 1955 , the MV Joyita , a 70 @-@ ton motor vessel , disappeared in the South Pacific while traveling between Samoa and Tokelau , with 25 people on board . The vessel was found a month later , deserted and drifting north of Vanua Levu , 600 miles ( 970 km ) from its route . None of those aboard was seen again , and a commission of inquiry failed to establish an explanation . David Wright , the affair 's principal historian , has described the case as " a classic marine mystery of Mary Celeste proportions " .
The Mary Celeste story inspired two well @-@ received radio plays in the 1930s , by L. Du Garde Peach and Tim Healey respectively , and a stage version of Peach 's play in 1949 . Several novels have been published , generally offering natural rather than fantastic explanations . In 1935 , the British film company Hammer Film Productions issued The Mystery of the Mary Celeste ( retitled Phantom Ship for American audiences ) , starring Bela Lugosi as a deranged sailor . It was not a commercial success , although Begg considers it " a period piece well worth watching " . A 1938 short film titled The Ship That Died presents dramatizations of a range of theories to explain the abandonment : mutiny , fear of explosion due to alcohol fumes , and the supernatural . A 1965 episode of Doctor Who , entitled “ Flight Through Eternity ” , takes place on the Mary Celeste — in the episode the crew are scared into abandoning ship by the arrival of the daleks , who were chasing the Doctor and his companions . The January 24 , 1980 episode of the paranormal investigation television series In Search of ... focused on the mystery . In November 2007 , the Smithsonian Channel screened a documentary , The True Story of the Mary Celeste , which investigated many aspects of the case without offering any definite solution .
At Spencer 's Island , Mary Celeste and her lost crew are commemorated by a monument at the site of the brigantine 's construction and by a memorial outdoor cinema built in the shape of the vessel 's hull . The ship has featured on postage stamps issued by the Maldive Islands , and by Gibraltar .
= Coast Guard Squadron One =
Coast Guard Squadron One , also known in official message traffic as COGARDRON ONE or RONONE , was a combat unit formed by the United States Coast Guard in 1965 for service during the Vietnam War . Placed under the operational control of the United States Navy , it was assigned duties in Operation Market Time . Its formation marked the first time since World War II that Coast Guard personnel were used extensively in a combat environment .
The squadron operated divisions in three separate areas during the period of 1965 to 1970 . Twenty @-@ six Point @-@ class cutters with their crews and a squadron support staff were assigned to the U.S. Navy with the mission of interdicting the movement of arms and supplies from the South China Sea into South Vietnam by Viet Cong and North Vietnam junk and trawler operators . The squadron also provided naval gunfire support to nearby friendly units operating along the South Vietnamese coastline and assisted the U.S. Navy during Operation Sealords . As the United States ' direct involvement in combat operations wound down during 1969 , squadron crews began training Republic of Vietnam Navy ( RVN ) sailors in the operation and deployment of the cutters . The cutters were later turned over to the RVN as part of the Vietnamization of the war effort . Turnover of the cutters to South Vietnamese Navy crews began in May 1969 and was completed by August 1970 . Squadron One was disestablished with the decommissioning of the last cutter .
The squadron was awarded several unit citations for its service to the U.S. Navy and the South Vietnamese government during the six years the unit was active with over 3 @,@ 000 Coast Guardsmen serving aboard cutters and on the squadron support staff . Six squadron members were killed in action during the time the unit was commissioned .
Squadron One , along with American and South Vietnamese naval units assigned to the task force that assumed the Market Time mission , were successful interdicting seaborne North Vietnamese personnel and equipment from entering South Vietnamese waters . The success of the blockade served to change the dynamics of the Vietnam War , forcing the North Vietnamese to use a more costly and time @-@ consuming route down the Ho Chi Minh trail to supply their forces in the south .
= = Background = =
As the United States military involvement in South Vietnam shifted from an advisory role to combat operations , advisors from Military Assistance Command , Vietnam ( MACV ) to the South Vietnamese military noticed an increase in the amount of military supplies and weapons being smuggled into the country by way of North Vietnamese junks and other small craft . The extent of infiltration was underscored in February 1965 when a U.S. Army helicopter crew spotted a North Vietnamese trawler camouflaged to look like an island . The event would later be known as the Vung Ro Bay Incident , named for the small bay that was the trawler 's destination . After the U.S. Army helicopter crew called in air strikes on the trawler , it was sunk and captured after a five @-@ day action conducted by elements of the Republic of Vietnam Navy ( RVN ) . Investigators found one million rounds of small arms ammunition , more than 1 @,@ 000 stick grenades , 500 pounds of prepared TNT charges , 2 @,@ 000 rounds of 82 mm mortar ammunition , 500 anti @-@ tank grenades , 1 @,@ 500 rounds of recoilless rifle ammunition , 3 @,@ 600 rifles and sub @-@ machine guns , and 500 pounds of medical supplies . Labels on captured equipment and supplies and other papers found in the wreckage indicated that the shipment was from North Vietnam . Concern by top MACV advisors as to whether the RVN was up to the task of interdicting shipments originating in North Vietnam led to a request by General William C. Westmoreland , commanding general of MACV , for U.S. Navy assistance .
The request was initially filled by U.S. Navy radar picket destroyer escorts ( DER ) and minesweepers ( MSO ) in March when Operation Market Time was started , but these vessels had too great a draft to operate effectively in shallow coastal waters . In April the U.S. Navy ordered 54 Swift boats ( PCF ) , 50 @-@ foot ( 15 m ) aluminum @-@ hulled boats with a draft of only 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) and capable of 25 knots ( 29 mph ; 46 km / h ) . At the same time , the U.S. Navy queried the Treasury Department , the lead agency for the U.S. Coast Guard at the time , about the availability of suitable vessels . The Coast Guard had only a very minor role in combat operations during the Korean War and the Commandant of the Coast Guard , Admiral Edwin J. Roland , responded to the request by offering the use of 82 @-@ foot ( 25 m ) Point @-@ class cutters ( WPB ) and 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) utility boats , fearing that , if the Coast Guard were left out of a role in Vietnam , its status as one of the nation 's armed services might be jeopardized .
The decision to use the Point @-@ class cutter was one of logistics . The 95 @-@ foot ( 29 m ) Cape @-@ class cutter was initially considered an option by Roland since it had a greater speed because of its four main drive engines . The Point @-@ class cutter had only two main drive engines but they were more consistent throughout the class than the Cape @-@ class cutters , so it was easier to supply spare parts and maintain the engines . Additional factors favoring the Point @-@ class cutter were an unmanned engine room with all controls and alarms on the bridge , and air @-@ conditioned living spaces , a big factor in a tropical climate where crews were expected to live on the boat whether on or off duty . The 40 @-@ foot utility boats were rejected because they lacked radar , berthing , and mess facilities for extended patrols offshore .
On 22 April representatives of the U.S. Coast Guard and the U.S. Navy signed a memorandum of understanding stating that the Coast Guard would supply 17 Point @-@ class cutters and their crews and the Navy would provide transport to South Vietnam and logistical support with two tank landing ships ( LST ) that had been converted to repair ships . Ten of the cutters were sourced from stations on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts and seven were sourced from Pacific coast stations . After removal of the Oerlikon 20 – mm cannon on the bow , in place of which each cutter was fitted with a combination mount consisting of a 81 mm mortar which could be either drop @-@ fired or trigger @-@ fired , above which was mounted a .50 caliber M2 Browning machine gun . The mortar could be fired in both indirect and direct modes , and was equipped with a recoil cylinder . The cutters were loaded on merchant ships for shipment to U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay in the Philippines . On 29 April President Lyndon B. Johnson authorized Coast Guard units to operate under Navy command in Vietnam and to provide surveillance and interdiction assistance to U.S. Navy vessels and aircraft in an effort to stop the infiltration of troops , weapons and ammunition into South Vietnam by North Vietnamese Army ( NVA ) and Viet Cong ( VC ) forces .
= = Crew training and unit commissioning = =
While the cutters were being shipped to Subic Bay , crew members started reporting to Coast Guard Training Center Alameda , California on 17 May 1965 for overseas processing and training . The cutter crews received one week of small arms training at Naval Amphibious Base Coronado and Camp Pendleton while Survival , Evasion , Resistance and Escape ( SERE ) training was received at Marine Corps Mountain Warfare Training Center , near Coleville , California , in the Sierra Nevada Mountains and at Whidbey Island Naval Air Station , Washington . Returning to Alameda , they underwent refresher firefighting and damage control training from the Navy at Treasure Island Naval Base . Additional weapons qualifications and live fire exercises were held at Coast Guard Island and Camp Parks , California , along with refresher training in radar navigation , radio procedures and visual signaling . Gun crews received mortar and machine gun training at Camp Pendleton . Of the 245 personnel assigned to the unit only 131 were present at the squadron commissioning ceremony held at Alameda on 27 May with the remainder of the crews in the process of completing training elsewhere . For service in Vietnam , two officers were added to the normal crew complement of eight to add seniority to the crew in the mission of interdicting vessels at sea . All officers assigned to command cutters were required to be lieutenants and to have previously commanded a Cape @-@ class cutter and had to volunteer for the assignment . The executive officer was either a lieutenant junior grade or ensign .
= = Naval Base Subic Bay = =
= = = Divisions 11 and 12 = = =
The first crews arrived at Subic Bay on 11 June and a squadron office was established . On 12 June 1965 , the squadron came under the operational control of the commander , Vietnam Patrol Force ( CTF 71 ) . Administrative control for personnel actions such as pay and personnel records was retained by the Coast Guard . The first cutters arrived at Subic Bay on 17 June and before they were put in the water each hull bottom was inspected , repaired if necessary and painted from the waterline down . Mechanical , ordnance , electrical and electronic maintenance checks were completed before any modifications for duty in Vietnam were attempted . Modifications completed at Subic Bay included new radio transceivers , fabrication of gunner 's platforms and ammunition ready boxes for the mortar , the addition of floodlights for night boardings , installation of small arms lockers on the mess deck and addition of sound @-@ powered telephone circuits . Additional bunks and refrigerators were added to increase patrol on @-@ station time . Modifications were made to the bow @-@ mounted over @-@ under machine gun mortar combination allowing it to be depressed below the horizon for close @-@ range firing . Four additional M @-@ 2 machine guns with ready boxes were added to the gunwales of each cutter .
As the crews arrived from the United States , they began doing required modification work in the shipyard and shakedown sorties in an effort to get all systems working . Night training exercises and gunnery drills were held each day and underway drills and training had been completed and commissary stores loaded by 9 July . A one @-@ day survival training course was conducted by Negrito natives and completion was compulsory for all squadron personnel . When it became known that the cutters would be operating in two widely separated locations , Squadron One was divided into two divisions with Division 11 operating in the Gulf of Thailand at An Thoi , Phu Quoc Island and Division 12 operating near the port of Da Nang close to the Demilitarized Zone ( DMZ ) . Division 11 consisted of nine cutters and Division 12 consisted of eight cutters . At 16 : 00 on 16 July , Division 12 got underway and once out of the harbor they formed up on USS Snohomish County , the LST permanently assigned to support the division at Da Nang . Division 11 and USS Floyd County , the division 's LST support ship , left Subic Bay bound for Phu Quoc Island at 08 : 00 on 24 July
= = = Division 13 = = =
After reviewing a study of the overall infiltration threat , MACV requested additional aircraft and patrol vessels for Operation Market Time . A request for an additional division of Point @-@ class cutters to be added to Squadron One was made on 5 August 1965 and preparations for deploying the additional cutters started in late October with the new division of nine patrol boats to be named Division 13 . The staff and repair personnel arrived at Subic Bay 14 December 1965 while the division 's boat crews received weapons and undertook survival training in California . The crews started arriving at Subic Bay on 28 December where additional survival and weapons training was given . Twenty @-@ one of the division 's personnel were sent to Divisions 11 and 12 to be exchanged for crewmen who had Market Time experience . Division 13 cutters began arriving as deck cargo on transport ships at Subic Bay on 24 January 1966 and crews commenced outfitting and painting them deck gray . Some of the outfitting had been accomplished before shipment so that more time could be devoted to training crews in gunnery and procedure before the division 's scheduled departure for Vietnam on 18 February . During a training exercise on 13 February , the main engine alarm sounded on the bridge of Point League . After checking the cause of the alarm , it was determined that a complete overhaul of one of the engines would be required . Division 12 shipped a complete kit of repair parts from Da Nang overnight by way of a U.S. Marine Corps C @-@ 130 flight to Cubi Point Naval Air Station . The flight was met by division personnel and repairs commenced . Divided into three shifts , the crews worked around @-@ the @-@ clock and the repairs were completed in 72 hours . A partial load break @-@ in was made the morning of departure and the rest of the procedure was completed while the division was en route to Vietnam . At 16 : 00 on 18 February , Division 13 left Subic Bay in the company of USS Forster , arriving at the RVN Base at Cat Lo on 22 February . Patrol work for six of the division 's cutters began at 08 : 00 the following morning , covering the area from 60 miles ( 97 km ) north of Vung Tau to 120 miles ( 193 km ) south .
= = Operations = =
= = = Arrival in South Vietnam = = =
Division 12 arrived at the port city of Da Nang at 07 : 00 on 20 July 1965 and was the first U.S. Coast Guard unit to be stationed in South Vietnam . The morning after their arrival five of the division 's eight cutters prepared to get underway for their first patrol accompanied by the Navy destroyer USS Savage , which coordinated the Market Time assets in the Da Nang area .
Division 11 arrived at Con Son Island on 29 July taking shelter from heavy seas and monsoon rains that had developed during the transit . Point Banks was the only cutter to have engine problems during the transit and repairs were made in the cramped engine room while underway so that no time was lost by the division during transit . During the lay over at Con Son minor repairs were made and repainting was completed on some of the cutters ' hulls which had been partially stripped of paint by the storm . Three RVN liaison officers reported aboard the cutters just before the division departed for Phu Quoc Island and the same three cutters started patrol work as the rest of the division put into Phu Quoc harbor on 31 July . On 30 July operational control of all Market Time elements , whether U.S. Navy , U.S. Coast Guard or RVN , was transferred to the Commander , Task Force 115 ( TF115 ) .
= = = Market Time operational theory = = =
Market Time planners sectioned off nine patrol areas numbered in order from the DMZ in the north to the Cambodian border in the south . The areas varied in size , measuring 80 by 120 miles ( 130 km × 190 km ) wide and running 30 to 40 miles ( 48 to 64 km ) out to sea . The outer two @-@ thirds of each area was covered by the U.S. Navy DER and MSO fleet and was identified by the area number with the suffix " B " . After May 1967 high endurance cutters ( WHEC ) from Coast Guard Squadron Three also assisted in the outer patrol areas . Because the inner third of each patrol area was usually shallow water it was covered by Navy PCFs and Coast Guard WPBs which had shallow drafts . These smaller patrol areas were identified by a letter " C " or higher . Thus , the patrol area covering the waters near Cam Ranh Bay would have the outer two @-@ thirds designated " 4B " and the waters nearer shore designated " 4C " through " 4H " . Overflying the whole area were Navy patrol aircraft that flew various assigned tracks , reporting any traffic to watchstanders stationed at five Coastal Surveillance Centers ( CSC ) operated jointly by the U.S. Navy and RVN . Reports of movements by suspicious vessels were relayed to the nearest Market Time patrol craft whose duty it was to board and search for contraband material and persons on board without proper identification . The rules of engagement that Market Time forces operated under allowed any vessel except warships to be stopped , boarded and searched within three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) of the coastline and from the area three miles to twelve miles ( 19 @.@ 4 km ) from shore , identification and a declaration of intent could be demanded of any vessel except a warship . Outside the twelve @-@ mile limit only vessels of South Vietnamese origin could be stopped , boarded and searched .
While on patrol the cutters operated under orders from an operational commander at the CSC and not the division commander to which they were assigned . The division was responsible for seeing that each cutter was ready to perform her assignments and properly supplied with trained personnel , supplies and equipment . Each division 's staff performed regular readiness reviews on each assigned cutter ; riding with the crews to judge their effectiveness .
On 30 September 1968 , Vice Admiral Elmo Zumwalt assumed command of Naval Forces Vietnam and he redirected the focus of interdiction operations conducted by TF115 to areas nearer the DMZ as a part of Operation Sealords ( Southeast Asia Lake , Ocean , River , and Delta Strategy ) . The result was that all but four Division 11 WPBs were transferred to Divisions 12 and 13 and the shallower draft U.S. Navy PCFs that had been used for patrol duties at the DMZ were used to patrol the canals and rivers .
= = = Major cutter operations = = =
= = = = 1965 = = = =
Soon after patrol operations started in Division 12 's area of responsibility ( AOR ) , Point Orient encountered machine gun and mortar fire from the shore south of the Cua Viet River while attempting to board a junk in the early morning hours of 24 July 1965 . The Point Orient returned fire , and in doing so it became the first Coast Guard unit in Vietnam to engage the enemy . As a result of the incident , it became obvious to the skipper of the Point Orient that the paint scheme used by the Coast Guard in the U.S. was too visible at night and shortly thereafter the white paint was replaced by deck gray on all WPBs in Squadron One . On assuming control , the TF115 commander changed the way patrols were conducted in the DMZ . Future patrols were concentrated along the DMZ for most of the WPBs and PCFs with only a few assets placed in the Da Nang area . Assets were concentrated where vessel traffic was encountered ; most traffic near the Da Nang area was interdicted further out to sea by the DERs and WHECs and fewer shallow draft assets were needed there .
19 September was a busy day for Division 11 in the Gulf of Thailand with Point Glover encountering a junk that fired on her and when unable to escape tried to ram the cutter . The Viet Cong crew jumped overboard and Point Glover disabled the junk 's engine with machine gun fire . A boarding party from Point Glover boarded the sinking junk and did a quick search of the vessel , finding arms and ammunition . Unable to stop the junk from sinking , she was beached in shallow water while Point Garnet , Point Clear and Point Marone went searching for the missing junk crew ; however , only one crew member was captured . Later that night Point Marone attempted to stop an unlit junk near the coastal town of Ha Tien but the junk ignored a warning shot across her bow and attempted to evade boarding while firing at the cutter and throwing hand grenades . Point Glover was nearby and assisted Point Marone in engaging the junk with machine gun fire . The junk caught fire and started sinking . Unable to keep the junk afloat the cutter crews marked it with a buoy and let it sink in shallow water . Salvage operations conducted later found rifles , ammunition , hand grenades , documents and money . Eleven Viet Cong were killed in the action and one badly wounded crewman was captured ashore .
= = = = 1966 = = = =
After Division 13 's arrival at Cat Lo on 22 February 1966 , operations started at nearby Rung Sat Special Zone ; an area of tidal mangrove swamp southeast of Saigon that straddled the Long Tau River , the main shipping channel to the Port of Saigon . Point White was patrolling on the night of 9 March and intercepted a small junk attempting to smuggle supplies across the Soai Rạp River . After hailing the junk and receiving automatic weapons fire in reply , the cutter returned fire and killed several Viet Cong . They continued to fire on Point White so the skipper ordered the helmsman to ram the junk amidships at full speed . All but four of the crew of the junk were killed . One of the survivors turned out to be a key leader in the Viet Cong Rung Sat infrastructure . On 15 March Point Partridge engaged and damaged another junk , but shallow water allowed the junk to escape . On 22 March Point Hudson drew fire from another junk on the river . In the battle that followed , an estimated ten Viet Cong were killed . In conjunction with a joint U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps operation designated Operation Jackstay , several Division 13 cutters were ordered to patrol the lower portion of the Soi Rap River in an effort to deny food , water , and ammunition to the Viet Cong operating in the Rung Sat Special Zone . From the start of patrols on 10 March until the ships of the amphibious ready group put the Marines ashore on the Long Thành peninsula on 26 March , Division 13 cutters had taken fire from the shore almost every night during patrol operations . Some of the most intense combat operations that Squadron One encountered occurred during the month of March 1966 in support of Operation Jackstay . The joint operation ended 6 April with the withdrawal of the Marine Amphibious Force but the skipper of Point Partridge decided to continue the patrols after the operation ended . On the night patrols from 1 to 6 May Point Partridge engaged Viet Cong junks or received fire from the shore every night .
While patrolling off the coast of the Ca Mau Peninsula in the late evening hours of 9 May 1966 Point Grey reported sighting two large bonfires on the shore near the mouth of the Rach Gia River . Since this was an unusual activity the skipper decided to monitor the area for the remainder of the night . Shortly after midnight , a steel @-@ hulled trawler was spotted and challenged but Point Grey received no answer . The trawler continued on a course headed for the beach area near the bonfires and ran aground 400 yards ( 370 m ) from the shore . After daybreak Point Grey attempted to board the trawler but encountered heavy fire from the shore . After requesting assistance from the CSC , Point Grey stood off from the trawler until destroyer escort USS Brister arrived on scene . With Brister standing in deeper water and South Vietnamese Air Force A @-@ 1E Skyraider aircraft bombing the beach nearby , Point Grey attempted a boarding but she received very heavy small arms fire from Viet Cong positions beyond the beach which heavily damaged the bridge and wounded three of her crew manning the mortar on the bow . With evening approaching it was decided by CSC to destroy the trawler and Point Grey assisted by Point Cypress began mortaring the trawler . During the shelling an explosion on board the trawler broke it in two pieces and caused it to sink in the shallow waters . Salvage operations began the next morning and included the recovery of six crew served weapons and 15 short tons ( 14 @,@ 000 kg ) of ammunition of Chinese manufacture . The destruction of the trawler marked the first instance of the capture of a trawler by Market Time assets .
While on patrol near the mouth of the Co Chien River in the early hours of 20 June , the skipper of Point League noted a large radar contact which , upon further investigation , was found to be running without navigation lights . After informing the CSC of the situation the cutter went to general quarters and spotlighted the incoming trawler . The trawler ignored a hail from Point League and two bursts of machine gun fire across its bow . The trawler returned with heavy machine gun fire hitting the cutter 's bridge and wounding the executive officer and a crewman manning the mortar on the forecastle . The trawler dropped the line on a towed junk and picked up speed in an effort to beach along the shore . When the commanding officer of Point League noticed that the trawler was headed for shoal water near the mouth of the river , he let the trawler run aground 75 yards ( 69 m ) from shore and moved to a position 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) away while keeping the target illuminated with mortar rounds . Point League then came under fire from Viet Cong elements operating from just behind the shoreline . With assistance from Point Slocum the two cutters poured machine gun fire into the grounded trawler . Just after dawn the trawler was sunk by what was probably a scuttling charge resulting in a large fire . At 07 : 15 destroyer escort USS Haverfield arrived on scene and assumed control of the operation . With the assistance of two U.S. Air Force F @-@ 100 Super Sabre aircraft providing close air support , resistance from the shoreline was finally controlled . It was decided by the commanding officer of the Haverfield that salvage of the trawler would be attempted in order to learn more about the trawler , its origins and the cargo on board . The crews of the two cutters were joined by Point Hudson and dock landing ship USS Tortuga and several RVN junks in fighting the fire and beginning salvage operations . After patching the hull and dewatering ; the trawler was eventually towed to the RVN shipyard at Vung Tau . The 99 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) trawler yielded valuable information about the capabilities of that particular class of trawler . It was carrying about 100 short tons ( 91 @,@ 000 kg ) of small arms and ammunition of recent manufacture in China and North Korea . The surviving log and navigation charts helped determine the trawler 's origin and two possible destinations .
= = = = = Point Welcome incident = = = = =
Point Welcome was patrolling Area 1A1 immediately south of the DMZ in the early morning hours of 11 August 1966 . At 03 : 40 the cutter was illuminated by an U.S. Air Force forward air controller ( FAC ) who mistook her for an enemy vessel . The FAC called in one B @-@ 57 Canberra tactical bomber and two F @-@ 4 Phantom fighter @-@ bomber aircraft which proceeded to strafe the cutter for about one hour , each making from seven to nine passes . Point Welcome turned on all of her running and docking lights when first illuminated by the FAC aircraft and contacted the CSC by radio telling them that they were being illuminated by aircraft . During the first pass all of the crew on the bridge were wounded and the commanding officer , Lieutenant Junior Grade David Brostrom , was killed along with the helmsman , Engineman Second Class Jerry Phillips . All signaling equipment , electronics and radios were knocked out on the first pass . Point Welcome began evasive maneuvers at the direction of Chief Boatswains Mate Richard Patterson , who had assumed command after the executive officer was seriously injured . Patterson attempted to avoid the illumination lights of the attacking aircraft and move out of the way of the strafing aircraft . At 04 : 15 Patterson decided that the best course of action was to beach the cutter and move the wounded ashore , however when this was attempted , the crew came under fire from unknown sources from the shoreline . At 04 : 25 Point Orient and Point Caution arrived on the scene and started rescue proceedings . In addition to the commanding officer , one other crewman was killed , nine other crewmen were injured along with a RVN liaison officer and civilian freelance journalist Tim Page . The bridge of the cutter was severely damaged and despite nine 5 to 9 inch ( 13 to 23 cm ) wide holes in the main deck , the hull was undamaged . Point Welcome was escorted back to Da Nang under her own power and required three months to repair the damage . Patterson saved the cutter and the surviving crew at great risk to himself . He was awarded a Bronze Star with the combat " V " device for his actions .
After eight days of testimony the findings of a board of investigation conducted by MACV were forwarded to the Commandant of the Coast Guard :
As a result of the investigation , lines of communication were set up between the Navy and the Air Force . The Air Force knew nothing of Operation Market Time and did not routinely communicate with Naval Forces , Vietnam . To avoid a repetition of the incident , aircraft patrolling near the DMZ were instructed not to attack vessels without first contacting CSC Da Nang for clearance .
= = = = 1967 = = = =
In the late evening hours of 1 January 1967 Point Gammon along with two U.S. Navy vessels , PCF @-@ 68 and PCF @-@ 71 , intercepted a trawler attempting to land supplies on the Cau Mau Peninsula . After running the trawler aground the PCFs managed to hit it with several mortar rounds while Point Gammon kept the trawler illuminated . Several secondary explosions occurred and the trawler disappeared . Investigations later concluded that the trawler could have successfully escaped to a nearby river although heavily damaged .
A more successful action was fought in the early morning hours of 14 March 1967 when a U.S. Navy patrol aircraft spotted a trawler near Cu @-@ Lao Re , an island 65 miles ( 105 km ) southeast of Da Nang . USS Brister and two PCFs along with Point Ellis closed on the trawler and forced it aground near the village of Phouc Thien on Cape Batangan . The patrol elements continued to exchange heavy gunfire with the trawler and land @-@ based Viet Cong units until dawn when the trawler was scuttled with a massive explosion . Investigators later discovered a heavy machine gun , a recoilless rifle , sub @-@ machine guns , rifles and carbines along with thousands of rounds of ammunition . Also in the wreckage was a complete surgical kit for a field hospital and medical supplies .
A similar conclusion was the result of the capture of a steel hull trawler 15 July 1967 after three days of tracking by patrol aircraft and the radar picket , USS Wilhoite . After playing a cat @-@ and @-@ mouse game for three days with TF115 units the trawler headed for the mouth of the Sa Ky River on the Batangan Peninsula late on 14 July . The trawler was directed by Point Orient to heave to , but the hail was answered with gunfire . The cutter returned fire along with Wilhoite and gunboat USS Gallup , destroyer USS Walker , and PCF @-@ 79 . At 02 : 00 on 15 July , the trawler was boxed in and ablaze , and ran aground 200 yards ( 180 m ) from shore . South Korean marines directed artillery fire from the shore and at 06 : 00 with the trawler apparently abandoned , a U.S. Navy demolitions expert from Walker boarded the trawler and defused 2 @,@ 000 pounds of TNT charges that were designed to scuttle the craft . Found on board were several thousand rounds of rifle and machine gun ammunition , mortar and rocket rounds , anti @-@ personnel mines , grenades , and several thousand pounds of C @-@ 4 plastic explosive and TNT . Weapons found included several hundred machine guns , AK @-@ 47 rifles , AK @-@ 56 rifles , and B @-@ 40 rocket launchers .
On many occasions during the months of October , November and December 1967 , the cutters Point Hudson , Point Jefferson , Point Grace and Point Gammon were called on to assist in naval gunfire support missions in the Long Toan and Thanh Phu Secret Zones near Soc Trang . These missions resulted in the destruction of several sampans and structures as well as bunkers used by the Viet Cong .
= = = = 1968 = = = =
During the morning hours of 31 January 1968 , combined forces of North Vietnamese Army / Viet Cong personnel initiated coordinated attacks on military installations throughout South Vietnam in what would be later be referred to as the Tet Offensive . Because of monsoon weather in the northern provinces of South Vietnam and a general curfew imposed by South Vietnam on most sampan traffic , routine boardings by Squadron One vessels during February were far below normal . However , requests for naval gunfire support by land @-@ based U.S. Army and U.S. Marine units increased significantly after Tet . The cutters Point Gammon , Point Arden , Point Grey , Point Cypress , Point League , and Point Slocum were involved in multiple naval gunfire support missions throughout the month of February . The use of Squadron One cutters as a blocking force against exfiltration by NVA / VC forces operating along the coastline also increased at this time .
During an action on 1 March 1968 , in the early morning several Squadron One cutters were involved in the interdiction and destruction of four North Vietnamese trawlers attempting to smuggle arms and ammunition into South Vietnam at different locations . This co @-@ ordinated attempt by the North Vietnamese was
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2001 , OPEC collaborated with five other international organizations ( APEC , Eurostat , IEA , OLADE , UNSD ) to improve the availability and reliability of oil data . They launched the Joint Oil Data Exercise , which in 2005 was joined by IEF and renamed the Joint Organisations Data Initiative ( JODI ) , covering more than 90 percent of the global oil market . GECF joined as an eighth partner in 2014 , enabling JODI also to cover nearly 90 percent of the global market for natural gas .
Since 2007 , OPEC has published the " World Oil Outlook " ( WOO ) annually , in which it presents a comprehensive analysis of the global oil industry including medium- and long @-@ term projections for supply and demand . OPEC also produces an " Annual Statistical Bulletin " ( ASB ) , and publishes more @-@ frequent updates in its " Monthly Oil Market Report " ( MOMR ) and " OPEC Bulletin " .
= = = Crude oil benchmarks = = =
A " crude oil benchmark " is a standardized petroleum product that serves as a convenient reference price for buyers and sellers of crude oil . Benchmarks are used because oil prices differ based on variety , grade , delivery date and location , and other legal requirements .
The OPEC Reference Basket of Crudes has been an important benchmark for oil prices since 2000 . It is calculated as a weighted average of prices for petroleum blends from the OPEC member countries : Saharan Blend ( Algeria ) , Girassol ( Angola ) , Oriente ( Ecuador ) , Rabi Light ( Gabon ) , Minas ( Indonesia ) , Iran Heavy ( Islamic Republic of Iran ) , Basra Light ( Iraq ) , Kuwait Export ( Kuwait ) , Es Sider ( Libya ) , Bonny Light ( Nigeria ) , Qatar Marine ( Qatar ) , Arab Light ( Saudi Arabia ) , Murban ( UAE ) , and Merey ( Venezuela ) .
North Sea Brent Crude Oil is the leading benchmark for Atlantic basin crude oils , and is used to price approximately two @-@ thirds of the world 's traded crude oil . Other well @-@ known benchmarks are West Texas Intermediate ( WTI ) , Dubai Crude , Oman Crude , and Urals oil .
= = = Spare capacity = = =
The US Energy Information Administration , the statistical arm of the US Department of Energy , defines spare capacity for crude oil market management " as the volume of production that can be brought on within 30 days and sustained for at least 90 days ... OPEC spare capacity provides an indicator of the world oil market 's ability to respond to potential crises that reduce oil supplies . "
In November 2014 , the International Energy Agency ( IEA ) estimated that OPEC 's " effective " spare capacity , adjusted for ongoing disruptions in countries like Libya and Nigeria , was 3 @.@ 5 million barrels per day ( 560 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) and that this number would increase to a peak in 2017 of 4 @.@ 6 million barrels per day ( 730 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) . By November 2015 , the IEA changed its assessment " with OPEC 's spare production buffer stretched thin , as Saudi Arabia – which holds the lion 's share of excess capacity – and its Gulf neighbours pump at near @-@ record rates . "
= = History = =
= = = Post @-@ WWII situation = = =
In 1949 , Venezuela and Iran took the earliest steps in the direction of OPEC , by inviting Iraq , Kuwait and Saudi Arabia to improve communication among petroleum @-@ exporting nations as the world recovered from World War II . At the time , some of the world 's largest oil fields were just entering production in the Middle East . The United States had established the Interstate Oil Compact Commission to join the Texas Railroad Commission in limiting overproduction . The US was simultaneously the world 's largest producer and consumer of oil ; and the world market was dominated by a group of multinational companies known as the " Seven Sisters " , five of which were headquartered in the US .
= = = 1959 – 1960 anger from exporting countries = = =
In February 1959 , the multinational oil companies ( MOCs ) unilaterally reduced their posted prices for Venezuelan and Middle Eastern crude oil by 10 percent . Weeks later , the first Arab Petroleum Congress convened in Cairo , Egypt , where the influential journalist Wanda Jablonski introduced Saudi Arabia 's Abdullah Tariki to Venezuela 's Juan Pablo Pérez Alfonzo . Both oil ministers were angered by the price cuts , and the two led their fellow delegates to establish the Maadi Pact or Gentlemen 's Agreement , calling for an " Oil Consultation Commission " of exporting countries , to which MOCs should present price @-@ change plans . Jablonski reported a marked hostility toward the West and a growing outcry against " absentee landlordism " of the MOCs , which at the time controlled all oil operations within the exporting countries and wielded enormous political influence . In August 1960 , ignoring the warnings , and with the US favoring Canadian and Mexican oil for strategic reasons , the MOCs again unilaterally announced significant cuts in their posted prices for Middle Eastern crude oil .
= = = 1960 – 1975 founding and expansion = = =
The following month , during 10 – 14 September 1960 , the Baghdad Conference was held at the initiative of Tariki and Pérez Alfonzo . The governments of Iran , Iraq , Kuwait , Saudi Arabia and Venezuela met in Baghdad to discuss ways to increase the price of crude oil produced by their countries , and ways to respond to unilateral actions by the MOCs . Despite strong US opposition : " Together with Arab and non @-@ Arab producers , Saudi Arabia formed the Organization of Petroleum Export Countries ( OPEC ) to secure the best price available from the major oil corporations . " The Middle Eastern members originally called for OPEC headquarters to be in Baghdad or Beirut , but Venezuela argued for a neutral location , and so Geneva , Switzerland was chosen . On 1 September 1965 , OPEC moved to Vienna , Austria , after Switzerland declined to extend diplomatic privileges .
During 1961 – 1975 , the five founding nations were joined by Qatar ( 1961 ) , Indonesia ( 1962 – 2008 , rejoined 2016 ) , Libya ( 1962 ) , United Arab Emirates ( originally just the Emirate of Abu Dhabi , 1967 ) , Algeria ( 1969 ) , Nigeria ( 1971 ) , Ecuador ( 1973 – 1992 , rejoined 2007 ) , and Gabon ( 1975 – 1994 , rejoined 2016 ) . Indicating that OPEC is not averse to further expansion , Mohammed Barkindo , OPEC 's Acting Secretary General in 2006 , urged his African neighbors Angola and Sudan to join , and Angola did in 2007 . Since the 1980s , representatives from Egypt , Mexico , Norway , Oman , Russia , and other oil @-@ exporting nations have attended many OPEC meetings as observers , as an informal mechanism for coordinating policies .
= = = 1973 – 1974 oil embargo = = =
In October 1973 , the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries ( OAPEC , consisting of the Arab majority of OPEC plus Egypt and Syria ) declared significant production cuts and an oil embargo against the United States and other industrialized nations that supported Israel in the Yom Kippur War . A previous embargo attempt was largely ineffective in response to the Six @-@ Day War in 1967 . However , in 1973 , the result was a sharp rise in oil prices and OPEC revenues , from US $ 3 / bbl to US $ 12 / bbl , and an emergency period of energy rationing , intensified by panic reactions , a declining trend in US oil production , currency devaluations , and a lengthy UK coal @-@ miners dispute . For a time , the UK imposed an emergency three @-@ day workweek . Seven European nations banned non @-@ essential Sunday driving . US gas stations limited the amount of gasoline that could be dispensed , closed on Sundays , and restricted the days when gasoline could be purchased , based on license plate numbers . Even after the embargo ended in March 1974 following intense diplomatic activity , prices continued to rise . The world experienced a global economic recession , with unemployment and inflation surging simultaneously , steep declines in stock and bond prices , major shifts in trade balances and petrodollar flows , and a dramatic end to the post @-@ WWII economic boom .
The 1973 – 1974 oil embargo had lasting effects on the United States and other industrialized nations , which established the International Energy Agency in response . Oil conservation efforts included lower speed limits on highways , smaller and more energy @-@ efficient cars and appliances , year @-@ round daylight saving time , reduced usage of heating and air @-@ conditioning , better insulation , increased support of mass transit , national emergency stockpiles , and greater emphasis on coal , natural gas , ethanol , nuclear and other alternative energy sources . These efforts became effective enough that US oil consumption would rise only 11 percent during 1980 – 2014 , while real GDP rose 150 percent . But in the 1970s , OPEC nations demonstrated convincingly that their oil could be used as both a political and economic weapon against other nations , at least in the short term .
= = = 1975 Special Fund = = =
OPEC 's international aid activities date from well before the 1973 – 1974 oil price explosion . For example , the Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development has operated since 1961 .
OPEC added to its goals the selling of oil for the socio @-@ economic growth of poorer nations . The OPEC Special Fund was conceived in Algiers , Algeria , in March 1975 , and was formally established the following January . " A Solemn Declaration ' reaffirmed the natural solidarity which unites OPEC countries with other developing countries in their struggle to overcome underdevelopment , ' and called for measures to strengthen cooperation between these countries ... [ The Fund 's ] resources are additional to those already made available by OPEC states through a number of bilateral and multilateral channels . " The Fund became an official international development agency in May 1980 and was renamed the OPEC Fund for International Development ( OFID ) .
= = = 1975 hostage siege = = =
On 21 December 1975 , Saudi Arabia 's Ahmed Zaki Yamani , Iran 's Jamshid Amuzegar , and the other OPEC oil ministers were taken hostage at their semi @-@ annual conference in Vienna , Austria . The attack , which killed three non @-@ ministers , was orchestrated by a six @-@ person team led by Venezuelan terrorist Carlos the Jackal , and which included Gabriele Kröcher @-@ Tiedemann and Hans @-@ Joachim Klein . The self @-@ named " Arm of the Arab Revolution " group called for the liberation of Palestine . Carlos planned to take over the conference by force and hold for ransom all eleven attending oil ministers , except for Yamani and Amuzegar who were to be executed .
Carlos arranged bus and plane travel for his team and 42 of the original 63 hostages , with stops in Algiers and Tripoli , planning to fly eventually to Baghdad , where Yamani and Amuzegar were to be killed . All 30 non @-@ Arab hostages were released in Algiers , excluding Amuzegar . Additional hostages were released at another stop in Tripoli before returning to Algiers . With only 10 hostages remaining , Carlos held a phone conversation with Algerian President Houari Boumédienne , who informed Carlos that the oil ministers ' deaths would result in an attack on the plane . Boumédienne must also have offered Carlos asylum at this time and possibly financial compensation for failing to complete his assignment . Carlos expressed his regret at not being able to murder Yamani and Amuzegar , then he and his comrades left the plane . All the hostages and terrorists walked away from the situation , two days after it began .
Some time after the attack , Carlos 's accomplices revealed that the operation was commanded by Wadie Haddad , a founder of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine . They also claimed that the idea and funding came from an Arab president , widely thought to be Libya 's Muammar al @-@ Gaddafi . Fellow militants Bassam Abu Sharif and Klein claimed that Carlos received and kept a ransom between US $ 20 million and US $ 50 million from " an Arab president " . Carlos claimed that Saudi Arabia paid ransom on behalf of Iran , but that the money was " diverted en route and lost by the Revolution " .
= = = 1979 – 1980 oil crisis and 1980s oil glut = = =
In response to oil nationalizations and the high prices of the 1970s , industrial nations took steps to reduce their dependence on OPEC oil , especially after prices reached new peaks approaching US $ 40 / bbl in 1979 – 1980 when the Iranian Revolution and Iran – Iraq War disrupted regional stability and oil supplies . Electric utilities worldwide switched from oil to coal , natural gas , or nuclear power ; national governments initiated multibillion @-@ dollar research programs to develop alternatives to oil ; and commercial exploration developed major non @-@ OPEC oilfields in Siberia , Alaska , the North Sea , and the Gulf of Mexico . By 1986 , daily worldwide demand for oil dropped by 5 million barrels , non @-@ OPEC production rose by an even @-@ larger amount , and OPEC 's market share sank from approximately 50 percent in 1979 to less than 30 percent in 1985 . The result was a six @-@ year decline in the price of oil , which culminated by plunging more than half in 1986 alone .
To combat falling revenue from oil sales , in 1982 Saudi Arabia pushed OPEC for audited national production quotas in an attempt to limit output and boost prices . When other OPEC nations failed to comply , Saudi Arabia first slashed its own production from 10 million barrels daily in 1979 – 1981 to just one @-@ third of that level in 1985 . When this proved ineffective , Saudi Arabia reversed course and flooded the market with cheap oil , causing prices to fall below US $ 10 / bbl and higher @-@ cost producers to become unprofitable . Faced with increasing economic hardship ( which ultimately contributed to the collapse of the Soviet bloc in 1989 ) , OPEC members that had previously failed to comply with quotas finally began to limit production to shore up prices , based on national quotas that sought to balance oil @-@ related and economic criteria since 1986 . ( Within their sovereign territories , the national governments of OPEC members are able to impose production limits on both government @-@ owned and private oil companies . ) Generally when OPEC production targets are reduced , oil prices increase .
= = = 1990 – 2011 responses to wars and instability = = =
Leading up to his 1990 Invasion of Kuwait , Iraqi President Saddam Hussein was pressuring OPEC to end overproduction and to push oil prices higher , in order to help OPEC members financially and to accelerate rebuilding from the 1980 – 1988 Iran – Iraq War . But these two Iraqi wars against fellow OPEC founders marked a low point in the cohesion of the organization , and oil prices subsided quickly after the short @-@ term supply disruptions . The 2001 September 11 attacks and the 2003 American invasion of Iraq had even milder short @-@ term impacts on oil prices , as Saudi Arabia and other exporters cooperated to keep the world adequately supplied .
Ecuador withdrew from OPEC in December 1992 , because it was unwilling to pay the annual US $ 2 million membership fee and felt that it needed to produce more oil than it was allowed under the OPEC quota , although it rejoined in October 2007 . Similar concerns prompted Gabon to suspend membership in January 1995 ; it rejoined in July 2016 . Iraq has remained a member of OPEC since the organization 's founding , but Iraqi production has not been a part of any OPEC quota agreements since 1998 , due to the country 's daunting political difficulties .
Lower demand triggered by the 1997 – 1998 Asian financial crisis saw the price of oil fall back to 1986 levels . After oil slumped to around US $ 10 / bbl , joint diplomacy achieved a gradual slowing of oil production by OPEC , Mexico and Norway .
In 2003 , the International Energy Agency ( IEA ) and OPEC held their first joint workshop on energy issues , and they have continued to meet regularly since then to " better understand trends , analysis and viewpoints and advance market transparency and predictability . "
Widespread insurgency and sabotage during the 2003 – 2008 height of the American occupation of Iraq , combined with rapidly increasing oil demand from China and investors , recurring violence against the Nigerian oil industry , and dwindling spare capacity as a cushion against global supply disruptions , prompted a sharp rise in oil prices to levels far higher than those previously targeted by OPEC . Price volatility reached an extreme in 2008 , as WTI crude oil surged to a record US $ 147 / bbl in July and then plunged to just US $ 32 / bbl in December , during the worst global recession since World War II . OPEC 's annual oil export revenue also set a new record in 2008 , estimated around US $ 800 billion , and would go on to approximate US $ 1 trillion in 2011 – 2013 before plunging again . By the time of the 2011 Libyan Civil War and Arab Spring , OPEC was calling for more efforts by governments and regulatory bodies to curb " excessive speculation " in oil futures markets , blaming financial speculators for increasing volatility in prices , disconnected from market fundamentals .
In May 2008 , Indonesia announced that it would leave OPEC when its membership expired at the end of that year , having become a net importer of oil and being unable to meet its production quota . A statement released by OPEC on 10 September 2008 confirmed Indonesia 's withdrawal , noting that OPEC " regretfully accepted the wish of Indonesia to suspend its full membership in the organization , and recorded its hope that the country would be in a position to rejoin the organization in the not @-@ too @-@ distant future . "
= = = 2008 production dispute = = =
The differing economic needs of OPEC member states often affect the internal politics behind OPEC production quotas . Poorer members have pushed for reductions in OPEC production , to increase the price of oil and thus their own revenues . These proposals conflict with Saudi Arabia 's stated long @-@ term strategy of being a partner with the world 's economic powers to ensure a steady flow of oil that would support economic expansion . Part of the basis for this policy is the Saudi concern that overly expensive oil or unreliable supply will drive industrial nations to conserve and develop alternative fuels , curtailing the worldwide demand for oil . To this point , Saudi Oil Minister Yamani famously said in 1973 : " The Stone Age didn 't end because we ran out of stones . "
On 10 September 2008 , a production dispute occurred when the Saudis reportedly walked out of a negotiating session where rival members voted to reduce OPEC output . Although Saudi delegates officially endorsed the new quotas , they stated anonymously that they would not observe them . The New York Times quoted one such delegate as saying : " Saudi Arabia will meet the market 's demand . We will see what the market requires and we will not leave a customer without oil . The policy has not changed . "
= = = 2014 – 2016 oil glut = = =
During 2014 – 2015 , OPEC members consistently exceeded their production ceiling , and China experienced a marked slowdown in economic growth . At the same time , US oil production nearly doubled from 2008 levels and approached the world @-@ leading " swing producer " volumes of Saudi Arabia and Russia , due to substantial improvements in shale " fracking " technology in response to record oil prices . These developments led in turn to a plunge in US oil import requirements ( on a path toward energy independence ) , a record volume of worldwide oil inventories , and a collapse in oil prices that continued into early 2016 .
In spite of global oversupply , on 27 November 2014 in Vienna , Saudi Oil Minister Ali Al @-@ Naimi blocked appeals from poorer OPEC members for production cuts to support prices . Naimi argued that the oil market should be left to rebalance itself at lower price levels , strategically rebuilding OPEC 's long @-@ term market share by ending the profitability of high @-@ cost US shale oil production . As he explained in an interview :
Is it reasonable for a highly efficient producer to reduce output , while the producer of poor efficiency continues to produce ? That is crooked logic . If I reduce , what happens to my market share ? The price will go up and the Russians , the Brazilians , US shale oil producers will take my share ... We want to tell the world that high @-@ efficiency producing countries are the ones that deserve market share . That is the operative principle in all capitalist countries ... One thing is for sure : Current prices [ roughly US $ 60 / bbl ] do not support all producers .
A year later , when OPEC met in Vienna on 4 December 2015 , the organization had exceeded its production ceiling for 18 consecutive months , US oil production had declined only slightly from its peak , world markets appeared to be oversupplied by at least 2 million barrels per day despite Libya producing 1 million barrels below capacity , oil producers were making major adjustments to withstand prices as low as the $ 40s , Indonesia was rejoining the export organization , Iraqi production had surged after years of disorder , Iranian output was poised to rebound with the lifting of international sanctions , hundreds of world leaders at the Paris Agreement were committing to limit carbon emissions from fossil fuels , and solar technologies were becoming steadily more competitive and prevalent . In light of all these pressures , OPEC decided to set aside its ineffective production ceiling until the next ministerial conference in June 2016 . By 20 January 2016 , the OPEC Reference Basket was down to US $ 22 @.@ 48 / bbl – less than one @-@ fourth of its high from June 2014 ( $ 110 @.@ 48 ) , less than one @-@ sixth of its record from July 2008 ( $ 140 @.@ 73 ) , and back below the April 2003 starting point ( $ 23 @.@ 27 ) of its historic run @-@ up .
As 2016 continued , the oil glut was gradually trimmed with significant production offline in the US , Canada , Libya , Nigeria and China , and the price gradually rose back toward US $ 50 / bbl . OPEC maintained the status quo at its June conference , and endorsed " prices at levels that are suitable for both producers and consumers " , with the world waiting to see if and when and how the oil market would fully return to balance .
= George Koval =
George Abramovich Koval ( Russian : Жорж ( Георгий ) Абра ́ мович Кова ́ ль ; IPA : [ ˈʐorʐ ( ɡʲɪˈorɡʲɪj ) ɐˈbraməvʲɪtɕ kɐˈvalʲ ] , Zhorzh Abramovich Koval , December 25 , 1913 – January 31 , 2006 ) was an American who acted as a Soviet intelligence officer . According to Russian sources , Koval 's infiltration of the Manhattan Project as a Glavnoye Razvedyvatel 'noye Upravleniye ( GRU ) agent " drastically reduced the amount of time it took for Russia to develop nuclear weapons . "
Koval was born to Jewish immigrants in Sioux City , Iowa , USA . Shortly after reaching adulthood he traveled with his parents to the Soviet Union to settle in the Jewish Autonomous Region near the Chinese border . Koval was recruited by the Soviet Main Intelligence Directorate , trained , and assigned the code name DELMAR . He returned to the United States in 1940 and was drafted into the US Army in early 1943 . Koval worked at atomic research laboratories and , according to the Russian government , relayed back to the Soviet Union information about the production processes and volumes of the polonium , plutonium , and uranium used in American atomic weaponry , and descriptions of the weapon production sites . In 1948 , Koval left on a European vacation but never returned to the United States . In 2007 Russian President Vladimir Putin posthumously awarded Koval the Hero of the Russian Federation decoration for " his courage and heroism while carrying out special missions " .
= = Early life = =
George Koval 's father , Abram Koval , left his home town of Telekhany in Belarus to immigrate to the United States in 1910 . Abram , a carpenter , settled in Sioux City , Iowa , which at the turn of the 20th century was home to a sizeable Jewish population of merchants and craftsmen . He and his wife Ethel Shenitsky Koval raised three sons : Isaya , born 1912 ; George ( or Zhorzh ) , born Christmas 1913 ; and Gabriel , born 1919 .
George Koval attended Central High School , a red @-@ brick Victorian building better known as " the Castle on the Hill " . Neighbors recalled that Koval spoke openly of his Communist beliefs . While attending Central High he was a member of the Honor Society and the debate team . He graduated in 1929 at the age of 15 . Meanwhile , his parents left Sioux City as the Great Depression deepened . Abram Koval became the secretary for ICOR , the Organization for Jewish Colonization in the Soviet Union . Founded by American Jewish Communists in 1924 , the group helped to finance and publicize the development of the " Jewish Autonomous Region " – the Communist answer to Jewish emigration to the British Mandate of Palestine then being undertaken by the Zionist movement . The Koval family emigrated in 1932 , traveling with a United States family passport . They settled in Birobidzhan , near the border of Manchuria .
The Koval family worked on a collective farm and were profiled by an American Communist daily newspaper in New York City . The journalist Paul Novick wrote to his readers that the family " had exchanged the uncertainty of life as small storekeepers ... for a worry @-@ free existence for themselves and their children . " While Isaya became a champion tractor driver , George Koval improved his Russian language skills in the collective and began studies at the Mendeleev Institute of Chemical Technology in 1934 . At the university he met and married fellow student Lyudmila Ivanova . Koval graduated with honors in five years and received Soviet citizenship .
= = Recruitment and espionage = =
Later , Koval was recruited by the Soviet Main Intelligence Directorate ( Главное Разведывательное Управление ) , or GRU . By the time he received his degree he had left Moscow under orders as part of a subterfuge . He was drafted into the Soviet army in 1939 to explain his sudden disappearance from the city . Though his parents had relinquished their US family passport , Koval returned to the US in 1940 , replacing a spy recalled during Stalin 's purges . His code name was DELMAR . Arriving in San Francisco , he traveled to New York City . According to Arnold Kramish , an American colleague he befriended and with whom he re @-@ established contact in 2000 , it was there that Koval assumed deputy command of the local GRU cell . This outpost operated under the cover of the Raven Electric Company , a supplier to firms such as General Electric . Koval told coworkers he was a native New Yorker and an only child . He ingratiated himself with everyone he met . While Koval originally worked under a pseudonym , gathering information on toxins for use in chemical weapons , his handlers decided to have him work under his real name .
During the beginning of World War II , President Franklin D. Roosevelt had re @-@ introduced the draft ( conscription ) in September 1940 , and Koval registered for it on January 2 , 1941 . Raven Electric Company secured him a year 's deferment from service until February 1942 . According to historian Vladimir Lota , Koval 's handlers wanted him to steal information about chemical weapons , and felt that he would not be able to do so while drafted . When the deferment expired , Koval was inducted into the United States Army . He received basic training at Fort Dix in New Jersey before being sent to the Citadel in Charleston , South Carolina . There , Koval served as a private in the 3410th Specialized Training and Reassignment Unit . On August 11 , 1943 , he was transferred to the Army Specialized Training Program , a unit established in December 1942 to provide talented enlistees with an education and technical training . Koval attended the City College of New York ( CCNY ) and studied electrical engineering . His CCNY classmates looked up to the older Koval as a role model and father figure who never did homework and was a noted ladies ' man , never knowing about his Soviet education and wife . Colleagues recalled that he never discussed politics or the Soviet Union .
= = = Atomic secrets = = =
The Specialized Training Program was dissolved in early 1944 , as the progress of the war tipped in favor of the Allies ; many of the CCNY classmates were transferred to the infantry , while Koval and a dozen others were selected for the Special Engineer Detachment . The Detachment was part of the covert project to design , engineer , and fabricate an atomic bomb — an American , Canadian and British initiative known as the Manhattan Project . Koval was assigned to Oak Ridge , Tennessee ; at the time , Project scientists were researching enriched uranium and plutonium @-@ based bombs , with the Oak Ridge laboratories central to the development of both . The Project suffered from a lack of human resources , and asked the Army for technically qualified men .
Koval enjoyed free access to much of Oak Ridge ; he was made a " health physics officer " , and monitored radiation levels across the facility . According to Federal Bureau of Investigation records , the job gave him top @-@ secret security clearance . At the time , Project scientists discovered reactor @-@ produced plutonium was too unstable for the intended bomb designs , and that polonium initiators ( urchin ) were needed for the necessary chain reactions to occur . Koval was charged by his handlers with watching Oak Ridge 's polonium supply to transmit information about it through a Soviet contact named " Clyde " . His information reached Moscow via coded dispatches , couriers , and the Soviet Embassy . Among the intelligence he sent was that Oak Ridge 's polonium was being sent to another Project site at Los Alamos National Laboratory .
Koval was transferred from Oak Ridge to a top @-@ secret lab in Dayton , Ohio on June 27 , 1945 , where polonium initiators were fabricated . The world 's first atomic bomb was detonated in New Mexico on July 16 of that year . Atomic bombs were dropped on Japan on August 6 and 9 , leading to Japan 's surrender and the end of World War II . The Soviet Union responded by increasing efforts to develop its own atomic bomb . While the American Central Intelligence Agency estimated the Soviets would not succeed until 1950 – 53 , the first Soviet atomic bomb was detonated on August 29 , 1949 . The initiator for the plutonium bomb was , according to Russian military officials , " prepared to the ' recipe ' provided by military intelligence agent Delmar [ Koval ] " .
= = Later years = =
After World War II , Koval was discharged from the Army . He returned to New York and CCNY , where he received his bachelor 's degree in electrical engineering on February 1 , 1948 . Telling his friends he was thinking about taking a trip to Poland or Israel , Koval secured a passport for six months ' travel to Europe . According to the Russian publication Rossiyskaya Gazeta , he might have left because American counter @-@ intelligence agents had discovered Soviet literature about his parents after being tipped off about the leak by a Soviet defector . He left by sea in October 1948 and never returned to his birth country . In Russia , he left the Soviet military with discharge papers as an untrained rifleman and the rank of private . His foreign background and service record made him " a very suspicious character " , he wrote to Kramish . Turned down for education and research positions , Koval turned to his old GRU contact , who secured him a job as a laboratory assistant at the Mendeleev Institute . Eventually , Koval managed to obtain a teaching job there ; his students often laughed at his foreign pronunciations for technical terms .
While other spies such as Julius and Ethel Rosenberg and Klaus Fuchs were caught after the war , Koval apparently went unscrutinized for years . Among the reasons given for his maintained cover was that inter @-@ service politics undermined efforts to perform proper security checks on employees . Another possibility is that the U.S. government chose scientific ability over clear records and political sympathies . In the 1950s , the FBI investigated his wartime activities and interviewed his former colleagues , leaving them with the impression that he might have been a spy . The matter was kept confidential for sixty years as the US was afraid of the damage that would result from the exposure of Koval 's activities .
In 1999 , Koval was living on his small pension in Russia and had heard that U.S. War Veterans like he could apply for U.S. Social Security Payments . He applied . In 2000 , the Social Security Administration 's Office of Central Operations , Baltimore , Maryland in this one sentence letter said , " We are writing to tell you that you do not qualify for retirement benefits . "
Koval described his 57 years of post @-@ spy life living in Russia as " uneventful " . His family knew he had done work for the GRU , but the subject was never discussed . He did not receive any high awards upon his return , a fact that bothered him . Bigger awards went to " career men " , he told Kramish . However , he ended his correspondence by saying that he was not protesting his treatment ; " [ I am thankful ] that I did not find myself in a Gulag , as might well have happened " . Koval died in his Moscow apartment on January 31 , 2006 , at the age of 92 .
Koval 's activities as a spy began to emerge after the publication of a 2002 book , The GRU and the Atomic Bomb , which mentioned Koval by his code name and listed him as one of a handful of spies who evaded counterintelligence groups . On November 3 , 2007 , he received the posthumous title of Hero of the Russian Federation bestowed by Russian President Vladimir Putin . When Koval was honored , the Russian presidential proclamation stated , " Mr Koval , who operated under the pseudonym Delmar , provided information that helped speed up considerably the time it took for the Soviet Union to develop an atomic bomb of its own " .
= Outer space =
Outer space , or just space , is the void that exists between celestial bodies , including the Earth . It is not completely empty , but consists of a hard vacuum containing a low density of particles , predominantly a plasma of hydrogen and helium as well as electromagnetic radiation , magnetic fields , neutrinos , dust and cosmic rays . The baseline temperature , as set by the background radiation from the Big Bang , is 2 @.@ 7 kelvins ( K ) ( − 270 @.@ 45 ° C ; − 454 @.@ 81 ° F ) . Plasma with a number density of less than one hydrogen atom per cubic metre and a temperature of millions of kelvins in the space between galaxies accounts for most of the baryonic ( ordinary ) matter in outer space ; local concentrations have condensed into stars and galaxies . In most galaxies , observations provide evidence that 90 % of the mass is in an unknown form , called dark matter , which interacts with other matter through gravitational but not electromagnetic forces . Data indicates that the majority of the mass @-@ energy in the observable universe is a poorly understood vacuum energy of space which astronomers label dark energy . Intergalactic space takes up most of the volume of the Universe , but even galaxies and star systems consist almost entirely of empty space .
There is no firm boundary where outer space begins . However the Kármán line , at an altitude of 100 km ( 62 mi ) above sea level , is conventionally used as the start of outer space in space treaties and for aerospace records keeping . The framework for international space law was established by the Outer Space Treaty , which was passed by the United Nations in 1967 . This treaty precludes any claims of national sovereignty and permits all states to freely explore outer space . Despite the drafting of UN resolutions for the peaceful uses of outer space , anti @-@ satellite weapons have been tested in Earth orbit .
Humans began the physical exploration of space during the 20th century with the advent of high @-@ altitude balloon flights , followed by manned rocket launches . Earth orbit was first achieved by Yuri Gagarin of the Soviet Union in 1961 and unmanned spacecraft have since reached all of the known planets in the Solar System . Due to the high cost of getting into space , manned spaceflight has been limited to low Earth orbit and the Moon .
Outer space represents a challenging environment for human exploration because of the dual hazards of vacuum and radiation . Microgravity also has a negative effect on human physiology that causes both muscle atrophy and bone loss . In addition to these health and environmental issues , the economic cost of putting objects , including humans , into space is high ; in 1969 , the Apollo program cost approximately $ 24 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( $ 395 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 as of 2015 ) .
= = Discovery = =
In 350 BCE , Greek philosopher Aristotle suggested that nature abhors a vacuum , a principle that became known as the horror vacui . This concept built upon a 5th @-@ century BCE ontological argument by the Greek philosopher Parmenides , who denied the possible existence of a void in space . Based on this idea that a vacuum could not exist , in the West it was widely held for many centuries that space could not be empty . As late as the 17th century , the French philosopher René Descartes argued that the entirety of space must be filled .
In ancient China , there were various schools of thought concerning the nature of the heavens , some of which bear a resemblance to the modern understanding . In the 2nd century , astronomer Zhang Heng became convinced that space must be infinite , extending well beyond the mechanism that supported the Sun and the stars . The surviving books of the Hsüan Yeh school said that the heavens were boundless , " empty and void of substance " . Likewise , the " sun , moon , and the company of stars float in the empty space , moving or standing still " .
The Italian scientist Galileo Galilei knew that air had mass and so was subject to gravity . In 1640 , he demonstrated that an established force resisted the formation of a vacuum . However , it would remain for his pupil Evangelista Torricelli to create an apparatus that would produce a vacuum in 1643 . This experiment resulted in the first mercury barometer and created a scientific sensation in Europe . The French mathematician Blaise Pascal reasoned that if the column of mercury was supported by air then the column ought to be shorter at higher altitude where the air pressure is lower . In 1648 , his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Florin Périer , repeated the experiment on the Puy de Dôme mountain in central France and found that the column was shorter by three inches . This decrease in pressure was further demonstrated by carrying a half @-@ full balloon up a mountain and watching it gradually expand , then contract upon descent .
In 1650 , German scientist Otto von Guericke constructed the first vacuum pump : a device that would further refute the principle of horror vacui . He correctly noted that the atmosphere of the Earth surrounds the planet like a shell , with the density gradually declining with altitude . He concluded that there must be a vacuum between the Earth and the Moon .
Back in the 15th century , German theologian Nicolaus Cusanus speculated that the Universe lacked a center and a circumference . He believed that the Universe , while not infinite , could not be held as finite as it lacked any bounds within which it could be contained . These ideas led to speculations as to the infinite dimension of space by the Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno in the 16th century . He extended the Copernican heliocentric cosmology to the concept of an infinite Universe filled with a substance he called aether , which did not cause resistance to the motions of heavenly bodies . English philosopher William Gilbert arrived at a similar conclusion , arguing that the stars are visible to us only because they are surrounded by a thin aether or a void . This concept of an aether originated with ancient Greek philosophers , including Aristotle , who conceived of it as the medium through which the heavenly bodies moved .
The concept of a Universe filled with a luminiferous aether remained in vogue among some scientists until the early 20th century . This form of aether was viewed as the medium through which light could propagate . In 1887 , the Michelson – Morley experiment tried to detect the Earth 's motion through this medium by looking for changes in the speed of light depending on the direction of the planet 's motion . However , the null result indicated something was wrong with the concept . The idea of the luminiferous aether was then abandoned . It was replaced by Albert Einstein 's theory of special relativity , which holds that the speed of light in a vacuum is a fixed constant , independent of the observer 's motion or frame of reference .
The first professional astronomer to support the concept of an infinite Universe was the Englishman Thomas Digges in 1576 . But the scale of the Universe remained unknown until the first successful measurement of the distance to a nearby star in 1838 by the German astronomer Friedrich Bessel . He showed that the star 61 Cygni had a parallax of just 0 @.@ 31 arcseconds ( compared to the modern value of 0 @.@ 287 ″ ) . This corresponds to a distance of over 10 light years . The distance to the Andromeda Galaxy was determined in 1923 by American astronomer Edwin Hubble by measuring the brightness of cepheid variables in that galaxy , a new technique discovered by Henrietta Leavitt . This established that the Andromeda galaxy , and by extension all galaxies , lay well outside the Milky Way .
The earliest known estimate of the temperature of outer space was by the Swiss physicist Charles É . Guillaume in 1896 . Using the estimated radiation of the background stars , he concluded that space must be heated to a temperature of 5 – 6 K. British physicist Arthur Eddington made a similar calculation to derive a temperature of 3 @.@ 18 K in 1926 . 1933 German physicist Erich Regener used the total measured energy of cosmic rays to estimate an intergalactic temperature of 2 @.@ 8 K.
The modern concept of outer space is based on the " Big Bang " cosmology , first proposed in 1931 by the Belgian physicist Georges Lemaître . This theory holds that the observable universe originated from a very compact form that has since undergone continuous expansion . The background energy released during the initial expansion has steadily decreased in density , leading to a 1948 prediction by American physicts Ralph Alpher and Robert Herman of a temperature of 5 K for the temperature of space .
The term outer space was used in 1842 by the English poet Lady Emmeline Stuart @-@ Wortley in her poem " The Maiden of Moscow " . The expression outer space was used as an astronomical term by Alexander von Humboldt in 1845 . It was later popularized in the writings of H. G. Wells in 1901 . The shorter term space is actually older , first used to mean the region beyond Earth 's sky in John Milton 's Paradise Lost in 1667 .
= = Formation and state = =
According to the Big Bang theory , the Universe originated in an extremely hot and dense state about 13 @.@ 8 billion years ago and began expanding rapidly . About 380 @,@ 000 years later the Universe had cooled sufficiently to allow protons and electrons to combine and form hydrogen — the so @-@ called recombination epoch . When this happened , matter and energy became decoupled , allowing photons to travel freely through space . The matter that remained following the initial expansion has since undergone gravitational collapse to create stars , galaxies and other astronomical objects , leaving behind a deep vacuum that forms what is now called outer space . As light has a finite velocity , this theory also constrains the size of the directly observable universe . This leaves open the question as to whether the Universe is finite or infinite .
The present day shape of the Universe has been determined from measurements of the cosmic microwave background using satellites like the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe . These observations indicate that the observable universe is flat , meaning that photons on parallel paths at one point will remain parallel as they travel through space to the limit of the observable universe , except for local gravity . The flat Universe , combined with the measured mass density of the Universe and the accelerating expansion of the Universe , indicates that space has a non @-@ zero vacuum energy , which is called dark energy .
Estimates put the average energy density of the Universe at the equivalent of 5 @.@ 9 protons per cubic meter , including dark energy , dark matter , and baryonic matter ( ordinary matter composed of atoms ) . The atoms account for only 4 @.@ 6 % of the total energy density , or a density of one proton per four cubic meters . The density of the Universe , however , is clearly not uniform ; it ranges from relatively high density in galaxies — including very high density in structures within galaxies , such as planets , stars , and black holes — to conditions in vast voids that have much lower density , at least in terms of visible matter . Unlike the matter and dark matter , the dark energy seems not to be concentrated in galaxies : although dark energy may account for a majority of the mass @-@ energy in the Universe , dark energy 's influence is 5 orders of magnitude smaller than the influence of gravity from matter and dark matter within the Milky Way .
= = Environment = =
Outer space is the closest known approximation to a perfect vacuum . It has effectively no friction , allowing stars , planets and moons to move freely along their ideal orbits . However , even the deep vacuum of intergalactic space is not devoid of matter , as it contains a few hydrogen atoms per cubic meter . By comparison , the air we breathe contains about 1025 molecules per cubic meter . The sparse density of matter in outer space means that electromagnetic radiation can travel great distances without being scattered : the mean free path of a photon in intergalactic space is about 1023 km , or 10 billion light years . In spite of this , extinction , which is the absorption and scattering of photons by dust and gas , is an important factor in galactic and intergalactic astronomy .
Stars , planets and moons retain their atmospheres by gravitational attraction . Atmospheres have no clearly delineated boundary : the density of atmospheric gas gradually decreases with distance from the object until it becomes indistinguishable from the surrounding environment . The Earth 's atmospheric pressure drops to about 0 @.@ 032 Pa at 100 kilometres ( 62 miles ) of altitude , compared to 100 @,@ 000 Pa for the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ( IUPAC ) definition of standard pressure . Beyond this altitude , isotropic gas pressure rapidly becomes insignificant when compared to radiation pressure from the Sun and the dynamic pressure of the solar wind . The thermosphere in this range has large gradients of pressure , temperature and composition , and varies greatly due to space weather .
The temperature of the vacuum is measured in terms of the kinetic activity of the gas , as it is on Earth . However , the radiation that fills the vacuum has a different temperature than the kinetic temperature of the gas , meaning that the gas and radiation are not in thermodynamic equilibrium . All of the observable universe is filled with photons that were created during the Big Bang , which is known as the cosmic microwave background radiation ( CMB ) . ( There is quite likely a correspondingly large number of neutrinos called the cosmic neutrino background . ) The current black body temperature of the background radiation is about 3 K ( − 270 ° C ; − 454 ° F ) . The gas temperatures in outer space are always at least the temperature of the CMB but can be much higher . For example , the corona of the Sun has temperatures which range over 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 6 million K.
Outside of a protective atmosphere and magnetic field , there are few obstacles to the passage through space of energetic subatomic particles known as cosmic rays . These particles have energies ranging from about 106 eV up to an extreme 1020 eV of ultra @-@ high @-@ energy cosmic rays . The peak flux of cosmic rays occurs at energies of about 109 eV , with approximately 87 % protons , 12 % helium nuclei and 1 % heavier nuclei . In the high energy range , the flux of electrons is only about 1 % of that of protons . Cosmic rays can damage electronic components and pose a health threat to space travelers . According to astronauts , like Don Pettit , space has a burned / metallic odor that clings to their suits and equipment , similar to the scent of an arc welding torch .
Despite the harsh environment , several life forms have been found that can withstand extreme space conditions for extended periods . Species of lichen carried on the ESA BIOPAN facility survived exposure for ten days in 2007 . Seeds of Arabidopsis thaliana and Nicotiana tabacum germinated after being exposed to space for 1 @.@ 5 years . A strain of bacillus subtilis has survived 559 days when exposed to low @-@ Earth orbit or a simulated martian environment . The lithopanspermia hypothesis suggests that rocks ejected into outer space from life @-@ harboring planets may successfully transport life forms to another habitable world . A conjecture is that just such a scenario occurred early in the history of the Solar System , with potentially microorganism @-@ bearing rocks being exchanged between Venus , Earth , and Mars .
= = = Effect on human bodies = = =
Sudden exposure to very low pressure , such as during a rapid decompression , can cause pulmonary barotrauma — a rupture of the lungs , due to the large pressure differential between inside and outside of the chest . Even if the victim 's airway is fully open , the flow of air through the windpipe may be too slow to prevent the rupture . Rapid decompression can rupture eardrums and sinuses , bruising and blood seep can occur in soft tissues , and shock can cause an increase in oxygen consumption that leads to hypoxia .
As a consequence of rapid decompression , any oxygen dissolved in the blood will empty into the lungs to try to equalize the partial pressure gradient . Once the deoxygenated blood arrives at the brain , humans and animals will lose consciousness after a few seconds and die of hypoxia within minutes . Blood and other body fluids boil when the pressure drops below 6 @.@ 3 kPa , and this condition is called ebullism . The steam may bloat the body to twice its normal size and slow circulation , but tissues are elastic and porous enough to prevent rupture . Ebullism is slowed by the pressure containment of blood vessels , so some blood remains liquid . Swelling and ebullism can be reduced by containment in a flight suit . The Crew Altitude Protection Suit ( CAPS ) , a fitted elastic garment designed in the 1960s for Shuttle astronauts , prevents ebullism at pressures as low as 2 kPa . Space suits are needed at 8 km ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) to provide enough oxygen for breathing and to prevent water loss , while above 20 km ( 12 mi ) they are essential to prevent ebullism . Most space suits use around 30 – 39 kPa of pure oxygen , about the same as on the Earth 's surface . This pressure is high enough to prevent ebullism , but evaporation of nitrogen dissolved in the blood could still cause decompression sickness and gas embolisms if not managed .
Humans evolved for life in Earth gravity , and exposure to weightlessness has been shown to have deleterious effects on the health of the human body . Initially , more than 50 % of astronauts experience space motion sickness . This can cause nausea and vomiting , vertigo , headaches , lethargy , and overall malaise . The duration of space sickness varies , but it typically lasts for 1 – 3 days , after which the body adjusts to the new environment . Longer term exposure to weightlessness results in muscle atrophy and deterioration of the skeleton , or spaceflight osteopenia . These effects can be minimized through a regimen of exercise . Other effects include fluid redistribution , slowing of the cardiovascular system , decreased production of red blood cells , balance disorders , and a weakening of the immune system . Lesser symptoms include loss of body mass , nasal congestion , sleep disturbance , and puffiness of the face .
For long duration space travel , radiation can pose an acute health hazard . Exposure to radiation sources such as high @-@ energy , ionizing cosmic rays can result in fatigue , nausea , vomiting , as well as damage to the immune system and changes to the white blood cell count . Over longer durations , symptoms include an increased risk of cancer , plus damage to the eyes , nervous system , lungs and the gastrointestinal tract . On a round @-@ trip Mars mission lasting three years , nearly the entire body would be traversed by high energy nuclei , each of which can cause ionization damage to cells . Fortunately , most such particles are significantly attenuated by the shielding provided by the aluminium walls of a spacecraft , and can be further diminished by water containers and other barriers . However , the impact of the cosmic rays upon the shielding produces additional radiation that can affect the crew . Further research will be needed to assess the radiation hazards and determine suitable countermeasures .
= = Boundary = =
There is no clear boundary between Earth 's atmosphere and space , as the density of the atmosphere gradually decreases as the altitude increases . There are several standard boundary designations , namely :
The Fédération Aéronautique Internationale has established the Kármán line at an altitude of 100 km ( 62 mi ) as a working definition for the boundary between aeronautics and astronautics . This is used because at an altitude of about 100 km ( 62 mi ) , as Theodore von Kármán calculated , a vehicle would have to travel faster than orbital velocity in order to derive sufficient aerodynamic lift from the atmosphere to support itself .
The United States designates people who travel above an altitude of 50 miles ( 80 km ) as astronauts .
NASA 's Space Shuttle used 400 @,@ 000 feet ( 76 mi , 122 km ) as its re @-@ entry altitude ( termed the Entry Interface ) , which roughly marks the boundary where atmospheric drag becomes noticeable , thus beginning the process of switching from steering with thrusters to maneuvering with air surfaces .
In 2009 , scientists at the University of Calgary reported detailed measurements with a Supra @-@ Thermal Ion Imager ( an instrument that measures the direction and speed of ions ) , which allowed them to establish a boundary at 118 km ( 73 mi ) above Earth . The boundary represents the midpoint of a gradual transition over tens of kilometers from the relatively gentle winds of the Earth 's atmosphere to the more violent flows of charged particles in space , which can reach speeds well over 268 m / s ( 600 mph ) .
The altitude where the atmospheric pressure matches the vapor pressure of water at the temperature of the human body is called the Armstrong line , named after American physician Harry G. Armstrong . It is located at an altitude of around 19 @.@ 14 km ( 11 @.@ 89 mi ) . At or above the Armstrong line , fluids in the throat and lungs will boil away . More specifically , exposed bodily liquids such as saliva , tears , and the liquids wetting the alveoli within the lungs will boil away . Hence , at this altitude the human body requires a pressure suit , or a pressurized capsule , to survive .
= = Legal status = =
The Outer Space Treaty provides the basic framework for international space law . It covers the legal use of outer space by nation states , and includes in its definition of outer space the Moon and other celestial bodies . The treaty states that outer space is free for all nation states to explore and is not subject to claims of national sovereignty . It also prohibits the deployment of nuclear weapons in outer space . The treaty was passed by the United Nations General Assembly in 1963 and signed in 1967 by the USSR , the United States of America and the United Kingdom . As of January 1 , 2008 the treaty has been ratified by 98 states and signed by an additional 27 states .
Beginning in 1958 , outer space has been the subject of multiple resolutions by the United Nations General Assembly . Of these , more than 50 have been concerning the international co @-@ operation in the peaceful uses of outer space and preventing an arms race in space . Four additional space law treaties have been negotiated and drafted by the UN 's Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space . Still , there remains no legal prohibition against deploying conventional weapons in space , and anti @-@ satellite weapons have been successfully tested by the US , USSR and China . The 1979 Moon Treaty turned the jurisdiction of all heavenly bodies ( including the orbits around such bodies ) over to the international community . However , this treaty has not been ratified by any nation that currently practices manned spaceflight .
In 1976 , eight equatorial states ( Ecuador , Colombia , Brazil , Congo , Zaire , Uganda , Kenya , and Indonesia ) met in Bogotá , Colombia . They made the " Declaration of the First Meeting of Equatorial Countries , " also known as " the Bogotá Declaration " , where they made a claim to control the segment of the geosynchronous orbital path corresponding to each country . These claims are not internationally accepted .
= = Earth orbit = =
A spacecraft enters orbit when it has enough horizontal velocity for its centripetal acceleration due to gravity to be less than or equal to the centrifugal acceleration due to the horizontal component of its velocity . For a low Earth orbit , this velocity is about 7 @,@ 800 m / s ( 28 @,@ 100 km / h ; 17 @,@ 40
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( 620 ft ) from the check @-@ in at the terminal . The station is 33 @.@ 0 kilometres ( 20 @.@ 5 mi ) from Trondheim Central Station , and located 5 @.@ 0 metres ( 16 @.@ 4 ft ) above mean sea level . There is no manned ticket sale , but a vending machine for tickets is located in the airport terminal . Luggage trolleys are available , and the airport terminal offers an array of traveler services , such as dining , paid parking , restrooms , car rental , taxis , retailing , ATMs and kiosks . There is a single track at the station , but built in such a way that the it can easily be converted to become an island platform with two tracks . Work on a second track has not begun as of 2014 , but there is budget for double track between Hell and Værnes .
= = Service = =
The Norwegian State Railways operates both commuter and express trains to Trondheim Airport . In each direction , there are three daily express trains , one to Mo i Rana and two to Bodø . One of the Bodø @-@ trains is a night train . Travel time to Mo i Rana is 6 hours and travel time to Bodø is 9 hours and 5 minutes . The Mo i Rana @-@ service is operated with Class 93 trains , while the Bodø @-@ services are operated with Di 4 @-@ hauled trains .
The Trøndelag Commuter Rail offers hourly services in each direction : northbound to Steinkjer and southbound to Trondheim and Lerkendal . During peak hours , the frequency is doubled . Travel time to Trondheim is 38 minutes and to Lerkendal 51 minutes . Northwards , travel time to Levanger is 48 minutes , to Verdal 1 hour and 2 minutes , and to Steinkjer 1 hour and 26 minutes . The commuter rail is operated with Class 92 trains . From the airport , there is connection with local buses operated by Nettbuss . Klæburuten operates an airport coach to and from the city center of Trondheim every ten minutes from 4 in the morning until 9 in the evening . NOR @-@ WAY Bussekspress and TrønderBilene operate a coach service to Steinkjer and onwards to Namsos .
= = History = =
The railway past Værnes opened on 27 October 1902 as the Hell – Sunnan Line — today part of the Nordland Line . The plans for a railway station in the terminal of Værnes were launched in 1990 , along with the plans to build a second terminal at the airport . Construction of the new terminal started on 1 October 1992 . On 15 March 1993 , NSB announced that they would start a commuter train service between Steinkjer and Melhus , south of Trondheim . The service would give a half @-@ hour headway during peak hours between Stjørdal and Melhus , and a one @-@ hour headway onwards to Steinkjer . NSB stated that the concept was based on the success of the Jæren Commuter Rail and that they hoped to have a 70 % increase in ridership , in part due to the opening of the airport station . The concept would also take advantage of expansion of Trondheim Central Station that would co @-@ locate the main coach- and train terminals in Trondheim . The service would also give direct services along the Dovre Line to Oppdal and the Røros Line to Tynset . Estimates were that the railway would capture a 10 % ground transport market share . The commuter rail service started on 1 September 1993 .
Construction of the railway station started on 7 April 1994 , and cost NOK 24 million . The terminal opened on 15 November 1994 , the same day as the new airport terminal . Minister of Transport and Communications Kjell Opseth performed the official opening . NSB stated that their primary goal was not to compete with the four hourly airport coaches that operated to the hotels in Trondheim , but instead to provide services to communities in Nord @-@ Trøndelag and south of Trondheim . It was the first airport rail link to open in Northern Europe , with the closest integrated train station at Schiphol Airport in Amsterdam , the Netherlands .
= Hazelwood School District v. Kuhlmeier =
Hazelwood School District et al. v. Kuhlmeier et al . , 484 U.S. 260 ( 1988 ) was a landmark decision by the Supreme Court of the United States that held that public school curricular student newspapers that have not been established as forums for student expression are subject to a lower level of First Amendment protection than independent student expression or newspapers established ( by policy or practice ) as forums for student expression .
The case concerned the censorship of two articles in The Spectrum , the student newspaper of Hazelwood East High School in St. Louis County , Missouri , in 1983 . When the school principal removed an article concerning divorce and another concerning teen pregnancy , the student journalists sued , claiming their First Amendment rights were violated . A lower court sided with the students before the decision was later overturned by the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit .
In a 5 @-@ 3 decision rendered in 1988 , the Supreme Court overturned the circuit court decision with a majority opinion , determining that school administrators could exercise prior restraint of school @-@ sponsored expression , such as newspapers and assembly speeches , if the censorship is " reasonably related to legitimate pedagogical concerns . " In this , school @-@ sponsored newspapers are considered limited public forums of expression .
The case and the earlier Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District are considered landmark decisions for defining the right to expression for students in public schools . While subsequent courts have varied significantly on when the Hazelwood decision applies , the case remains a strong precedent in the regulation of student speech . The New Voices bill of 2016 ( to date passed by 18 states ) is neglecting the Hazelwood decision , and returning to the Tinker precedent .
= = Background = =
= = = Facts of the case = = =
The case concerned The Spectrum , a student newspaper which was published as part of a journalism class at Hazelwood East High School in the Hazelwood School District in St. Louis County , Missouri . The Spectrum was written and edited as part of the Journalism II class at the public school , published roughly every three weeks during the 1982 – 1983 school year . About 4 @,@ 500 copies of the paper were distributed to students and community members during the year . The cost of printing the paper as well as supplies , textbooks , and a portion of the academic advisor 's salary were furnished by the district 's Board of Education , supplemented by newspaper sales . For that school year , the board supplied $ 4 @,@ 668 in printing costs , and the newspaper generated $ 94 @,@ 325 in revenue .
On May 10 , 1983 , Howard Emerson , the adviser to the journalism class , submitted page proofs of the May 13 issue of the newspaper to principal Robert Eugene Reynolds for approval , a practice which was customary at the time . Reynolds objected to two of the stories scheduled to run . One was a story concerning teen pregnancy , containing interviews with three students who had been pregnant . The story contained false names to keep the girls ' identities a secret , but Reynolds was concerned the pregnant students would still be identifiable from the text . Reynolds was also concerned the references to sexual activity and birth control were inappropriate for younger students at school . The second story concerned divorce and featured an interview with a student whose parents were divorced , in which she complained her father " wasn 't spending enough time with my mom , my sister , and I ... was always out of town on business or out late playing cards with the guys ... always argued about everything . " Reynolds , unaware that the name of the girl would also be changed , was concerned that her family should have been given an opportunity to respond within the story , or to consent to its publication .
Reynolds did not believe there was time to make the appropriate changes to the newspaper , and also that any delay in publication would mean the newspaper would not be published before the end of the school year . After consulting with his supervisors , Reynolds opted to publish a four @-@ page newspaper instead of a six @-@ page one , omitting the pages containing the two stories . Cutting two pages removed a total of seven articles from the paper . Reynolds did not tell the students about the decision , and they did not find out about it until the paper was delivered to the school .
In response , editor Cathy Kuhlmeier and reporters Leslie Smart and Leanne Tippett filed suit in January 1984 with the aid of the American Civil Liberties Union . Kuhlmeier later said the idea for the pieces came from old issues of The Spectrum and she had been looking to update them .
= = = Legal precedent = = =
Until the 1960s , administrative review of student publications was considered routine both at the high school and and collegiate level . Students and faculty advisers also had few alternatives . However , with the rise of the counterculture of the 1960s , student publications began to explore social issues with greater fervor , focusing on issues such as the Vietnam War , the civil rights movement , sexual orientation , and other issues considered sensitive at the time .
In 1969 , the U.S. Supreme Court upheld that freedom of expression of students is protected under the First Amendment in Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District ( 393 U.S. 503 ) . Following that precedent , at least 125 other court cases in courts across the country were decided in favor of student expression and against administrative censorship . Whenever an instance of censorship involved action from a government employee such as a school principal or a college dean , the courts held that First Amendment constitutional safeguards apply . Under this precedent , courts recognized student newspapers as public forums where student expression could only be restricted if they could prove substantial disruption of school activities was imminent . School administrators had been opposed to this interpretation . Two additional cases in following years , Healy v. James ( 408 U.S. 169 ) in 1972 and Papish v. University of Missouri Curators ( 410 U.S. 670 ) in 1973 , expanded the First Amendment rights of students on college campuses , but did not strongly define the status of student newspapers as a forum .
By the 1980s , however , with the end of the student protest era , school administrators sought to reassert their authority . The first case in the new trend , Bethel School District v. Fraser ( 478 U.S. 675 ) in 1986 , involved the discipline of a high school student for delivering a speech containing sexual innuendos , even though they were not obscene or disruptive in a legal sense . Overturning lower courts in the case , the Supreme Court clarified that the ruling of the Tinker case did not apply because the penalties imposed by the school were unrelated to a political viewpoint .
= = = Lower court decisions = = =
The case was introduced in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Missouri . The students sought a declaration that their First Amendment and Fourteenth Amendment rights had been violated by undue actions of a public official , as well as injunctive relief and monetary damages . After a bench trial , the district court denied the injunction and monetary damages . The court reached its decision in May 1985 , in which the district court held that school officials may restrain student speech in activities that " are an integral part of the school 's educational function , " as long as the decision has " a substantial and reasonable basis . " The court held that no violation of First Amendment rights had occurred .
The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit reversed the decision in January 1986 . The court held that , at the outset , The Spectrum was not only a part of the school program , but also a public forum . The newspaper was " intended to be and operated as a conduit for student viewpoint . " As a public forum , the court ruled , The Spectrum could not be censored unless " necessary to avoid material and substantial interference with school work or discipline ... or the rights of others . "
The U.S. Supreme Court granted certiorari in January 1987 , and the case was argued on October 13 , 1987 . On January 13 , 1988 , the court handed down its decision .
= = Supreme Court ruling = =
In a 5 @-@ 3 ruling , the Supreme Court overturned the decision of the circuit court . Its majority opinion set a precedent that school @-@ sponsored activities , including student newspapers and drama productions are not normally protected from administrative censorship by the First Amendment .
= = = Majority opinion = = =
The majority of the justices held that the principal was entitled to censor the articles . The majority opinion , penned by Associate Justice Byron White , stated officials never intended the school paper to be a public forum as were underground publications in cases past . White went on to say educators do not infringe on First Amendment rights when exercising control over student speech in school @-@ sponsored activities " so long as their actions are reasonably related to legitimate pedagogical concerns . " The court established that the student publication could be regulated by school officials , and that they " reserved the forum for its intended purpose , as a supervised learning experience for journalism students . "
A school need not tolerate student speech that is inconsistent with its basic educational mission , even though the government could not . ... ( Judicial action to protect students ' rights is justified ) only when the decision to censor a school @-@ sponsored publication , theatrical production or other vehicle of student expression has no valid educational purpose .
The decision overrode the precedent set in the Tinker case . The 1969 decision had permitted censorship of student speech only if it violated the rights of other students or if it threatened to cause a campus disruption . The majority opinion held that this case was different . The justices said the school administrators are not required to tolerate speech that is contrary to the school 's academic mission . The majority opinion continued :
and that requires a school to tolerate particular student speech — the question we addressed in Tinker — is different from the question whether the First Amendment requires a school affirmatively to promote particular student speech . The former question addresses educators ' ability to silence students ' personal expression that happens to occur on the school premises . The latter question concerns educators ' authority over school sponsored publications , theatrical productions , and other expressive activities that students , parents , and members of the public might reasonably perceive to bear the imprimatur of the school .
which protect student journalists , instead stating that , in absence of other rules barring administrative censorship , the First Amendment does not protect student publications . By 2010 seven states — Arkansas , California , Colorado , Iowa , Kansas , Massachusetts and Oregon had such laws on their books , and another 13 states were considering them . In a footnote , the court also clarified that it did not see that the ruling necessarily applied at the collegiate level .
= = = Dissenting opinion = = =
Associate Justice William J. Brennan , Jr. wrote a dissenting opinion , in which he was joined by Associate Justices Thurgood Marshall and Harry Blackmun , who often took liberal positions on First Amendment issues . In his opinion , Brennan expressed concern about the message the majority opinion would send students .
The young men and women of Hazelwood East expected a civics lesson , but not the one the Court teaches them today ... Such unthinking contempt for individual rights is intolerable from any state official . It is particularly insidious from ( a school principal ) to whom the public entrusts the task of inculcating in its youth an appreciation for the cherished democratic liberties that our constitution guarantees .
= = Legacy = =
The case established the standard school personnel must meet before limiting students ' freedom of expression in secondary schools . As representatives of the state , school administrators can censor , restrain or publish school @-@ sponsored student expression if it interferes with the requirements of school discipline , interferes with students ' rights , interferes with academic propriety , generates health or welfare concerns , or is deemed obscene or vulgar . This extends to theatrical productions , public speeches in an assembly environment , and publications produces as part of curricular activity , such as a student newspaper . The majority termed these reasons " legitimate pedagogical concerns . "
The standard does not , however , apply to personal communication or non @-@ school @-@ sponsored communication , off @-@ campus publications and non @-@ school @-@ sponsored speech , unless it interferes with school discipline or the rights of others . The case establishes student newspapers as " limited public forums . " This means schools may exercise prior restraint as to " style and content " of a student paper so long as their action is " not unreasonable " , where there previously had to be compelling evidence to warrant censorship . Separate cases also established what constituted school activities , such as in @-@ class parties and art created by students at the behest of teachers .
Web @-@ based student publications not subsidized by the school have been one student response to the ruling . Some individual states have also responded with laws designating student newspapers as public forums and offering them greater First Amendment protection . Experts from the Student Press Law Center have contended that the case has meant fewer lawsuits regarding student censorship make it to court .
= = = Subsequent jurisprudence = = =
While the Supreme Court indicated the Hazelwood did not necessarily apply at the collegiate level , some federal appeals courts have held that it applied at college newspapers while other appeals courts have not . Courts have also been split on viewpoint @-@ based expression in schools , such as religion . A variety of cases have appeared citing the Hazelwood case , citing whether or not a school should have the ability to regulate student dress or speech that certain ethnic groups might find offensive . In other cases though , courts have used the Tinker decision to support student speech if it isn 't found to be disruptive or offensive .
A 1989 case , Alabama Student Party v. Student Government Assn . ( 867 F.2d 1344 ) , held that campus newspapers that are part of a curriculum might not enjoy first amendment protection . A notable 2005 U.S. Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit court decision , Hosty v. Carter ( 412 U.S. 731 ) , held that Hazelwood also applied to subsidized student media at the college level . That ruling , though controversial , found there was " no sharp difference between high school and college newspapers , " noting that some are financially subsidized or produced by journalism classes . Students ' rights to speech were further explored in the 2007 decision Morse v. Frederick ( 551 U.S. 393 ) which found the First Amendment did not protect student speech that could be " reasonably viewed as promoting drug use . "
A 2001 case in the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit , Kincaid v. Gibson ( 236 F. 3d 342 ) , ruled that Hazelwood did not apply at the college level in that instance . The court found in that case that a student publication could not be censored if the censorship is not viewpoint @-@ neutral . The subsequent case Dean v. Utica dealt specifically with what defines a " legitimate pedagogical concern " as used in the Hazelwood case . That case found a school had censored speech wantonly .
= Elias Zoghby =
Elias Zoghby ( January 9 , 1912 – January 16 , 2008 ) was the Melkite Greek Catholic Archbishop of Baalbek and a leading advocate of Catholic @-@ Orthodox ecumenism . He is best known for his ecumenical interventions during Vatican II and his 1995 Profession of Faith , known as the Zoghby Initiative , which attempted to re @-@ establish communion between the Melkite Greek Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church while maintaining communion with the Roman Catholic Church .
Zoghby 's views on topics such as Catholic – Orthodox " double communion " and dissolution of marriage were controversial . Critics labeled him the enfant terrible of his church , while supporters lauded him as an energetic visionary who sought to re @-@ unite the Eastern Churches .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and ministry in Egypt = = =
Elias Zoghby was born on January 9 , 1912 in Cairo . His mother , Hanne Ishak Yared , was a Melkite Greek Catholic and his father , Abdallah Mikail Zoghby , was an Antiochian Orthodox convert and former Maronite Catholic . The couple had recently immigrated from Lebanon and settled in Cairo 's Arb @-@ el @-@ Guenena neighborhood . The area had a Melkite church nearby which his parents attended . Elias and his siblings were baptized into the Melkite faith and raised in a devout household , attending liturgy daily , reading the bible together as a family and praying the Office every afternoon .
Zoghby related in Memoires that he first received a vocational call at age sixteen . With his parent 's blessing he left for seminary in the summer of 1928 , going to Jerusalem to study with the White Fathers at the Melkite seminary of Saint Anne . He was ordained a priest at Saint Anne Melkite Basilica in Jerusalem on July 20 , 1936 , following which he was appointed a professor of Arabic Literature and Mathematics at the seminary . He later returned to Cairo as a parish priest .
While in Egypt , Zoghby considered the issues of ecumenism and the schism between the Melkite Catholic and Antiochian Orthodox Churches . As he began to study both the historical roots of the separation and the modern divisions of Middle Eastern churches he came to the opinion that the schism was unjustifiable . He also began to question the domination of the so @-@ called Uniate churches by the See of Rome . Zoghby , along with other Melkite priests in Egypt such as George Hakim and Joseph Tawil , were influenced by Father Oreste Karame , who advocated the need for the Melkite Church to return to its proper traditions and work for communion with the Orthodox Church .
In 1951 he was elevated to archimandrite while serving in Alexandria . While there he was threatened with arrest for preventing the execution of a sentence passed by a Sharia tribunal . On August 27 , 1954 he was named auxiliary bishop of Antioch ; then , on September 2 , 1954 he was appointed Titular Archbishop of Nubia . Zoghby was formally consecrated bishop on November 21 , 1954 when he was elevated to Patriarchal Vicar for the See of Alexandria , Cairo and the Sudan .
As the leader of the Melkite church in Egypt Zoghby was a vocal proponent of rights for Christians , and opposed the limitations placed on them by that country 's Law of Personal Statutes . The Nasser regime imprisoned him on December 20 , 1954 for his public opposition to the statutes . Released shortly afterwards , he continued to serve as patriarchal vicar in Egypt .
= = = Vatican II and Baalbek = = =
Zoghby was one of the most active eastern Catholic bishops to participate at the Second Vatican Council , where he offered eleven interventions . While some of the interventions were pastoral in nature , a good number were ecumenical , focusing on the Eastern churches and their relationship with Western Christianity . Zoghby 's efforts helped shape the formation of Orientalium Ecclesiarum , although , to his disappointment , it did not adequately address the needs of the Eastern Catholic Churches or bridge the gulf between Orthodoxy and Catholicism . While Orientalium Ecclesiarum encouraged Eastern Catholics to uphold their traditions and values , Zoghby felt that it " turn [ ed ] a blind eye " to true intercommunion ( communicatio in sacris ) .
Following the Council he opposed the acceptance of a Roman cardinalate by Melkite Patriarch Maximos IV Sayegh , stating that the leader of an Eastern Catholic church should not hold a subordinate Latin @-@ rite office . In protest , Zohgby resigned his position as patriarchal vicar of Alexandria . Maximos IV died in 1967 ; his successor , Maximos V Hakim , was a friend of Zoghby 's and a fellow Egyptian . In August 1968 the Melkite Synod elected Zoghby archbishop of Baalbek to replace the recently deceased eparch , Joseph Malouf . Installed as archbishop there on September 9 , 1968 , he led the small eparchy during the Lebanese Civil War . During 1982 he was kidnapped by pro @-@ Iranian terrorists .
Zoghby retired on October 24 , 1988 at age 76 . He remained an active proponent of ecumenism following his retirement , urging the reunification of the Melkite Greek Catholic Church and the Antiochian Orthodox Church . He died on January 16 , 2008 in Lebanon ; his funeral was held January 19 at St. Paul Basilica in Harissa .
= = Ecumenism and the Zoghby Initiative = =
Zoghby 's ecumenical initiatives gained visibility in May 1974 with the exchange of visits between the Melkite Catholic and the Antiochian Orthodox synods , which met simultaneously in Lebanon .
During the visit of the Melkite Catholic delegation to the Orthodox synod Zoghby drew attention to the fact that the original causes of separation between the groups had ceased to exist and the way was open for the " creation by stages of a real union between the two Churches , without waiting for the union of the Church of Rome and the Orthodox Churches . "
Afterwards , the churches agreed to form separate commissions for dialogue . Zogby outlined his views on the topic in his book Ecumenical Reflections , which was characterized by Vsevolod , the Orthodox Bishop of Scopelos , as an invitation " to ecumenical metanoia ... to recognize that where there is the fundamental common faith , held alike by Catholics and Orthodox , there is no defensible impediment to Eucharistic Communion . "
= = Views on dissolution of marriage = =
While attending Vatican II Zoghby spoke to Council on September 29 , 1965 about the trauma of the innocent spouse in cases of adultery . Zoghby suggested a solution which considers adultery and abandonment as causes for the dissolution of marriage :
" We know how much the Fathers of the Eastern Church tried to dissuade widowers and widows from a second marriage , thus following the Apostle ’ s advice , but they have never wished to deprive the innocent spouse who has been unjustly abandoned of the right to remarry . This tradition , preserved in the East , and which was never reproved during the ten centuries of union , could be accepted again and adopted by Catholics . Progress in patristic studies has indeed brought to the fore the doctrine of the Eastern Fathers who were no less qualified exegetes or moralists than the Western ones . "
The following month , Melkite Patriarch Maximos IV declared that , while " Archbishop Zoghby , like all Fathers of the council , enjoys full freedom to say what he thinks ... [ Zoghby ] speaks only for himself personally . With respect to the heart of the problem , the Church must hold fast to the indissolubility of marriage . "
= = Publications by Elias Zoghby = =
We Are All Schismatics ( Tous Schismatiques ? ) . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 56125 @-@ 019 @-@ 6
A Voice from the Byzantine East . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 56125 @-@ 018 @-@ 9 . This work of ecumenical theology and ecclesiology focuses on the role of the Eastern Catholic Churches in furthering the cause of Christian unity .
Ecumenical Reflections . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 892278 @-@ 06 @-@ 7 . Translated by Bishop Nicholas Samra , 1998
St. Mathiew , lu par un Eveque d 'Orient . Two volumes
Le Credo de l 'Amour . Anthology of poetry
Pour vivre notre foi . Anthology of poetry
Memoires . Un Eveque peu commode , dit @-@ on . Autobiographical reflections
Une Experience de Vie en Christ .
Quand la Tendresse divine se fait Mere .
Orthodox Uni , oui ! Uniate , non ! . Reproduced in Eastern Churches Journal , 2 : 3 ( 1995 )
= Bo Xilai =
Bo Xilai ( born 3 July 1949 ) is a Chinese former politician . He came to prominence through his tenures as the mayor of Dalian and then the governor of Liaoning . From 2004 to November 2007 , he served as Minister of Commerce . Between 2007 and 2012 , he served as a member of the Central Politburo and secretary of the Communist Party 's Chongqing branch . On 22 September 2013 , Bo was found guilty of corruption , stripped of all his assets , and sentenced to life imprisonment .
The son of Bo Yibo , one of the Eight Elders of the Communist Party of China , Bo Xilai is one of the " princelings " of Chinese politics . He cultivated a casual and charismatic image in the media that marked a departure from the normally staid nature of Chinese politics .
While serving in Liaoning , Bo held an important niche in the Northeast Area Revitalization Plan . Bo initiated a campaign against organized crime , increased spending on welfare programs , maintained consistent double @-@ digit percentage GDP growth , and campaigned to revive Cultural Revolution @-@ era " red culture " . Bo 's promotion of egalitarian values and the achievements of his " Chongqing model " made him the champion of the Chinese New Left , composed of both Maoists and social democrats disillusioned with the country 's market @-@ based economic reforms and increasing economic inequality . However , the perceived lawlessness of Bo 's anti @-@ corruption campaigns , coupled with concerns about the image he cultivated , made him a controversial figure .
Bo was considered a likely candidate for promotion to the elite Politburo Standing Committee in CPC 18th National Congress in 2012 . His political fortunes came to an abrupt end following the Wang Lijun incident , in which his top lieutenant and police chief sought asylum at the American consulate in Chengdu . Wang claimed to have information about the involvement of Bo Xilai and his wife Gu Kailai in the murder of British businessman Neil Heywood , who allegedly had close financial ties to the two .
In the fallout , Bo was removed as the party chief of Chongqing in March 2012 and suspended from the politburo the following month . Bo 's dismissal exposed disunity within Communist Party ranks shortly before a leadership transition , and some observers suspected that it was because he threatened Xi Jinping 's future grip on power . He was later stripped of all his party positions , lost his seat at the National People 's Congress , and was eventually expelled from the party .
= = Early life = =
Bo Xilai was the fourth child and second son of prominent Communist Party leader Bo Yibo , one of the Eight Great Eminent Officials , who served as Minister of Finance in the early years of the People 's Republic of China but who fell from favor in 1965 for supporting more open trade relations with the West . When the Cultural Revolution began in 1966 , Bo Yibo was labeled a " rightist " and a " counterrevolutionary " and purged from his posts . He spent the ensuing twelve years in prison , where he was reportedly tortured . His wife , Hu Ming , was abducted by Red Guard in Guangzhou , and was either beaten to death or committed suicide .
Bo Xilai was seventeen years old when the Cultural Revolution began , and at the time attended the prestigious No. 4 High School in Beijing , one of the best in the country . In the early years of the Cultural Revolution , Bo is reported to have been an active member of the liandong Red Guard organization and may have at one point denounced his father .
As the political winds of the Cultural Revolution shifted , Bo and his siblings were either imprisoned or sent to the countryside , and Bo Xilai was locked up for five years . After the death of Mao Zedong in 1976 , the members of the Gang of Four were officially blamed for the chaos of the Cultural Revolution , and Bo 's father was released . Bo Yibo was politically rehabilitated , and , in 1979 , became vice premier .
After his release , Bo Xilai worked at the Hardware Repair Factory for the Beijing Second Light Industry Bureau . He was admitted to the Peking University by public examination in 1977 . Unlike many of his contemporaries in the Chinese leadership who studied engineering , Bo majored in world history . In the second year of his studies , Bo enlisted in a Master 's program in international journalism at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences , graduating with a master 's degree in 1982 . He joined the Communist Party in October 1980 .
= = Early political career = =
During the 1980s , the Bo family regained its political influence . Bo Yibo served successively as vice premier and vice @-@ chairman of the Central Advisory Commission . The elder Bo came to be known as one of the " eight elders " ( sometimes referred to as the " Eight Immortals " ) of the Communist Party and was instrumental in the implementation of market reforms in the 1980s . Although he favored more liberal economic policies , the elder Bo was politically conservative , and endorsed the use of military force against demonstrators during the 1989 Tiananmen Square Protests . After the 1989 crackdown , Bo Yibo helped ensure the ascent of Jiang Zemin to succeed Deng Xiaoping as the leader of the Party and helped Jiang consolidate power in the 1990s . Bo Yibo remained a prominent figure in the party until his death in 2007 and was influential in shaping his son 's career .
After graduating from university , Bo was assigned to Zhongnanhai – the headquarters of the Communist Party – where he worked with the research office of the CPC Central Committee Secretariat and CPC Central Committee General Office . He soon requested a transfer to the provinces , and in 1984 was appointed deputy party secretary of Jin County ( modern day Jinzhou District , Dalian , Liaoning ) . In an interview with People 's Daily , Bo said that his family name created career obstacles . " For quite a long time people had reservations about me , " he said . Bo subsequently became deputy secretary and then secretary of the party committee of the Dalian Economic and Technological Development Zone and secretary of the Jinzhou party committee .
Rising again in rank within the party , he became a member of the Standing Committee of the Dalian Municipal CPC Committee , the city 's top decision @-@ making body , and became the Vice @-@ mayor of Dalian in 1990 . In 1993 , Bo became deputy Party secretary and mayor of Dalian .
= = Liaoning = =
= = = Mayor of Dalian = = =
Bo became acting mayor of Dalian in 1992 and formally assumed the post in 1993 . He remained mayor until 2000 . Bo served as Dalian 's deputy party secretary from 1995 . Bo was promoted to party chief in 1999 and served in that position until 2000 .
Bo 's tenure in Dalian was marked by the city 's phenomenal transformation from a drab port city to a modern metropolis , a ' showcase ' of China 's rapid economic growth . In the early 1990s , Bo took some credit for the construction of the Shenyang @-@ Dalian Expressway , China 's first controlled @-@ access freeway , winning accolades for the rapid expansion of infrastructure and for environmental work . Since Bo 's time in office , Dalian became known as one of the cleanest cities in China , having won the UN Habitat Scroll of Honour Award in 1999 . In addition , Bo was an advocate for free enterprise and small businesses , and successfully courted foreign investment from South Korea , Japan , and Western countries . In contrast to his colleagues , he held press conferences at Chinese New Year , and developed a reputation among foreign investors for ' getting things done ' .
Bo spent seventeen years in the city of Dalian , a lengthy term in comparison to colleagues of the same rank , who are often transferred to different locales throughout their careers . Despite the accompanying economic growth and rise in living standards , Bo 's tenure in Dalian has sometimes been criticized as having been too focused on aesthetic development projects such as expansive boulevards , monuments , and large public parks . To make way for his large @-@ scale projects , Bo 's administration moved large numbers of local residents from downtown areas into new homes in the city 's outskirts . Dalian 's greenery was dubbed " Xilai Grass " . He also reputedly had a remote control in the Mayor 's office for the fountains on the city 's main square . In addition , he spearheaded the construction of a huabiao in the city . In 2000 , Bo was frontrunner for the post of Mayor of Shenzhen , based on his success in making Dalian the " Hong Kong of the North " . However it was suggested that Bo was too independent and outspoken for the post . The post went to Yu Youjun instead .
= = = 15th Party Congress = = =
During the 15th Party Congress in 1997 , Bo Xilai 's family launched an unsuccessful campaign to secure his promotion to become a member of the Central Committee of the CCP . Although nepotism was generally frowned upon in China , Bo Yibo 's ambitions for his son were well @-@ known . Bo Yibo advanced the idea that revolutionary elders should ' nominate ' their children to become high officials , and Bo Xilai was selected as his family 's ' representative ' over his older brother Bo Xicheng , ostensibly because of Xilai 's superior academic credentials , which included attendance at the elite Peking University and a master 's degree .
In order to secure Bo Xilai 's selection for promotion during the 15th Party Congress , the family launched a nationwide campaign to publicize his son 's " achievements " as mayor of Dalian . They commissioned author Chen Zufeng to pen a report portraying Bo as a man who is " as statesman @-@ like as Henry Kissinger , as environmentally conscious as Al Gore , and almost as beloved by the public as Princess Diana . " Despite the publicity campaign , Bo Xilai failed even to gain a seat in the Liaoning provincial delegation to the Party Congress . Ultimately , Bo Yibo helped him gain a seat with the Shanxi delegation , but the younger Bo was unable to secure a promotion .
In addition , Bo placed second @-@ last in the confirmation vote for membership in the 15th Central Committee . As he placed in the bottom 5 % of candidates , Bo was denied entry into the elite council , suffering a major political embarrassment . Bo 's failure to get elected was attributed to a general opposition to nepotism within the Party . Moreover , during his tenure in Dalian , Bo caused resentment for the amount of ' special favours ' that he procured for the coastal city at the expense of the rest of the province . His perceived partisan interests locked Bo 's kin in a factional struggle against Li Tieying , one of China 's central leadership figures , who may have created obstacles to his promotion .
= = = Provincial Governor = = =
In 2001 , a corruption scandal involving former Liaoning governor Zhang Guoguang provided an opportunity for Bo 's advancement . Prior to the 15th Party Congress , Bo Yibo and Bo Xilai assisted then @-@ party general secretary Jiang Zemin in preparing to force political rival Qiao Shi into retirement . The Bo family also supported Jiang 's " Three Stresses " ( San Jiang ) campaign in 1997 , which was intended to strengthen ideological conviction and promote internal unity in the Communist Party ; however , the campaign was generally seen as lacklustre by observers and not universally embraced even inside the party leadership . The Bos ' unwavering support for Jiang was said to have worked in Bo Xilai 's favour when the vacancy for Governor of Liaoning opened . Bo became acting governor in 2001 after the dismissal and arrest of Zhang Guoguang , and was officially confirmed as governor in 2003 . In his position as governor , which he held until 2004 , Bo gained membership to the Central Committee of the Communist Party .
During his tenure in Liaoning , Bo played a critical role in the promotion of the Northeast Area Revitalization Plan . Adopted in 2003 by party authorities , the policy aimed to strengthen economic development in the provinces of Liaoning , Jilin and Heilongjiang . Bo Xilai was particularly enthusiastic about the policy , stating his desire to see the Northeast become " China 's fourth economic engine " ( the others being the Pearl River Delta , Yangtze River Delta , and the Bohai Economic Region ) .
The Northeast was at one time known as the " cradle of industrialization " of China . In 1980 , industrial output for Liaoning alone was twice that of the Guangdong . However , the northeast was left behind amidst market reforms of the 1980s and 1990s , while Guangdong and other provinces along the South and East China Sea coasts prospered . Its economy — still largely tied to state @-@ owned enterprises — stagnated relative to other regions , with high unemployment rates . The revitalisation plan aimed to address this by reviving the region 's traditional industries , strengthening trade ties with and encouraging investment from South Korea and Japan , and experimenting with free trade zones in select cities . In 2004 , official media reported that foreign direct investment in Liaoning had nearly doubled since the launch in 2003 of the northeastern rejuvenation strategy .
Although Bo established a reputation as a comparatively clean politician during his tenures in Dalian and as governor of Liaoning , he was not immune to corruption allegations . In particular , Bo was the subject of critical investigative reports by Liaoning journalist Jiang Weiping , the whistleblower in the Mu and Ma corruption case in Liaoning – a scandal that Bo benefited from politically . While Bo was not directly involved in the scandal , Jiang accused Bo of providing political cover for his friends and relatives . Jiang was initially sentenced to eight years in prison on trumped @-@ up charges , for which Bo was criticized , but was released after five years under international pressure . Yang Rong , the former chief executive of Brilliance China Automotive who fled to the United States after getting embroiled in a dispute against state property authorities , accused Bo of interfering in his judicial proceedings in Beijing . In addition , Bo openly clashed with Wen Shizhen , then @-@ party secretary in Liaoning who was technically Bo 's superior . Wen reportedly criticized Bo for " developing China 's cities like Europe and its countryside like Africa , " and even held a party to celebrate Bo 's departure from Liaoning in 2004 .
Ethan Gutmann , citing Falun Gong allegations that Liaoning was the epicenter of organ harvesting from practitioners while Bo was governor , suggested that he may have used his involvement as a way of building up his political power . David Kilgour , who co @-@ wrote the Kilgour – Matas report on organ harvesting , accused Bo of playing a role . Separately , Falun Gong practitioners abroad filed over ten lawsuits against Bo alleging torture and crimes against humanity In 2009 , a Spanish court indicted Bo Xilai and four other officials for genocide against Falun Gong .
= = = 16th Party Congress = = =
At the 16th Party Congress in 2002 , Bo 's age , regional tenures , and patronage links fit the profile for a potential candidate to be groomed for the " 5th generation of leaders " that would assume power in 2012 . His chief competitors were seen as Xi Jinping , then party chief of Zhejiang , and Li Keqiang , a populist Tuanpai candidate who was the Governor of Henan . As with the 15th Party Congress five years earlier , the elder Bo lobbied for his son 's promotion . The Bo family enjoyed the patronage of Jiang Zemin . However , Bo Xilai 's unequivocal support for Jiang strengthened the reluctance of his political opponents to support his nomination . Ultimately , although Bo remained a top contender for higher promotion , Xi and Li remained the main candidates to succeed Hu Jintao as Paramount leader .
= = Minister of Commerce = =
When Hu Jintao succeeded Jiang Zemin as General Secretary in late 2002 , Bo 's career as a local official ended with his appointment to Minister of Commerce in Wen Jiabao 's cabinet to replace Lü Fuyuan , who retired for health reasons . Bo also earned a seat on the 16th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China .
Bo 's stint as Minister of Commerce significantly raised his international profile and generated media attention both in China and abroad . Described as good @-@ looking , articulate and open @-@ minded in his approach to problems , Bo 's rise from a municipal official to the central government generated great media fanfare and elevated his status to something of a ' political star . ' Bo 's political persona was considered a departure from the generally serious and conservative leadership in Beijing . With his youthful vigour , populism , and purported popularity with female reporters , Bo 's political rise had been compared to that of John F. Kennedy .
Bo presided over a continued rise in foreign investment in China as Minister of Commerce . His daily schedule was dominated by receiving foreign guests and dignitaries . By the time that he became Minister , he spoke relatively fluent and colloquial English . During a meeting with American officials , Bo reputedly told a struggling interpreter to stop translating because the Chinese officials could understand English and it was wasting time . In May 2004 Bo was one of the few ministers hand @-@ picked to accompany Premier Wen Jiabao on a five @-@ country trip to Europe . The trade policy of the United States toward China also sparked significant controversy . Bo maintained a conciliatory but assertive attitude as he attended talks in Washington . On his trips to the United States , he conducted substantive discussions with his American counterparts and signed agreements on intellectual property , the services sector , agricultural products , food safety , and consumer protection .
Bo also oversaw the restructuring of the Ministry , formed from the amalgamation of the National Economics and Commerce Bureau and the Department of International Trade . Bo sought to balance the amount of attention given to foreign investors and domestic commercial institutions . He began tackling the imbalance from the retail sector , whose success up to that point was largely dependent on foreign companies . He drew up plans to protect Chinese industries ' competitive position within a domestic market that was quickly being crowded out by foreign competition .
= = = 17th Party Congress = = =
At the 17th Party Congress in October 2007 , Bo gained a seat on the 25 @-@ member Politburo , effectively China 's ruling council . He was then tipped to leave the Ministry of Commerce and take over as party chief of Chongqing . Bo 's predecessor , political rival Wang Yang , was reassigned as party chief of Guangdong .
At the time , Chongqing was reeling from problems such as air and water pollution , unemployment , poor public health , and complications from the Three Gorges Dam . According to analysts , Hu wanted to transfer his ally Wang Yang out of Chongqing before these problems intensified . Bo was initially reluctant to go to Chongqing and was reportedly unhappy with his new assignment . He had hoped to become vice @-@ premier instead , but Premier Wen Jiabao and Vice @-@ premier Wu Yi argued against Bo 's promotion to vice @-@ premiership . In particular , Wu was critical of Bo 's penchant for self @-@ promotion , and Wen cited international lawsuits against Bo by Falun Gong adherents as a barrier to his holding higher office .
Bo took up the Chongqing post on 30 November , a month following the conclusion of the Congress , even though Wang Yang had vacated the position on 13 November . Whilst some saw this transfer as a ' banishment ' from the central government to the hinterlands to keep Bo 's perceived arrogance and high @-@ profile antics out of Beijing 's view , others considered it a promotion since being the party chief in one of the four direct @-@ controlled municipalities came with an ex officio seat on the Politburo .
= = Chongqing = =
= = = The Chongqing model = = =
Although Bo was initially unhappy about his reassignment in Chongqing , he soon resolved to use his new position as a staging ground for a return to higher national office . Bo made no secret of his desire to enter the nine @-@ member Politburo Standing Committee ( PSC ) during the 18th Party Congress in autumn 2012 , as all but two of the PSC members — including President Hu Jintao and Premier Wen Jiabao — were expected to retire . The transition would be an opportunity for Bo to join the highest echelon of national leadership , likely as a replacement for ally Zhou Yongkang , secretary of the Central Political and Legislative Committee , serving as the head of the party 's security apparatus .
In Chongqing , Bo pioneered a new style of governance dubbed the " Chongqing Model " – a set of social and economic policies intended to address diverse challenges facing modern China following economic reforms .
The Chonqging model was characterized in part by increased state control and the promotion of a neo @-@ leftist ideology . Along with his police chief Wang Lijun , Bo launched a sweeping campaign against organized crime , and increased the security and police presence in the city . Critics noted these policies were accompanied by the erosion of the rule of law , and allegations surfaced of political and personal rivals being victimized amidst Bo 's anti @-@ corruption drive . As a means of addressing declining public morality , Bo launched a " red culture " movement to promote Maoist @-@ era socialist ethics . On the economic front , he actively courted foreign investment — much as he had done in Liaoning . The Chongqing model was also characterized by massive public works programs , subsidized housing for the poor , and social policies intended to make it easier for rural citizens to move to the city , thus reaping the benefits of urban status . Some have compared Bo 's governing style to Russian president Vladimir Putin .
The Chongqing model provided an alternate development paradigm that diverged from the policies preferred by those in the national leadership seen as favouring further reform such as Hu Jintao and Wen Jiabao . Bo 's leadership in Chongqing dramatically raised his profile , both nationally and internationally . In 2010 , he was named as one of the ' World 's 100 Most Influential People in 2010 ' by Time . Observers noted that , in China 's non @-@ electoral political system , Bo 's high @-@ profile presence and bold political maneuvers essentially amounted to a public ' election campaign ' for the top leadership . However , he drew the ire of some of the country 's leaders ; President Hu and Premier Wen were reluctant to acknowledge Bo publicly , ostensibly due to a discomfort over his leadership style .
= = = = Organized crime = = = =
Bo 's tenure in Chongqing was dominated by a protracted war against organized crime and corruption known as dahei ( " striking the black " ) . Between 2009 and 2011 , an estimated 5 @,@ 700 people were arrested in the sweeping campaign that ensnared not only criminals , but also businessmen , members of the police force , judges , government officials , and political adversaries . The campaign was overseen by Chongqing police chief Wang Lijun , whom Bo had worked with previously in Liaoning .
Wen Qiang , one of the most prominent figures implicated in the trials , had been a prominent municipal official since the days of party chiefs He Guoqiang and Wang Yang . Wen , the former executive deputy commissioner of the Chongqing police force Public Security for 16 years , was tried and convicted of a litany of crimes and sentenced to death in a sensational headline @-@ grabbing trial . Contrary to the popular perception at the time that the campaign was part of Bo 's perceived penchant for self @-@ promotion , China observer Willy Lam suggested that such a large @-@ scale crackdown will have received approval from central authorities , including Hu Jintao , and that Bo became careful to not let Chongqing appear to be trying to ' set an example ' for the rest of the country so he could benefit from the success politically .
The dahei campaign earned Bo national recognition and widespread popularity in Chongqing — all the more because of the city 's historical reputation as a center for criminal activity . In contrast to often colorless and orthodox politicians , Bo gained the reputation as a party boss that " got things done . " The apparent success of dahei earned Bo ' rock star status ' , and resulted in calls to replicate the campaign on a nationwide scale . Through the campaign , Bo gained the support of a number of powerful members of the Politburo Standing Committee , including Wu Bangguo , Jia Qinglin , Li Changchun , Xi Jinping and Zhou Yongkang , all of whom visited Chongqing or praised Bo 's achievements sometime between 2010 and 2011 .
However , Bo 's campaign was criticized for running roughshod over judicial due process and eroding the rule of law . Individuals targeted in the campaign were arbitrarily detained by the authorities , with an estimated 1 @,@ 000 being sent to forced labor . Lawyers for the accused were intimidated and harassed , and in at least one case , sentenced to 18 months in prison . Allegations also surfaced over the use of torture to extract confessions . Moreover , assets seized during the campaign were allegedly redirected to help pay for Bo 's popular social housing programs . The Wall Street Journal reported that $ 11 billion went into government coffers through the campaign . Li Jun , a fugitive businessman , asserted that he became a target of Bo anti @-@ corruption drive as a result of a land dispute with the government . When he refused government demands to give up the land , he claims that he was abducted and tortured , and that $ 700 million worth of assets in his business were seized .
= = = = Red culture movement = = = =
During his time in Chongqing , Bo initiated a series of Maoist @-@ style campaigns to revive ' red culture ' and improve public morale . The initiative included the promotion of Maoist quotes , ' red ' songs , revolutionary television programming and operas , and initiatives to encourage students to work in the countryside , akin to the way students were required to do during the Down to the Countryside Movement of the Cultural Revolution . As part of the movement , Bo and the city 's Media Department initiated a " Red Songs campaign " that demanded every district , government department , commercial enterprise , educational institution , state radio and TV stations begin singing ' red songs ' praising the achievements of the Communist Party . Bo pledged to reinvigorate the city with the Marxist ideals reminiscent of the Mao era .
Prior to the 60th Anniversary of the People 's Republic of China celebrations , for instance , Bo sent out ' red text messages ' to the city 's 13 million cellphone users . According to Xinhua , Bo 's text messages were usually quotes from Mao 's Little Red Book , and include phrases such as " I like how chairman Mao puts it : The world is ours , we will all have to work together , " and " responsibility and seriousness can conquer the world , and the Chinese Communist Party members represent these qualities . " Bo and his team of municipal administrators also erected new Mao statues in Chongqing , while providing ' social security apartments ' to the city 's less well @-@ off . Some scholars have characterized this as an example of the revival of Maoism in the Chinese Communist ethos .
Reactions to the red culture movement were divided . Bo 's revival of Mao @-@ era culture and accompanying social welfare programs were popular within much of the middle to lower income strata of Chongqing society , and made Bo a star with both conventional Marxists and neo @-@ leftists . Bo won praise for returning the city to what some called China 's ' true socialist heritage ' by de @-@ emphasizing material wealth , and evoked nostalgia to the social egalitarianism that existed during Mao 's time . Some retirees were particularly inspired and said they wanted to pass on " revolutionary spirit " to their children , while others participated as a means to praise the Communist Party for the country 's economic progress .
The campaign also had many detractors . Some intellectuals and reformers criticized the campaign for being regressive , akin to " being drowned in a red sea " , and bringing back painful memories from the Cultural Revolution . Several mid @-@ level officials in the city committed suicide due to overwhelming pressure to organize events for the red songs campaign . Bo 's critics derisively referred to him as " little Mao " .
= = = = Social policies = = = =
A cornerstone of Bo 's Chongqing model involved a series of egalitarian social policies aimed to lessen the gap between rich and poor , and ease the rural @-@ urban divide . Bo promoted the notion of pursuing " red GDP " — an economic model embodying communist egalitarianism — and suggested that , if economic development were analogous to ' baking a cake ' , then the primary task should be to divide the cake fairly rather than building a larger cake .
To that end , the city reportedly spent $ 15 @.@ 8 billion on public apartment complexes for use by recent college graduates , migrant workers and low @-@ income residents . In 2007 , the cities of Chongqing and Chengdu were selected to run pilot projects intended to mitigate the rural @-@ urban divide and ease integration of rural residents into the cities . Under China 's hukou registration system , citizens were classified as either rural or urban — a distinction that determines not only where they could live , but also affected educational opportunities , health benefits , taxation , and property rights , effectively making them ' second class citizens ' . Of Chongqing 's 32 million residents , only 27 % held urban hukou as of 2007 . The 2007 project made it easier for rural residents to obtain urban status , a policy intended not only to help balance inequality , but also to enable the government to develop underused rural land . Under Bo 's leadership , Chongqing established " land exchanges " where rural villages could earn credits for maximizing farmland .
Bo 's approach to social policy was demonstrated during the November 2008 taxi strikes , which saw over 8 @,@ 000 taxi drivers take to the streets for two days in protests over high fees , unregulated competition and rising fuel costs . Similar protests in China were frequently suppressed — sometimes forcefully — with official media sometimes blaming labor unrest on criminal instigation . Bo 's government instead held a televised roundtable dialogues with the protesters and citizens , and agreed to allow the formation of a trade union . His handling of the situation earned him praise as a comparatively restrained and progressive leader .
= = = = Economic policies = = = =
Another major component of Bo 's Chongqing model concerned the city 's economic policies . Just as he had done in Liaoning , Bo ambitiously pursued foreign investment in the city , lowering corporate income tax rates ( 15 % compared to the 25 % national average ) , and sought to stimulate rapid urbanization and industrialization . He also carried on with policies initiated by his predecessors which focused on domestic consumption , rather than export @-@ led growth . During his tenure , Chongqing reported annual GDP growth far exceeding the national average . In 2008 , for instance , nationwide GDP growth was reported at 8 % , while Chongqing reported 14 @.@ 3 % ; the same year , foreign trade rose by 28 % , and bank loans were up 29 % .
Bo 's model of economic growth won national and international praise for seamlessly combining foreign investment and state @-@ led growth . However , Bo 's critics called the model of " red GDP " – subsidized infrastructure , housing and public works projects – unsustainable and a drain on the city 's budget . Some civil servants complained that they were not getting salaries on time . Chongqing received a disproportionately high share ( some $ 34 billion ) of stimulus money from Beijing in 2008 . Political rivals such as Bo 's predecessor Wang Yang also suggested that economic figures in Chongqing were " rigged " — artificially inflated through unnecessary construction and public works projects .
= = = Leadership style = = =
Although many of Bo 's campaigns earned popular support , especially from the city 's poor , his leadership style has been described as " propagandistic , " " ruthless , " and " arrogant " by subordinates and city officials , academics , journalists , and other professionals . Michael Wines of The New York Times wrote that although Bo was possessed of " prodigious charisma and deep intelligence , " these qualities were offset by a " studied indifference to the wrecked lives that littered his path to power ... Mr. Bo 's ruthlessness stood out , even in a system where the absence of formal rules ensures that only the strongest advance . " Bo placed onerous demands on government officials in the city , requiring them to be available to work all day and all night , seven days a week . He reportedly called subordinates to late @-@ night meetings , publicly criticized and humiliated those with whom he disagreed , and even hit underlings who failed to meet his demands . According to a psychologist quoted by the Daily Telegraph , since Bo Xilai assumed power , " depression , burn out and suicides have all risen among officials ... Officials now make up the largest share of patients [ seeking ] counselling in the city . "
In late 2009 , a popular investigative television show on China Central Television aired a critical story on Bo 's anti @-@ crime drive , expressing concern over the apparent disregard for legal due process . In response , Bo utilized his connections to have the show 's host temporarily banned from the airwaves , and its producer moved to another program . Others who opposed Bo 's initiatives were also met with retribution . Li Zhuang , a defense lawyer from Beijing , was sentenced to two and a half years in prison ( later reduced to 18 months ) in 2009 for attempting to defend one of the high @-@ profile targets of Bo 's crackdown . Cheng Li , a scholar at the Brookings Institution , said that " Nobody really trusts [ Bo ] : a lot of people are scared of him , including several princelings who are supposed to be his power base . "
= = = Alleged eavesdropping operations = = =
As part of Bo 's efforts to fight crime and maintain social and political stability in Chongqing , he initiated a major electronic surveillance operation . Wang Lijun , Chongqing 's police chief , served as the architect of the state @-@ funded project , which was described in official media as a " comprehensive package bugging system covering telecommunications to the Internet . " The system involved wiretaps , eavesdropping , and monitoring of internet communications , and was designed with the help of cybersecurity expert Fang Binxing , known for his pivotal role in the construction of China 's Great Firewall .
According The New York Times , the eavesdropping operations did not only target local criminals , but also the communications of top Chinese leaders , including those of the General Secretary , President Hu Jintao . One source connected to the Chinese leadership said that Bo tried to monitor nearly all central leaders who had visited Chongqing in order to better understand what they thought of him . In August 2011 , a phone call between Hu Jintao and anti @-@ corruption official Ma Wen was found to be wiretapped under Bo 's orders . The revelations about the eavesdropping operation resulted in intense scrutiny from the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection . It was also said to have sowed distrust and played a role in the falling out of Bo and his police chief Wang Lijun , who allegedly began to use the same eavesdropping methods against Bo himself . The operations were believed to have contributed to Bo 's downfall in 2012 .
= = = Death of Neil Heywood = = =
On 14 November 2011 , British citizen Neil Heywood was found dead in his Chongqing hotel room . At the time , local authorities declared he had died from alcohol over @-@ consumption , though his family noted that he was not a heavy drinker . The official cause of death was not scrutinized until several months later , when revelations emerged that Heywood 's death was a homicide , and Bo Xilai was implicated .
Heywood served as an intermediary linking western companies to powerful Chinese politicians . He was a long @-@ time associate of the Bo family : he reportedly shared a close personal relationship with Bo 's wife , Gu Kailai , and had helped the couple 's son Bo Guagua earn admission to Harrow School in England . Heywood also allegedly served as a middleman for the family , helping them clandestinely move large sums of money overseas .
In October 2011 , Heywood reportedly had a business dispute with Bo 's wife , Gu Kailai , when he demanded a higher commission for his services . The dispute escalated , with Heywood ultimately threatening to reveal the family 's business dealings and overseas assets , estimated to total in excess of $ 136 million . Heywood was then allegedly poisoned by Gu and an assistant . Gu would be convicted of the murder and receive a suspended death sentence in August 2012 .
= = Downfall = =
= = = Wang Lijun incident = = =
In early 2012 , the party 's Central Commission for Discipline Inspection bolstered its presence within Chongqing as the city 's leaders came under investigation . Much of the attention focused on Bo 's police chief , Wang Lijun , who may have been under investigation for his role in a corruption case in Liaoning . Growing scrutiny over the city 's wiretapping operation against senior leaders also likely fell mainly on Wang . Although details are scarce , several sources have suggested that Wang 's resentment against Bo grew amidst the investigations — resentment that was compounded when Wang realized that he and his wife had also been targets of wiretapping under Bo 's orders .
Moreover , Wang was privy to details of Neil Heywood 's death , and had reportedly attempted to voice his concerns to Bo about alleged poisoning . Around 16 January , Wang is believed to have confronted Bo over evidence that implicated Bo 's wife in the murder . Although Bo initially agreed to allow an inquiry , he then changed course and sought to obstruct investigations . Wang was abruptly demoted on 2 February to the far less prestigious position of Vice @-@ mayor overseeing education , science , and environmental affairs . Bo placed Wang under surveillance , and several of his close associates were reportedly taken into custody . Some reports allege that Bo may have been plotting to have Wang assassinated .
On 6 February 2012 , apparently fearing for his life , Wang traveled to the U.S. consulate in the nearby city of Chengdu , bringing evidence implicating Bo and his family in the Neil Heywood murder . According to reports , Wang sought and was denied asylum in the United States . He remained in the consulate for approximately 24 hours before leaving " of his own volition " and being taken into the custody of state security officials dispatched from Beijing . Local media in Chongqing announced that he was on a mental health @-@ related sick leave .
A day after Wang 's leave , several overseas Chinese @-@ language news websites posted an open letter allegedly penned by Wang , which sharply criticized Bo as a " hypocrite " and " the greatest gangster in China " and accused Bo of corruption . Without knowing what incriminating material Wang may have held against Bo , even Bo 's supporters in China 's top leadership were reluctant to vouch for him . Bo responded in an unusually open press conference during the 2012 National People 's Congress , acknowledging " negligent supervision " of his subordinates , saying he may have " relied upon the wrong person " .
= = = Removal from posts = = =
On 15 March , Bo was dismissed as Chongqing party chief and its related municipal posts , while temporarily retaining a seat on the Politburo . Due to the potentially destructive effects Bo 's dismissal would have on party unity , party elders were consulted on the matter . The decision was reportedly made at a meeting of the Politburo Standing Committee on 7 March , during which security tsar Zhou Yongkang cast a lone dissenting vote . On 14 March , Bo was reprimanded by Premier Wen Jiabao during the Premier 's annual press conference . Wen called the achievements of Chongqing " significant , " but the result of " multiple administrations , " i.e. , not just Bo himself . Wen also made numerous allusions to the damage wrought by the Cultural Revolution , an indirect rebuke of Bo 's efforts to revive " red culture " . Addressing high @-@ level political changes by a Premier to an open public forum was unprecedented . Political observers believe that Wen 's remarks and Bo 's downfall represented a consensus within the central leadership that Bo not only needed to shoulder the responsibility for the Wang Lijun scandal , but also represented a political triumph for the ' liberal reformer ' wing of the Communist Party .
On 10 April , Bo was suspended from the party 's Central Committee and its Politburo , pending investigation for " serious disciplinary violations . " Bo 's wife , Gu Kailai , was now a prime suspect in the inquiry into the death of British businessman Neil Heywood . The announcements , carrying criminal implications , served as something of a death knell for Bo 's political career .
On 28 September , the Politburo of the Communist Party of China adopted a decision to expel him from the party . The decision was ratified by a full plenary session of the Central Committee on November 4 . He was accused of major disciplinary violations and corruption charges during his tenure in Dalian , the Ministry of Commerce and Chongqing , including in relation to the Gu Kailai case .
On 26 October , the Standing Committee of the 11th National People 's Congress expelled him as a deputy to the national legislature , removing his final public post and setting the stage for his trial . When he was ejected from the Communist Party , the official announcement also mentioned that he had " had or maintained improper sexual relations with multiple women . " Rumors also spread that he had an affair with the star actress of Crouching Tiger , Hidden Dragon , Zhang Ziyi ; Zhang racked up significant legal bills attempting to sue the sources of the rumour for defamation . During the trial , Bo admitted that he had fallen out with his wife because of an affair he had in the 1990s , prompting her to move to the United Kingdom to be near their son , Guagua .
= = = Public reactions = = =
Bo 's downfall elicited strong reactions among the Chinese public and with commentators across the political spectrum . Leftist websites such as Utopia , Red China , and Maoflag were full of angry commentary over Bo 's dismissal . These websites were shut down for a period of " maintenance " shortly after . Leftist commentators voiced support for Bo : Kong Qingdong called Bo 's dismissal ' a plot by enemies of the state ' ; Sima Nan said associating Bo with the Cultural Revolution was a ' smear campaign ' ; Sima 's pro @-@ Bo microblogs were censored . Large numbers of sympathetic posts for Bo appeared in microblogs from Chongqing , and Dalian , where Bo was once mayor . The Global Times also wrote a sympathetic editorial . Liberal media reacted positively , criticizing Bo 's style of ' personality @-@ based rule ' as dangerous and regressive . Right @-@ leaning commentators said Bo 's downfall signified a ' correct orientation ' to China 's future development . Southern Media Group editor Yan Lieshan remarked that Bo correctly identified China 's problems but prescribed the wrong solution . Businesspeople whose assets were seized by Bo 's administration in Chongqing also reacted positively .
Bo 's dismissal caused political shockwaves unseen since the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 , and exposing internal conflicts within Communist Party . In the weeks following 15 March , party authorities deliberated on Bo 's case . In the absence of official reports of the proceedings , microblogs churned out a flood of speculation , including rumours of a coup . In response , the authorities instructed newspapers and websites to strictly report only official releases , and arrested six people accused of ' rumourmongering ' .
Aware of its potentially divisive impact , authorities carefully controlled media coverage of Bo 's removal from office . State media reported ' pledges of loyalty ' to the party 's decision to disgrace Bo , including statements from the new Chongqing party authorities , Beijing municipal organs , and grassroots party members rallying to the party line . The party 's mouthpiece People 's Daily issued a front @-@ page editorial calling for unity behind the " correct decision " . The military held ' political education ' sessions on short notice , stressing unity and loyalty to the Party under the leadership of Hu Jintao . Bo 's downfall also affected his ally Zhou Yongkang , who had reportedly relinquished his operational control over Chinese security institutions and lost the right to influence who would succeed him at the 18th Party Congress .
= = = Trial = = =
In July 2013 , Chinese prosecution authorities charged Bo with bribery , abuse of power and corruption , paving the way for his trial . In the build @-@ up to the trial , Song Yangbiao , a prominent leftist supporter of Bo was detained by police after he urged people to protest against the trial . The verdict and sentence brought to close one of the most lurid political scandals in the history of Communist China and concluded Bo 's downfall . This was largely set in motion by his wife 's murder of a British businessman , followed by a defection of his top aide , who had information about the murder case , to a U.S. consulate just before a power transition . A few days before the trial , Wang Xuemei , a prominent forensic scientist who was vice director of the Chinese Forensic Medicine Association and of the Supreme Court 's Prosecutorial Research Center , resigned from her positions . Wang had publicly questioned the forensic evidence used in the trial of Bo 's wife Gu Kailai . Defense counsel for Bo was Beijing @-@ based DeHeng Law Offices , a corporate law firm with deep political connections to the state . A Wall Street Journal article on the law firm 's role in the trial described it as acting as an " intermediary " that facilitated between Bo , his relatives and prosecutors the negotiation of " an outcome acceptable to all sides in the run @-@ up to the trial — and to help ensure
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man while he is waiting for a bus , kidnapping him . Investigating Kittel 's disappearance , Mulder finds a seed at the bus stop . They have Marcus Duff ( Carl Lumbly ) , a social worker who is helping Aboah apply for citizenship , cross @-@ reference the names from the flight with those applying for permanent residency or a work visa . This leads them to Aboah , who runs when they try to question him and is discovered after squeezing himself into a drainage pipe . Aboah appears to have no symptoms of disease when he is analyzed at a local medical center , but Scully plans to examine him more .
Mulder sees Diabra , a diplomat from Burkina Faso . Diabra tells him an old folk tale of the Bambara people about the Teliko , which were nocturnal " spirits of the air " . Meanwhile , Scully examines a PET scan of Aboah , which shows that he has no pituitary gland . Aboah escapes the hospital and meets Duff in a car ; he paralyses Duff in the same manner as his other victims and inserts a long metal object up his nose . A policeman finds Duff and requests an ambulance , and the police tell Mulder and Scully that they are sweeping the area for Aboah . Driving around , Mulder tells Scully that he thinks Aboah is the mythical Teliko . He stops at a demolition site , remembering that Pendrell found asbestos fibers on Sanders ' body . Mulder and Scully split up at the site ; Scully finds the missing men dead , and Mulder is pierced as Kittel was . Scully finds him , calls for medical help , and shoots Aboah . In her field journal , Scully writes that Aboah will stand trial if he lives long enough . She muses that Aboah 's condition and survival may be discovered by science , but humans have a fear of an alien among them which causes them to " deceive , inveigle , and obfuscate " .
= = Production = =
Writer and executive producer Howard Gordon was originally working on an episode about someone who appeared to be immortal , but after discussions with consulting producer Ken Horton he added in the notion of xenophobia and " melanin @-@ sucking albino vampires " . Series creator Chris Carter approved the storyline , but the first draft of the script was met with disapproval by the writing staff , and the story was restructured and rewritten . As the episode entered pre @-@ production , Carter asked Gordon to refine the script to give it a purpose , and it was then that Gordon came up with the theme of " deceive , inveigle , and obfuscate " . The same phrase is also uttered by Scully in the episode during her closing sentiments .
This replaces the usual " The Truth is Out There " tagline during the title sequence of the episode . Carter also came up with Aboah 's weapons used to extract the pituitary gland that he kept hidden in his esophagus . " Teliko " is Greek for " end " , though it is the name of a " spirit of the air " in African mythology which is sometimes thought to be an albino . Fellow writer John Shiban suggested that the Teliko emerge from the country of Burkina Faso based on his former job of programming foreign air @-@ mail rates for a computer software company .
Casting for the episode was difficult , as the production team wanted real Africans . They auditioned every one they could find , including an African theater troupe that was passing by . The role of Marcus Duff eventually went to Carl Lumbly , who was known for his role on CBS 's Cagney & Lacey . The role of Aboah went to Willie Amakye , a Ghanaian Olympic runner who had just returned to his home in Southern California from the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta , Georgia . To appear albino , Amakye 's skin underwent several layers of cover @-@ up cream , layers of white powder , and a little pink powder for color . He also wore contacts for the transparent pink eyes . Amakye 's hair was dyed orange for post @-@ production special effects to change it back and forth from black and white . As revealed on his resident alien card , Aboah 's birthday is September 25 , a reference to the birthday of Gillian Anderson 's daughter .
" Teliko " ' s opening sequence makes use of an airplane cabin set built for the later season episodes " Tempus Fugit " and " Max " , though the set 's hydraulic shaking rig had not been completed yet . Composer Mark Snow used African drums , flutes , and chants in his score for the episode . He also used samples from " The Bulgarian Women 's Chorus " , a recording known in Southern California in promotion for a local radio station . Compositions by Snow often utilized elements of African tribal drums , but " Teliko " features rather prominent usage .
= = Themes = =
" Teliko " explores the concept of the other , with the " other " representing characters of a different race . In the episode , the US and its culture are treated as the norm , wherein the African culture in the episode is depicted in an intimidating way . African folk tales , which are not often considered strange in their own nation , are shown in the episode as ominous and bizarre . The episode prominently features tribal music , and according to Allan F. Moore in his book Analyzing Popular Music , the usage of the episode reinforces a " dangerous but culturally dangerous slippage between the others . " The writer claimed that linking the supernatural ethnic character to the tribal music adds a more " exotic " feeling to the character .
By making the character seem more unnatural , it adds an " extraterrestrial " quality to him , making him seem even more unusual in nature . Charles D. Martin mused in The White African American Body that " blackness is clearly attached to racial identity " in the episode , commenting that the episode equates the cultural understanding of race to mere skin color . Martin cites Mulder 's joke about Michael Jackson as a self @-@ aware comment on " another contemporary white negro " which reinforces a stereotype .
Zoe Detsi @-@ Diamanti , in her book The Flesh Made Text Made Flesh , commented on the episode 's depiction of race . She argues that the episode makes the point that a " perfectly normal " black man looks a certain way , pointing out that the episode states that a black man is defined by a " certain skin pigment " . Any exception to this norm is depicted in a negative manner , with science being the only answer to unnatural phenomena . Dean Kowalski agreed with the analysis in The Philosophy of The X @-@ Files , commenting that one of the main themes of the episodes revolved around science 's attempt to explain folk theories and paranormal phenomena . The episode 's antagonist Aboah , escapes the FBI by fitting into a dinner cart , a feat that was compared to slaves escaping in unconformable slave ships .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Teliko " originally aired on the Fox network on October 18 , 1996 . The episode marked the final time that an episode of the series aired on a Friday . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 3 , with a 20 share , meaning that roughly 11 @.@ 3 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 20 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . " Teliko " was seen by 18 @.@ 01 million viewers on first broadcast .
The episode received generally mixed reviews from critics . Entertainment Weekly gave " Teliko " a grade of " C – " , finding it similar to the first season episode " Squeeze " . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club gave it a " B – " , also noting its similarity to " Squeeze " and finding that it had uncomfortable racial overtones . However , he did feel that the climax was " wonderfully tense " and " one of the better climaxes the show 's done " . Sarah Stegall awarded the episode two stars out of five , also noting the similarities to " Squeeze " . She criticized the depiction of Mulder and Scully , commenting that the two lacked quality scenes together . She did compliment the scene where Agent Pendrell is disappointed at not seeing Scully , describing it as the highlight of the episode . In his book The Nitpicker 's Guide for X @-@ Philes , author Phil Farrand pointed out an inconsistency in the episode ; before the timeline of the episode , Aboah only kills four men in three months , but during the duration of the episode he kills two men in a matter of days .
= Tropical Storm Bret ( 2005 ) =
Tropical Storm Bret was a short @-@ lived tropical storm of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season that made landfall in the Mexican state of Veracruz , the first of four during the season . The second named storm of the season , Bret developed along a tropical wave on June 28 in the Bay of Campeche , and quickly intensified . Tracking to the west @-@ northwest , Bret moved ashore within 24 hours of forming , and dissipated shortly thereafter .
Bret was the first of six tropical cyclones ( three hurricanes , two of them major , and three tropical storms ) to make landfall in Mexico during the season . With the formation of the tropical storm on June 28 , the 2005 season became the first since 1986 with two storms in the month of June . The storm dropped heavy rainfall along its path , peaking at 266 mm ( 10 @.@ 67 inches ) , which caused flooding and one drowning death . About 7 @,@ 500 people were affected , and damage totaled over 100 million pesos ( 2005 MXN , $ 9 @.@ 3 million 2005 USD , $ 10 @.@ 3 million 2008 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave accompanied by a weak surface low pressure area crossed Central America and eastern Mexico from June 24 through June 27 . An area of disturbed weather associated with the system moved into the Bay of Campeche early on June 28 , though initially unfavorable upper @-@ level wind shear and land interaction limited initial development . It tracked west @-@ northwestward at 8 – 16 km / h ( 5 – 10 mph ) , and after moving into open waters the organization of deep convection increased with curved banding features developing . Based on data from a Hurricane Hunters flight into the system , it is estimated it developed into Tropical Depression Two at 18 : 00 UTC on June 28 , while located about 100 km ( 62 mi ) northeast of the city of Veracruz . At the time of its first advisory , the government of Mexico issued a tropical storm warning from Veracruz to Tampico .
About four hours after formation , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Bret , upon which it attained a minimum central pressure of 1002 mbar . Shortly thereafter , its appearance on radar deteriorated , and convection warmed around the center . With a mid @-@ level anticyclone over Texas , Bret tracked steadily to the west @-@ northwest , and began to re @-@ organize just before moving ashore ; at 12 : 00 UTC on June 29 , the storm made landfall just southeast of Tuxpan with winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . After crossing the coast , the storm quickly degenerated to tropical depression status , though Bret retained a well @-@ organized cloud pattern with deep convection . The center turned to the north @-@ northwest , and early on June 30 Bret dissipated inland over Mexico .
= = Impact = =
Tropical Storm Bret produced heavy rainfall along its path , with a peak 24 ‑ hour rainfall total of 266 mm ( 10 @.@ 47 inches ) recorded in El Raudal , Veracruz ; several other locations reported over 4 inches ( 100 mm ) of precipitation . The rainfall caused widespread flooding in Veracruz , especially in the city of Naranjos where an overflown river flooded portions of the city with 2 m ( 7 ft ) of water . Several other rivers reported river flooding .
By shortly after the passage of the storm , the government of Veracruz opened 6 @,@ 000 emergency storm shelters for impacted citizens . Floodwaters from the rainfall inundated scores of houses and cars , with a total of 7 @,@ 500 families in Veracruz directly affected by the storm . The Mexican Army , combined with the efforts of police officers and state officials , worked with amphibious vehicles to rescue families in flooded houses , of whom many waited on rooftops ; according to reports from the Civil Defense of the government of Veracruz , a person drowned in the city of Cerro Azul . Several people were reported missing , as well . Landslides from the flooding cut communications and left 66 villages temporarily isolated . Across Veracruz , the most affected localities were Naranjos , Chinampa de Gorostiza , Tamalín , Tantima , Benito Juárez , Tamiahua , and Tempoal de Sánchez . The government of Veracruz declared a state of emergency for 14 municipalities . Damage in the state totaled over 100 million pesos ( 2005 MXN , $ 9 @.@ 3 million 2005 USD , $ 10 @.@ 3 million 2008 USD ) ; the state government requested reconstruction aid amounting to the equivalent of the damage total .
= Robbing the Cradle =
" Robbing the Cradle " is a level created by Ion Storm for their final video game , Thief : Deadly Shadows ( 2004 ) . Unlike other levels in the game , it features a strong survival horror theme , in addition to the stealth gameplay typical of the Thief series . Players traverse an abandoned , haunted orphanage and mental asylum called the Shalebridge Cradle , while attempting to free the soul of a young girl from the building 's captivity .
The level was designed by Jordan Thomas and Randy Smith , with a soundscape composed by Eric Brosius . Using theories of interactive horror design developed by Smith in 2000 , the team sought to create the scariest level ever to appear in a game . They took influence from works such as House of Leaves , Session 9 and the Silent Hill series , and they studied mental asylums and reportedly haunted buildings for inspiration .
" Robbing the Cradle " was widely praised , and it has been described by publications such as Computer & Video Games , PC Gamer UK and Bloody Disgusting as one of the scariest scenes in the history of video games . Jordan Thomas went on to create the " Fort Frolic " level in BioShock , and to serve as creative director for BioShock 2 . The positive reception of " Robbing the Cradle " inspired Eidos Montreal to create a similar asylum level in Thief ( 2014 ) .
= = Overview = =
" Robbing the Cradle " is the penultimate level of Thief : Deadly Shadows ( 2004 ) , a video game developed by Ion Storm . In addition to the stealth gameplay typical of the game , the level features a strong survival horror theme . " Robbing the Cradle " takes place inside the Shalebridge Cradle , a conscious , malevolent and abandoned orphanage and mental institution . It is patrolled by creatures called " Puppets " , the reanimated bodies of former inmates . Protagonist Garrett enters the building in hopes of solving a mystery related to a supernatural murderer , the Gray Lady . Once inside , he encounters the ghost of a deceased orphan , Lauryl , who was killed by the Gray Lady . She is trapped within the Cradle because it " remembers " her .
The Shalebridge Cradle is divided into two sections : the " Inner Cradle " and " Outer Cradle " . The player begins in the Outer Cradle , which is designed to terrify players , but which secretly contains no dangers or enemies . The Inner Cradle is roamed by Puppets . The building 's backstory is unveiled in a nonlinear fashion , via clues scattered within the level . The player must free Lauryl by locating and disposing of artifacts that allow the Cradle to remember her . However , after completing this objective , Garrett discovers that the Cradle has remembered him . To escape , the player travels back in time within the Cradle 's memory , while fleeing from silhouettes of the Cradle 's staff . The player ends the level by leaping from the Cradle 's highest window , which convinces the building that Garrett is dead .
= = Development = =
The central ideas behind " Robbing the Cradle " were conceived by Thief : Deadly Shadows project director Randy Smith in 2000 . Smith had designed a horror @-@ based level , " Return to the Cathedral " , in 1998 's Thief : The Dark Project . Although he had intended only to make it " atmospheric and suspenseful " , the level was widely held to be terrifying . In 2000 , Smith was in the process of being hired at Ion Storm to work on Deadly Shadows , and he was contacted by PC Gamer UK writer Kieron Gillen to discuss " Return to the Cathedral " . As the interview progressed via email , Smith developed a theory of horror design to retroactively explain the success of the level . His core concept was that players try to establish boundaries between safety and danger , and that fear results when these boundaries become unpredictable , or when the player is compelled to cross them " of their own free will " . Smith decided to consciously apply this theory in Deadly Shadows , and the result was " Robbing the Cradle " .
Smith 's goal with " Robbing the Cradle " was to create the scariest level ever to appear in a game , which would " knock ' Return to the Cathedral ' off the charts " . Designer Jordan Thomas joined the Deadly Shadows team in November 2001 , in part because of his interest in horror design . Smith worked with Thomas during the early planning of " Robbing the Cradle " , which was referred to at Ion Storm as the " haunted house " . Thomas explained that the key to their design was " dread " , which he described as the feeling of being " seven steps from the unspeakable " . Thomas drafted a level design based on this idea , while seeking to retain the stealth focus of other levels in Deadly Shadows . He saw " Robbing the Cradle " both as a level and as a test of the possibilities of interactive horror design . Smith later noted that his own biggest contributions were the level 's beats : he designed ways for players ' boundaries to be regularly violated , such as by forcing them to explore threatening areas . Thomas spent a large portion of his off @-@ hours working on the level , and Smith stated that Thomas was responsible for " all of the implementation " of the level 's theories .
The team worked to discover the causes and mechanics of fear , and they analyzed horror films for inspiration . " Robbing the Cradle " includes influences from the Silent Hill and System Shock series , from the films The Devil 's Backbone , Jacob 's Ladder and Session 9 , and from the books House of Leaves , From Hell and The Shining . Thomas applied psychological horror techniques that he hoped would stay with the player even after the level 's end . To generate fear , he used a combination of scripted sequences and unplanned , emergent factors . Every light source in the level dims and brightens at an imperceptibly slow speed , which Thomas hoped would create a " subconscious sense of breathing " and thereby make the Shalebridge Cradle feel like a living entity . Lights were programmed to flicker when approached by Puppets ; however , Puppets roam the level in real @-@ time , and so Thomas was unable to predict which lights would flicker at which times . He believed that this gave the player the feeling of being hunted .
Thomas explained that the Shalebridge Cradle 's design was based on " dozens of actual , existing Victorian hospitals and reputedly haunted buildings " . The Danvers State Hospital was a key influence , and Smith went with other members of the team to visit an abandoned asylum in Austin , Texas . Thomas gathered photographs by urban explorers and studied past methods of treating mental disorders , and he " read reams of patient and staff interviews " . Audio director Eric Brosius composed the Cradle 's soundscape , which Gillen later described as " a drunken miasma of sound [ ... that makes ] you uneasy until an unexpected noise splits asunder " .
= = Reception and legacy = =
" Robbing the Cradle " was widely praised . It was the subject of a ten @-@ page feature by Kieron Gillen in PC Gamer UK , the first and only article dedicated to a single level in that magazine . Gillen hailed it as " one of the most brilliant and disturbing levels ever committed to PC " , and he believed that it was " probably the scariest level ever made " . Tom McNamara of IGN wrote that the level " just has to be experienced to be believed " , and he praised its sound design . He considered the level to be a high point of Deadly Shadows . GameSpot 's Greg Kasavin called the level " remarkable " and " nerve @-@ wracking " , and IGN 's Shunal Doke noted in a retrospective feature that the level 's audiovisuals combine to " scare the living daylights out of you " . In April 2013 , the level was highlighted as " powerfully atmospheric " by Valve Corporation writer Marc Laidlaw .
Maximum PC included " Robbing the Cradle " in its list of the " Scariest Video Game Moments " , with the magazine 's Brittany Vincent noting that the level features " a frightful mixture of lobotomized patients , suffering spirits , and evil intentions " . Bloody Disgusting placed the level fourth in its " The 15 Scariest Moments in Non @-@ Horror Games " , and its staff wrote that the level " managed to burn itself into our minds forever , as well as creep us the hell out . " Writing for Official Xbox Magazine , Ryan McCaffery ranked Deadly Shadows fourth on his " My Top 5 Scariest Games of All @-@ Time " list , based solely on " Robbing the Cradle " . He considered the level to be " perhaps the single most brilliantly designed mission in a genius trilogy of games . " In a reader poll conducted by The Daily Telegraph , Deadly Shadows tied as the twelfth scariest video game , in large part because of " Robbing the Cradle " . The level led Computer & Video Games to place Deadly Shadows on its list " Fear Factor : The 12 Scariest Games Ever Made " . The magazine 's Iain Wilson wrote that the level is " considered one of the scariest levels ever created " .
After finishing work on Deadly Shadows , Jordan Thomas went to Irrational Games , where he designed the " Fort Frolic " section of BioShock . He later became the creative director of BioShock 2 . Because of tensions and disagreements within the Deadly Shadows team , Randy Smith was fired from Ion Storm near the end of the game 's production , and he founded Tiger Style with fellow Deadly Shadows designer David Kalina . Smith later wondered if the team had " overdone it " with " Robbing the Cradle " , and he stated , " I worry a little bit in retrospect about people who just wanted a ' sneaking around mansions and stealing stuff ' experience [ being ] forced into their deepest nightmares . " The positive reception of " Robbing the Cradle " inspired Eidos Montreal to create a similar asylum level in 2014 's Thief .
= The Blue Lotus =
The Blue Lotus ( French : Le Lotus bleu ) is the fifth volume of The Adventures of Tintin , the comics series by Belgian cartoonist Hergé . Commissioned by the conservative Belgian newspaper Le Vingtième Siècle for its children 's supplement Le Petit Vingtième , it was serialised weekly from August 1934 to October 1935 before being published in a collected volume by Casterman in 1936 . Continuing where the plot of the previous story , Cigars of the Pharaoh , left off , the story tells of young Belgian reporter Tintin and his dog Snowy , who are invited to China in the midst of the 1931 Japanese invasion , where he reveals the machinations of Japanese spies and uncovers a drug @-@ smuggling ring .
In creating The Blue Lotus , Hergé exhibited a newfound emphasis on accuracy and documentation in his portrayal of foreign societies . He was heavily influenced by his close friend Zhang Chongren , a Chinese student studying in Belgium , and the work both satirises common European misconceptions about China as well as criticising the actions of the Japanese invaders . The Blue Lotus was a commercial success in Belgium and was soon serialised in France and Switzerland , while news of the book led to the Chinese political leader Chiang Kai @-@ shek inviting Hergé to visit China itself . Hergé continued The Adventures of Tintin with The Broken Ear , while the series itself became a defining part of the Franco @-@ Belgian comics tradition . In 1946 , The Blue Lotus was re @-@ drawn and coloured in Hergé 's distinctive ligne @-@ claire style by the cartoonist and his team of assistants ; during this process a number of minor plot elements were changed . The Adventure introduces the recurring characters J.M. Dawson and Chang Chong @-@ Chen . The story was adapted for a 1991 episode of the Ellipse / Nelvana animated series The Adventures of Tintin . Critical analysis of the story has been positive , with various commentators considering it to be one of Hergé 's finest works .
= = Synopsis = =
Staying at the palace of the Maharaja of Gaipajama in India , Tintin is approached by a visitor from Shanghai in China . The visitor supplies him with the name of Mitsuhirato , a Japanese businessman based in Shanghai , but before finishing his message is hit by a dart dipped in Rajaijah , the " poison of madness . " Tintin and his fox terrier Snowy travel to Shanghai to meet Mitsuhirato , who warns them that the Maharajah is in danger and that they should return to India . Surviving several attempts on his life by mysterious assailants , Tintin attempts to leave for India by boat , but is kidnapped . His abductors reveal themselves as members of a secret society known as the Sons of the Dragon , who are devoted to combating the opium trade . Their spokesman , Wang Chen @-@ Yee , explains to Tintin that Mitsuhirato is both a Japanese spy and an opium smuggler , and enlist Tintin in their fight to stop him . Tintin agrees , and spies on Mitsuhirato at the Blue Lotus opium den . Following the spy , he discovers him blowing up a Chinese railway . The Japanese government use this as an excuse to invade Northern China , taking Shanghai under its control .
Tintin is captured by Mitsuhirato , who plans to poison him with Rajaijah ; however , a member of the Sons of the Dragon swaps the poison for coloured water , and Tintin escapes unscathed . When Mitsuhirato discovers the deception , he convinces J.M. Dawson , the corrupt Chief of Police at the Shanghai International Settlement , to put a warrant out for Tintin 's arrest . Meanwhile , Tintin enters the Settlement in search for Professor Fang Hsi @-@ ying , an expert in poisons whom he hopes can develop a cure for Raijajah , but discovers that he has been kidnapped . Dawson 's police arrest Tintin and hand him over to the Japanese , who sentence him to death before he is rescued by Wang .
Travelling to Hukow with the ransom money for Fang , Tintin comes across a flood that has destroyed a village and rescues a young Chinese orphan , Chang Chong @-@ Chen . Chang accompanies Tintin to Hukow , where one of Mitsuhirato 's spies ambushes them ; they realise that it was a trap and that Fang was not there . Meanwhile , the detectives Thomson and Thompson are employed by Dawson to arrest Tintin , but fail on multiple occasions . Returning to Shanghai , Tintin intends to confront Mitsuhirato , and allows himself to be captured by him . Being held prisoner at The Blue Lotus , it is revealed that Mitsuhirato is working with the film director Rastapopoulos , who is the head of the international opium smuggling organisation that Tintin had previously battled in Cigars of the Pharaoh . However , Tintin formulates a plan , with Chang and the Sons of the Dragon appearing to rescue Tintin and Fang ; Rastapopoulos is arrested while Mitsuhirato commits seppuku . Fang develops a cure for Rajaijah , while Wang adopts Chang as his son .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Georges Remi — best known under the pen name Hergé — was employed as editor and illustrator of Le Petit Vingtième ( " The Little Twentieth " ) , a children 's supplement to Le Vingtième Siècle ( " The Twentieth Century " ) , a staunchly Roman Catholic , conservative Belgian newspaper based in Hergé 's native Brussels which was run by the Abbé Norbert Wallez . In 1929 , Hergé began The Adventures of Tintin comic strip for Le Petit Vingtième , about the exploits of fictional young Belgian reporter Tintin . Wallez ordered Hergé to set his first adventure in the Soviet Union to act as anti @-@ socialist propaganda for children ( Tintin in the Land of the Soviets ) , to set his second adventure in the Belgian Congo to encourage colonial sentiment ( Tintin in the Congo ) , and to set his third adventure in the United States to use the story as a denunciation of American capitalism ( Tintin in America ) . On 24 November 1932 , Le Petit Vingtième published a fictional interview with Tintin in which the reporter announced that he would travel to China via Egypt , India , Sri Lanka , and Indochina . This plotline resulted in Tintin in the Orient , the first part of which was an Adventure set in Egypt , Arabia , and India that Hergé later titled Cigars of the Pharaoh . Cigars ceased publication in Le Petit Vingtième in February 1934 , and Hergé next provided the standalone story Popol out West for the newspaper . The Blue Lotus was the second half of the Tintin in the Orient story that Hergé had begun with Cigars of the Pharaoh .
However , Hergé knew as little about China as he did about the Soviet Union or the Belgian Congo . At the time most Belgians held to a negative stereotype of China , viewing it as " a distant continent of a nation , barbaric , overpopulated , and inscrutable " , and Hergé had long believed this view . He had included Chinese characters in two previous Adventures , in both instances depicting them according to traditional European clichés . In Tintin in the Land of the Soviets , he included two pigtailed Chinese men hired by the Bolsheviks to torture Tintin , while in Tintin in America he featured two Chinese hoodlums who plotted to eat Snowy . Hergé learned a bit about the country from Albert Londres ' book China Madness , based on Londres ' experiences in the country . He was also influenced in his portrayal of China by the 1933 German film Flüchtlinge ( At the End of the World ) .
Learning of Hergé 's intention to set the next Adventure in China , Abbot Léon Gosset , a Roman Catholic chaplain to the Chinese students at the Catholic University of Louvain , contacted Hergé and asked him to be cautious in his depiction of the country . His students read Le Petit Vingtième and he thought it would be counterproductive if Hergé continued to propagate negative stereotypes about the Chinese people . Hergé was sensitive to Gosset 's ideas , and Gosset proceeded to put him in touch with two of his Chinese students , Arnold Chiao Ch 'eng @-@ Chih and his wife Susan Lin . He also gave him the address of a Chinese student a year Hergé 's junior , Zhang Chongren . The pair first met on 1 May 1934 , soon becoming close friends and spending every Sunday afternoon with each other for over a year . Zhang later commented that he and Hergé became akin to " two brothers " . A student of painting and sculpture at Brussels ' Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium , Zhang taught Hergé about Chinese artistic styles , giving him a set of traditional Chinese brushes and explaining to him the art of painting a tree and Chinese calligraphy , alongside explaining the tenets of Taoist philosophy . Both his artistic and philosophical training under Zhang would have a profound effect over Hergé .
Hergé had also gotten in contact with Father Édouard Neut , hosteller at the St. Andrew 's Abbey near Bruges . Neut had a special interest in China , and was excited by Hergé 's latest venture , commenting that it could contribute to " a work of inter @-@ racial understanding and true friendship between Orientals and whites " . He sent him two books , Father Thadée 's Aux origines du conflict mandchou ( On the Origins of the Manchu Conflict ) and Zheng Zheng 's Ma Mère ( My Mother ) , a first @-@ hand account of Chinese family life . He also sent Hergé a 1932 article discussing the differences between Chinese and Japanese cultures . At the time , Neut worked as the assistant of Lou Tseng @-@ tsiang , a Chinese Catholic who had moved to Belgium , where he published a book on the Japanese invasion and occupation of Manchuria , an area of northern China . Mainstream Western press was broadly sympathetic to the Japanese cause , viewing them as a bulwark against the Soviet Union , a view that Hergé was to eschew .
= = = Original publication , 1934 – 1935 = = =
The comic strip began serialisation in Le Petit Vingtième on 9 August 1934 as Les Aventures De Tintin Reporter En Extrême @-@ Orient ( The Adventures of Tintin in the Far East ) . It began serialisation in France in Cœurs Vaillants from 29 December 1935 , and later in the Swiss magazine L 'Écho Illustré . Alongside protagonists Tintin and Snowy , Hergé also included the detectives Thomson and Thompson in the story , who had been introduced in the previous story . He also alluded to the movie that Tintin had witnessed being filmed in Cigar , Rastapopoulos ' The Sheik 's House , having characters enter a cinema where it was being screened .
Hergé actively satirised typical European opinions of China in The Blue Lotus . He had Thomson and Thompson dress in what they perceived as traditional Chinese costume , as Mandarins , only to stand out in stark contrast to the actual clothing worn in China . He also had Gibbons , one of the story 's antagonists , express racist attitudes toward the Chinese , and made Tintin give a speech to Chang explaining western misunderstandings of the Chinese . He took " a radical view " by expressing a criticism of Western activity in China 's International Settlement , depicting it as extremely corrupt and only interested in its own commercial interests . He gained much of his information on such issues from Zhang , who informed him of the political events occurring in China from a Chinese perspective . Building on this information , Hergé 's depiction of the Japanese invasion was largely accurate , although it served as an outright attack on Japanese imperialism . Hergé depicted fictionalised versions of both the real @-@ life Mukden Incident , although he shifted its location nearer to Shanghai , and Japan 's walking out of the League of Nations . However , The Blue Lotus contained no mention of one of the central historical events of the period , the Long March of communist Mao Zedong .
Further devoting himself to greater accuracy , Hergé also made increasing use of photographs to draw from , such as of Chinese clothing , street scenes , and landscape . Hergé 's newfound emphasis on accuracy and documentation imbued the rest of the Adventures . While Hergé relied on nonsensical Arabic for the backgrounds in Cigars , for The Blue Lotus Zhang drew the many ideograms that appeared as street signs and advertisements throughout the story . Among these ideograms were those of a political nature , proclaiming slogans such as " Down with Imperialism " , " Abolish unfair treaties " , and " Down with Japanese merchandise " . Zhang also sketched out a number of images for Hergé , such as the outline of Wang 's house . Zhang 's signature was also included twice throughout the comic , reflecting his artistic contribution ; Hergé wanted to include Zhang 's name as co @-@ author . In gratitude , Hergé created the character of Chang in honour of his friend Zhang .
Upon realising the anti @-@ Japanese tone of the story , Japan 's diplomats stationed in Belgium issued an official complaint , conveyed to Hergé by Lieutenant @-@ General Raoul Pontus , president of the Sino @-@ Belgian Friendship Association . The diplomats threatened to take their complaint to the Permanent Court of International Justice at The Hague . In learning of this , Zhang congratulated Hergé , stating that it would only further expose the actions of Japan in China to further international scrutiny and would make Hergé " world @-@ famous " . Hergé 's strip also came under criticism from a Belgian general , who commented , " This is not a story for children ... It 's just a problem for Asia ! " The story was nevertheless a commercial success , and Le Petit Vingtième organised a celebration to commemorate the return of Tintin from the Far East , sponsored by the L 'Innovation and Bon Marché department stores . Taking place at the Cirque Royal , it was attended by 3000 fans of the series , many of whom were Scouts , and involved an actor portraying Tintin who accompanied Hergé , the newspaper 's staff , a contortionist and a clown .
In September 1935 , Zhang returned to China at his family 's request . Hergé meanwhile set about preparing the strip for publication in book form through Casterman . Proud of this Adventure , he encouraged them to increase the level of marketing and advertising for the work . At their advice , he renamed the story from The Adventures of Tintin in the Far East to The Blue Lotus , commenting of this new title : " It is short , it sounds Chinese and it is mysterious . " At Casterman 's prompting , he also inserted a number of coloured plates throughout the work , and devised a new design for the front cover . The book was finally published in October 1936 . Hergé was pleased with the product , commenting , " I was just bowled over ! It is the height of luxury and my first thought was ' It 's much too good for children ! ' ... I was far from expecting that . " He sent a copy to Zhang , who replied to thank him . After news of its publication reached China , in 1939 political leader Chiang Kai @-@ shek , who had enjoyed The Blue Lotus , asked his wife Soong Mei @-@ ling to invite Hergé to visit them there , although he was unable to do so due to the impending Second World War . He finally took up her offer in 1973 , visiting her on the island of Taiwan .
= = = Second version , 1946 = = =
In the 1940s and 1950s , when Hergé 's popularity had increased , he and his team at Studios Hergé redrew many of the original black @-@ and @-@ white Tintin adventures in colour using the ligne claire ( " clear line " ) drawing style he had developed so that they visually fitted in with the new Tintin stories being created . The Studios reformatted and coloured The Blue Lotus in 1946 . Little was actually changed for the 1946 edition , although many of the backgrounds were embellished . Minor alterations included replacing three highland Scotsman who briefly featured in the story with three Sikhs . The map that appears on the opening page was made smaller , while a reference to Sir Malcolm Campbell was removed . The European Palace Hotel was renamed The Continental , while Gibbons ' company was also renamed from the Americano @-@ Anglo Chinese Stell [ sic ] Company Limited to American and Chinese Steel Incorporated , and the drug smuggling ship known as the S.S. City of Doodlecastle was renamed the S.S. Harika Maru .
= = = Later publications = = =
Both Rastapopoulos and Dawson reappeared in the series 20 years later in The Red Sea Sharks . Casterman republished the original black @-@ and @-@ white version in 1979 in a French @-@ language collected volume with Cigars of the Pharaoh and The Broken Ear , the second part of the Archives Hergé collection . In 1985 , Casterman published a facsimile version of the original . Meanwhile , Methuen , the British publisher of The Adventures of Tintin , felt that the story was dated , and only published The Blue Lotus in 1983 , the year of Hergé 's death . The translation into English was undertaken by Michael Turner and Leslie Lonsdale @-@ Cooper , although it lost the English accent of the British troops which was conveyed in the original French . The Adventures of Tintin also became popular in Japan , something Michael Farr thought indicated that the Japanese had not taken offence to Hergé 's portrayal of them in The Blue Lotus . After Hergé 's death , the original illustrated manuscript of The Blue Lotus was discovered at Studio Hergé , and was subsequently exhibited as the centrepiece of an exhibit commemorating the
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suppleness , a devotion to good causes , and the patience of an animal stalking its prey " . He furthermore argued that Didi 's desire to behead people when under the poison 's influence expressed his Oedipus complex and was a substitute for castration .
= = Adaptations = =
The Blue Lotus was adapted into a 1991 episode of The Adventures of Tintin television series by French studio Ellipse and Canadian animation company Nelvana . Directed by Stéphane Bernasconi , Thierry Wermuth voiced the character of Tintin . In March 2013 , Steven Spielberg said that The Blue Lotus might be the basis for the third Tintin film in his film series that began with The Adventures of Tintin ( 2011 ) .
= = Cultural Influence = =
In the cult classic The Avengers ( TV Series ) in the final moments of the December 4 , 1968 episode " Look- ( stop me if you 've heard this one ) But There Were These Two Fellers ... " John Steed is seen reading " Le Lotus Bleu " . In three other episodes of The Avengers Steed is seen reading three other The Adventures of TinTin books .
= Tago Mago =
Tago Mago is the third album by the German krautrock band Can , and was originally released as a double LP in 1971 by United Artists . It was the band 's second studio album and the first to feature Kenji " Damo " Suzuki after their previous vocalist , Malcolm Mooney , quit the band in 1970 to return to the United States .
Tago Mago has been described as Can 's most extreme record in terms of sound and structure . The album has received much critical acclaim since its release and has been cited as an influence by various artists .
= = Recording and production = =
After Malcolm Mooney left Can in 1970 ( according to some rumors , as a result of a nervous breakdown ) , the remaining members were left without a vocalist . Bassist Holger Czukay happened to meet Kenji " Damo " Suzuki when the latter was busking outside a cafe in Munich . He introduced himself as a member of an experimental rock band and invited Suzuki to join them . That evening , Suzuki performed with the band at the " Blow Up club " and subsequently became a member of Can .
Tago Mago was recorded in 1971 by Czukay in Schloss Nörvenich , a castle near Cologne . The band was allowed to stay there for a year without paying any rent by the owner , an art collector named Mr. Vohwinkel .
This was the first of Can 's albums to be made from not only regularly recorded music , but combined " in @-@ between @-@ recordings " , where Czukay secretly recorded the musicians jamming while waiting for various technical problems to be resolved . Czukay would edit these long , disorganized jams into structured songs . According to Czukay , the album was named after Isla de Tagomago , an island off the east coast of Ibiza . Recording was completed in three months .
It was originally released as a double LP in 1971 by United Artists . In September 2004 , the album , along with the majority of Can 's discography , was remastered and released as a hybrid SACD . The rerelease includes a booklet with commentary on the album by Bobby Gillespie of Primal Scream and David Stubbs , as well as previously unreleased photos of the band .
In 2011 , for the 40th anniversary of its release , the 2004 remaster was released again with an extra disc of previously unreleased 1972 live performances .
= = Single = =
The side @-@ long track " Halleluhwah " was shortened from 18 ½ to 3 ½ minutes for the B @-@ side of the single " Turtles Have Short Legs " , a novelty song recorded during the Tago Mago sessions and released by Liberty Records in 1971 . A different , 5 ½ -minute shortened version of " Halleluhwah " would later appear on the compilation Cannibalism in 1978 while the single 's A @-@ side remained out @-@ of @-@ print until its inclusion on 1992 's Cannibalism 2 .
= = Music = =
Julian Cope wrote in Krautrocksampler that Tago Mago " sounds only like itself , like no @-@ one before or after " , and described the lyrics as delving " below into the Unconscious " . Tago Mago finds Can changing to a jazzier and more experimental sound than previous recordings , with longer instrumental interludes and fewer vocals ; this shift was caused by the dramatic difference between Suzuki and the band 's more dominant ex @-@ singer Mooney . On the album , Can took sonic inspiration from sources as diverse as jazz musicians such as Miles Davis and from electronic avant @-@ garde music . The album was also inspired by the occultist Aleister Crowley , which is reflected through the dark sound of the album as well as being named after Isla de Tagomago , an island which features in the Crowley legend . Czukay reflects that the album was " an attempt in achieving a mystery musical world from light to darkness and return " . The group has referred to the album as their " magic record " . The tracks have been described as having an " air of mystery and forbidden secrets " . Tago Mago is divided into two LPs , the first of which is more conventional and structured and the second more experimental and free @-@ form .
" Paperhouse " , the opening track , is one of the shorter songs on the album . Allmusic critic Ned Raggett depicted the song as " beginning with a low @-@ key chime and beat , before amping up into a rumbling roll in the midsection , then calming down again before one last blast . " " Mushroom " is the following track , which Leone noted as having a darker sound than the previous song . " Oh Yeah " and " Halleluhwah " contain the elements that have been referred to as Can 's " trademark " sound : " Damo Suzuki 's vocals , which shift from soft mumbles to aggressive outbursts without warning ; Jaki Liebezeit 's manic drumming ; Holger Czukay 's production manipulations ( e.g. the backwards vocals and opening sound effects on ' Oh Yeah ' ) . " Both " Oh Yeah " and " Halleluhwah " use repetitive grooves .
The second LP features Can 's more avant @-@ garde efforts , with Roni Sarig , author of The Secret History of Rock calling it " as close as it ever got to avant @-@ garde noise music . " Featuring Holger Czukay ’ s tape and radio experiments , the tracks " Aumgn " and " Peking O " have led music critics to write that Tago Mago is Can 's " most extreme record in terms of sound and structure . " " Aumgn " features keyboardist Irmin Schmidt chanting rather than Suzuki 's vocals . The closing track , " Bring Me Coffee or Tea " , was described by Raggett as a " coda to a landmark record . "
= = Reception and influence = =
Tago Mago has been critically well received and is credited with pioneering various modern musical styles . Raggett called Tago Mago a " rarity of the early ' 70s , a double album without a wasted note " . In the book Kraftwerk : Man , Machine and Music , Pascal Bussy described the double LP as " hugely influential " . The album is listed in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die in which it stated , " Even after 30 years Tago Mago sounds refreshingly contemporary and gloriously extreme . " Many critics , particularly in the UK , were eager to praise the album , and by the end of 1971 Can played their first show in the UK .
Various artists have cited Tago Mago as an influence on their work . John Lydon of the Sex Pistols and Public Image Ltd. called it " stunning " in his biography , Rotten : No Irish , No Blacks , No Dogs . Bobby Gillespie of Jesus and Mary Chain and Primal Scream said " The music was like nothing I 'd ever heard before , not American , not rock & roll but mysterious and European . " Mark Hollis of Talk Talk called Tago Mago " an extremely important album " . Marc Bolan listed Suzuki 's freeform lyricism as an inspiration . Jonny Greenwood and Thom Yorke of Radiohead cite the album as an early influence .
There have been attempts by several artists to play cover versions of songs from Tago Mago . The Flaming Lips album In a Priest Driven Ambulance contains a song called " Take Meta Mars " , which was an attempt at covering the song " Mushroom " . However , the band members had only heard the song once and didn 't have a copy of it at the time , so the song is only similar @-@ sounding and not a proper cover . The Jesus and Mary Chain have covered the song more faithfully to the original ; it was performed live and included on the CD version of Barbed Wire Kisses . British band The Fall recorded a song indebted to the Tago Mago track " Oh Yeah " entitled " I Am Damo Suzuki " , named after the Can singer , on their seminal 1985 LP This Nation 's Saving Grace . New York band The Mooney Suzuki were named after Can vocalists Malcolm Mooney and Damo Suzuki .
Remix versions of several Tago Mago tracks by various artists are included on the album Sacrilege .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Holger Czukay , Michael Karoli , Jaki Liebezeit , Irmin Schmidt and Damo Suzuki .
= = 40th Anniversary Edition = =
= = Personnel = =
Damo Suzuki – vocals
Holger Czukay – bass , engineering , editing
Michael Karoli – guitar , violin
Jaki Liebezeit – drums , double bass , piano
Irmin Schmidt – keyboards , vocals on " Aumgn "
= = = Production = = =
U. Eichberger – original artwork & design
Andreas Torkler – design ( 2004 rerelease )
= Yugoslav monitor Vardar =
The Yugoslav monitor Vardar was a Sava @-@ class river monitor built for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy as SMS Bosna , but was renamed SMS Temes ( II ) before she went into service . During World War I she was the flagship of the Danube Flotilla , and fought the Serbian Army , the Romanian Navy and Army , and the French Army . She reverted to the name Bosna in May 1917 , after the original SMS Temes was raised and returned to service . After World War I , she was transferred to the newly created Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( later Yugoslavia ) , and renamed Vardar .
During the German @-@ led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 , she was the flagship of the 1st Monitor Division , and along with her fellow monitor Sava , she laid mines in the Danube near the Romanian border during the first few days of the invasion . The two monitors fought off several attacks by the Luftwaffe , but were forced to withdraw to Belgrade . Due to high river levels and low bridges , the monitors ' navigation was difficult , and they were scuttled by their crews on 11 April . Some of her crew may have been killed when a demolished bridge collapsed onto a tugboat after they abandoned ship . A number tried to escape cross @-@ country towards the southern Adriatic coast , but most were obliged to surrender to the Germans at Sarajevo on 14 April . The remainder made their way to the Bay of Kotor , where they were captured by the Italian XVII Corps on 17 April .
= = Description and construction = =
Vardar was a Sava @-@ class river monitor built for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy by Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino , and was laid down as Bosna at Linz in 1914 , as part of the Austro @-@ Hungarian 1914 – 15 Naval Program . She was named after the river Bosna , but was renamed Temes ( II ) during construction , after the sinking of the original SMS Temes by a mine on the Sava River on 23 October 1914 . Along with her sister ship Sava , she had an overall length of 62 m ( 203 ft 5 in ) , a beam of 10 @.@ 3 m ( 33 ft 10 in ) , and a normal draught of 1 @.@ 3 m ( 4 ft 3 in ) . Her displacement was 580 tonnes ( 570 long tons ) , and her crew consisted of 91 officers and enlisted men . The ship was powered using steam generated by two Yarrow boilers driving two triple @-@ expansion steam engines , and the ship carried 75 tonnes ( 74 long tons ) of fuel oil . Its engines were rated at 1 @,@ 750 ihp ( 1 @,@ 300 kW ) and she was designed to reach a top speed of 13 @.@ 5 knots ( 25 @.@ 0 km / h ; 15 @.@ 5 mph ) .
Her main armament was a twin gun turret of 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) / L45 guns forward of the conning tower and a twin turret of 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) / L10 howitzers aft of the conning tower . She also mounted twin 66 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) / L26 anti @-@ aircraft guns , two 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) / L44 guns , and seven machine guns . The maximum range of her Škoda 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) L / 45 guns was 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) . Her armour consisted of belt and bulkheads 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick , deck armour 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) thick , and her conning tower , gun turrets and cupolas were 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick . Temes was completed on 9 July 1915 .
= = Career = =
= = = World War I = = =
Temes was commissioned into the Danube Flotilla in 1915 , and was in action against the Serbian Army at Belgrade in early October , when the Serbs evacuated the city in the face of an Austro @-@ Hungarian assault . During the final river crossing and reinforcement of the resulting bridgehead , Temes provided close support . During this task , she attempted to draw fire away from the battle @-@ damaged monitor Enns but after receiving a direct hit in the crew quarters aft , she had to move out of range . She was run ashore to put out fires and stop leaks , before being towed out of the battle area by an armed steamer , and taken to Budapest for repairs .
In November 1915 , the other monitors were assembled at Rustschuk , Bulgaria . The geopolitical position of Romania was uncertain , with the Central Powers being aware that the Romanians were negotiating to enter the war on the side of the Entente . To protect the 480 @-@ kilometre ( 300 mi ) Danubian border between Romania and Bulgaria , the flotilla established a sheltered base in the Belene Canal . When the Romanians entered the war on 27 August 1916 , the monitors were again at Rustschuk , having been joined by Temes after her repairs were completed . The monitors were immediately attacked by three improvised torpedo boats operating out of the Romanian river port of Giurgiu . The torpedoes that were fired missed the monitors , but struck a lighter loaded with fuel . The 1st Monitor Division , including Temes , was tasked with escorting supply ships back to the Belene anchorage . This was followed by forays of the Division both east and west of Belene , during which both Turnu Măgurele and Zimnicea were shelled . On 9 May 1917 , she was renamed SMS Bosna as the original SMS Temes was due to return to service after a complete rebuild .
In April 1918 , Bosna , along with three other monitors , two patrol boats and a tug were formed into Flottenabteilung Wulff ( Fleet Division Wulff ) under the command of Flottenkapitän ( Fleet Captain ) Olav Wulff . Flottenabteilung Wulff was sent through the mouth of the Danube and across the Black Sea to Odessa , where it spent several months supporting the Austro @-@ Hungarian troops enforcing the peace agreement with Russia . It returned to the Danube at the end of August , and was anchored at Brăila on 12 September . On 16 October , Bosna and the rest of the 1st Monitor Division sailed from Brăila to Belene . The Danube Flotilla then protected Austro @-@ Hungarian troops withdrawing towards Budapest , fighting French and irregular Serbian forces as they withdrew , and arrived on 6 November .
= = = Interwar period and World War II = = =
Immediately after the armistice , Bosna was crewed by sailors of the newly created Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( KSCS , later the Kingdom of Yugoslavia ) in 1918 – 19 . Under the terms of the Treaty of Saint @-@ Germain @-@ en @-@ Laye concluded in September 1919 , Bosna was transferred to the KSCS along with a range of other vessels , including three other river monitors , but was officially handed over to the KSCS Navy and renamed Vardar in 1920 . In 1925 – 26 , Vardar was refitted , but by the following year only two of the four river monitors of the KSCS Navy were being retained in full commission at any time . In 1932 , the British naval attaché reported that Yugoslav ships were engaging in little gunnery training , and few exercises or manoeuvres , due to reduced budgets .
On 6 April 1941 , the German @-@ led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia began , and Vardar was based at Dubovac , as the flagship of the 1st Monitor Division , responsible for the Romanian border on the Danube , under the operational control of the 3rd Infantry Division Dunavska . She was commanded by Poručnik bojnog broda Milivoj Kockar . On that day , Vardar and her fellow monitor Sava fought off several attacks by individual Luftwaffe aircraft on their base . Over the next three days , the two monitors laid mines in the Danube near the Romanian border .
On 11 April , the two monitors were forced to withdraw from Dubovac towards Belgrade , during which they came under repeated attacks by Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive bombers . Vardar and her fellow monitor were undamaged , and anchored at the confluence of the Danube and Sava near Belgrade about 20 : 00 , where they were joined by the monitor Morava . The three captains conferred , and decided to scuttle their vessels due to the high water levels in the rivers and low bridges , which meant there was insufficient clearance for the monitors to navigate freely . The crews of the monitors were transshipped to two tugboats , but when one of the tugboats was passing under a railway bridge , charges on the bridge accidentally exploded and the bridge fell onto the tugboat . Of the 110 officers and men aboard the vessel , 95 were killed .
After the scuttling of the monitors , around 450 officers and men from the Vardar and various other riverine vessels gathered at Obrenovac . Armed only with personal weapons and some machine guns stripped from the scuttled vessels , they started towards the Bay of Kotor in the southern Adriatic in two groups . The smaller of the two groups reached its objective , but the larger group only made it as far as Sarajevo by 14 April when they were obliged to surrender by German troops approaching the city . The Bay of Kotor was captured by the Italian XVII Corps on 17 April .
= = = Books = = =
= = = Web = = =
= Jimmy Norman =
Jimmy Norman ( August 12 , 1937 – November 8 , 2011 ) was an American rhythm and blues and jazz musician and a songwriter . In his early career , Norman had a charting single of his own , " I Don 't Love You No More ( I Don 't Care About You ) " , as well as performing session work with Jimi Hendrix , but he is better known as a lyricist and songwriter . He wrote the expanded lyrics of the song " Time Is on My Side " , which became a hit for The Rolling Stones , and later in 1985 re recorded and produced by Stephen Vanderbilt featuring " St. Tropez " as the A side of a 45 released on the album " Home " throughout Europe . Norman composed a number of songs performed by well @-@ known musicians including Johnny Nash and Bob Marley . In 1969 he became involved with doo @-@ wop band The Coasters , first as a producer and then as a touring member . He was also recording independently , releasing a solo album in 1998 , the same year poor health forced him to retire from performance . Like many other musicians of his time , he was not financially prepared for retirement or heavy medical bills , and with few royalties for his writing soon found himself in economic crisis . With the assistance of charitable organization Jazz Foundation of America , Norman regained his feet and resumed performing , releasing his first wide distribution album in 2004 , Little Pieces . He performed in the Manhattan area until shortly before his death .
= = Early life and career = =
Born August 12 , 1937 as James Norman Scott in Nashville , Tennessee , Norman relocated to California as a teenager , beginning his career as a touring musician throughout the Midwest and southern regions of the United States before settling in New York . There , he wrote music for Broadway and performed . In 1962 , Norman released his biggest charting single , " I Don 't Love You No More ( I Don 't Care About You ) " , which reached # 21 on the Billboard " Black Singles " chart and # 47 on the " Pop Singles " chart .
= = Songwriting and session work = =
In 1964 , singer Irma Thomas went into the studio to record the single " Anyone Who Knows What Love Is ( Will Understand ) " . It was decided that the b @-@ side , a cover of Kai Winding 's " Time Is on My Side " , needed additional lyrics , since the only words in the original composition were " Time is on my side " and " You 'll come runnin ' back . " Norman was contacted and composed the rest of the lyrics to the tune . The Rolling Stones also recorded the song with Norman 's lyrics and released it as a single , which became the band 's first hit to break the top ten . The Rolling Stones ' releases did credit Norman as lyric writer for a number of years , but eventually his name was removed ; in the early 1990s , he was told by the publisher that the credit was not legally binding , as it had been a " clerical error " .
In 1966 , Norman recorded several tracks with Jimi Hendrix on session at Abtone Studio in New York : " You 're Only Hurting Yourself " , " Little Groovemaker " and " On You Girlie It Looks so Good " . The second of these songs was retooled under the title " Groove Maker " and has been included on a number of Hendrix releases . According to Black Gold : The Lost Archives of Jimi Hendrix , Norman — not Lonnie Youngblood as popularly supposed — was the primary performer besides Hendrix on this song . Jimi Hendrix – From the Benjamin Franklin Studios 3rd Edition Part 1 : The Complete Guide to the Recorded Work of Jimi Hendrix posits Youngblood on saxophone , but gives writing credit to Norman . Jimi Hendrix : Musician documents the confusion surrounding this and other Hendrix sessions of the time , including the difficulty in tracking contributions when they also rose from later manipulation of the material as Hendrix became famous . " You 're Only Hurting Yourself " and " Little Groovemaker " were first released under Norman 's name as Samar records single 112 in 1966 and never again released in original form . " On You Girlie It Looks so Good " remains unreleased .
In 1968 , Norman was visited by a young Bob Marley in his Bronx apartment . Norman had at that time written a number of songs for Johnny Nash , whose record label had just signed Marley , and Marley wanted to learn more about rhythm and blues . Along with Al Pyfrom , Norman 's co @-@ writer , and Marley 's wife Rita , the pair spent several days in a jam session that ultimately resulted in a 24 @-@ minute tape of Marley performing several of his own and Norman @-@ Pyfrom 's compositions . According to Reggae archivist Roger Steffens , the tape — which was lost among Norman 's possessions for decades — is rare for Marley in that it was influenced by pop music rather than reggae , highlighting a point in Marley 's career when he was still trying to find his path . Some of the songs from this early jam session were released on the Marley album Chances Are .
Following these sessions , Norman went to Kingston , Jamaica and spent more than half a year there , working in the studio with Marley and composing songs . A number of his compositions were recorded by Marley , Peter Tosh , Byron Lee and the Dragonaires , and Neville Willoughby . Some of the tapes recorded by Norman during his sessions with Marley have been commercially released as part of the Marley compilation album , Soul Almighty .
= = Coasters years = =
After producing a single for the doo @-@ wop band The Coasters in 1969 for Lloyd Price 's Turntable Records , Norman replaced Vernon Harrell as the regular substitute ( permanently , later on ) for Billy Guy in the group in the 1970s , touring with them until forced to retire by ill @-@ health in 1998 , the same year his album Tobacco Road was released by independent label Bad Cat Records . In interview , Norman cited the limited repertoire , noting that fans of the band were only interested in hearing hits like " Yakety Yak " , " Charlie Brown " and " Poison Ivy " ; " In 30 years we did maybe 10 songs . " Norman did have opportunity to deviate with other love songs from the 1950s , the era when The Coaster 's rose to fame .
During his time with the Coasters , Norman teamed up with Eddie Palmieri as lead vocalist in the group Harlem River Drive , which released a self @-@ titled album in 1971 .
= = Health and economic crisis = =
Norman suffered multiple heart attacks and respiratory disease which restricted him , impoverished , to his home in Manhattan . Though he had a successful career that allowed him at one point to own several clubs , he did not plan for retirement and , like many composers of his time , receives little to no royalties for his compositions . In 2002 , he told The Jamaica Observer with respect to the songs he wrote that were released by Marley , " Periodically , I get chump change , nothing big . A lotta people have been making money off of it , not me . " Norman attempted to get local work without success and , lacking health insurance and investment funds , was near the point of eviction when he came to the attention of the Jazz Foundation of America , which helps redress what The Crisis characterizes as the exploitation of " less savvy or uneducated performers " by record labels and other more powerful members of the music community .
= = Recovery and death = =
Wendy Oxenhorn , director of the Foundation , arranged for housekeeping and free medical care for Norman , as well as helping him plan for his future , providing back rent and negotiating with Norman 's landlord . In the course of that housekeeping , in July 2002 , Norman 's rare tape of his jam session with Marley was located in his apartment and placed on auction , retrieving considerably above its estimated value when auctioned at $ 26 @,@ 290 . During the same housekeeping session , Norman rediscovered old notebooks containing his compositions . Producer Kerryn Tolhurst recorded Norman performing the songs on a tape recorder in his apartment , taking the tapes into the studio later to add parts by other musicians . Judy Collins , whose drummer Tony Beard contributed to the project , released the resultant album under her own Wildflower label in 2004 . The project , titled Little Pieces , is the first album Norman has ever released with wide distribution . In 2006 , Little Pieces won in The 5th Annual Independent Music Awards for Best Blues Album .
In the 2000s , Norman has performed live . In 2003 , he performed a benefit concert for the Jazz Foundation at the Gilsey House in New York . In 2007 , he took part in the Jazz Foundation 's annual " Great Night in Harlem " , performing " Time Is on My Side " . As of 2007 , Norman was performing locally in Manhattan .
Norman died on November 8 , 2011 , in New York City after a long illness . He had held his last public performance on October 29 , 2011 , for the Jazz Foundation of America . Married three times , he was the father of two children .
= = Discography = =
= = = Chart singles = = =
= Fourth Test , 1948 Ashes series =
The Fourth Test of the 1948 Ashes series was one of five Tests in a cricket series between Australia and England . The match was played at Headingley Stadium at Leeds from 22 to 27 July with a rest day on 25 July . Australia won the match by seven wickets to take an unassailable 3 – 0 series lead . In successfully chasing a target of 404 , they set a new world record for the highest victorious runchase in Test history .
Needing to win the match to prevent an Australian series victory , England captain Norman Yardley won the toss and elected to bat . England continued to rearrange their team , making three changes in an attempt to find a combination that could challenge Australia , which made two changes forced by injury . Unlike the preceding Tests , England 's openers were able to withstand the Australian new ball attack , and the partnership of Len Hutton and Cyril Washbrook put on 168 for the opening stand . Washbrook fell for 143 in the last over of the day , but England clearly had the better of the play , ending at 268 / 2 by stumps . Australia 's bowlers were heavily criticised for their performance , which was seen as lethargic . The next day , England continued to amass runs , with Australia appearing unthreatening and unable to dislodge Bill Edrich and nightwatchman Alec Bedser , who batted until mid @-@ afternoon . Bedser and Edrich then fell in quick succession for 79 and 111 respectively as England then collapsed and lost 8 / 73 to be all out for 496 late in the day . The hosts were heavily criticised for the collapse , which was largely due to unforced errors . Among the Australian bowlers , the wickets were shared . Australia then reached 63 / 1 in reply at stumps on day two .
Australia were in early trouble on the third morning when English bowler Dick Pollard removed Arthur Morris and captain Donald Bradman in the same over to leave the score at 68 / 3 . However , Keith Miller ( 58 ) and Neil Harvey ( 112 ) launched a rapid counter @-@ attack , adding 121 runs in 90 minutes in a display praised for its aesthetic beauty . They were later supported by Sam Loxton ( 93 ) — who hit five sixes — and Ray Lindwall ( 77 ) , who both struck the ball powerfully . Australia ended the day at 457 / 9 , having added 394 runs in one day , and 102 runs for the last two wickets to that point .
Australia were bowled out for 458 early on the fourth morning after the rest day , and England set about extending their lead , adding 129 for the first wicket , until both openers fell without further addition . In the meantime the workload on the Australian bowlers was heavy as Ernie Toshack had broken down in the first innings and unable to participate further . Edrich and Denis Compton took the score to 232 / 2 until a late collapse saw England reach stumps at 362 / 8 . England batted on for two overs on the final day , declaring at 365 / 8 . Bill Johnston was the most successful bowler with 4 / 95 . This left Australia a target of 404 in less than a day , which would require a world record runchase , and allowed Yardley to use the heavy roller to break up the pitch , making batting even harder for the tourists . Most observers predicted an easy England win on a deteriorating surface . Australia started slowly , and Bradman joined Morris at 57 / 1 with 347 runs still needed in 257 minutes . They put together a stand of 301 in only 217 minutes , aided by erratic bowling , several missed catches and stumpings to help Australia to a win by seven wickets with 15 minutes remaining . Morris made 182 while Bradman was unbeaten on 173 . The England selectors were heavily criticised after the match for failing to include a leg spinner in the team to exploit the favourable conditions . For the third time in a row , the match set a new record for the highest attendance at a Test in England .
= = Background = =
Australia had proceeded through the first two months of their tour of England undefeated . After winning 10 of the first 12 games — the other two being drawn — eight of these by an innings , they won the First Test by eight wickets . Between the Tests , they defeated Northamptonshire by an innings before drawing against Yorkshire . They crushed England by 409 runs in the Second Test at Lord 's , Abefore defeating Surrey by ten wickets and crushing Gloucestershire by an innings and 363 runs , after amassing 774 / 7 declared , their highest score of the season . The Third Test was drawn amid rain interruptions that cost a day and a half of play ; England had been in a strong position , having been 316 runs ahead with seven wickets in hand in their second innings when rain came at the end of the third day . Australia proceeded to claim a ten @-@ wicket triumph over Middlesex in their only county game before the Fourth Test .
Australia made two changes for the Test at Headingley . Middle @-@ order batsman Neil Harvey replaced the injured opener Sid Barnes , who had collapsed while fielding during the Third Test after being hit in the ribs by a Dick Pollard pull shot . Australia declined to replace Barnes with the reserve opener Bill Brown , instead opting to use vice @-@ captain Lindsay Hassett as a makeshift opener rather than in his customary position in the middle @-@ order . Harvey had scored an unbeaten 73 and a 95 in the recent tour matches against Surrey and Gloucestershire respectively . Ron Saggers replaced first @-@ choice wicket @-@ keeper Don Tallon behind the stumps . Tallon 's little left finger had swelled up after the Third Test , and he exacerbated the injury during the match against Middlesex . Former Australian Test leg spinner Bill O 'Reilly criticised the Australians for opting to use only one spinner , pointing out that he and Chuck Fleetwood @-@ Smith , a left @-@ arm wrist spinner , had taken 17 wickets between them during the last Anglo @-@ Australian Test at Headingley in 1938 . O 'Reilly cited a further instance of an Ashes Test at the same venue in 1934 in which he and Clarrie Grimmett had significant success for Australia . He wanted at least one of the two leg spinners , Colin McCool or Doug Ring , to have played alongside off spinner Ian Johnson , the only specialist spinner to have played in the three preceding Tests .
England made three changes . George Emmett was dropped after making 10 and a duck on his debut , and Len Hutton was recalled to take his opening position after being controversially omitted after the Second Test . England 's leading batsman , Hutton had scored 74 in the First Test and made 52 and 64 for the Marylebone Cricket Club against Australia in the lead @-@ up matches , when none of his teammates passed 26 . O 'Reilly praised the decision and the England selectors for stopping " all nonsense and phoney tactics " . He further speculated that they would have done so irrespective of Hutton 's form to avoid the wrath of the parochial Yorkshire spectators at Headingley , but in any case he regarded the original axing as scapegoating for England 's two losses . O 'Reilly believed the English administrators were penalising Hutton for angering them rather than poor performance . The decision to recall Hutton was met with wide approval from the cricketing public .
Jim Laker , the off spinner , replaced his left arm finger @-@ spinning colleague Jack Young , who had taken 1 / 78 in the previous match against Australia for Middlesex , and totalled 3 / 174 in his two Tests in the series . Since his omission after the Second Test , Laker had taken 15 wickets in four matches for Surrey .
Middle @-@ order batsman Tom Dollery , who had made only 38 in three innings in the Second and Third Tests , was replaced by all @-@ rounder Ken Cranston . Playing mainly for Lancashire , Cranston had scored a century and four fifties , and taken 37 wickets in his last ten matches , but his previous outings against the tourists had not been successful . In two matches for the MCC and Lancashire against Australia , he had managed only 47 runs in three innings and a total of 2 / 109 . English commentator John Arlott said Cranston 's selection was an " indication that the selectors were again hankering after the non @-@ existent Test all @-@ rounder " . O 'Reilly regarded it as " the best team that the English selectors chose during the season " but felt they would be largely incapable of stopping an Australian series victory .
= = Scorecard = =
= = = England innings = = =
= = = Australia innings = = =
= = 22 July : Day One = =
As Australia were leading 2 – 0 after three Tests , England needed to win the last two matches to square the series . The hosts won the toss and elected to bat on an ideal batting pitch , which was seen as being unhelpful to fast bowling . Despite saying the pitch would be more conducive to spinners , O 'Reilly described the playing strip as being " so green that it was difficult to decide where the out @-@ field ended and the pitch began " . Although fast , the outfield was bumpy in some parts . On some sections of the ground , there was a downward slope towards the edge of the playing arena , meaning the ball would accelerate downhill after being hit . At times the crowd spilled over the unfenced boundary , making the ground smaller than intended . All these factors meant scoring a boundary would be an easier task for the batsmen .
The England openers Cyril Washbrook and Len Hutton were given a loud reception as they walked out to bat , particularly the Yorkshire local Hutton . They had to face the Australian opening pair of Ray Lindwall and Keith Miller without the aid of sightscreen . It was the first time some of the Australians had played in a first @-@ class match without a sightscreen , and those cricketers would later have to bat without its assistance . It was believed the Yorkshire administrators were reluctant to install a sightscreen as it would have taken up space and lowered the capacity of the ground , and thus the gate takings .
The large crowd roared boisterously as Hutton got off the mark with a single in the first over from Lindwall . At the other end , Miller bowled with less pace than normal and his opening over saw three full tosses . In Miller 's first over , Hutton scored the first boundary of the day , driving past mid @-@ off . Both Australian pacemen felt their legs for strained muscles , and after two overs O 'Reilly described as " very innocuous " , Miller was taken off . He was replaced by the left @-@ arm pace of Bill Johnston , who appeared to be having back problems . Johnston had bowled the most overs of any bowler on the tour and his loss would have meant a heavy workload for his remaining colleagues . Johnston 's apparent discomfort led onlookers to opine that he should have been given more rest in the county matches . The Australian bowlers appeared to be unsettled and Bradman made four bowling changes in the first 50 minutes of play .
Bradman thought his faster bowlers could not extract much bounce from the surface and soon removed the short leg fielder , and pursued a 6 – 3 off @-@ side field with three slips and a deep point , trying to encourage the English openers to cut through the vacant area between the slips and extra cover . However , they declined Bradman 's incentive and decided to bat in a low @-@ risk manner , favouring straight @-@ batted shots . After 80 minutes of batting , England 's openers reached 50 , the first time they had put on a half @-@ century in the series . Hutton and Washbrook appeared set for the long haul , and did not react to the applause . They continued on cautiously , and persisted in eschewing the cross @-@ batted cut and pull shots and relying on the safe accumulation of singles .
Hutton then edged a ball from left @-@ arm medium pacer Ernie Toshack through the slips , and was dropped by Lindsay Hassett on 25 after flicking the ball behind square leg from the medium pace of Sam Loxton . Hutton then hit a square drive past point and Washbrook pulled a ball along the ground past Harvey , who was patrolling the midwicket boundary . England were 88 without loss at the lunch interval , with Hutton and Washbrook on 46 and 41 respectively . After a slow start , they had scored at almost a run a minute after passing 50 , and five boundaries were hit from a spell of six overs by Lindwall .
Immediately after lunch , Lindwall made a confident appeal for leg before wicket ( lbw ) against Washbrook , but was not supported behind the stumps by a silent Saggers , and the umpire ruled against the tourists . At the other end , Hutton square drove Toshack for four , bringing up his fifty in 125 minutes . He followed this with another boundary in the same direction , and Washbrook back cut Lindwall for four more at the other end . This brought up England 's 100 , its first without loss for the series . Washbrook then on @-@ drove a ball to the boundary and brought up his half @-@ century , as Bradman pondered how to capture Australia 's first wicket . England brought up 150 without loss 30 minutes before tea , and continued unhindered by two brief rain interruptions . Up to this point , the Australian bowling had been loose and inaccurate .
In bright sunshine , Bradman called on the off spin of Ian Johnson , who had delivered only three overs to this point , the rest of the proceedings having been through fast bowlers . Seeking to stem the flow of runs , Bradman set a defensive ring field , with no slip in place . While Johnson bowled two consecutive maidens , Washbrook took 24 at the other end to reach 85 . O 'Reilly said Bradman 's defensive field settings " made the sorry admission of impotency " . Bradman then called for the new ball with the score on 164 , which Hutton on @-@ drove for four from Lindwall . This took the opening partnership to 168 , the best by England in the series . Washbrook refrained from the hook shot , which had caused him to lose his wicket on earlier occasions in the series . The partnership ended on the very next ball when Hutton went onto the front foot and was clean bowled by Lindwall , much to the dismay of the home crowd . Nevertheless , England had made a strong start , continuing their spirited showing in the previous Test . Washbrook was joined by Edrich , who had scored two 50s in the Third Test at Old Trafford after a lean start to the series . O 'Reilly said the hosts ' incoming batsmen had an ideal opportunity to amass a large score as " the Australian attack was completely at the mercy of the two Englishmen . It had lost all its sting and looked quite innocuous . "
Washbrook reached his century with the score on 189 / 1 ; he reached triple figures half an hour after tea , having batted for 230 minutes and 16 boundaries . Washbrook avoided cross @-@ batted shots and solidly defended shorter balls from the back foot , and profited from many over @-@ pitched balls , which he drove away for boundaries . It was a welcome return to form for the opener from Lancashire . He had scored six , one , eight , 37 and 11 in his first five innings of the series , and was dropped on 21 in the second innings of the Third Test before proceeding to an unbeaten 85 . After reaching his century , Washbrook began to play more expansively , driving in a manner that prompted Arlott to compare him to Frank Woolley .
Washbrook and Edrich batted until late in the first day , when the former was dismissed by Johnston for 143 in the last over before stumps , hitting a catch to Lindwall in the slips . His innings included 22 fours and the dismissal ended a second wicket partnership worth exactly 100 runs . Washbrook had been solid in his back foot defence and scored many runs from overpitched deliveries . Bedser was sent in as the nightwatchman , and he survived the last four balls from Johnston as England closed at 268 / 2 without further addition to the score , with Edrich , who played fluently as he had done in the previous Test , on 41 . England 's supporters were much buoyed with the situation at the end of the first day .
Former Test batsman Jack Fingleton , who covered the tour as a journalist , said Australia 's day went " progressively downhill " and described the efforts as the country 's worst day of bowling since World War II , citing the proliferation of full tosses . England had batted conservatively , steadily accumulating runs on a pitch unfavourable for fast bowlers , and Miller bowled placidly . Fingleton 's fellow journalist and former playing colleague O 'Reilly criticised the bowling display as the worst by the Australians on tour and said none of the bowlers could be excused . He lambasted the attack for operating " without object — hopelessly and meaninglessly " throughout the day . He decried the " so @-@ called attack " for being " so blatantly inaccurate both in direction in length " and likened it to what was on offer in " another monotonously uninteresting county match " . O 'Reilly criticised Bradman 's players for what he regarded as an overly casual and relaxed disposition in the morning , which gradually became more lethargic throughout the day as the home team strengthened their position . O 'Reilly speculated that the tourists had become complacent because of their comfortable 2 – 0 series lead .
= = 23 July : Day Two = =
The next day , England resumed hoping for more of what happened on the opening day . The ground was again full , with even more people squashed in than the previous day . The sun was obscured by heavy cloud cover , further hindering the visibility of a ground without a sightscreen . The two English batsmen were initially tentative and played and missed frequently , and only two singles were scored in the first 15 minutes of play . The England team frequently looked towards the sky ; as they needed to win the match and were in a good position , they hoped that time would not be lost to rain . Bradman set a deep @-@ set defensive field as he sought to have Lindwall and Johnston contain the batsmen before the third new ball became available . In all , England scored only five runs in the first half @-@ hour , as the two batsmen sought to survive and be set when the new ball was taken and the Australian attack advantaged . During this time the main threat to the batsmen was Lindwall , who bowled a spell at high pace and unsettled Edrich , who sparred at a number of balls . As soon as it was possible , Bradman took the new ball , and Bedser endeavoured to keep his wicket intact to shield Denis Compton and the other middle @-@ order batsmen from having to come in against a swinging ball . During this period Bedser did not attempt to exploit his strong physique to hit the ball hard . Continuing the defensive strategy of seeing off the new ball , it was not until the 48th minute of play that Edrich reached his 50 in 193 minutes , although he did miss several attempted cut shots that went past the outside edge . However , the hosts had seen off the new ball without losing a wicket . Bedser then glanced a ball for four ; England scored only 22 runs in the first hour .
After the new ball bowlers had finished their new ball spells , Bradman reverted to the slower bowlers , using run @-@ saving , defensive field settings . Immediately thereafter , Bedser targeted Toshack and hit three consecutive fours and a two in one over . Bradman immediately removed the left @-@ armer and replaced him with Johnson . The Australian captain set his infield rather deep , effectively allowing the batsmen to take easy singles . Bedser responded cautiously , surveying Johnson 's off spin for one over , before going on the attack in the next . He lofted Johnson into the leg side three times , yielding a six over long on and two fours , taking his score to 47 . Bedser then hit a ball back to the bowler Loxton , which was almost caught , before reaching 50 . Bradman also brought back a tired Miller to bowl medium pace off breaks , to no avail . England went to the lunch adjournment at 360 / 2 , with Edrich on 76 and Bedser on 52 . They had added 92 for the session , including 70 in the second hour . Lindwall had been the only bowler who caused much difficulty to the batsmen , particularly concerning Edrich , but the Englishmen dealt with his colleagues comfortably and Miller , nursing fitness concerns , was forced to bowl medium @-@ paced off breaks .
Edrich and Bedser continued to amass runs after the break , and Lindwall appealed for lbw for the fourth time while Saggers remained silent . The pair brought up their century partnership as England scored 22 runs in the 30 minutes after lunch . Johnson came on , and Edrich lofted him for six to reach 96 . Edrich then hit a long hop from the part @-@ time wrist spin of Arthur Morris for four to reach his century . Bedser joined the attack and lifted Morris high over square leg for six , and Bradman replaced him with Toshack , who bowled a maiden . O 'Reilly said that during the partnership , only Lindwall appeared capable of threatening the batsmen . He said Lindwall " kept slogging away , tirelessly retaining his pace and enthusiasm long after the other members of the attack had lost all signs of hostility … Bradman could not afford to spare him from doing much more than his share of the galley @-@ slave work . " O 'Reilly decried Lindwall 's workload as excessive and potentially harmful to his longevity . However , against the run of play , Bedser was out caught and bowled by Johnson after almost three hours of batting , ending a 155 @-@ run stand for the third wicket . His on @-@ drive was intercepted by the bowler , who dived across the pitch to his right @-@ hand side to complete the catch . Bedser had struck eight fours and two sixes in a Test best of 79 . He appeared upset by his dismissal , patting the ball back to the bowler when he could have hit it decisively . Edrich attempted to pull a Johnson long hop to the leg side , targeting the large gap between square leg and mid @-@ on , but only ballooned the ball to Morris , who completed the catch diving forwards at wide mid @-@ on . This came after only three runs after Bedser 's dismissal and left the score at 426 / 4 . Edrich had batted for 314 minutes in compiling 111 , with 13 fours and a six .
With two new batsmen — Compton and Jack Crapp — at the crease , Australia quickly made further inroads . Toshack bowled Crapp for five with an inside @-@ edged half volley to leave England at 447 / 5 . With this , Bradman took the new ball , and Compton exploited its hardness to score quickly . However , after the shine wore off and the ball went soft , Compton could not score for 25 minutes . O 'Reilly decried Compton 's " helpless " effort in failing to dispatch the tired Australian bowling as " the worst Test innings I have seen him play " .
After Compton and captain Norman Yardley had added 26 for the sixth wicket , the former edged Lindwall down the leg side , and Saggers completed his first Test catch to leave England at 473 / 6 . O 'Reilly speculated that Compton 's inability to make progress against the bowling deflated his colleagues . Playing in his second Test of the summer , Loxton bowled Ken Cranston for 10 to claim his first Ashes wicket , leaving England at 486 / 7 . Cranston opted to not play at a ball that went straight into his leg stump . Loxton then removed Godfrey Evans and Jim Laker in quick succession as England fell to 496 / 9 . Evans fell meekly , prodding a ball straight to Hassett at silly mid @-@ on , prompting O 'Reilly to deem Loxton " lucky to be on deck when the English tail were falling over themselves in their nervous speed to commit hara @-@ kiri " . In contrast , Laker edged Loxton down the leg side and it took a diving , low catch from Saggers to complete the dismissal . Umpire Baldwin asked his colleague Chester at square leg to confirm the ball had carried on the full before sending Laker back to the pavilion . Miller then bowled Yardley to end England 's innings at 496 . The home side had batted for 192 @.@ 1 overs and lost their last eight wickets for the addition of 73 runs . Loxton took 3 / 55 while Lindwall and Johnson both took two apiece . However , the late wickets came at a cost for Australia , who lost the services of Toshack to a knee injury .
The collapse was heavily condemned . Fingleton said England " encountered something [ ascendancy over Australia ] which they had not known in post @-@ war cricket with Australia and did not know how to handle it " . O 'Reilly called the capitulation a " disgustingly bad show " . He asked what " was there to make bowlers ... pulverize the carefully chosen cream of English batting on a perfect wicket ? " before concluding that the collapse was caused by " an unfortunate absence of concentration " rather than the opposition bowling . Both thought England had wasted an opportunity to put themselves in an unassailable position .
With Barnes injured , Hassett moved up from the middle order to open the innings with Morris . Using the new ball , Bedser removed Morris , who chipped the ball in the air to Cranston at mid @-@ wicket and fell for six to leave Australia at 13 / 1 . This brought Bradman to the crease and he was mobbed by the spectators on a ground where he had scored two triple centuries in Tests in 1930 and 1934 . Many spectators surged onto the playing arena to greet Bradman , and he doffed his baggy green and raised his bat to acknowledge them . Fingleton wrote " on this field he [ Bradman ] has won his greatest honours ; nowhere else has he been so idolatrously acclaimed " .
Bradman got off the mark from his first ball , which Compton prevented from going for four with a diving stop near the boundary . Hassett was restrained while Bradman attacked , taking three fours from one Edrich over . Bradman was 31 and Hassett 13 as the tourists reached stumps at 63 / 1 . The Australian captain did the majority of the scoring in the late afternoon , adding 31 in a partnership of 50 . The tourists batted with little discomfort on a pitch that was still offering even bounce at a gentle pace .
= = 24 July : Day Three = =
On the third morning , play resumed under hot and humid conditions . There had been rain on the pitch at 07 : 00 , and Bradman resumed proceedings by taking a single from a Bedser no ball . In same over , one ball reared from the pitch and moved into Bradman , hitting him in the groin , causing a delay as he recovered from the pain and recomposed himself before play resumed . In the second over of the day , Pollard got the second ball to lift . Caught out by the unexpected bounce , Hassett was unable to get out of the way and edged the ball to Crapp in the slips for 13 . Miller came to the crease and drove his first ball for three runs , bringing Bradman on strike for the fourth ball of the over . Pollard then pitched a ball in the same place as he did to Hassett , but this time it skidded low off the pitch , deviated back in and knocked out Bradman 's off stump for 33 . According to O 'Reilly , Bradman backed away from the ball as it cut off the pitch with a noticeable flinch . O 'Reilly attributed Bradman 's unwillingness to get behind the ball to the blow inflicted on him by Bedser in the previous over and the rearing ball that dismissed Hassett .
Sensing the importance of the two quick wickets , in particular that of Bradman , who had been so productive at Headingley , the crowd erupted . Australia were struggling at 68 / 3 as Harvey , playing his first Ashes Test and the youngest member of the squad at the age of 19 , walked out bareheaded to join Miller at the crease . The tourists were more than 400 behind , and another wicket would expose the lower order and give England the opportunity to take a large first innings lead . Harvey told his senior partner " What 's going on out here , eh ? Let 's get stuck into ' em " . He got off the mark by forcing the ball behind point .
The pair launched a counterattack , Miller taking the lead . He hoisted off spinner Laker 's first ball over the square leg fence for six . Miller shielded Harvey from Laker , as his younger partner was struggling against the off breaks that were turning away from him , including one that spun and bounced sharply to beating the outside edge . Miller drilled one off @-@ drive off Laker for four , and after mis @-@ hitting the next , much to the amusement of the crowd , hit the off spinner flat over his head , almost for six into the sightscreen . This allowed Australia to seize the initiative , and Harvey joined the fightback in the next over , hitting consecutive boundaries against Laker , the second of which almost cleared the playing area . He struck another boundary to reach 44 , while Miller 's score stayed on 42 . After half an hour of play , the early morning life in the pitch appeared to have died out .
Miller then lifted Laker for another six over long off , hitting a spectator in the head . The English captain , noted for his ability to break partnerships with his occasional bowling , brought himself on . Miller responded by striking a four over long on from Yardley 's bowling to reach 54 . He drove the next ball through cover for four . The English skipper responded by stacking the leg side with outfielders and bowled outside leg stump , challenging Miller to attempt another hit for six . Yardley bowled a half @-@ volley outside leg stump and the batsman obliged , but edged the ball off the back of his bat onto wicket @-@ keeper Evans ' head and was caught by a forward @-@ diving Edrich at short fine leg .
The partnership had yielded 121 runs in 90 minutes , and was likened by Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack to a " hurricane " . Fingleton said he had never " known a more enjoyable hour " of " delectable cricket " . He acclaimed Miller 's innings as " one of the rarest gems in the Test collection of all time " and " a moment to live in the cricket memory " . O 'Reilly said Miller and Harvey had counter @-@ attacked with " such joyful abandon that it would have been difficult , if not absolutely impossible , to gather from their methods of going about it that they were actually retrieving a tremendously difficult situation " . The crowd was in raptures at both the batting and Edrich 's catch . Arlott said " two of the greatest innings of all Test cricket were being played " , and praised Miller for elevating " cricket to a point of aesthetic beauty " .
Loxton came in to join Harvey at 189 / 4 , who continued attacking , unperturbed by Miller 's departure . Cranston came on and Harvey square drove and then hooked to deep square leg for two consecutive boundaries . Yardley moved a man from fine leg to the location where the previous hook had gone ; Harvey responded by glancing a ball to where the fine leg fielder had been , collecting three more runs . Australia thus went to lunch at 204 / 4 , with Harvey on 70 .
After lunch , Australia scored slowly as Loxton struggled to find his fluency against the bowling . Yardley took the new ball in an attempt to trouble the batsmen with extra pace , but instead , Loxton began to settle in . The Australian lofted Pollard to the leg side , almost for six , and hit three fours off a subsequent Pollard over . Harvey accelerated as well , and 80 minutes into the middle session , reached his century to a loud reception as Australia passed 250 . He had taken 177 minutes and hit 14 fours . Loxton then dominated the scoring in a display of power hitting . He brought up his 50 by hitting Cranston into the pavilion for six , eliciting spontaneous applause from the English players . The century
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in the way the show revels in the oddities of its time , peeling back the layers of polite society to reveal a giddy shadow world of criminals and politicians collaborating to keep the liquor flowing , " says online magazine Salon 's Heather Havrilesky who went on to call the pilot " breathtaking . " Roberto Bianco from USA Today said in his review that Boardwalk Empire was " Extravagantly produced , shockingly violent and as cold and hard as ice , Boardwalk Empire brings us back to the world 's former playground at the start of Prohibition — and brings HBO back to the forefront of the TV @-@ series race . "
However , not all critical reviews were favorable . Nancy Franklin of The New Yorker felt that the series too closely echoed The Sopranos , and went on to say that " ... the first episode alone cost nearly twenty million dollars @-@ and it looks authentic in a way that , paradoxically , seems lifeless . You 're constantly aware that you 're watching a period piece , albeit one with some vivid scenes and interesting details . " Chris Barsanti from PopMatters affords the show six out of ten , remarking that the series " .. doesn 't begin in the most thought @-@ proving manner ... " and added that the character of Jimmy Darmody is a " dud " and Michael Pitt gives " a one @-@ note performance . " Aaron Riccio of Slant praised the series overall ( awarding it three and a half stars ) , but commented that the show was " too big " and had too many subplots . " The plots that Boardwalk Empire does settle on are too complex for a single episode , " he said , " ... while this style of drawn @-@ out , season @-@ long storytelling can work the writers don 't establish enough tension up front to carry the back @-@ heavy narrative . "
= = Accolades = =
= = = Ratings = = =
On its original airing at 9 pm , " Boardwalk Empire " gained a 2 @.@ 0 / 5 ratings share among adults aged 18 – 49 and garnered 4 @.@ 81 million viewers . The episode was re @-@ played twice that night , once at 10 : 15 pm and again at 11 : 30 pm Taking these broadcasts into account , a total of 7 @.@ 1 million Americans viewed the episode on the night of its original broadcast , and is the highest rated premiere for an HBO series since the pilot of Deadwood in March 2004 . Following this successful debut , HBO immediately renewed the series for a second season .
= Milan Lucic =
Milan Lucic ( pronounced [ mǐlan lûːt ͡ ʃit ͡ ɕ ] ; born June 7 , 1988 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey left winger who is currently playing for the Edmonton Oilers of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . He played major junior hockey with the Vancouver Giants in the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) for three seasons and captured a Memorial Cup , while being named tournament MVP in 2007 . He was selected 50th overall in the 2006 NHL Entry Draft and made the Bruins ' roster as a 19 @-@ year @-@ old in 2007 – 08 . Three years later , he won a Stanley Cup with the Bruins . He spent the first eight seasons of his NHL career with Boston prior to joining Los Angeles in June 2015 .
Internationally , he captained the Canadian national junior team at the 2007 Super Series . Lucic plays physically in the style of a power forward .
= = Early life = =
Lucic was born in East Vancouver to Serbian couple Dobrivoje " Dobro " Lučić and Snežana Kesa . His father , a longshoreman , emigrated from Yugoslavia ( now Bosnia and Herzegovina ) when he was 27 , while his mother arrived from Yugoslavia ( now Croatia ) with her family at the age of two . He has a younger brother named Nikola and an older brother named Jovan . His maternal uncle , Dan Kesa , is a retired NHL right winger who played for the Vancouver Canucks , Pittsburgh Penguins , Tampa Bay Lightning , and Dallas Stars .
Growing up , Lucic attended Killarney Secondary in Vancouver . He was a fan of the hometown Vancouver Canucks and has singled out power forward Todd Bertuzzi as one of his favourite players when following the team . At the age of 15 , he was diagnosed with Scheuermann 's disease , a condition that can cause the upper back to curve and has given Lucic a hunched @-@ over posture .
Lucic played minor hockey ( VMHA ) in Vancouver , but nearly quit the sport after being passed up in the 2003 WHL Bantam Draft . He was invited to play for the Coquitlam Express of the Junior A British Columbia Hockey League ( BCHL ) , but was further demoralized when he initially failed to make the team out of rookie camp . He agreed to play , instead , for the Junior B Delta Ice Hawks , but later played his way onto the Express after five games .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Amateur = = =
Lucic began his junior career with the Coquitlam Express of the BCHL in 2004 – 05 . In the same season , he made his major junior debut with the Vancouver Giants , his hometown Western Hockey League ( WHL ) team , playing in one regular @-@ season game and two playoff games . He joined the Giants full @-@ time in 2005 – 06 , scoring 19 points in 62 games . He added seven points in 18 playoff games to help the Giants to a WHL title and an appearance in the 2006 Memorial Cup . In the off @-@ season , he was selected 50th overall by the Boston Bruins in the second round of the 2006 NHL Entry Draft . Bruins management had considered taking Lucic earlier in the second round with the 37th overall pick , but chose defenceman Yuri Alexandrov instead . Bruins Director of Scouting Scott Bradley admitted he did not expect Lucic to still be available with the 50th pick , adding , " We were fortunate to get him . "
The following season , in 2006 – 07 , Lucic emerged as one of the Giants ' leaders , finishing first in team scoring with 68 points in 70 games . He added 19 points in 22 post @-@ season games as the Giants lost the WHL Finals to the Medicine Hat Tigers in seven games . Despite losing the WHL title , Vancouver appeared in the 2007 Memorial Cup as tournament hosts . Lucic and the Giants met Medicine Hat once more in the tournament final , capturing the Canadian Hockey League ( CHL ) title by a 3 – 1 score . Lucic assisted on Michal Řepík 's tournament @-@ winning goal with five minutes to play in regulation . He finished the tournament tied for the lead in scoring with Řepík ( with more goals , Řepík was awarded the Ed Chynoweth Trophy as leading scorer ) and earned the Stafford Smythe Memorial Trophy as tournament MVP .
Nearly four years after his last junior game , Lucic was honoured by the Giants prior to a game against the Chilliwack Bruins on February 25 , 2011 . Dubbed " Milan Lucic Night , " he was added to the club 's Ring of Honour , showcasing the top Giants alumni of all @-@ time . The first 500 game @-@ attendees were also given free Lucic bobblehead dolls . As part of the team 's ten @-@ year anniversary , he was also voted by fans as the team 's best player of all @-@ time .
= = = Professional = = =
= = = = Boston Bruins ( 2007 @-@ 2015 ) = = = =
In the 2007 off @-@ season , Lucic signed an entry @-@ level contract with the Bruins on August 2 . He had been chosen as the Giants ' next team captain , but made the Bruins ' 2007 – 08 opening roster out of training camp . He played in his first career NHL game on October 5 , 2007 , a 4 – 1 loss to the Dallas Stars , in which he fought opposing forward Brad Winchester . His first goal came a week later on October 12 against Jonathan Bernier , a game winner , in an 8 – 6 win against the Los Angeles Kings . By also fighting Kings forward Raitis Ivanāns and notching an assist , he recorded a Gordie Howe hat trick ( an unofficial statistic constituting a goal , an assist and a fight in one game ) . Unsure of whether the Bruins would keep him or return him to junior , he stayed in a downtown hotel in Boston to start the season . However , Lucic made enough of an impression during his first set of games with the Bruins , showing grit and consistent willingness to fight ( he recorded 13 fighting majors in his rookie season ) , that they decided to keep him in the lineup . Bruins management informed the Giants prior to Lucic 's tenth game , accounting for the NHL 's nine @-@ game maximum for junior @-@ eligible players to stay with their NHL club without initiating their contract . He was chosen to participate in the 2008 NHL YoungStars Game and finished his rookie campaign with eight goals and 27 points . Towards the end of the season , he was voted by Bruins fans for the team 's Seventh Player Award for exceeding expectations . Matched up against the first @-@ seeded Montreal Canadiens in the opening round , Lucic scored his first Stanley Cup playoff goal in Game 3 on April 13 , 2008 . He finished his first NHL post @-@ season with two goals as the Bruins were eliminated by the Canadiens in seven games .
Early into the 2008 – 09 season , Lucic recorded his first career NHL hat @-@ trick and added an assist in a 5 – 4 win against the Atlanta Thrashers on October 25 , 2008 . Later that week , Lucic made a much @-@ publicized return to his hometown in a game against the Vancouver Canucks , which featured a picture of him as a baby on the back page of Vancouver 's The Province newspaper . Earlier in the year , Lucic 's 2007 Memorial Cup ring had been stolen from his home in East Vancouver on July 10 , 2008 . In a private ceremony before the game against the Canucks , he was presented a replacement ring by Vancouver Giants ownership .
Lucic was chosen to his second YoungStars Game in January 2009 . However , he did not compete for the sophomores in Montreal due to an undisclosed upper @-@ body injury . Near the end of the season , on April 4 , 2009 , Lucic was awarded the Bruins ' Eddie Shore Award for hustle and determination . He finished his second NHL season improving to 17 goals and 42 points in 72 games , while playing predominantly on a line with the Bruins ' top centre , Marc Savard .
Entering the 2009 playoffs with the Bruins as the first seed in the Eastern Conference , Lucic received a one @-@ game suspension after delivering a cross @-@ check to the head of Montreal Canadiens forward Maxim Lapierre in Game 2 of the first round . While the Bruins argued that Lucic used predominantly his glove , rather than his stick , the League held its decision . After serving his suspension , Lucic and the Bruins went on to eliminate the Canadiens , advancing to the second round against the Carolina Hurricanes , who the Bruins lost to in seven games . Lucic added nine points in ten games in the playoffs .
With the 2009 – 10 season marking the final year of his original entry @-@ level contract , it was announced on October 6 , 2009 , that Lucic had been signed to a three @-@ year , US $ 12 @.@ 25 million contract extension with the Bruins through to the 2012 – 13 season . The deal is structured at US $ 4 million for the first two seasons and US $ 4 @.@ 25 million in the third , a raise from his US $ 685 @,@ 000 base salary in 2009 – 10 . Ten days later , on October 16 , he suffered a broken finger requiring surgery in a game against the Dallas Stars while hitting defenceman Stéphane Robidas . Lucic returned to the Bruins lineup on November 19 , but was injured again four games later , suffering a sprained ankle in a game against the Minnesota Wild on November 25 . His left leg had buckled from underneath him while reaching behind him to receive a pass from teammate Dennis Wideman . Missing an additional 18 games , Lucic was limited to 50 contests in his third NHL season . His play was perceived by Head Coach Claude Julien to have suffered following the two injuries ; he recorded nine goals and 20 points to finish the regular season . He added nine points in 13 playoff games as the Bruins were eliminated in the second round by the Philadelphia Flyers . They became the third team in NHL history to lose a playoff series after having led three games to none . All five goals Lucic scored in the playoffs were recorded in the second round , including two in the deciding seventh game , which the Bruins lost 4 – 3 .
In the second month of the 2010 – 11 season , Lucic recorded a natural hat @-@ trick on November 18 , 2010 , during a 4 – 0 win over the Florida Panthers . Later in the campaign , he was fined $ 3 @,@ 500 by the NHL for his actions during a game against Atlanta on December 23 . After Lucic was hit by opposing defenceman Freddy Meyer , teammate Andrew Ference engaged Meyer in a fight . In the ensuing scrum , Lucic punched Meyer as the two were being restrained by referees , resulting in a match penalty . Three days following the game , Lucic received a $ 2 @,@ 500 fine for his punch and an additional $ 1 @,@ 000 for an obscene gesture he had made to players on the Thrashers ' bench immediately afterwards . In January 2011 , he missed three games with a shoulder injury . Lucic completed the season with a career @-@ high 30 goals , 32 assists and 62 points in 79 games . He led the Bruins in goal @-@ scoring while tying for the points lead with centre David Krejčí . Entering the 2011 playoffs as the third seed in the East , the Bruins eliminated the Montreal Canadiens , Philadelphia Flyers and Tampa Bay Lightning in the first three rounds , en route to the Stanley Cup Finals against Vancouver . Although Lucic scored below his regular @-@ season pace during the post @-@ season with 12 points ( five goals and seven assists ) in 25 games , he helped the Bruins to their first Stanley Cup since 1972 , as the team defeated the Canucks in Game 7 of the Finals . It was later reported that Lucic was playing through a couple of injuries during the playoffs . During the Eastern Conference Finals , he suffered a broken toe after blocking a shot from teammate Tyler Seguin during practice . He also struggled with a sinus infection , which was part of a larger problem in his right nostril that traced back to the end of the 2009 – 10 season and caused improper breathing . Lucic underwent surgery in the off @-@ season to repair the sinus .
In August 2011 , Lucic had his customary day in possession of the Stanley Cup , which he spent in Vancouver . While it is traditional for players to host public celebrations with the trophy in their hometowns , Lucic chose to keep the day private , explaining that " I grew up a Canucks fan . I know how it is . " Following the Canucks ' defeat in the Finals , fans had staged an hours @-@ long riot in Downtown Vancouver . More personally , posters of Lucic at a local cultural community centre were defaced . Also , an appearance by Lucic at a Greek festival in Vancouver sparked a public brawl ; The Vancouver Sun reported that Lucic did not throw any punches . While Lucic 's day with the Cup was private , many of his functions were held in public venues , which were reportedly well received by passers @-@ by . He brought the trophy to his hometown church , St. Archangel Michael Serbian Orthodox Church in Burnaby , for a gathering of approximately 350 people and on a harbour cruise with friends and family . He finished the day atop Grouse Mountain , the same place where he and his Vancouver Giants teammates took the Memorial Cup after their CHL victory in 2007 . Months later , in February 2012 , the church he brought the trophy to was vandalized .
A month and a half into the 2011 – 12 season , Lucic received considerable attention for a hit against opposing goaltender Ryan Miller during a game against the Buffalo Sabres . Miller had come out of his net to play a puck that Lucic last touched midway between the centre line and the Sabres ' blue line . As Miller shot the puck towards the end @-@ boards , Lucic collided with him heavily , knocking him to the ice . Miller was diagnosed with a concussion and was sidelined for several games ; he also heavily criticized Lucic for his actions and called him a " gutless piece of shit " in post @-@ game comments . The day after the hit , the NHL held a hearing with Lucic and later announced that he would not be suspended for the play , citing that the minor penalty for charging that was assessed during the game was sufficient . A few weeks after this incident , he received a one @-@ game suspension for an illegal hit on Philadelphia forward Zac Rinaldo . Lucic hit Rinaldo from behind during a battle for the puck along the boards , although he was not seriously injured on the play . A short time into the 2013 – 14 season , Lucic scored his first @-@ ever NHL overtime goal to break a 2 – 2 tie game at home against the visiting Columbus Blue Jackets .
= = = = Los Angeles Kings ( 2015 @-@ 16 ) = = = =
On June 26 , 2015 , Lucic was traded to the Los Angeles Kings in exchange for goaltender Martin Jones , Colin Miller and the 13th overall pick ( Jakub Zboril ) in the 2015 NHL Entry Draft . Lucic excelled during his season with the Kings , playing a strong 2 @-@ way game while posting 20 goals , 35 assists for 55 points during the regular season . Lucic also added 3 assists in 5 games in the NHL Playoffs .
= = = = Edmonton Oilers ( 2016 @-@ present ) = = = =
As an unrestricted free agent , on the opening day of free agency , Lucic agreed to a 7 @-@ year $ 42 million contract with the Edmonton Oilers on July 1 , 2016 . Lucic will wear # 27 with the Oilers , as # 17 was retired by the Oilers .
= = International play = =
In the off @-@ season following Lucic 's MVP performance at the 2007 Memorial Cup , he was named team captain of Canada for the 2007 Super Series against Russia . The series , an eight @-@ game competition between Canada and Russia 's under @-@ 20 teams , commemorated the 35th anniversary of the historic 1972 Summit Series . He recorded three assists as Canada won the series with seven wins and a tie .
Two years later , Lucic was invited to Canada 's summer orientation camp in Calgary for the 2010 Winter Olympics . He was not , however , chosen to the final roster . Lucic was also invited to the orientation camp for the 2014 Winter Olympics , but again did not make the final roster .
= = Personal life = =
Lucic married his longtime girlfriend Brittany Carnegie in the summer of 2012 . The couple has two daughters , Valentina and Nikolina .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International statistics = = =
= = Awards = =
= = = Major junior = = =
= = = NHL = = =
* Did not play due to injury
= = = Boston Bruins = = =
= 2005 Azores subtropical storm =
The 2005 Azores subtropical storm was the nineteenth nameable storm of the record @-@ breaking 2005 Atlantic hurricane season . It was not officially named by the National Hurricane Center as it was operationally classified as a non @-@ tropical low . The storm developed in the eastern Atlantic Ocean out of a low @-@ pressure area that gained subtropical characteristics on October 4 . The storm was short @-@ lived , crossing over the Azores later on October 4 before becoming extratropical again on October 5 . No damage or fatalities were reported . After being absorbed into a cold front , the system went on to become Hurricane Vince , which affected the Iberian Peninsula .
Months after the hurricane season , when the National Hurricane Center was performing its annual review of the season and its named storms , forecasters Jack Beven and Eric Blake identified this previously unnoticed subtropical storm . Despite its unusual location and wide wind field , the system had a well @-@ defined center convecting around a warm core — the hallmark of a subtropical storm .
= = Meteorological history = =
The system originated out of an upper @-@ level low just west of the Canary Islands on September 28 . The low organized itself over the next several days , producing several bursts of convection . While remaining non @-@ tropical with a cold core it moved gradually west to northwest . On October 3 , it became a broad surface low about 400 nautical miles ( 460 mi , 740 km ) southwest of São Miguel Island in the Azores . Early on October 4 , convection increased as the surface low organized itself , and the system became a subtropical depression . Around the same time , the depression turned northeast into a warm sector ahead of an oncoming cold front and strengthened into a subtropical storm . The system continued to track northeast and strengthened slightly , reaching its peak intensity of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) as it approached the Azores that evening . After tracking through the Azores , the storm weakened slightly as it moved to the north @-@ northeast . Through an interaction with the cold front early on October 5 the subtropical storm became extratropical . The system was fully absorbed by the front later that day . The newly absorbed system would separate from the dissolving frontal system and become Subtropical Storm Vince on October 8 .
At the time , the system was not believed to have been subtropical . However , there were several post @-@ season findings that confirmed that the system was indeed a subtropical storm . The first was the cloud pattern , in which it had deep convection around the center and was better organized with a well @-@ defined center of circulation . In addition , the system had a warm core more typical of tropical cyclones as opposed to the cold core of extratropical cyclones . The warm @-@ core nature also meant that there were no warm or cold fronts attached to the system , as temperatures did not change ahead of and behind the system until the unrelated cold front passed the Azores . Satellite imagery suggested that the system was briefly a tropical storm as the warm core was found ; however , the widespread wind field and the presence of an upper @-@ level trough confirmed that it was merely subtropical .
= = Impact , classification , and records = =
Tropical storm @-@ force winds were reported across parts of the Azores , primarily on the eastern islands . The strongest winds were reported on Santa Maria Island , where 10 @-@ minute sustained winds reached 49 mph ( 79 km / h ) with gusts to 59 mph ( 94 km / h ) . Ponta Delgada faced 38 mph ( 61 km / h ) winds , with the peak recorded gust being 52 mph ( 85 km / h ) . No damage or fatalities were reported .
The storm was not classified as a subtropical storm until April 10 , 2006 , after a reassessment by the National Hurricane Center . Every year , the NHC re @-@ analyzes the systems of the past hurricane season and revises the storm history frequently if there is new data that was operationally unavailable . If the storm had been operationally recognized it would have been named Subtropical Storm Tammy , and storms forming after October 4 would have been moved one name down the list . Hurricane Wilma would have been given the name Alpha : a name that , had it been retired like Wilma was , could not be replaced by an " alternate " Greek letter , as is the convention with names on the standard A – W list . When the system strengthened into a subtropical storm on October 4 , it was the earliest the 19th tropical or subtropical storm of the season formed . The old record was held by an unnamed storm in the 1933 Atlantic hurricane season , which formed on October 25 , 1933 . It was also only the fourth time that 19 storms formed in a season .
= Taxiride =
Taxiride is an Australian rock band . Formed in 1997 , the band consists of lead singer Jason Singh , guitarists Dan Hall and Tim Wild , and drummer Sean McLeod .
Prior to formation , the four founding members of Taxiride — Singh , Wild , Hall , and Tim Watson — had been playing in cover bands around Melbourne , travelling around in a yellow Ford Falcon EB ex @-@ taxi . The quartet recorded an EP , which a taxi @-@ driving friend of theirs helped promote . They took their name from the experience had by passengers hearing their music on a taxi ride . After their music was heard by an executive from record label Warner , the band signed a contract and released their debut album , Imaginate , in 1999 . This was followed by 2002 's Garage Mahal . Both albums were certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . 2005 's Axiomatic did not follow in the success of its predecessors .
Taxiride 's musical style has changed significantly over the course of their career — what began as a pop / pub rock band on their first two albums moved to a much more heavy sound on later works . Throughout their history , the band has had multiple lead singers and songwriters on the majority of their songs . As of 2006 , the future of Taxiride has been uncertain . They have continued to tour , mostly as the supporting act for larger names , however Singh is now working on a solo album and Taxiride 's website states that the band is on a hiatus .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and early work ( 1997 – 1999 ) = = =
Prior to forming Taxiride , Tim Watson , Tim Wild , Jason Singh , and Dan Hall had each played in cover bands across Melbourne . Watson and Wild began writing together in 1997 in Camberwell , Melbourne , and soon recruited Singh as an additional vocalist . The trio invited Hall , whom Wild first encountered busking , to join the group , and he accepted . The band named themselves Taxiride because they had given some of their early work to a friend of theirs , a taxi driver , who had tested these songs on passengers . The group produced a demo at Melbourne 's Secret Sound Studios , and used it to land a contract with Warner in Australia . Meanwhile , a friend of the group passed their work onto a Sire Records executive in the U.S. , who signed them despite the group being unknown .
= = = Pop success ( 1999 – 2002 ) = = =
In 1998 , Taxiride relocated to Ocean Way Recording studios in Los Angeles to work with producer Jack Joseph Puig on their debut album . Imaginate , released on 1 June 1999 in the U.S. and 18 October in Australia , reached number one on the ARIA Albums Chart , with debut single " Get Set " reaching number eight on the ARIA Singles Chart , number 41 on the New Zealand Singles Chart , and number 36 on the Hot Modern Rock Tracks chart . " Get Set " won the 1999 ARIA Award for " Breakthrough Artist - Single " and was nominated for " Best Pop Release " , while Imaginate was nominated for " Breakthrough Artist - Album " and " Highest Selling Album " in 2000 . Imaginate was certified double platinum , indicating an excess of 140 @,@ 000 sales .
Taxiride wrote the majority of the album in a studio , and the final product generally used songs that band members had worked on individually . Imaginate earned a mediocre reception from critics . Steve Kurutz of Allmusic gave it three stars , calling the album a " slick ... bid for pop radio " . The use of a sitar on " Get Set " was praised , as was the Beatles influence and Puig 's production . To promote the album , Taxiride toured Australia , America , Japan , and Europe , with the album selling well in all areas . Despite the album 's success , Hall , then lead singer , left the band to work independently and with his other pet project , Airway Lanes . Hall said he was unhappy with " the pop direction the band was taking " .
Following Hall 's departure , the band recruited drummer Sean McLeod and bass guitarist Andy McIvor , and began work on their second album . Garage Mahal was released on 5 August 2002 , and produced three singles : " Creepin ' Up Slowly " , " How I Got This Way " , and " Afterglow " . All three songs charted in Australia ; " Creepin ' Up Slowly " was the most successful at number six , also reaching number 19 in New Zealand . In 2002 , Garage Mahal and " Creepin ' Up Slowly " were certified platinum by ARIA .
Much of Garage Mahal was written on the road , while touring , and as such had a different sound from the band 's prior work . Most of the writing was done in two places ; Mount Macedon in Victoria , and Palindrome Studio in Venice Beach , California , the home of producer Fred Maher . Mixing was done by David Way and Mike Shipley . Despite the change in sound , the band were still seen as purely a pop band — Australian Musician magazine claimed this was because they spent too much time overseas . Gary Glauber of PopMatters praised the album , noting it had not lost the quality of its predecessor , although it was a good deal heavier . Glauber reported on the overall high quality of songs , noting that " almost any of these songs could work as a single " , and calling the lyrics of " Creepin ' Up Slowly " " perpetually catchy " . Bernard Zuel of The Sydney Morning Herald said that the band did not hold back in their aim for American radio , calling the lyrics overly generic , and arguing the band only focused on their mainstream image .
= = = Independent and acoustic ( 2003 – 2006 ) = = =
Watson left Taxiride in 2003 , and the band began work on a new album . They decided to release independently after splitting up with Warner Music , and recorded at Wild 's Melbourne home for a total of 12 months . During that time , the band collaborated with vocalist Chris Bailey ( The Saints lead singer ) and Hall , who took time out from working with Airway Lanes . Taxiride 's third album , Axiomatic , was released on 5 September 2005 , shortly after the first single , " Oh Yeah " . It would be the only song to chart from the album , reaching number 40 in Australia . To support the album , the band toured India as part of VH1 's Rock Rumble .
In creating Axiomatic , Taxiride worked independently , moving away from record labels in an attempt to make an album that would better reflect the music they wanted to produce . The band 's prior albums were described by Singh as being Americanised , and the band now wanted to make " an Australian record " . Pink Floyd and Led Zeppelin influences were common ; " Oh Yeah " was recorded using a vocoder , which was popular in the 1970s . The album was described as containing " heavier rock sounds " than its predecessors .
Following the release of Axiomatic , Wild and Singh began to write new songs , accompanied by Hall . The band 's first live album , Electrophobia , was released on 16 September 2006 on Australian record label Liberation . It features songs from the band 's first three albums , all recorded in a standalone session in a Melbourne church on 26 May 2006 . The production was arranged by Rob John ( producer for Led Zeppelin and The Tea Party ) .
Andy McIvor left the band in 2006 , and is now playing with former Australian crawl member James Reyne
= = Musical style = =
Taxiride is primarily a pop rock band , also drawing influences from pub rock . On Electrophobia , they showed a different side , playing acoustic music for the first time . The band 's style has progressed over their career ; the pop direction the band took in the Imaginate era caused Hall to leave the group , only to return for heavier rock collaborations in the Axiomatic days . Allmusic 's Ed Nimmervoll said that the band distanced themselves from the boy band generation , comparing them to Crosby , Stills , Nash , & Young . Steve Kurutz , in reviewing Imaginate , related the album to the pop work of boy bands The Beatles , The Beach Boys , and The Everly Brothers , labeling the album as a bid for pop radio .
The International Herald Tribune 's Mike Zwerin noted the band 's style of having " four lead singers , four potential front men " — Imaginate 's strength was in their collective sound , argued Zwerin . On Garage Mahal , Taxiride had three active singer @-@ songwriters , with their strong opinions on musical content clashing frequently . Singh told Dan Grunebaum of Metropolis Tokyo that the arguments came about " because we were very passionate about what goes down onto tape " , and so they were resolved by recognising the overall goal of the band 's work .
= = Band member timeline = =
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Imaginate ( 1999 )
Garage Mahal ( 2002 )
Axiomatic ( 2005 )
Live albums
Electrophobia ( 2006 )
= Steph Davies =
Stephanie Ann Davies , commonly known as Steph Davies , ( born 21 October 1987 ) is an international cricketer who has represented the England women 's cricket team in four One Day Internationals ( ODIs ) . A right @-@ arm medium @-@ fast bowler and right @-@ handed attacking batsman , she has played for Somerset women since 2001 .
After making her county debut for Somerset at the age of 13 , Davies quickly progressed into the England development and youth sides . She toured Australia with England Under @-@ 19s aged 15 and after two successful European tournaments , she captained the England Under @-@ 21s to victory in the 2006 Under @-@ 21 European Championships . After more matches for the development squad , and a number of tour matches for England , she made her ODI debut during the 2007 – 08 tour of Australia and New Zealand , playing the fifth and final one @-@ day match against Australia , and three of the five matches against New Zealand . Following this , she continued to be involved in the England Academy , but has not made any further ODI appearances . In 2009 , she took on the captaincy of Somerset .
= = Career = =
= = = Early years = = =
After watching cricket with her father , Davies began playing Kwik cricket , and then played age @-@ group cricket for local boys ' teams , including Mountain Ash and Mid Glamorgan . At the age of 13 , she took part in a women 's trial match , and was selected to play with the older women cricketers in the South West of England . At this time , she began to play women 's cricket for Somerset Wanderers as well as her boys ' matches . She soon progressed into the Somerset county side , making her debut that same year , aged 13 against Lancashire . She played four of Somerset 's five Women 's County Championship matches in 2001 , and claimed her first wicket for the side in the third of these , trapping Derbyshire 's Jane Morris leg before wicket during an economical spell in which she conceded only five runs off four overs .
Davies progressed quickly into the England development squad , representing them in a 2002 match against British Universities Sports Association . She also played a match for Wales , helping her native country defeat Scotland by seven wickets . Although she did not appear for Somerset in the County Championship during the season , she did help Somerset Wanderers reach the semi @-@ final of the ECB Women 's National Knockout . In 2002 , she made her first appearance in the Super Fours — a competition in which the England selectors place the 48 leading players into four teams — playing one match for the Knight Riders .
= = = England Under @-@ 19 debut = = =
She was chosen as part of the England Under @-@ 19s squad to tour Australia during the English winter of 2002 – 03 , in which the England side took part in the Women 's Australian Under @-@ 19 Championships . Davies had little impact in the competition , claiming two wickets from her nine overs , and scoring eleven runs during her two innings . She also played in one of the two matches against the Australia Under @-@ 19s side , bowling six overs in which she claimed one wicket .
In 2003 , Davies was again selected for the Super Fours competition , appearing in three matches for the Braves without standing out . She played five County Championship matches for Somerset , moving up the batting order ; after batting at number four in her first match of the season , she was promoted to open the innings for the remainder of the season . The move proved profitable , she passed her previous highest total during her first match in the new position , scoring 35 against Middlesex , and after a couple of lower totals , she made her highest score in women 's List A cricket when she scored 70 against Hampshire . Despite this move she remained in the lower order on her next international appearance , a 50 @-@ over contest for the England development squad which served as a warm @-@ up for the touring South Africa national women 's cricket team . She claimed three wickets during her seven overs as the English side won by seven wickets .
Twenty20 cricket was introduced into the English women 's domestic game for the first time in 2004 as part of the Super Fours competition . Playing her first match of this format , Davies took four wickets for Braves , helping them to a 12 run victory in the semi @-@ final of the competition . Davies had some success in the 50 @-@ over tournament ; although she only claimed two wickets in her four matches , she boasted the third lowest economy rate . She continued to open the batting for Somerset , but did not pass 50 runs in a match during her four matches for the county . Upon the conclusion of the English domestic season , Davies travelled to Ireland as part of the England squad to compete in the 2004 Women 's European Under @-@ 21 Championships . Davies played two different roles for England during the tournament ; in the first match she was used purely as an opening batsman , scoring 25 runs off 27 balls to help chase down a small Scotland total of 57 in under 10 overs . In the subsequent two matches , she batted as part of the middle order , and bowled at least five overs in each match . Against the Netherlands , she bowled very economically , finishing with figures of 1 / 5 off her 5 @.@ 3 overs . England won all three of their matches to win the competition .
During 2005 , Davies passed 50 twice , making 65 against Nottinghamshire and 51 against Berkshire in the second half of the season . Due to her improved performances with the bat in the previous season , Davies was promoted to bat slightly higher in the order for the Braves , playing two matches at number five and two at number three . At the close of the season , she played for England A women in a match against the senior England side , scoring 8 runs after opening the batting . She was then selected as part of the England Development Squad to compete in the 2005 Women 's European Championship in Wales . As with her appearances in the Under @-@ 21 European Championship , her role altered from match to match . On the two occasions on which she was asked to bat , she scored 23 at number three against Ireland , and 31 opening the innings against Netherlands . She finished the tournament as the leading bowler in terms of wickets , bowling average and economy . In total she claimed nine wickets in her four matches , coming at an average of 5 @.@ 88 . The highlight of her bowling came in the match against Scotland , when Davies collected four wickets in 6 @.@ 2 overs , conceding just five runs during this time .
Davies had a reasonably quiet 2006 domestic season with both bat and ball . In four 50 @-@ over matches for Somerset she scored 34 runs at an average of 8 @.@ 50 , and took four wickets at an average of 33 @.@ 75 , taking a wicket in each match . Davies was again selected for the Super Fours , this time playing for the Emeralds . She made 74 runs at 14 @.@ 80 in five matches with a highest score of 29 , but was ineffective with the ball , taking 2 wickets at 74 @.@ 00 . Davies performed well for England A during a match against the touring Indian side , restricting the visitors to just fifteen runs off her ten overs , taking two wickets as she did so . Opening both the batting and bowling for England in this match , she then added an unbeaten 27 , albeit off 77 balls , to help England A secure victory via the Duckworth – Lewis method . She was named as captain of the England Under @-@ 21 side for the 2006 Women 's European Under @-@ 21 Championships , and led her side to three large victories to retain the competition title . She finished the tournament near the top of both the batting and bowling averages charts , boosted by her performance against Ireland , in which she took three wickets for just six runs conceded in her bowling duties , and followed it up with a score of 31 as her side chased a low Irish total of 69 to win .
= = = Full international debut = = =
In June 2007 , Davies made her first appearance for the senior England side , albeit in a non @-@ international match against an England Cricket Board Invitational XI . She was not required to bat or bowl in the match , which England won by five wickets . As the English summer continued , she played three matches for the England development squad , making scores of 34 and 18 in matches against South Africa , and 15 against England . In November 2007 , she was named as part of the England squad which travelled to Australia and New Zealand , her first tour as a member of the senior England side . She was selected to play in two of the three warm @-@ up matches on the tour , but did not make her ODI debut until the fifth and final match of the series . Coming on to bowl as the first change , Davies claimed four wickets in her first international innings , trapping Lisa Sthalekar , Kate Blackwell and Leonie Coleman leg before wicket , and having Kirsten Pike stumped off the last ball of the innings . Despite her performance , Australia won the match by 41 runs . After playing the only warm @-@ up match in New Zealand , in which she scored 25 from the lower order , Davies missed the first ODI , returning for the second . She bowled six wicket @-@ less overs in this match , and was not required to bat as England chased down the hosts total for the loss of only one wicket . Her bowling was used slightly more in the next match , claiming the wicket of Amy Satterthwaite during her nine overs . As with the previous match , her batting was not required as England reached the required target with six wickets remaining . She added one more wicket the fourth ODI , but there was no result as the match was washed out , leaving Davies without a batting innings during the series .
In September 2007 , Davies started studying Sport and Physical Education at the University of Wales Institute , Cardiff , meaning that she had to juggle her cricket career with her academic studies in 2008 . She represented England sides twice , both in early August , playing for the academy against Ireland and for the development squad the following day against the senior England side . As an MCC Young Cricketer , she was also selected to play in an MCC side against India later in the same month . She played five Somerset 's six County Championship matches , her best performance of the season coming against Warwickshire , when she claimed a wicket and scored 25 runs to help her county to victory . She also made one appearance in the Super Fours for Rubies .
= = = Somerset captain = = =
Davies was named Somerset captain for the 2009 season , taking over from Hannah Lloyd , who continued to play for the side . In her first match as captain — against Surrey on 10 May 2009 — she scored a half @-@ century , and shared a 128 @-@ run partnership with fellow opener Sophie Le Marchand , helping her side to a 21 run victory . That score remained her best of the season , and in a rebuilding season for the county , she finished as the leading run @-@ scorer , with 217 . She also finished the season as Somerset 's most economical bowler , and her seven wickets meant that she trailed only Izzy Westbury among wicket @-@ takers . She continued to play for both England Academy and MCC Young Cricketers , and represented the academy in two Twenty20 matches against Pakistan prior to the 2009 ICC Women 's World Twenty20 . She continued as captain in 2010 , and in Somerset 's opening fixture of the season , against Berkshire , she claimed her fourth List A four @-@ wicket haul .
= Widerøe Flight 710 =
Widerøe Flight 710 , commonly known as the Torghatten Accident ( Norwegian : Torghatten @-@ ulykken ) , was a controlled flight into terrain into the mountain of Torghatten in Brønnøy , Norway . The Widerøe @-@ operated de Havilland Canada Dash 7 crashed on 6 May 1988 at 20 : 29 : 30 during approach to Brønnøysund Airport , Brønnøy . All thirty @-@ six people on board LN @-@ WFN were killed ; the crash remains the deadliest accident of the Dash 7 and in Northern Norway . The direct cause of the accident was that the aircraft had descended from 500 meters to 170 meters ( 1 @,@ 500 – 550 ft ) at 8 nautical miles ( 15 km ; 9 @.@ 2 mi ) instead of 4 nautical miles ( 7 @.@ 4 km ; 4 @.@ 6 mi ) from the airport .
An investigation found several shortcomings in the airline 's operating procedures , in particular lack of proper cockpit communication and mutual control of the descent and approach plans . This was in part caused by the airline electing to not follow the Sterile Cockpit Rule and that a passenger was sitting in a cockpit jump seat during the flight . The investigating commission also found lack of proper pilot training in the airline . Flight 710 was the second of four Widerøe accidents between 1982 and 1993 , all of which revealed shortcomings in the airline 's operations and internal control .
= = Flight = =
The accident aircraft was a four @-@ engine de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 7 Dash 7 Series 102 , with serial number 28 , built in 1980 . It was bought used by Widerøe in 1985 and registered as LN @-@ WFN on 8 November 1985 . Its certificate of airworthiness was last renewed on 4 November 1987 and was valid until 30 November 1988 . The aircraft had operated 16 @,@ 934 hours and 32 @,@ 347 cycles prior to its last flight . The last A @-@ check took place on 15 April 1988 , after which the aircraft had flown 147 hours and 30 cycles . The 58 @-@ year @-@ old captain held a D @-@ certificate issued 8 April 1981 and was last renewed on 11 December 1987 . He took his initial license in 1949 and had worked as a pilot in Widerøe since 1 April 1960 . At the time of his last renewal , he had flown 19 @,@ 886 hours , of which 2 @,@ 849 hours were with the Dash 7 . He had completed periodical flight training with the Dash 7 on 8 March 1988 . He had just come home from a six @-@ week vacation in Spain .
The first officer was 31 years old and held a C @-@ certificate which limited him to being first officer on the Dash 7 . The certificate was issued on 5 January 1987 and had been valid for the Dash 7 since 23 February 1988 . He had started his flight training in 1977 and had completed it in the United States in 1979 . He was hired as a pilot for Widerøe on 6 February 1986 , where he had originally served on the de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 6 Twin Otter . He was checked out as first officer on the Dash 7 in February 1988 . He had a total flight time of 6 @,@ 458 hours , of which 85 were on the Dash 7 . The flight attendant was 28 years old and had worked for Widerøe since 1983 .
The aircraft had been used during the morning of 6 May on a multi @-@ leg flight from Bodø Airport to Trondheim Airport , Værnes and back . It had then flown back to Trondheim where it changed crew . They had arrived at Trondheim with a flight at 18 : 50 on 5 May and left the hotel in Trondheim at 16 : 15 on 6 May . Flight 710 was scheduled to fly from Trondheim via Namsos Airport , Høknesøra ; Brønnøysund Airport , Brønnøy ; and Sandnessjøen Airport , Stokka . It departed Værnes at 19 : 23 , one and a half hours after scheduled , because of technical problems with another different aircraft . Flight 710 had a crew of three : a captain , a first officer and a flight attendant . The aircraft was packed and therefore a jump seat in the cockpit was used by a passenger , bringing the number of people on board to 52 .
The aircraft made a stop @-@ over at Namsos , where sixteen of the passengers disembarked . This reduced the number of passengers on board to thirty @-@ three , but the passenger occupying the jump seat continued to sit there on the next leg . The captain was the flying pilot for the segment . The aircraft departed Namsos at 20 : 07 and contacted Trondheim Air Traffic Control Center ( ATCC ) at 20 : 13 to receive permission to ascend to flight level 90 ( FL 90 ) , which was received . During the flight , the passenger in the jump seat held a conversation with the captain and asked several questions regarding the operations . The first officer did not participate in this discussions , and it was he who conducted radio contact with air traffic control and the airline 's operations ' center .
The first officer contacted the airline at 20 : 16 and informed that they expected to arrive at 20 : 32 . At 20 : 20 : 29 , the aircraft asked permission from Trondheim ATCC to switch to Brønnøysund Aerodrome Flight Information Service ( AFIS ) , which was granted . The aircraft announced at 20 : 20 : 42 that they would start the descent and would switch to Brønnøysund AFIS . Contact was made at 20 : 22 : 34 , at which time the aircraft announced it was 25 nautical miles ( 46 km ; 29 mi ) from the airport and at FL 80 . AFIS informed that there were no known aircraft in the area and that runway 22 was in use ; wind was 5 knots ( 9 km / h ; 6 mph ) from southeast , 5 nautical miles ( 9 km ; 6 mi ) visibility , a light shower and 6 ° C ( 43 ° F ) . At 20 : 23 : 22 the first officer held a 62 @-@ second conversation with the airline ordering a taxi for one of the passengers so he could reach his connecting ferry .
The captain asked for the descent checklist at 20 : 24 : 24 . The fasten seat belt sign was switched on and the flight attendant started the process of preparing the cabin for landing . At 20 : 24 : 46 the captain , as part of the checklist , informed the first officer that they would go down to 1 @,@ 500 meters ( 5 @,@ 000 ft ) at Torghatten and then down to 170 meters ( 550 ft ) . This was followed first by a partially unreadable conversation between the captain and the first officers , which included if they were
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endangered in the wild .
The Proyecto Tití ( " Project Tamarin " ) was started in 1985 to provide information and support in conservation of the cotton @-@ top tamarin and its habitat in northern Colombia . Proyecto Tití 's programs combine field research , education , and community programs to spread awareness about this endangered species and encourage the public to participate in its protection . It now has partner status with the Wildlife Conservation Network .
In January 2015 , two captive cotton @-@ top tamarins at the Alexandria Zoological Park in Alexandria , Louisiana , died when a caretaker left them outside overnight in temperatures as low as 30 ° F. One other individual survived .
= Take a Bow ( Rihanna song ) =
" Take a Bow " is a song recorded by Barbadian singer Rihanna for Good Girl Gone Bad : Reloaded ( 2008 ) , the re @-@ release of her third studio album Good Girl Gone Bad ( 2007 ) . The song was written and produced by Tor Erik Hermansen , Mikkel Eriksen , and Shaffer Smith under their stage names StarGate and Ne @-@ Yo . " Take a Bow " was released as the first single from the re @-@ release and the fifth single overall from the two releases . It is an R & B song that contains elements of dance @-@ pop . Critical reception of " Take a Bow " was mixed , with some critics praising the song 's lyrics and powerful balladry impact , while others criticized the lack of originality with regard to StarGate 's production .
In the US , the song peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and became Rihanna 's third song to do so . " Take a Bow " also peaked at number one on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart and US Pop Songs chart , and has been certified quadruple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America . The song reached number one in Canada , Denmark , Ireland , Slovakia and the United Kingdom , and attained top five positions in Australia , New Zealand and Norway . The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Anthony Mandler and presents Rihanna as the female protagonist who leaves her boyfriend because of his infidelity . " Take a Bow " has been performed on " AOL Music Sessions " and was included in the set lists of the Good Girl Gone Bad Tour ( 2008 – 09 ) , Last Girl on Earth ( 2010 – 11 ) , Loud Tour ( 2011 ) and Diamonds World Tour ( 2013 ) .
= = Background and composition = =
" Take a Bow " was written and produced by StarGate and Ne @-@ Yo . The song premiered on February 14 , 2008 , on the KIIS @-@ FM radio show On Air with Ryan Seacrest . " Take a Bow " was released as the fifth overall single from Good Girl Gone Bad , but the first from the re @-@ release of the album , entitled Good Girl Gone Bad : Reloaded . " Take a Bow " was made available to purchase in media outlets , via Def Jam Recordings ' website , on the same day as its radio premiere in the United States later being made available to download via iTunes on May 6 , 2008 . The song is written in the key of E major and is set in simple time with a metronome of 82 beats per minute . Rihanna 's vocal range in the song spans from the low note of E3 to the high note of C ♯ 5 . Musically , the song draws influence from the musical genre of R & B and also incorporates elements of dance @-@ pop , whilst lyrically , " Take a Bow " tells of how the female protagonist expresses disinterest in rekindling her relationship with an dishonorable and unfaithful ex @-@ boyfriend .
= = Critical reception = =
" Take a Bow " received mixed reviews from music critics . Upon the song 's release as an official single , Nick Levine of Digital Spy commented its choice for the promotion of Good Girl Gone Bad : Reloaded , writing that the singer could have chosen " Breakin ' Dishes " which served as a promotional single for Good Girl Gone Bad and charted at number four on the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart in February 2008 — but had opted for " Take a Bow " due to it being new and more likely to find a receptive audience . Levine continued in his review to write that although the ballad succeeds in its mission of telling of a failed relationship , he noted that the song was not at the same level as the singer 's previous single , " Don 't Stop the Music " ( 2007 ) . Levine cited that his reason for this was that " ' Take a Bow ' does what it sets out to do very well , but it 's an underwhelming follow @-@ up to the dancefloor rush of ' Don 't Stop The Music ' " . Levine also commented on the song with regard to the other new songs included on the re @-@ release , " Disturbia " and " If I Never See Your Face Again " ( a collaboration with Maroon 5 ) , as part of his review of Good Girl Gone Bad : Reloaded , writing that " Take a Bow " is inferior to the former , but superior to the latter .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , the song leaped 52 positions from number 53 to number one on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart on May 14 , 2008 , with digital download sales of 267 @,@ 000 copies , which prompted the song to debut at number one on the US Hot Digital Songs chart . With " Take a Bow " jumping fifty @-@ two positions to number one , this marked the second largest leap to number one in the history of the chart as of May 2008 , second only to Maroon 5 's " Makes Me Wonder " , which leaped from number 64 to number one in May 2007 . Additionally , at the time of release , Rihanna held two of the top three opening week download tallies , with " Take a Bow " selling 267 @,@ 000 copies , the lead single from Good Girl Gone Bad " Umbrella " selling 277 @,@ 000 copies in May 2007 , which held the record for having the largest opening digital sales tally , until Mariah Carey 's " Touch My Body " opened with sales of 286 @,@ 000 copies in April 2008 . The song became Rihanna 's third number one single on the Hot 100 , after " SOS " and " Umbrella " . " Take a Bow " stayed on the Hot 100 chart for 27 weeks , and also peaked at number one on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , Mainstream Top 40 and Radio Songs charts , respectively . However , the song was less successful on the US Hot Dance Club Songs and Adult Contemporary charts , peaking at numbers 14 and 21 , respectively . The song has been certified quadruple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America and has sold 3 million copies in the United States as of June 2015 . It also ranked at number 3 on Billboard 's Songs of Summer 2008 . In Canada , the song leaped 69 positions from number 70 to number one on May 24 , 2008 , becoming the largest jump to number one in the history of the chart at the time .
In Australia , " Take a Bow " debuted on the Australian Singles Chart at number 30 on May 15 , 2008 , and jumped to number 13 the following week . The song peaked at number three in its eighth week on the chart , after having spent four weeks fluctuating in the top ten . In total the song spent 11 weeks in the top ten and 22 weeks on the chart . " Take a Bow " has since been certified Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association , denoting shipments of over 70 @,@ 000 copies . In New Zealand , the song debuted on the New Zealand Singles Chart at number four on May 5 , 2008 , and peaked at number two for five non @-@ consecutive weeks . In total , the song spent 10 weeks inside the top five and 15 weeks in total on the chart .
In the United Kingdom , " Take a Bow " debuted at number two on the UK Singles Chart on May 24 , 2008 , behind The Ting Tings " That 's Not My Name " . The following week , the two songs switched positions , with " Take a Bow " ascending to number one and " That 's Not My Name " descending to number two ; " Take a Bow " spent a total of two weeks atop the chart . On November 12 , 2010 , the song was certified Gold by the British Phonographic Industry , denoting shipments of over 400 @,@ 000 copies . As of January 2016 , it has sold over 499 @,@ 900 copies in the UK .
In Denmark , the song debuted at number 13 on the Danish Singles Chart on June 6 , 2008 , and peaked at number one in its third week . After fluctuating in the top ten for three weeks , the song ascended to number two in its seventh and eighth weeks , and went on to stay in the top ten for a further five weeks . " Take a Bow " spent 12 weeks in the top ten and 20 weeks on the chart in total . In Norway , the song debuted at number eight on the Norwegian Singles Chart and peaked at number five the following week . " Take a Bow " stayed in the top ten for four weeks and spent six weeks on the chart in total . In Austria , the song debuted at number 16 on the Austrian Singles Chart on June 6 , 2008 , and peaked at number six in its fourth week on the chart for six non @-@ consecutive weeks . " Take a Bow " spent 10 weeks inside the top ten and a 25 weeks on the chart in total . In Switzerland , the song debuted at number 29 on the Swiss Singles Chart on May 18 , 2008 , and peaked at number seven for one week . " Take a Bow " spent a total of 29 weeks on the chart . Elsewhere in Europe , however , the song did not experience the same degree of success . " Take a Bow " peaked at numbers 10 , 12 and 12 in The Netherlands , France and Sweden .
= = Music video = =
The music video was directed by Anthony Mandler , who had previously directed Rihanna videos for " Hate That I Love You " and " Shut Up and Drive " . The video was shot in Venice , Los Angeles on April 3 , 2008 . The video begins with Rihanna standing in front of a black backdrop for the opening of the song . As the first verse starts , the scene is intercut with another of Rihanna looking out the window at her boyfriend and standing behind the front door as he approaches and asks to come in . As Rihanna walks way from the door singing the lyrics " Don 't tell me you 're sorry cos you 're not " , the viewer realizes that her boyfriend has perhaps done something wrong and been unfaithful . During the first chorus and second verse , Rihanna is shown in a different outfit , this time sitting in a silver Porsche in a garage . As Rihanna pulls out of the garage and onto the street , her ex @-@ boyfriend walks alongside the car as she drives and begs her to forgive him ; she pulls away . For the bridge , Rihanna is shown sitting on a bed as well as in front of the black backdrops as she reads a text message from her ex @-@ boyfriend , who asks to meet her . During the last chorus , Rihanna appears in a different outfit and walks into a lounge , where she puts some clothes on a table and then sits on a sofa . As her ex @-@ boyfriend walks in , the singer gets up and walks over to the clothes , where she withdraws some matches and strikes one , dropping it on what is made aware to be some of her ex @-@ boyfriend 's clothes . As the song comes to and end , Rihanna walks out of the room whilst he tries to put out the fire .
Erika Brooks Adickman of Idolator commented that Rihanna had once again changed her hair style and was wearing a red jacket which looked similar to the one Michael Jackson 's video " Beat It " . Adickman continued to compare the content of the video to Beyoncé 's " Irreplaceable " , writing that it was her first video to contain a plot , but , in actuality , the videos of " Unfaithful " ( 2006 ) and " Hate That I Love You " ( 2007 ) both contain a plot .
= = Live performances = =
To promote Rihanna 's fourth studio album , Rated R ( 2009 ) in the United Kingdom , Rihanna performed " Take a Bow " at the launch of the Nokia X6 smartphone at Brixton Academy in London . Other songs on the set list were " Russian Roulette " and " Wait Your Turn " from Rated R , and " Don 't Stop the Music " , " Disturbia " , and with Jay @-@ Z , " Umbrella " from Good Girl Gone Bad . During the promotion of Rated R , Rihanna also recorded video performances of her songs for " AOL Music Sessions " ; these videos were made available to watch on AOL 's website on February 23 , 2010 . The set included " Take A Bow " , as well as " Russian Roulette , " Hard " , " Rude Boy " and a stripped down version of " Disturbia " . " Take a Bow " has been included on four of Rihanna 's arena tours : the Good Girl Gone Bad Tour , Last Girl on Earth , Loud Tour and Diamonds World Tour . The song was featured in the encore section of the Good Girl Gone Bad Tour , along with " Umbrella " . For the Last Girl on Earth and Loud Tours , the song was featured as the last to be performed before the encore section . A minimal version of the song was also included on her Diamonds World Tour during the fourth act .
= = Formats and track listings = =
" Take a Bow " was released on CD and 12 " vinyl commercially and as " Take a Bow : Remixes " promotionally and digitally .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Good Girl Gone Bad : Reloaded .
Robyn " Rihanna " Fenty – Vocals
Mikkel S. Eriksen , Tor Erik Hermansen , Shaffer Smith – Songwriting
Stargate , Ne @-@ Yo – Production
Mikkel S. Eriksen – Vocal production
Phil Tan – Mixing
Josh Houghkirk – Assistant Mixer
Stargate – Instrumentation
= = Charts = =
= = Sales and certifications = =
Since May 2013 RIAA certifications for digital singles include on @-@ demand audio and / or video song streams in addition to downloads .
= Maryland Route 170 =
Maryland Route 170 ( MD 170 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . The state highway runs 12 @.@ 98 miles ( 20 @.@ 89 km ) from MD 175 in Odenton north to MD 2 in Brooklyn Park . MD 170 connects the western Anne Arundel County communities of Odenton and Severn and the North County communities of Linthicum , Pumphrey , and Brooklyn Park with Baltimore / Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport ( BWI Airport ) . The highway connects BWI Airport with Interstate 695 ( I @-@ 695 ) and MD 100 and forms part of the Airport Loop , a circumferential highway that connects the airport and I @-@ 195 with many airport @-@ related services .
MD 170 originally served as the main highway between Baltimore and Fort George G. Meade . This highway , which included part of modern MD 174 west of Severn , was mostly constructed shortly after Camp Meade was established during World War I in the late 1910s . The Odenton – Severn portion of MD 170 was originally built as MD 554 in the 1930s , but became part of MD 170 in the mid @-@ 1940s . MD 170 went through another round of upgrades in the early 1940s due to its strategic importance during World War II . The highway originally passed through the area now occupied by BWI Airport . MD 170 was relocated north of MD 176 in the late 1940s during the construction of the airport and south of MD 176 in the late 1950s . The highway has been expanded to four lanes around its interchanges with I @-@ 195 , I @-@ 695 , MD 32 , and MD 100 and along the perimeter of BWI Airport since the 1960s .
= = Route description = =
MD 170 begins at an intersection with MD 175 ( Annapolis Road ) in Odenton . The highway continues south as county @-@ maintained Piney Orchard Parkway , which leads to the Odenton station on MARC 's Penn Line and the Piney Orchard community . MD 170 heads north on Telegraph Road , which begins as a four @-@ lane divided highway but reduces to a two @-@ lane road and passes through an industrial area . The state highway expands to a four @-@ lane divided highway again shortly before its diamond interchange with MD 32 ( Patuxent Freeway ) . MD 170 continues north as a two @-@ lane road with a center turn lane that crosses Severn Run . The center turn lane ends as the highway approaches the center of Severn . There , the highway intersects MD 174 , which heads west as Reese Road and east as Donaldson Avenue . MD 170 expands to a four @-@ lane divided highway as it approaches its single @-@ point urban interchange with MD 100 ( Paul T. Pitcher Memorial Highway ) . The highway becomes an undivided four @-@ lane road between MD 100 and its intersection with MD 176 ( Dorsey Road ) at Harmans . The long ramp from westbound MD 176 to northbound MD 100 is unsigned MD 170A .
MD 170 continues north as Aviation Boulevard and joins the Airport Loop . The highway parallels the Amtrak Northeast Corridor , which carries MARC 's Penn Line , and the hiker @-@ biker BWI Trail . MD 170 meets the eastern end of Stoney Run Road , which heads east and immediately loops back west and crosses over the state highway and the railroad on its way to the BWI Car Rental Facility . The highway intersects unsigned MD 995 ( Amtrak Way ) , which leads to the BWI Rail Station , as it gradually curves to the east . MD 170 crosses Kitten Branch immediately before its partial cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 195 ( Metropolitan Boulevard ) . The highway passes under the BWI Trail and expands to a divided highway before its intersection with Terminal Road and an at @-@ grade intersection with the Baltimore Light Rail . Access to the rail line 's BWI Business District station is via Elkridge Landing Road at the next intersection . MD 170 leaves the Airport Loop at its intersection with MD 162 ( Aviation Boulevard ) , where the highway turns north onto Camp Meade Road .
MD 170 intersects the Baltimore Light Rail again and begins to parallel it as a two @-@ lane road with a center turn lane . The light rail veers away to the east shortly before the highway 's intersection with MD 762 ( Andover Road ) , where the center turn lane ends . MD 170 enters Linthicum and intersects the light rail line a third time and begins to parallel it again shortly before the Linthicum station in the center of the community . The highway intersects MD 169 ( Maple Road ) and expands to a four @-@ lane divided highway shortly before its partial cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 695 ( Baltimore Beltway ) . There is no access from MD 170 to eastbound I @-@ 695 or from westbound I @-@ 695 to MD 170 . The highway reduces to a two @-@ lane road again and passes the North Linthicum station just south of MD 648 ( Baltimore – Annapolis Boulevard ) in the center of Pumphrey . MD 170 continues northeast as Belle Grove Road , which veers away from the light rail line . The highway parallels the Patapsco River and passes under I @-@ 895 Spur ( Harbor Tunnel Thruway ) before entering Brooklyn Park . There , MD 170 reaches its northern terminus at a five @-@ way intersection with MD 2 , Jack Street , and Hanover Street at the Baltimore city limits . MD 2 heads south as Governor Ritchie Highway toward Glen Burnie and north into the city as Potee Street .
MD 170 is a part of the National Highway System from its southern terminus in Odenton to I @-@ 695 in Linthicum . Within that stretch , there are two sections that serve as intermodal passenger transport links : from its southern terminus to MD 32 in Odenton , and from MD 176 to MD 162 along the perimeter of BWI Airport . The portions from MD 32 in Odenton to MD 176 in Severn and from MD 162 to I @-@ 695 within Linthicum are National Highway System principal arterials .
= = History = =
When the Maryland State Roads Commission applied numbers to state highways , they assigned MD 170 to its current corridor from Severn to Brooklyn Park and to what is now MD 174 from Severn to Fort Meade . The portion of the modern highway from Odenton to Severn was originally MD 554 . Much of what was to become MD 170 was constructed along the Old Annapolis Road between Pumphrey and Severn . A portion of this road ran through the hamlet of Wellham Crossroads in the middle of what is now BWI Airport . The highway was paved in macadam from the Baltimore – Annapolis Boulevard in Pumphrey to Hammonds Ferry Road in Linthicum by 1910 . A second section of improved highway was planned by 1910 from Linthicum south to Wellham Crossroads . A section of highway from the current MD 170 – MD 174 intersection in Severn west to the Pennsylvania Railroad ( now Amtrak Northeast Corridor ) was built as a 14 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) concrete road by 1915 .
Construction on the highway from Severn to Linthicum became a high priority with the United States ' entrance into World War I ; the remainder of the Severn – Linthicum highway and the highway from the railroad at Severn southwest to newly established Camp Meade , now collectively called the Camp Meade Road , were paved in 14 @-@ to @-@ 16 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 4 @.@ 3 to 4 @.@ 9 m ) concrete between 1916 and 1919 . Belle Grove Road from Pumphrey to Brooklyn Park was also paved in concrete in this period of time . A poorly constructed portion of the Camp Meade Road between Wellham Crossroads and Dorsey Road was repaved with asphalt in 1919 . MD 170 was relocated at the railroad crossing when the highway 's overpass of the Pennsylvania Railroad was completed in 1931 . The old road , which is now Severn Station Road west of the tracks and Old Camp Meade Road to the east , became MD 483 .
Telegraph Road from Severn to Odenton was built as a concrete road in three sections . The highway was constructed from the right @-@ angle turn in the Camp Meade Road in Severn south to Evergreen Road in 1932 and 1933 . Another section of MD 554 was completed from Odenton Road ( then MD 180 and later MD 677 ) in Odenton to a point north of Old Mill Road in 1936 . The gap in MD 554 was filled in or shortly after 1940 . MD 170 was widened to 23 feet ( 7 @.@ 0 m ) from Brooklyn Park to Pumphrey in 1940 . With the outbreak of World War II , MD 170 was designated a road of strategic importance to connect Baltimore with Fort Meade ; the highway was reconstructed as a 24 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) asphalt @-@ surfaced concrete road in 1942 . By 1946 , MD 170 and MD 554 had swapped numbers , with the former now the road from Severn to Odenton .
MD 170 was relocated as a 24 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) road from MD 176 north to what is now the MD 170 – MD 162 junction in 1947 and 1948 to make way for the construction of Friendship International Airport . The highway 's interchange with the Friendship International Airport Access Road , which was designated MD 46 and later became I @-@ 195 , was started in 1950 , the same year the airport opened , and completed in 1954 . South of the airport , MD 170 ran concurrently with MD 176 from the current MD 176 – MD 652 intersection west to current MD 170A , which the highway used to connect with the modern alignment of MD 170 . The stub of MD 170 north from MD 176 to Friendship Cemetery on the airport reservation became MD 652 . MD 170 assumed its present alignment west of MD 170A when the highway was relocated from MD 176 south to the site of the MD 100 interchange as the first carriageway of an ultimate divided highway between 1958 and 1960 . The old alignment became much of current MD 652 and the portion of MD 652 north of MD 176 was transferred to county maintenance .
When the expressway spur between MD 168 and U.S. Route 301 ( now MD 648 ) was built between 1951 and 1954 , the expressway , which became part of the Baltimore Beltway , included an at @-@ grade intersection with MD 170 between Linthicum and Pumphrey . This junction was replaced with the present interchange in 1967 ; MD 170 was expanded to a divided highway on either side of the interchange in 1968 . MD 170 's grade separation with Stoney Run Road on the west side of the airport was built in 1982 . The state highway was expanded to a four @-@ lane divided highway from north of I @-@ 195 to MD 162 when the adjacent east – west portion of MD 162 was built in 1988 . MD 170 was expanded to a four @-@ lane divided highway through its interchange with MD 100 when the single @-@ point urban interchange was built in 1995 . MD 170 had been expanded to four lanes through its interchange with MD 32 and from MD 176 through the I @-@ 195 interchange , and had its southern terminus rolled back from MD 677 to MD 175 , by 1999 .
= = Junction list = =
The entire route is in Anne Arundel County .
= = Auxiliary route = =
MD 170A is the designation for the 0 @.@ 29 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 47 km ) one @-@ way ramp from westbound MD 176 to northbound MD 170 southwest of BWI Airport . The ramp is included in the clockwise direction of the Airport Loop and has a spur near its southern end . MD 170A , which has the official designation of MD 170 Spur , was assigned by 1999 .
= L 'Histoire d 'une fée , c 'est ... =
" L 'Histoire d 'une fée , c 'est ... " ( English : " The Story of a Fairy Is ... " ) is a 2001 song recorded by French singer @-@ songwriter Mylène Farmer . It was one of the singles from the soundtrack album for the film Rugrats in Paris : The Movie ( known in France as Les Razmokets à Paris ) . Written by Farmer , with music composed by her long @-@ time songwriting collaborator Laurent Boutonnat , the song was released on 27 February 2001 . The song deals with Melusine the fairy 's life , with lyrics which seem to be innocent and childish but in fact use many double entendres and puns which refer to sexual practices . Although it had no promotion from the singer , no music video and no regular broadcast on radio , the song managed to reach the top ten in France and in Belgium .
= = Background and writing = =
Rugrats in Paris : The Movie was the second in a trilogy of films based on the children 's animated television series Rugrats , which features the adventures of a group of toddlers . After filming , the producers wanted to record a soundtrack for the movie with mainly French songs , as well as a few in English . Several singers were contacted , including TLC member Tionne Watkins , the 1990s boys band 2Be3 , Sinéad O 'Connor , Cyndi Lauper and Mylène Farmer . Persistent but unconfirmed rumours claimed that Madonna , as the founder of the Maverick company producing the soundtrack , had expressly asked Farmer to participate in the album . Farmer accepted , but preferred to produce a new song instead of licensing the rights to one of her old compositions . The recording label Maverick signed a contract for an unreleased song , with lyrics written by Farmer and music composed by her songwriting partner Laurent Boutonnat . This was the first time that the singer had recorded a song especially for a movie . An English version was canceled in favour of a French version , and eventually the song only played for about 15 seconds in the movie . The first title chosen , " Attrapez @-@ moi " , was also quickly abandoned as it was too similar to the Pokémon 's cry of " Attrapez @-@ les tous " .
= = Music and lyrics = =
" L 'Histoire d 'une fée , c 'est ... " is a synthpop song . It tells the story of a mischievous and malicious fairy , Mélusine , here embodied by Farmer . Lyrically , the song uses words referring to magic , baffling several of Farmer 's fans as the lyrics seem to be closer to the themes found in songs by young singers such as Alizée . The lyrics also contain several double entendres and puns which refer to sexual practices . The song 's title itself is ambiguous and can be deemed sexually suggestive as it contains a pun in French alluding to spanking : in French , the title " L 'Histoire d 'une fée , c 'est ... " could be phonetically understand as meaning " L 'Histoire d 'une fessée ... " ( translation : " The Story of a Spanking " ) .
= = Release = =
In Europe the soundtrack release was postponed until 7 February 2001 because Farmer had bought the song 's royalties and finally decided to release it as a single , 14 days later . It was only released as a digipack CD single , in which the song 's lyrics are written inside , and there was no promotional format . For the second time in the singer 's career – after the song " XXL " — the single cover does not show her , but a drawing of a fairy from the film by Tom Madrid . The song began circulating online a month before the soundtrack 's release and was well received by many fans who felt that it could be a hit . The song did not receive much radio airplay , with only Europe 2 playing it regularly . " L 'Histoire d 'une fée , c 'est ... " was also released on the soundtrack of the film in a longer version than the CD single version , and was later included on Mylène Farmer 's greatest hits album Les Mots . It was also released as the third track on the European CD maxi " Les Mots " , released in the Switzerland on 4 September 2002 .
= = Critical reception = =
The song was generally well received by critics , who particularly noted the puns . According to author Erwan Chuberre , the lyrics are " as funny as disillusioned " and Farmer uses puns that " highlight her immoderate pleasure for impolite pleasures " , with a music he deemed " effective " . Author Thierry Desaules said that the song appears to be a childish fairly tale , but is actually structured in a perverse enough way to address the adult public , as the allusions to the spanking can be seen as references to sadomasochism . Journalist Benoît Cachin wrote that her puns are " of the funniest " and that the singer included in the lyrics " some very personal thoughts " , including sadness ; he added that Farmer appears to be " fun , dynamic and delightfully mischievous " on this song .
= = Chart performances = =
On 3 March 2001 , the single debuted at a peak of number nine on the French SNEP Singles Chart , providing Farmer her 22nd top ten hit . In the following weeks , the song fell steadily and remained in the top 50 for nine weeks and a total of 15 weeks on the chart . This chart performance was surprising given that the song was aired little on radio , the film met a mixed commercial success in France and there was no music video , no promotion on television , and only one format . According to Instant @-@ Mag the beauty of the single 's cover undoubtedly helped increase sales . In Belgium , the single started at number 23 on 15 March 2001 , climbed to number 11 , then peaked at number 10 . Thereafter , it dropped and fell off the Ultratop 50 after 13 weeks . On the 2001 Belgian singles year @-@ end chart , " L 'Histoire d 'une fée , c 'est ... " ranked at number 89 .
= = Formats and track listings = =
These are the formats and track listings of single releases of " L 'Histoire d 'une fée , c 'est ... " :
CD single – Digipack
= = Official versions = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
These are the credits and the personnel as they appear on the back of the single :
Mylène Farmer – lyrics
Laurent Boutonnat – music , producer
John Eng – artistic director
Gena Kornyshev – stylist
Tom Madrid – drawings
Requiem Publishing – editions
Polydor – recording company
Henry Neu – design
Bertrand Chatenet – mixing
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= MTV Unplugged : Los Tigres del Norte and Friends =
MTV Unplugged : Los Tigres del Norte and Friends is a live album by Mexican recording artists Los Tigres del Norte . It was recorded before a live audience at the Hollywood Palladium in Los Angeles , California , on February 8 , 2011 and released by Fonovisa Records on May 24 , 2011 . The album includes featured performances by Andrés Calamaro , Calle 13 , Zack de la Rocha , Juanes , Paulina Rubio and Diego Torres .
The album became a commercial success peaking at the top of the Mexican Albums Chart , entering the top five on the Billboard Top Latin Albums in the United States , and also being the twenty @-@ third number 1 album by the band in the Regional Mexican Albums chart . It was certified Diamond + Gold by the Mexican Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas . To promote the album , Los Tigres del Norte released " Golpes en el Corazón " , first included in their album El Ejemplo ( 1995 ) , and re @-@ recorded for the live album with fellow Mexican singer Paulina Rubio . " La Jaula de Oro " ( featuring Colombian singer @-@ songwriter Juanes ) and " América " ( featuring René Pérez of the band Calle 13 ) , were released as second and third singles , respectively .
Hailed as the first MTV Unplugged recording for the Regional Mexican genre and as a significant release for the Mexican music scene , the album earned a Latin Grammy Award for Best Norteño Album at the 12th Latin Grammy Awards , and a Grammy Award for Best Banda or Norteño Album .
= = Background = =
In December 2010 , Jason Lipshutz of Billboard magazine reported that Los Tigres del Norte was set to record a MTV Unplugged album for MTV Tr3s . The album was to be taped in the first quarter of 2011 , and would feature special guests including Juanes , Calle 13 , Andrés Calamaro and Zack de la Rocha . By February 2011 , it was announced that Paulina Rubio and Diego Torres would join the band for the album recording session . For the band this presented a unique opportunity to re @-@ invent their music and share the stage with talented performers . " When MTV invited us to record the show , we were a little tense , this was something different for us because Unplugged albums on MTV are usually recorded by artists from different genres from us , " the band said about the recording . Jesús Lara of MTV Tr3s called the production " historic " , since the band has been culturally a part of the life of the Hispanic community in Mexico and the US .
= = Recording , repertoire and release = =
Los Tigres del Norte recorded their performance on February 8 , 2011 , at the Hollywood Palladium in Los Angeles , California . Invitations to the event were issued to fans through MTV 's website starting January 27 , 2011 . The audience waited four hours before the show started . In preparation to the show , the band sent a list of their songs to the featured performers and asked them to choose the song that better fit their own repertoire . The band performed twenty songs during the show , releasing only twelve on the standard edition of the album , and thirteen on the deluxe version .
The first song was " Jefe de Jefes " , followed by " Camelia La Texana " , " Señor Locutor " , " Contrabando y Traición " and " Cuestión Olvidada " . When the band started to play " Mi Curiosidad " and " Una Camioneta Gris " , Jorge Hernandez , the band lead member , asked the audience to clap their hands . Paulina Rubio was the first guest to appear and perform " Golpes en el Corazón " , with an orchestral arrangement . Diego Torres joined afterwards to share lead vocals on " Mi Buena Suerte " . " La Puerta Negra " , " Prisión de Amor " and " Lágrimas del Corazón " followed .
The band and Andrés Calamaro recorded two tracks : " La Mesa del Rincón " and " Quiero Volar Contigo " , the former to the rhythm of tango ( with three violins and a cello ) , and for the latter , Calamaro played marimba and changed the original rhythm of the song to cha @-@ cha @-@ cha . This performance had to be re @-@ taped since there was a technical failure . Zack de la Rocha performed " Somos Más Americanos " , while Juanes played guitar on " La Jaula de Oro " , a song he had to " rehearse many times " . De la Rocha recorded his part twice , incorporating more Spanish lyrics on the second take . Juanes and De la Rocha were the only featured performers selected for their work for immigration rights in the United States , a social cause important to the band . The final song recorded was " América " ; the band shared the stage with Calle 13 who , by request of their lead member René Pérez , changed the instrumentation , quickened the tempo and added trumpets and violins . The costumes the band wore on the show were donated to the Hard Rock Cafe in Los Angeles after the show .
= = Singles = =
The new recorded version of the song " Golpes en el Corazón " , featuring Paulina Rubio , was selected as the first single from the album and was released on April 19 , 2011 . The original version of the track can be found on the Tigres ' studio album El Ejemplo ( 1995 ) . Upon release it peaked at number 2 in the Billboard Top Latin Songs . The version featuring Rubio was named " one of the most pleasant songs " included on MTV Unplugged by About.com. The Los Angeles Times referred to it as a " sea of lush Latin pop " , with Rubio sounding like Julieta Venegas in a " parallel universe " . This version became very successful in Mexico , peaking atop the Monitor Latino general charts and the Mexican Airplay Chart from Billboard International . The track also reached number 39 on the Billboard Top Latin Songs , number 31 on the Regional / Mexican Airplay , and was the first song by the band to appear on the Latin Pop Airplay chart , reaching number 29 . At the 12th Latin Grammy Awards , the song received a nomination for Record of the Year , losing to Calle 13 's " Latinoamérica " . Rubio joined the band at the Latin Grammy ceremony to perform the song .
" La Jaula de Oro " was selected as the second single from the album . The track , recognized as one of the band 's signature songs , features Colombian singer Juanes performing and playing guitar and was named " one of the best tracks and guest performances in the whole album " by About.com. With this release the record label sought to reach a younger audience for Los Tigres del Norte . " América " was the third single released which reached number five on the Monitor Latino general chart .
= = Critical reception and accolades = =
An advance copy of the performance was sent to the media a few days before the first showing on MTV Tr3s . Spanish news agency EFE announced that the band was celebrating " Latino pride more vigorously than ever . " Another positive review came from the Los Angeles Times , which awarded the album three out of four stars . At the review , the newspaper named the album " one of the most anticipated Latin albums of the year " , highlighting that it is the first MTV Unplugged album of the Regional @-@ Mexican genre . They also praised the band for their performance on the first track , " Jefe de Jefes " . About the guest performances by Andrés Calamaro , Juanes and Diego Torres , stated that they were " intriguing " . Carlos Quintana of About.com hailed the show as an important music event for the Latin music , emphasizing that this recording would allow Regional @-@ Mexican music to gain new audiences around the world . Allmusic reviewer Mariano Prunes named bassist Hernán Hernández , the " musical heart of the band " , especially when joining Zack de la Rocha , playing the riff of Rage Against the Machine 's " Killing in the Name " . He also praised " América " for the participation of Calle 13 with their " razor @-@ sharp rap " intervention . Prunes also stated that MTV Unplugged would get Los Tigres a deserved recognition outside their own community . The participation by De La Rocha was also subject of a negative review by Oscar Barajas of The Young Folks . Barajas noted that De La Rocha sounded " out of place " on " Somos Mas Americanos " , trying to turn the track into a rendition of his own song " Bulls on Parade " . Barajas also was critical of the song selection , but eventually lauded the album for being " lean and mean " , with a musical urgency almost comparable to the Ramones .
MTV Unplugged : Los Tigres del Norte and Friends earned the Latin Grammy Award for Best Norteño Album at the 2011 ceremony . The album also was awarded the Grammy Award for Best Banda or Norteño Album at the 54th Grammy Awards , and the awards for Best Popular Album and Best Norteño Album at the Mexican Premios Oye ! .
= = Track listing = =
This track listing adapted from the liner notes .
= = Commercial performance = =
The album debuted and peaked at number 3 on the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart , behind Maná 's Drama y Luz and Prince Royce 's self @-@ titled debut album . MTV Unplugged became the band 's twenty @-@ third number 1 album in the Regional Mexican Albums chart . In the Mexican Albums Chart the album debuted at number 92 , before jumping to number 2 , behind Lady Gaga 's Born This Way . The following week the album surpassed Gaga 's set and peaked at number 1 in Mexico and also reached the top of the charts in Colombia . The album spent seventeen consecutive weeks at the top of the Mexican chart , received a Diamond + Gold certification by the Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas and ended the year as the best @-@ selling album of 2011 in Mexico . The album was certified gold in Colombia by the Asociación Colombiana de Productores de Fonogramas .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Personnel = =
Los Tigres del Norte – main performers , producers , vocals
Gustavo Borner – producer , recording engineer , mixing , mastering
Ezequiel Alara – musical director , piano
Miguel Ramirez – percussion
Karl Perazzo – percussion
Enzo Villparedes – trumpet
Arturo Solar – trumpet
Roberto Incelli – sax
Humbero Ruiz – trombone
Edwin Blas – trombone
Peter Kent – violin
Sharon Jackson – violin
Jessica VanVelzen – viola
Giovanna Clayton – cello
Ricky Perry – graphic design
Source :
= En passant =
En passant ( from French : in passing ) is a move in chess . It is a special pawn capture , that can only occur immediately after a pawn moves two ranks forward from its starting position and an enemy pawn could have captured it had the pawn moved only one square forward . Note that the capturing pawn must be on its fifth rank prior to executing this maneuver . The opponent captures the just @-@ moved pawn " as it passes " through the first square . The resulting position is the same as if the pawn had moved only one square forward and the enemy pawn had captured it normally .
The en passant capture must be made at the very next turn or the right to do so is lost . It is the only occasion in chess in which a piece is captured but is not replaced on its square by the capturing piece . Like any other move , if an en passant capture is the only legal move available , it must be made . En passant capture is a common theme in chess compositions .
The en passant capture rule was added in the 15th century when the rule that gave pawns an initial double @-@ step move was introduced . It prevents a pawn from using the two @-@ square advance to pass an adjacent enemy pawn without the risk of being captured .
A pawn on its fifth rank may capture an enemy pawn on an adjacent file that has moved two squares in a single move , as if the pawn had moved only one square . The conditions are :
the capturing pawn must be on its fifth rank ;
the captured pawn must be on an adjacent file and must have just moved two squares in a single move ( i.e. a double @-@ step move ) ;
the capture can only be made on the move immediately after the opposing pawn makes the double @-@ step move ; otherwise the right to capture it en passant is lost .
En passant is a unique privilege of pawns : pieces cannot capture en passant . It is the only occasion in chess in which the capturing piece does not replace the captured piece on its square .
= = Examples = =
= = = In the opening = = =
There are some examples of en passant in chess openings . In this line from Petrov 's Defence , White can capture the pawn on d5 en passant on his sixth move .
1 @.@ e4 e5
2 . Nf3 Nf6
3 @.@ d4 exd4
4 @.@ e5 Ne4
5 . Qxd4 d5 ( diagram )
6 @.@ exd6e.p.
Another example occurs in the French Defense after 1.e4 e6 2.e5 , a move once advocated by Wilhelm Steinitz . If Black responds with 2 ... d5 , White can capture the pawn en passant with 3.exd6. Likewise , White can answer 2 ... f5 with 3.exf6e.p.
An example is from this game by Steinitz and Bernhard Fleissig .
1 @.@ e4 e6
2 @.@ e5 d5
3 @.@ exd6e.p.
= = = Unusual examples = = =
Black has just moved his pawn from f7 to f5 in this game between Gunnar Gundersen and Albert H. Faul . White could capture the f @-@ pawn en passant with his e @-@ pawn , but instead played :
13 @.@ h5 + Kh6
14 . Nxe6 +
Note that the bishop on c1 effects the check , via a discovered check . 14 ... Kh7 results in 15.Qxg7 # .
14 ... g5
15 @.@ hxg6e.p. #
The en passant capture and discovered checks place Black in checkmate ( from White 's rook on h1 , even without help from White 's bishop ; an en passant capture is the only way a double check can be delivered without one of the checking pieces moving , as in this position ) .
The largest known number of en passant captures in one game is three , shared by three games ; in none of them were all three captures by the same player . The earliest known example is a 1980 game between Alexandru Sorin Segal and Karl Heinz Podzielny .
= = = In chess compositions = = =
En passant captures have often been used as a theme in chess compositions , as they " produce striking effects in the opening and closing of lines " . In the 1938 composition by Kenneth S. Howard , the key move 1 @.@ d4 introduces the threat of 2.d5 + cxd5 3.Bxd5 # . Black may capture the d4 @-@ pawn en passant in either of two ways :
The capture 1 ... exd3e.p. shifts the e4 @-@ pawn from the e- to the d @-@ file , preventing an en passant capture after White plays 2 @.@ f4 . To stop the threatened mate ( 3.f5 # ) , Black may advance 2 ... f5 , but this allows White to play 3 @.@ exf6e.p. # with checkmate due to the decisive opening of the e @-@ file .
If Black plays 1 ... cxd3e.p. , White exploits the newly opened a2 – g8 diagonal with 2 . Qa2 + d5 3 @.@ cxd6e.p. #
An example showing the effect en passant captures have on pins is this 1902 composition by Sommerfeldt :
The key move 1 @.@ d4 ! threatens 2 . Qf2 # . The black e @-@ pawn is now simultaneously pinned and unpinned , as 1 ... exd3e.p. + is illegal , but 1 ... e3 + is not . This however removes the black king 's access to e3 , allowing 2 @.@ d5 # .
= = Historical context = =
Allowing the en passant capture , together with the introduction of the two @-@ square first move for pawns , was one of the last major rule changes in European chess , and occurred between 1200 and 1600 . Other relatively recent rule changes were castling , the unlimited range for queens and bishops ( Spanish master Ruy López de Segura gives the rule in his 1561 book Libro de la invencion liberal y arte del juego del axedrez . , ) and a change to the rules on pawn promotion . In most places the en passant rule was adopted at the same time as allowing the pawn to move two squares on its first move , but it was not universally accepted until the Italian rules were changed in 1880 .
The motivation for en passant was to prevent the newly added two @-@ square first move for pawns from allowing a pawn to evade capture by an enemy pawn . Asian chess variants , because of their separation from European chess prior to that period , do not feature any of these moves .
= = Notation = =
In either algebraic or descriptive chess notation , en passant captures are sometimes denoted by " e.p. " or similar , but such notation is not required . In algebraic notation , the capturing move is written as if the captured pawn advanced only one square , for example , bxa3 ( or bxa3e.p. ) in this example .
= = Threefold repetition and stalemate = =
The possibility of an en passant capture is relevant to claims of a draw by threefold repetition . Two positions whose pieces are all on the same squares , with the same player to move , are for this purpose considered different if there was an opportunity to make an en passant capture in the first position , and of course that opportunity no longer exists the second time the same configuration of pieces occurs .
In his book on chess organization and rules , International Arbiter Kenneth Harkness wrote that it is frequently asked if an en passant capture must be made if it is the only legal move . This point was debated in the 19th century , with some arguing that the right to make an en passant capture is a " privilege " that one cannot be compelled to exercise . In his 1860 book Chess Praxis , Howard Staunton wrote that the en passant capture is mandatory in that instance . The rules of chess were amended to make this clear . Today , it is settled that the player must make that move ( or resign ) . The same is true if an en passant capture is the only move to get out of check .
= My Love : Essential Collection =
My Love : Essential Collection is a greatest hits album by Canadian recording artist Celine Dion . It was released by Columbia Records on October 24 , 2008 as the follow up to her previous English @-@ language compilation , All the Way ... A Decade of Song ( 1999 ) . Before releasing My Love : Essential Collection , Dion had already sold over 200 million albums worldwide . In the album 's liner notes , she dedicated this collection of songs , recorded between 1990 and 2008 , to her fans who supported her throughout the years . My Love : Essential Collection was released as a single disc , consisting of Dion 's most successful singles , including : " My Heart Will Go On " , " Because You Loved Me " and " The Power of Love " . The two @-@ disc edition , entitled My Love : Ultimate Essential Collection has been further expanded to include rare songs that have not previously appeared on her albums . Both editions include one new track , " There Comes a Time " . The album wasn 't released in Japan because Sony Music Entertainment decided to issue different compilation there , Complete Best .
My Love : Essential Collection received a positive response . It topped the albums charts in the Netherlands , Belgium and Ireland , as well as the compilation album chart in France . My Love : Essential Collection debuted at number two in Canada , number five in the United Kingdom and number eight in the United States , and was certified double @-@ Platinum in Canada and Ireland , Platinum in Belgium and Gold in Mexico , Finland , New Zealand and Hungary . The first single from the album , " My Love " , was a semi @-@ autobiographic song written for Dion by Linda Perry , originally available on Taking Chances ( 2007 ) . In France , " I 'm Alive " ( Remix ) was released as a promotional single instead . In July 2011 , My Love : Ultimate Essential Collection was re @-@ issued with the same track listings as part of Sony 's The Essential line .
= = Background = =
Dion took the stage for her final performance of A New Day ... on December 15 , 2007 . The Las Vegas show that had been viewed by nearly three million spectators at 717 performances since its premier in March 2003 had come to an end . On February 14 , 2008 , she embarked on her first worldwide concert tour in over nine years . Dion performed her biggest hits along with songs from her new album , Taking Chances . The Taking Chances World Tour played to sold @-@ out stadiums and arenas throughout 2008 . By its completion , at the end of February 2009 , it had crossed five continents , twenty @-@ three countries , and ninety @-@ three cities , en route to playing for an audience of over three million people . On August 27 , 2008 , Dion 's official website announced that a new greatest hits album would be released in October 2008 . On September 5 , 2008 , it was revealed that the album will be available in two formats : a one @-@ disc edition called My Love : Essential Collection as well as a two @-@ disc edition called My Love : Ultimate Essential Collection , with the track listing posted on September 11 , 2008 . " My Love " , originally from Taking Chances , was confirmed as the first single in an official press release on September 22 , 2008 . My Love : Essential Collection features a live version of the song , which premiered on September 17 , 2008 and the live music video was released seven days later . The lyrics to the only new track on the album , " There Comes a Time " were posted on October 7 , 2008 on Dion 's official website and an excerpt of the song was posted on October 23 , 2008 .
The artwork for My Love : Essential Collection features a close @-@ up shot of Dion , wearing a white blouse with
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a black camera hanging from her neck . The cover 's background is blurred white and purple imagery , with the singer 's name and the album title written in white letters . The photography was done by Denise Truscello , and shot in a studio in Los Angeles in 2007 . Dion was very grateful working with Truscello , and described their professional experience positively : " Out of all the people I 've worked with , she 's the absolute best . I 've worked with her for six years , and she 's always kind to everybody . Super , super kind . "
= = Content = =
My Love : Essential Collection features seventeen songs on the US version and eighteen songs on the European version of the album . The US version includes the Billboard Hot 100 number one singles : " The Power of Love " , " Because You Loved Me " , " My Heart Will Go On " and " I 'm Your Angel , " and the European version contains the UK number one single , " Think Twice . "
The two @-@ disc edition , entitled My Love : Ultimate Essential Collection was released simultaneously . It is a twenty @-@ seven song set on the US version and thirty @-@ six song set on the European version . My Love : Ultimate Essential Collection released in the United States contains three rare songs not released on a Dion record : " ( You Make Me Feel Like ) A Natural Woman " ( from Tapestry Revisited : A Tribute to Carole King ) , " Dance with My Father " ( from So Amazing : An All @-@ Star Tribute to Luther Vandross ) , and " I Knew I Loved You " ( from We All Love Ennio Morricone ) . The European version also includes singles successful in Europe .
In July 2011 , the album was re @-@ issued as part of The Essential series , featuring either the US or European track listing ( depending on the country of release ) . A limited edition , titled The Essential 3 @.@ 0 , was released exclusively in the United States on August 29 , 2011 . It was expanded with a bonus third CD with seven tracks , including alternate versions of " Think Twice " and " Only One Road . "
= = Promotion = =
The performance of " My Love " was aired for the very first time on television on August 31 , 2008 , during the 43rd annual MDA Labor Day Telethon . On October 28 , 2008 , an episode of The Oprah Winfrey Show was dedicated to Dion , as well as several inspirational journeys of parents and their young children , who suffered from many diseases . Dion was featured throughout the special titled , Miracle Children with Celine Dion due to the personal struggles and difficulties she was facing at the time with childbirth . Towards the end of the special , she performed a live rendition of " My Love . " The following day , Dion was forced to reschedule her concert of October 30 in Minneapolis , as well many others in November 2008 , citing illness as the cause for the postponements . On December 1 , 2008 , she performed " My Love " on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno . On December 13 , 2008 , her official website posted a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes clip of Dion in the recording sessions for the song , " There Comes a Time . " The Taking Chances World Tour ended on February 26 and on March 1 , 2009 , Dion gave her last public performance on Star Académie in Canada , singing a medley of her popular French and English @-@ language songs alongside the contestants . Following the performance , Dion began her temporary retirement from the music industry , in order to focus time on her family and conceiving another child . Aside from the several televised appearances , " My Love " was performed throughout Dion 's Taking Chances World Tour , beginning with her concert in Seoul on March 18 , 2008 . " My Love " was included later on the Taking Chances World Tour : The Concert , released on DVD and CD in April 2010 .
= = Singles = =
My Love : Essential Collection was released while Dion was on her Taking Chances World Tour . During her concert in Stockholm , Sweden on June 7 , 2008 , Dion recorded a live version of " My Love , " which was confirmed to be the first single from the compilation . The song premiered on the radio on September 22 , 2008 and a digital single was released the next day , accompanied by a live music video . Chuck Taylor , senior editor of Billboard , said that " My Love " was an inspired choice from the album and complimented Linda Perry 's composition and Dion 's delivery of the song , calling it highly emotive ballad about ache and uncertainty . After " My Love " debuted on the US Adult Contemporary chart , Dion became the artist with the most adult contemporary hits in the 2000s , with " My Love " being her sixteenth entry of the decade . The song peaked at number fifteen . The next single , " I 'm Alive " was remixed by Laurent Wolf and released in October 2008 to radio to promote the album in France , instead of " My Love . " In January 2009 , new remixes of " I 'm Alive " by Maurice Joshua were sent to the US clubs . They reached number thirty @-@ five on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart . " I 'm Alive " was originally released as a single from A New Day Has Come in 2002 and peaked at number seven in France and number six on the US Adult Contemporary chart .
= = Critical reception = =
Stephen Thomas Erlewine , senior editor of AllMusic , called My Love : Essential Collection an overcompensation for how All the Way ... A Decade of Song ( 1999 ) , concentrated on newer recordings at the expense of hits . According to him , My Love : Essential Collection " fits the bill well " for those listeners who are looking for an overview of Celine Dion 's two decades as an international superstar , as it has all her big adult contemporary hits . Erlewine also noted that although Dion has had more hits in the ten years since All the Way ... A Decade of Song , apart from her cover of Roy Orbison 's " I Drove All Night , " almost none of her new @-@ millennium hits are as memorable as her singles from the ' 90s .
= = Commercial reception = =
My Love : Essential Collection debuted at number eight on the US Billboard 200 , becoming Dion 's eleventh top ten album on the chart , with first week sales of 57 @,@ 000 copies . On the Canadian Albums Chart , My Love : Essential Collection debuted at number two , with sales of 17 @,@ 700 copies , and the following week , the album dropped to number three , selling another 11 @,@ 000 copies . By its third week on the chart , My Love : Essential Collection sank another three spots to number six , and by January 2009 , was certified double @-@ Platinum by CRIA , denoting shipments of 160 @,@ 000 copies . In the United Kingdom , the album debuted at number five , selling 42 @,@ 411 copies and was certified three @-@ times Platinum for sales of over 900 @,@ 000 units . In Ireland , it peaked at number one and was certified double @-@ Platinum in 2008 . My Love : Essential Collection proved to be very popular in these two countries , as it re @-@ entered the charts in 2009 , 2010 , 2011 , 2012 , 2013 , 2014 , 2015 and 2016 . It debuted at number one in France and the Netherlands , occupying the top for two weeks in both countries . My Love : Essential Collection also topped the chart in Belgium Flanders and peaked inside the top ten in many European countries , reaching number six on the European Top 100 Albums . The album also peaked inside top ten in New Zealand and Mexico , and was also certified Platinum in Belgium , Gold in Mexico , Finland , New Zealand and Hungary . Worldwide , it became the forty @-@ second best selling album of 2008 , according to the IFPI .
= = Track listing = =
= = = My Love : Essential Collection = = =
North American version
European version
French version
= = = My Love : Ultimate Essential Collection = = =
North American version
European version
French version
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications and sales = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits taken from AllMusic .
= = Release history = =
= Samuel King Allison =
Samuel King Allison ( November 13 , 1900 – September 15 , 1965 ) was an American physicist , most notable for his role in the Manhattan Project , for which he was awarded the Medal for Merit . He was director of the Metallurgical Laboratory from 1943 until 1944 , and later worked at the Los Alamos Laboratory — where he " rode herd " on the final stages of the project as part of the " Cowpuncher Committee " , and read the countdown for the detonation of the Trinity nuclear test . After the war he was involved in the " scientists ' movement " , lobbying for civilian control of nuclear weapons .
= = Early life = =
Samuel King Allison was born in Chicago , Illinois , on November 13 , 1900 , the son of Samuel Buell Allison , an elementary school principal . He was educated at John Fiske Grammar School and Hyde Park High School . He entered the University of Chicago in 1917 , and participated in varsity swimming and water basketball , while majoring in mathematics and chemistry . He graduated in 1921 , and then embarked on his PhD in chemistry under the supervision of William Draper Harkins , writing his thesis on " Atomic Stability III , the Effects of Electrical Discharge and High Temperatures " , a topic closely related to experimental physics .
Allison was a research fellow at Harvard University from 1923 until 1925 and then at the Carnegie Institution from 1925 until 1926 . From 1926 until 1930 he taught physics at University of California , Berkeley as an instructor , and then as an associate professor . While there he met and married Helen Campbell . They had two children , a son , Samuel , and a daughter , Catherine .
= = X @-@ Rays = =
In 1930 Allison returned to the University of Chicago , where he became a professor in 1942 , and the Frank P. Hixon Distinguished Service Professor of Physics in 1959 . He studied the Compton effect and the dynamical theory of x @-@ ray diffraction . At the time x @-@ rays were an important means of investigating atomic structures , but the concept that light had both wave and particle properties , as demonstrated by Arthur Compton , was not universally accepted . William Duane from Harvard spearheaded an effort to prove that Compton 's interpretation of the Compton effect was wrong , and Allison became part of this effort . Duane carried out a series of meticulous experiments to disprove Compton , but instead found overwhelming evidence that Compton was correct . To his credit , Duane conceded that this was the case .
One outcome of this was that he co @-@ authored a textbook with Compton , X @-@ rays in Theory and Experiment ( 1935 ) , which became widely used . He developed a high resolution x @-@ ray spectrometer with a graduate student , John Harry Williams . In 1935 , Allison won a Guggenheim Fellowship to study at the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge in England , where he studied under John Cockcroft . He published a paper in the Mathematical Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society on his " Experiments on the Efficiencies of Production and the Half @-@ Lives of Radio @-@ Carbon and Radio @-@ Nitrogen " . He was so impressed by the Cavendish Laboratory 's Cockcroft – Walton accelerator that after returning to Chicago he built one .
= = Manhattan Project = =
During World War II , Allison became involved in defence @-@ related work . He was a consultant to the National Defense Research Committee ( NDRC ) from October 1940 to January 1941 . In January 1941 the NDRC let him a contract to study the possibility of using beryllium as a neutron moderator . The team he assembled in Chicago would grow into the Manhattan Project 's Metallurgical Laboratory .
In September 1941 , Allison joined the S @-@ 1 Uranium Committee , which coordinated the early investigations into the feasibility of an atomic bomb . He began building a reactor in the squash courts under the disused stands of Stagg Field . He became head of the Metallurgical Laboratory 's chemistry section in January 1942 , and in March , his small experimental reactor using beryllium came closer to criticality than the graphite @-@ moderated design of Enrico Fermi 's group at Columbia University . During 1942 , Compton brought all the research groups working on plutonium and nuclear reactor design at Columbia University , Princeton University and the University of California together at the Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago . Allison was placed in charge of the experimental work .
By October 1942 , the Metallurgical Laboratory had to consider how it would proceed with designing large production reactors when they had yet to get an experimental reactor to work . Fermi favored taking small steps , while Allison and Eugene Wigner argued that larger steps were necessary if atomic bombs were to be developed in time to affect the course of the war . The Director of the Manhattan Project , Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , told them that time was more important than money , and if two approaches looked promising , they should build both . In the end , this was what was done . Allison was one of 49 scientists who watched the project take a leap forward when Chicago Pile @-@ 1 went critical at Stagg Field on December 2 , 1942 . As Compton 's reactor project began to spread outside Chicago in 1943 , Allison became director of the Metallurgical Laboratory in June 1943 .
By late 1944 , the locus of the Manhattan Project had shifted to the Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico , and Allison went there in November 1944 as the chairman of the Technical and Scheduling Committee . He was able to inform Groves in March 1945 that an implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon would be ready for testing in July . Allison formed part of the " Cowpuncher Committee " that " rode herd " on the implosion project , ensuring that it stayed on track and on schedule . Fittingly , he was the one who read the countdown over the loudspeakers at the Trinity nuclear test in July 1945 . Groves presented Allison with the Medal for Merit for his work on the Manhattan Project in a ceremony at the University of Chicago on January 12 , 1946 .
= = Later life = =
After the war , Allison was director of the Enrico Fermi Institute of Nuclear Studies from 1946 until 1957 , and again from 1963 until 1965 . He was the chairman of the Physics Section of the National Research Council from 1960 to 1963 , and chairman of its Committee on Nuclear Science from 1962 to 1965 . He was active in the " scientist 's movement " for the control of atomic weapons . The scientists successfully lobbied for nuclear weapons to be under civilian rather than military control , which was eventually written into the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 . He was a strong opponent of secrecy in science , and , in an influential speech announcing the creation of the Enrico Fermi Institute said :
We are determined to return to free research as before the war . If secrecy is imposed on scientific research in physics , we will find all first @-@ rate scientists working on subjects as innocuous as the colors of butterfly wings .
Allison rebuilt his accelerator , which he called the " kevatron " , because it could accelerate particles to energies of 400 KeV . The name was a reference to the massive bevatron being built at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory , which was planned to accelerate particles to billions of electron volts . Allison still believed that there were useful results still to be found with low energies . He became a pioneer of what became known as " heavy ion physics " , accelerating protons and deuterons , and using lithium and beryllium as targets . The data on these reactions of light elements would subsequently prove useful in the study of stellar nucleosynthesis .
Later , Allison acquired a 2 MeV Van de Graaff generator , and he recalled an old paper on producing lithium ions from minerals like Eucryptite . This allowed him to produce a 1 @.@ 2 MeV lithium ion beam . He created hitherto unknown isotopes of boron and other light elements , and measured their neutron capture cross sections . A side effect of this work was a method to analyze surface materials where chemical analysis was unavailable . His colleague Anthony L. Turkevich subsequently used this to analyze the makeup of the Moon on the later Surveyor program missions . Allison continued to take on Ph.D. candidates , some of whom , such as James Cronin went on to distinguished careers .
Allison died of complications following an aortic aneurism on September 15 , 1965 while attending the Plasma Physics and Controlled Nuclear Fusion Research Conference in Culham , England . His papers are kept at the American Institute of Physics .
= SMS Wiesbaden =
SMS Wiesbaden was a light cruiser of the Wiesbaden class built for the Imperial German Navy ( Kaiserliche Marine ) . She had one sister ship , SMS Frankfurt ; the ships were very similar to the previous Karlsruhe @-@ class cruisers . The ship was laid down in 1913 , launched in January 1915 , and completed by August 1915 . Armed with eight 15 cm SK L / 45 guns , Wiesbaden had a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) and displaced 6 @,@ 601 t ( 6 @,@ 497 long tons ; 7 @,@ 276 short tons ) at full load .
Wiesbaden saw only one major action , the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 . The ship was badly damaged by gunfire from the battlecruiser HMS Invincible . Immobilized between the two battle fleets , Wiesbaden became the center of a hard @-@ fought action that saw the destruction of two British armored cruisers . Heavy fire from the British fleet prevented evacuation of the ship 's crew . Wiesbaden remained afloat until the early hours of 1 June and sank sometime between 01 : 45 and 02 : 45 . Only one crew member survived the sinking ; the wreck was located by German Navy divers in 1983 .
= = Design = =
Wiesbaden was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Gefion " and was laid down at the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin in 1913 and launched on 20 January 1915 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 23 August 1915 , after being rushed through trials . The ship was 145 @.@ 30 meters ( 476 ft 8 in ) long overall and had a beam of 13 @.@ 90 m ( 45 ft 7 in ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 76 m ( 18 ft 11 in ) forward . She displaced 6 @,@ 601 t ( 6 @,@ 497 long tons ; 7 @,@ 276 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two sets of Marine steam turbines driving two 3 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 11 ft ) propellers . They were designed to give 31 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 23 @,@ 000 kW ) . These were powered by twelve coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers and two oil @-@ fired double @-@ ended boilers . These gave the ship a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) . Wiesbaden carried 1 @,@ 280 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 260 long tons ) of coal , and an additional 470 tonnes ( 460 long tons ) of oil that gave her a range of 4 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 900 km ; 5 @,@ 500 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . Wiesbaden had a crew of 17 officers and 457 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with eight 15 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , four were located amidships , two on either side , and two were placed in a superfiring pair aft . The guns could engage targets out to 17 @,@ 600 m ( 57 @,@ 700 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 024 rounds of ammunition , for 128 shells per gun . The ship 's antiaircraft armament initially consisted of four 5 @.@ 2 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) L / 44 guns , though these were replaced with a pair of 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 45 anti @-@ aircraft guns . She was also equipped with four 50 cm ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with eight torpedoes . Two were submerged in the hull on the broadside and two were mounted on the deck amidships . She could also carry 120 mines . The ship was protected by a waterline armored belt that was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick amidships . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the deck was covered with up to 60 mm thick armor plate .
= = Service history = =
Commanded by Captain Fritz Reiss , Wiesbaden was assigned to the II Scouting Group of light cruisers under Konteradmiral Friedrich Boedicker , which took part in the Battle of Jutland on 30 May and 1 June 1916 . Wiesbaden 's sister ship Frankfurt served as Boedicker 's flagship . The unit was assigned to screen for the battlecruisers of Vizeadmiral Franz von Hipper 's I Scouting Group . At the start of the battle , Wiesbaden was cruising to starboard , which placed her on the disengaged side when Elbing , Pillau , and Frankfurt first engaged the British cruiser screen .
At around 18 : 30 , Wiesbaden and the rest of the II Scouting Group encountered the cruiser HMS Chester ; they opened fire and scored several hits on the ship . As both sides ' cruisers disengaged , Rear Admiral Horace Hood 's three battlecruisers intervened . His flagship HMS Invincible scored a hit on Wiesbaden that exploded in her engine room and disabled the ship . Konteradmiral Paul Behncke , the commander of the leading element of the German battle line , ordered his dreadnoughts to cover the stricken Wiesbaden . Simultaneously , the light cruisers of the British 3rd and 4th Light Cruiser Squadrons attempted to make a torpedo attack on the German line ; while steaming into range , they battered Wiesbaden with their main guns . The destroyer HMS Onslow steamed to within 2 @,@ 000 yards ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) of Wiesbaden and fired a single torpedo at the crippled cruiser . It hit directly below the conning tower , but the ship remained afloat . In the ensuing melee , the armored cruiser HMS Defence blew up and HMS Warrior was fatally damaged . Wiesbaden launched her torpedoes while she remained immobilized , but with no success .
Shortly after 20 : 00 , the III Flotilla of torpedo boats attempted to rescue Wiesbaden 's crew , but heavy fire from the British battle line drove them off . Another attempt to reach the ship was made , but the torpedo boat crews lost sight of the cruiser and were unable to locate her . The ship finally sank sometime between 01 : 45 and 02 : 45 . Only one crew member survived the sinking ; he was picked up by a Norwegian steamer the following day . Among the 589 killed was the well @-@ known writer of poetry and fiction dealing with the life of fishermen and sailors , Johann Kinau , known under his pseudonym of Gorch Fock , who has since then been honored by having two training windjammers of the Kriegsmarine and the German Navy , respectively , named after him . The wreck of Wiesbaden was found in 1983 by divers of the German Navy , who removed both of the ship 's screws . The ship lies on the sea floor upside down , and was the last German cruiser sunk at Jutland to be located .
= SM U @-@ 15 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) =
SM U @-@ 15 or U @-@ XV was a U @-@ 10 @-@ class submarine or U @-@ boat of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( German : Kaiserliche und Königliche Kriegsmarine or K.u.K. Kriegsmarine ) during World War I. U @-@ 15 was constructed in Germany and shipped by rail to Pola where she was assembled and launched in April 1915 . She was commissioned in October 1915 . U @-@ 15 was the most successful boat of the U @-@ 10 class , sinking six ships totaling more than 8 @,@ 000 gross register tons ( GRT ) . The boat survived the war and was handed over to Italy as a war reparation and scrapped in 1920 .
= = Design and construction = =
U @-@ 15 was constructed at AG Weser in Bremen for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy and then shipped by rail in sections to Pola , where the sections were riveted together . Though there is no specific mention of how long it took for U @-@ 15 's sections to be assembled , a sister boat , the German Type UB I submarine UB @-@ 3 , shipped to Pola from Germany in mid @-@ April 1915 , was assembled in about two weeks . U @-@ 15 was launched in April .
U @-@ 15 was a small , coastal submarine that displaced 125 @.@ 5 long tons ( 127 @.@ 5 t ) surfaced and 140 @.@ 25 long tons ( 142 @.@ 50 t ) submerged . She featured a single shaft , a single 59 bhp ( 44 kW ) Daimler diesel engine for surface running , and a single 119 shp ( 89 kW ) electric motor for submerged travel . U @-@ 15 was capable of up to 6 @.@ 5 knots ( 12 @.@ 0 km / h ; 7 @.@ 5 mph ) while surfaced and 5 @.@ 5 knots ( 10 @.@ 2 km / h ; 6 @.@ 3 mph ) while submerged at a diving depth of up to 50 metres ( 160 ft ) . She was designed for a crew of 17 officers and men .
U @-@ 15 was equipped with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes located in the front and carried a complement of two torpedoes . In October 1916 , U @-@ 15 's armament was supplemented with a 37 mm / 23 ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) quick @-@ firing ( QF ) gun . This gun was replaced by a 47 mm / 23 ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) QF gun in November 1917 .
= = Operational history = =
SM U @-@ 15 was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy on 6 October under the command of Linienschiffsleutnant Friedrich Schlosser . On 28 November , Linienschiffsleutnant Friedrich Fähndrich was assigned to the first of two stints in command of the boat . On 18 December , Fähndrich and U @-@ 15 attacked and sank two Albanian sailing vessels near Lezhë . The Erzen , of 25 GRT , and the Figlio Preligiona , of 80 GRT , were both sunk at position 41 ° 47 ′ N 19 ° 31 ′ E. After being relieved by Linienschiffsleutnant Franz Rzemenowsky von Trautenegg from late March to early May 1916 , Fähndrich resumed command on 10 May . One week later , on 17 May , U @-@ 15 torpedoed and sank the 2 @,@ 237 GRT Italian steamer Stura in the Adriatic some 18 nautical miles ( 33 km ) east of Brindisi .
The following month , Fähndrich and the crew of U @-@ 15 scored their second double kill when they sank the Italian auxiliary cruiser Cittá di Messina ( 3 @,@ 495 GRT ) and the French destroyer Fourche ( 745 GRT ) . While about 20 nautical miles ( 37 km ) east of Otranto on 23 June , U @-@ 15 torpedoed and sank Cittá di Messina . The escorting destroyer Fourche began a depth charge attack on U @-@ 15 and assumed success when an oil slick appeared on the surface . After the captain of Fourche turned his attentions to the rescue Cittá di Messina 's survivors , U @-@ 15 launched a single torpedo that struck Fourche amidships and sank her .
On 25 October , U @-@ 15 , back under the command of von Trautenegg , sank the 2 @,@ 207 GRT Italian steamer Polcevera , a sister ship to Stura ( sunk by U @-@ 15 in May ) . Polcevera was the last ship sunk by U @-@ 15 .
From October 1916 to the end of the fighting in November 1918 , U @-@ 15 's activities are unknown . U @-@ 15 was at Pola at the end of the war when Austria @-@ Hungary handed her over to Italy . U @-@ 15 was scrapped at Pola by 1920 .
= RAAF Transport Flight ( Japan ) =
Transport Flight ( Japan ) was a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) transport unit that operated in the aftermath of the Korean War . It was formed in March 1955 at Iwakuni , Japan , and equipped with three Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakotas and a CAC Wirraway . The flight 's main duty was flying a regular courier service between Japan and South Korea in support of Commonwealth military units based on the peninsula . Transport Flight ( Japan ) ceased operations in June 1956 and disbanded in September that year .
= = History = =
Transport Flight ( Japan ) traced its lineage to a transport contingent that the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) maintained in Japan prior to the Korean War . When the war broke out in June 1950 , No. 77 ( Fighter ) Squadron was based at Iwakuni as part of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force . Equipped primarily with North American P @-@ 51 Mustangs , the squadron also operated a communications flight of two Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakotas and two Austers . No. 91 ( Composite ) Wing was established at Iwakuni in October 1950 to administer all RAAF units during the war . This included No. 77 Squadron , the newly formed No. 391 ( Base ) Squadron and No. 491 ( Maintenance ) Squadron , and No. 30 Communications Flight , formerly the No. 77 Squadron Communications Flight . It was designated No. 30 Communications Unit in November . By then it had a complement of eight Dakotas and two Austers . No. 30 Communications Unit was redesignated No. 30 Transport Unit in November 1951 . By the end of 1952 , its strength was eight Dakotas and one CAC Wirraway , and fifty @-@ nine personnel .
In March 1953 , No. 30 Transport Unit re @-@ formed as No. 36 ( Transport ) Squadron , which had disbanded the previous day at RAAF Base Richmond , New South Wales . Elements of No. 36 Squadron began returning to Australia in January 1955 , and by the end of the month its strength was four Dakotas and one Wirraway , and fifty @-@ eight personnel . No. 36 Squadron ceased flying on 13 March , after which its remaining strength left Iwakuni for Australia . RAAF Transport Flight ( Japan ) was formed at Iwakuni the next day under the control of No. 91 Wing . The unit was equipped with three Dakotas and one Wirraway , which had been left behind when the last members of No. 36 Squadron departed for Australia . Transport Flight ( Japan ) ' s personnel , consisting of eight officers and sixty @-@ six other ranks by the end of month , were drawn mainly from No. 36 Squadron , including its commanding officer , Squadron Leader G.L. Waller , as well as from No. 391 ( Base ) Squadron .
The flight 's regular duty consisted of a courier service to Pusan and Kimpo in South Korea five days a week — Wednesdays and Sundays were excluded — to support Commonwealth forces on the peninsula . It became known in the process as " Japan – Korea Airlines " . Generally carrying freight on the outbound journey , the aircraft often ferried casualties back to Iwakuni , and two nurses formerly of No. 391 Squadron were attached to the flight to assist with this task . The unit was also responsible for transporting VIPs . No. 391 Squadron and No. 91 Wing were disbanded at Iwakuni on 30 April 1955 . Transport Flight ( Japan ) flew its last courier missions on 28 June 1956 , and shortly after handed over its base facilities to the United States Navy . The flight 's last Dakota — the last RAAF aircraft to be based in Japan — took off for Australia from Iwakuni on 8 July . It left behind some ground staff and Flight Lieutenant Raleigh , a small yellow dog that had accompanied No. 81 ( Fighter ) Wing — parent formation of No. 77 Squadron at the time — to Japan as its mascot in 1945 and had remained with the RAAF contingent at Iwakuni ever since . Raleigh , a keen flyer but considered too old to return to Australia , was to be given over to the care of a US service family when the last RAAF personnel departed Iwakuni . Transport Flight ( Japan ) was disbanded on 28 September 1956 . It was reported to have carried 4 @,@ 400 passengers and 610 @,@ 000 pounds ( 280 @,@ 000 kg ) of cargo between its first flight in March 1955 and its last in July 1956 , including 690 Commonwealth troops in April 1956 alone , and to have only missed one scheduled service , owing to a typhoon .
= John Hancock =
John Hancock ( January 23 , 1737 [ O.S. January 12 , 1736 ] – October 8 , 1793 ) was an American merchant , smuggler , statesman , and prominent Patriot of the American Revolution . He served as president of the Second Continental Congress and was the first and third Governor of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts . He is remembered for his large and stylish signature on the United States Declaration of Independence , so much so that the term " John Hancock " has become , in the United States , a synonym for a signature .
Before the American Revolution , Hancock was one of the wealthiest men in the Thirteen Colonies , having inherited a profitable mercantile business from his uncle , himself a prominent smuggler . Hancock began his political career in Boston as a protégé of Samuel Adams , an influential local politician , though the two men later became estranged . As tensions between colonists and Great Britain increased in the 1760s , Hancock used his wealth to support the colonial cause . He became very popular in Massachusetts , especially after British officials seized his sloop Liberty in 1768 and charged him with smuggling . Although the charges against Hancock were eventually dropped , as Professor Peter Andreas , author of Smuggler Nation : How Illicit Trade Made America explains , " It is perhaps appropriate that the first signer of the Declaration of Independence was Boston 's most well known merchant @-@ smuggler , John Hancock . "
Hancock was one of Boston 's leaders during the crisis that led to the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War in 1775 . He served more than two years in the Continental Congress in Philadelphia , and as president of Congress , was the first to sign the Declaration of Independence . Hancock returned to Massachusetts and was elected governor of the Commonwealth , serving in that role for most of his remaining years . He used his influence to ensure that Massachusetts ratified the United States Constitution in 1788 .
= = Early life = =
According to the Gregorian calendar , John Hancock was born on January 23 , 1737 ; according to the Julian calendar then in use , the date was January 12 , 1736 . He was born in Braintree , Massachusetts , in a part of town that eventually became the separate city of Quincy . He was the son of the Reverend John Hancock of Braintree and Mary Hawke Thaxter ( widow of Samuel Thaxter Junior ) , who was from nearby Hingham . As a child , Hancock became a casual acquaintance of young John Adams , whom the Reverend Hancock had baptized in 1735 . The Hancocks lived a comfortable life , and owned one slave to help with household work .
After Hancock 's father died in 1744 , John was sent to live with his uncle and aunt , Thomas Hancock and Lydia ( Henchman ) Hancock . Thomas Hancock was the proprietor of a firm known as the House of Hancock , which imported manufactured goods from Britain and exported rum , whale oil , and fish . Thomas Hancock 's highly successful business made him one of Boston 's richest and best @-@ known residents . He and Lydia , along with several servants and slaves , lived in Hancock Manor on Beacon Hill . The couple , who did not have any children of their own , became the dominant influence on John 's life .
After graduating from the Boston Latin School in 1750 , Hancock enrolled in Harvard College and received a bachelor 's degree in 1754 . Upon graduation , he began to work for his uncle , just as the French and Indian War ( 1754 – 1763 ) had begun . Thomas Hancock had close relations with the royal governors of Massachusetts and secured profitable government contracts during the war . John Hancock learned much about his uncle 's business during these years and was trained for eventual partnership in the firm . Hancock worked hard , but he also enjoyed playing the role of a wealthy aristocrat and developed a fondness for expensive clothes .
From 1760 to 1761 , Hancock lived in England while building relationships with customers and suppliers . Upon returning to Boston , Hancock gradually took over the House of Hancock as his uncle 's health failed , becoming a full partner in January 1763 . He became a member of the Masonic Lodge of St. Andrew in October 1762 , which connected him with many of Boston 's most influential citizens . When Thomas Hancock died in August 1764 , John inherited the business , Hancock Manor , two or three household slaves , and thousands of acres of land , becoming one of the wealthiest men in the colonies . The household slaves continued to work for John and his aunt , but were eventually freed through the terms of Thomas Hancock 's will ; there is no evidence that John Hancock ever bought or sold slaves .
= = Growing imperial tensions = =
After its victory in the Seven Years ' War ( 1756 – 1763 ) , the British Empire was deep in debt . Looking for new sources of revenue , the British Parliament sought , for the first time , to directly tax the colonies , beginning with the Sugar Act of 1764 . The earlier Molasses Act of 1733 , a tax on shipments from the West Indies , had produced hardly any revenue because it was widely bypassed by smuggling , which was seen as a victimless crime .
Not only was there little social stigma attached to smuggling in the colonies , but in port cities , where trade was the primary generator of wealth , smuggling enjoyed considerable community support , and it was even possible to obtain insurance against being caught . Colonial merchants developed an impressive repertoire of evasive maneuvers to conceal the origin , nationality , routes and content of their illicit cargoes . This included the frequent use of fraudulent paperwork to make the cargo appear legal and authorised . And much to the frustration of the British authorities , when seizures did happen local merchants were often able to use sympathetic provincial courts to reclaim confiscated goods and have their cases dismissed . For instance , Edward Randolph , the appointed head of customs in New England brought 36 seizures to trial from 1680 to the end of 1682 – and all but two of these were acquitted . Alternatively merchants sometimes took matters into their own hands and stole illicit goods back while impounded .
The Sugar Act provoked outrage in Boston , where it was widely viewed as a violation of colonial rights . Men such as James Otis and Samuel Adams argued that because the colonists were not represented in Parliament , they could not be taxed by that body ; only the colonial assemblies , where the colonists were represented , could levy taxes upon the colonies . Hancock was not yet a political activist ; however , he criticized the tax for economic , rather than constitutional , reasons .
Hancock emerged as a leading political figure in Boston just as tensions with Great Britain were increasing . In March 1765 , he was elected as one of Boston 's five selectmen , an office previously held by his uncle for many years . Soon after , Parliament passed the 1765 Stamp Act , a tax on legal documents , such as wills , that had been levied in Britain for many years but which was wildly unpopular in the colonies , producing riots and organized resistance . Hancock initially took a moderate position : as a loyal British subject , he thought that the colonists should submit to the act , even though he believed that Parliament was misguided . Within a few months , Hancock had changed his mind , although he continued to disapprove of violence and the intimidation of royal officials by mobs . Hancock joined the resistance to the Stamp Act by participating in a boycott of British goods , which made him popular in Boston . After Bostonians learned of the impending repeal of the Stamp Act , Hancock was elected to the Massachusetts House of Representatives in May of 1766 .
Hancock 's political success benefited from the support of Samuel Adams , the clerk of the House of Representatives and a leader of Boston 's " popular party " , also known as " Whigs " and later as " Patriots " . The two men made an unlikely pair . Fifteen years older than Hancock , Adams had a somber , Puritan outlook that stood in marked contrast to Hancock 's taste for luxury and extravagance . Apocryphal stories later portrayed Adams as masterminding Hancock 's political rise so that the merchant 's wealth could be used to further the Whig agenda . Historian James Truslow Adams portrayed Hancock as shallow and vain , easily manipulated by Adams . Historian William M. Fowler , who wrote biographies of both men , argued that this characterization was an exaggeration , and that the relationship between the two was symbiotic , with Adams as the mentor and Hancock the protégé .
= = Townshend Acts crisis = =
After the repeal of the Stamp Act , Parliament took a different approach to raising revenue , passing the 1767 Townshend Acts , which established new duties on various imports and strengthened the customs agency by creating the American Customs Board . The British government believed that a more efficient customs system was necessary because many colonial American merchants had been smuggling . Smugglers violated the Navigation Acts by trading with ports outside of the British Empire and avoiding import taxes . Parliament hoped that the new system would reduce smuggling and generate revenue for the government .
Colonial merchants , even those not involved in smuggling , found the new regulations oppressive . Other colonists protested that new duties were another attempt by Parliament to tax the colonies without their consent . Hancock joined other Bostonians in calling for a boycott of British imports until the Townshend duties were repealed . In their enforcement of the customs regulations , the Customs Board targeted Hancock , Boston 's wealthiest Whig . They may have suspected that he was a smuggler , or they may have wanted to harass him because of his politics , especially after Hancock snubbed Governor Francis Bernard by refusing to attend public functions when the customs officials were present .
On April 9 , 1768 , two customs employees ( called tidesmen ) boarded Hancock 's brig Lydia in Boston Harbor . Hancock was summoned , and finding that the agents lacked a writ of assistance ( a general search warrant ) , he did not allow them to go below deck . When one of them later managed to get into the hold , Hancock 's men forced the tidesman back on deck . Customs officials wanted to file charges , but the case was dropped when Massachusetts Attorney General Jonathan Sewall ruled that Hancock had broken no laws . Later , some of Hancock 's most ardent admirers would call this incident the first act of physical resistance to British authority in the colonies and credit Hancock with initiating the American Revolution .
= = = Liberty affair = = =
The next incident proved to be a major event in the coming of the American Revolution . On the evening of May 9 , 1768 , Hancock 's sloop Liberty arrived in Boston Harbor , carrying a shipment of Madeira wine . When custom officers inspected the ship the next morning , they found that it contained 25 pipes of wine , just one fourth of the ship 's carrying capacity . Hancock paid the duties on the 25 pipes of wine , but officials suspected that he had arranged to have more wine unloaded during the night to avoid paying the duties for the entire cargo . Hancock had earlier been heard refuting the authority of the customs officials , although two tidesmen who had stayed on the ship overnight gave a sworn statement that nothing had been unloaded .
One month later , while the British warship HMS Romney was in port , one of the tidesmen changed his story , saying that he had been forcibly held on the Liberty on the orders of John Hancock while it had been illegally unloaded . When released , the tidesmen were subjected to " such threats and denunciation of vengeance , death and destruction in case they divulged the affair . " The following day the Liberty was again boarded and seized when officials found 20 barrels of tar and 200 barrels of oil on board for which no bond had been posted and no permit to load obtained .
On June 10 , customs officials seized the Liberty . Bostonians were already angry because the captain of the Romney had been impressing colonists , and not just deserters from the Royal Navy , an arguably illegal activity . A riot broke out when officials began to tow the Liberty out to the Romney . The confrontation escalated when sailors and marines coming ashore to seize the Liberty were mistaken for a press gang . After the riot , customs officials relocated to the Romney , and then to Castle William ( an island fort in the harbor ) , claiming that they were unsafe in town . Whigs insisted that the customs officials were exaggerating the danger so that London would send troops to Boston .
British officials filed two lawsuits stemming from the Liberty incident : an in rem suit against the ship , and an in personam suit against Hancock , who had previously been heard dismissing the authority of British Customs officials . The first suit , filed on June 22 , 1768 , resulted in the confiscation of the Liberty in August . Customs officials then used the ship for anti @-@ smuggling operations until it was burned by angry colonists in Rhode Island the following year .
The second trial began in October 1768 , when charges were filed against Hancock and five others for allegedly unloading 100 pipes of wine from the Liberty without paying the duties . If convicted , the defendants would have had to pay a penalty of triple the value of the wine , which came to £ 9 @,@ 000 . With John Adams serving as his lawyer , Hancock was prosecuted in a highly publicized trial by a vice admiralty court , which had no jury and did not always allow the defense to cross @-@ examine the witnesses . After dragging out for nearly five months , the proceedings against Hancock were dropped without explanation .
Although the charges against Hancock were dropped , many writers later described him as a smuggler . The accuracy of this characterization has been questioned . " Hancock 's guilt or innocence and the exact charges against him " , wrote historian John W. Tyler in 1986 , " are still fiercely debated . " Historian Oliver Dickerson argued that Hancock was the victim of an essentially criminal racketeering scheme perpetrated by Governor Bernard and the customs officials . Dickerson believed that there is no reliable evidence that Hancock was guilty in the Liberty case , and that the purpose of the trials was to punish Hancock for political reasons and to plunder his property . Opposed to Dickerson 's interpretation were Kinvin Wroth and Hiller Zobel , the editors of John Adams 's legal papers , who argued that " Hancock 's innocence is open to question " , and that the British officials acted legally , if unwisely . Lawyer and historian Bernard Knollenberg concluded that the customs officials had the right to seize Hancock 's ship , but towing it out to the Romney had been illegal . Legal historian John Phillip Reid argued that the testimony of both sides was so politically partial that it is not possible to objectively reconstruct the incident .
Aside from the Liberty affair , the degree to which Hancock was engaged in smuggling , which may have been widespread in the colonies , has been questioned . Given the clandestine nature of smuggling , records are scarce . If Hancock was a smuggler , no documentation of this has been found . John W. Tyler identified 23 smugglers in his study of more than 400 merchants in revolutionary Boston , but found no written evidence that Hancock was one of them . Biographer William Fowler concluded that while Hancock was probably engaged in some smuggling , most of his business was legitimate , and his later reputation as the " king of the colonial smugglers " is a myth without foundation .
= = Massacre to Tea Party = =
The Liberty affair reinforced a previously made British decision to suppress unrest in Boston with a show of military might . The decision had been prompted by Samuel Adams 's 1768 Circular Letter , which was sent to other British American colonies in hopes of coordinating resistance to the Townshend Acts . Lord Hillsborough , secretary of state for the colonies , sent four regiments of the British Army to Boston to support embattled royal officials , and instructed Governor Bernard to order the Massachusetts legislature to revoke the Circular Letter . Hancock and the Massachusetts House voted against rescinding the letter , and instead drew up a petition demanding Governor Bernard 's recall . When Bernard returned to England in 1769 , Bostonians celebrated .
The British troops remained , however , and tensions between soldiers and civilians eventually resulted in the killing of five civilians in the Boston Massacre of March 1770 . Hancock was not involved in the incident , but afterwards he led a committee to demand the removal of the troops . Meeting with Bernard 's successor , Governor Thomas Hutchinson , and the British officer in command , Colonel William Dalrymple , Hancock claimed that there were 10 @,@ 000 armed colonists ready to march into Boston if the troops did not leave . Hutchinson knew that Hancock was bluffing , but the soldiers were in a precarious position when garrisoned within the town , and so Dalrymple agreed to remove both regiments to Castle William . Hancock was celebrated as a hero for his role in getting the troops withdrawn . His reelection to the Massachusetts House in May was nearly unanimous .
After Parliament partially repealed the Townshend duties in 1770 , Boston 's boycott of British goods ended . Politics became quieter in Massachusetts , although tensions remained . Hancock tried to improve his relationship with Governor Hutchinson , who in turn sought to woo Hancock away from Adams 's influence . In April 1772 , Hutchinson approved Hancock 's election as colonel of the Boston Cadets , a militia unit whose primary function was to provide a ceremonial escort for the governor and the General Court . In May , Hutchinson even approved Hancock 's election to the Council , the upper chamber of the General Court , whose members were elected by the House but subject to veto by the governor . Hancock 's previous elections to the Council had been vetoed , but now Hutchinson allowed the election to stand . Hancock declined the office , however , not wanting to appear to have been co @-@ opted by the governor . Nevertheless , Hancock used the improved relationship to resolve an ongoing dispute . To avoid hostile crowds in Boston , Hutchinson had been convening the legislature outside of town ; now he agreed to allow the General Court to sit in Boston once again , to the relief of the legislators .
Hutchinson had dared to hope that he could win over Hancock and discredit Adams . To some , it seemed that Adams and Hancock were indeed at odds : when Adams formed the Boston Committee of Correspondence in November 1772 to advocate colonial rights , Hancock declined to join , creating the impression that there was a split in the Whig ranks . But whatever their differences , Hancock and Adams came together again in 1773 with the renewal of major political turmoil . They cooperated in the revelation of private letters of Thomas Hutchinson , in which the governor seemed to recommend " an abridgement of what are called English liberties " to bring order to the colony . The Massachusetts House , blaming Hutchinson for the military occupation of Boston , called for his removal as governor .
Even more trouble followed Parliament 's passage of the 1773 Tea Act . On November 5 , Hancock was elected as moderator at a Boston town meeting that resolved that anyone who supported the Tea Act was an " Enemy to America " . Hancock and others tried to force the resignation of the agents who had been appointed to receive the tea shipments . Unsuccessful in this , they attempted to prevent the tea from being unloaded after three tea ships had arrived in Boston Harbor . Hancock was at the fateful meeting on December 16 , where he reportedly told the crowd , " Let every man do what is right in his own eyes . " Hancock did not take part in the Boston Tea Party that night , but he approved of the action , although he was careful not to publicly praise the destruction of private property .
Over the next few months , Hancock was disabled by gout , which would trouble him with increasing frequency in the coming years . By March 5 , 1774 , he had recovered enough to deliver the fourth annual Massacre Day oration , a commemoration of the Boston Massacre . Hancock 's speech denounced the presence of British troops in Boston , who he said had been sent there " to enforce obedience to acts of Parliament , which neither God nor man ever empowered them to make " . The speech , probably written by Hancock in collaboration with Adams , Joseph Warren , and others , was published and widely reprinted , enhancing Hancock 's stature as a leading Patriot .
= = Revolution begins = =
Parliament responded to the Tea Party with the Boston Port Act , one of the so @-@ called Coercive Acts intended to strengthen British control of the colonies . Hutchinson was replaced as governor by General Thomas Gage , who arrived in May 1774 . On June 17 , the Massachusetts House elected five delegates to send to the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia , which was being organized to coordinate colonial response to the Coercive Acts . Hancock did not serve in the first Congress , possibly for health reasons , or possibly to remain in charge while the other Patriot leaders were away .
Gage soon dismissed Hancock from his post as colonel of the Boston Cadets . In October 1774 , Gage canceled the scheduled meeting of the General Court . In response , the House resolved itself into the Massachusetts Provincial Congress , a body independent of British control . Hancock was elected as president of the Provincial Congress and was a key member of the Committee of Safety . The Provincial Congress created the first minutemen companies , consisting of militiamen who were to be ready for action on a moment 's notice .
On December 1 , 1774 , the Provincial Congress elected Hancock as a delegate to the Second Continental Congress to replace James Bowdoin , who had been unable to attend the first Congress because of illness . Before Hancock reported to the Continental Congress in Philadelphia , the Provincial Congress unanimously reelected him as their president in February 1775 . Hancock 's multiple roles gave him enormous influence in Massachusetts , and as early as January 1774 British officials had considered arresting him . After attending the Provincial Congress in Concord in April 1775 , Hancock and Samuel Adams decided that it was not safe to return to Boston before leaving for Philadelphia . They stayed instead at Hancock 's childhood home in Lexington .
Gage received a letter from Lord Dartmouth on April 14 , 1775 , advising him " to arrest the principal actors and abettors in the Provincial Congress whose proceedings appear in every light to be acts of treason and rebellion " . On the night of April 18 , Gage sent out a detachment of soldiers on the fateful mission that would spark the American Revolutionary War . The purpose of the British expedition was to seize and destroy military supplies that the colonists had stored in Concord . According to many historical accounts , Gage also instructed his men to arrest Hancock and Adams ; if so , the written orders issued by Gage made no mention of arresting the Patriot leaders . Gage apparently decided that he had nothing to gain by arresting Hancock and Adams , since other leaders would simply take their place , and the British would be portrayed as the aggressors .
Although Gage had evidently decided against seizing Hancock and Adams , Patriots initially believed otherwise . From Boston , Joseph Warren dispatched messenger Paul Revere to warn Hancock and Adams that British troops were on the move and might attempt to arrest them . Revere reached Lexington around midnight and gave the warning . Hancock , still considering himself a militia colonel , wanted to take the field with the Patriot militia at Lexington , but Adams and others convinced him to avoid battle , arguing that he was more valuable as a political leader than as a soldier . As Hancock and Adams made their escape , the first shots of the war were fired at Lexington and Concord . Soon after the battle , Gage issued a proclamation granting a general pardon to all who would " lay down their arms , and return to the duties of peaceable subjects " — with the exceptions of Hancock and Samuel Adams . Singling out Hancock and Adams in this manner only added to their renown among Patriots .
= = President of Congress = =
With the war underway , Hancock made his way to the Continental Congress in Philadelphia with the other Massachusetts delegates . On May 24 , 1775 , he was unanimously elected President of the Continental Congress , succeeding Peyton Randolph after Henry Middleton declined the nomination . Hancock was a good choice for president for several reasons . He was experienced , having often presided over legislative bodies and town meetings in Massachusetts . His wealth and social standing inspired the confidence of moderate delegates , while his association with Boston radicals made him acceptable to other radicals . His position was somewhat ambiguous , because the role of the president was not fully defined , and it was not clear if Randolph had resigned or was on a leave of absence . Like other presidents of Congress , Hancock 's authority was mostly limited to that of a presiding officer . He also had to handle a great deal of official correspondence , and he found it necessary to hire clerks at his own expense to help with the paperwork .
In Congress on June 15 , 1775 , Massachusetts delegate John Adams nominated George Washington as commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the army then gathered around Boston . Years later , Adams wrote that Hancock had shown great disappointment at not getting the command for himself . This brief comment from 1801 is the only source for the oft @-@ cited claim that Hancock sought to become commander @-@ in @-@ chief . In the early 20th century , historian James Truslow Adams wrote that the incident initiated a lifelong estrangement between Hancock and Washington , but some subsequent historians have expressed doubt that the incident , or the estrangement , ever occurred . According to historian Donald Proctor , " There is no contemporary evidence that Hancock harbored ambitions to be named commander @-@ in @-@ chief . Quite the contrary . " Hancock and Washington maintained a good relationship after the alleged incident , and in 1778 Hancock named his only son John George Washington Hancock . Hancock admired and supported General Washington , even though Washington politely declined Hancock 's request for a military appointment .
When Congress recessed on August 1 , 1775 , Hancock took the opportunity to wed his fiancée , Dorothy " Dolly " Quincy . The couple was married on August 28 in Fairfield , Connecticut . John and Dorothy would have two children , neither of whom survived to adulthood . Their daughter Lydia Henchman Hancock was born in 1776 and died ten months later . Their son John was born in 1778 and died in 1787 after suffering a head injury while ice skating .
While president of Congress , Hancock became involved in a long @-@ running controversy with Harvard . As treasurer of the college since 1773 , he had been entrusted with the school 's financial records and about £ 15 @,@ 000 in cash and securities . In the rush of events at the onset of the Revolutionary War , Hancock had been unable to return the money and accounts to Harvard before leaving for Congress . In 1777 , a Harvard committee headed by James Bowdoin , Hancock 's chief political and social rival in Boston , sent a messenger to Philadelphia to retrieve the money and records . Hancock was offended , but he turned over more than £ 16 @,@ 000 , though not all of the records , to the college . When Harvard replaced Hancock as treasurer , his ego was bruised , and for years he declined to settle the account or pay the interest on the money he had held , despite pressure put on him by Bowdoin and other political opponents . The issue dragged on until after Hancock 's death , when his estate finally paid the college more than £ 1 @,@ 000 to resolve the matter .
Hancock served in Congress through some of the darkest days of the Revolutionary War . The British drove Washington from New York and New Jersey in 1776 , which prompted Congress to flee to Baltimore , Maryland . Hancock and Congress returned to Philadelphia in March 1777 , but were compelled to flee six months later when the British occupied Philadelphia . Hancock wrote innumerable letters to colonial officials , raising money , supplies , and troops for Washington 's army . He chaired the Marine Committee , and took pride in helping to create a small fleet of American frigates , including the USS Hancock , which was named in his honor .
= = = Signing the Declaration = = =
Hancock was president of Congress when the Declaration of Independence was adopted and signed . He is primarily remembered by Americans for his large , flamboyant signature on the Declaration , so much so that " John Hancock " became , in the United States , an informal synonym for signature . According to legend , Hancock signed his name largely and clearly so that King George could read it without his spectacles , but the story is apocryphal and originated years later .
Contrary to popular mythology , there was no ceremonial signing of the Declaration on July 4 , 1776 . After Congress approved the wording of the text on July 4 , the fair copy was sent to be printed . As president , Hancock may have signed the document that was sent to the printer John Dunlap , but this is uncertain because that document is lost , perhaps destroyed in the printing process . Dunlap produced the first published version of the Declaration , the widely distributed Dunlap broadside . Hancock , as President of Congress , was the only delegate whose name appeared on the broadside , although the name of Charles Thomson , secretary of the Continental Congress , but not a delegate , was also on it as " Attested by " implying that Hancock had signed the fair copy . This meant that until a second broadside was issued six months later with all of the signers listed , Hancock was the only delegate whose name was publicly attached to the treasonous document . Hancock sent a copy of the Dunlap broadside to George Washington , instructing him to have it read to the troops " in the way you shall think most proper " .
Hancock 's name was printed , not signed , on the Dunlap broadside ; his iconic signature appears on a different document — a sheet of parchment that was carefully handwritten sometime after July 19 and signed on August 2 by Hancock and those delegates present . Known as the engrossed copy , this is the famous document on display at the National Archives in Washington , D.C.
= = Return to Massachusetts = =
In October 1777 , after more than two years in Congress , President Hancock requested a leave of absence . He asked George Washington to arrange a military escort for his return to Boston . Although Washington was short on manpower , he nevertheless sent fifteen horsemen to accompany Hancock on his journey home . By this time Hancock had become estranged from Samuel Adams , who disapproved of what he viewed as Hancock 's vanity and extravagance , which Adams believed were inappropriate in a republican leader . When Congress voted to thank Hancock for his service , Adams and the other Massachusetts delegates voted against the resolution , as did a few delegates from other states .
Back in Boston , Hancock was reelected to the House of Representatives . As in previous years , his philanthropy made him popular . Although
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the possibility of child pornography .
= = Opinion of the Ninth Circuit panel = =
In the majority opinion , Judge Tallman agreed with the Government that border search doctrine allowed property to be transported to a secondary site for examination . However , he also stated that the Government cannot seize property and hold it for " weeks , months , years on a whim " - effectively allowing the courts to continue to determine whether searches and seizures are reasonable on a case @-@ to @-@ case basis .
= = = Arguments = = =
When appealing the District Court 's decision , the government did not argue that there was reasonable suspicion . Instead , the government argued that the border search doctrine supported both the initial search and the transportation of the laptop to Tucson for examination .
= = = Judgment = = =
The majority found that time and distance did not matter in this instance . In the opinion , Judge Tallman stated the need to control entry at the border . If the government was unable to remove property away from the border , they would have to fully staff and equip each border crossing or be content with blindly shutting its eyes , with both positions being unreasonable . Since the defendant 's property was never cleared for entry , it was functionally still at the border at the time of the forensic search . In the opinion , Judge Tallman stated :
Time and space are only relevant to this initial inquiry to the extent that they inform us whether an individual would reasonably expect to be stopped and searched at a geographic point beyond the international border .
The majority also found that reasonable suspicion was not needed since they considered the inspection as a routine search . There was no body search nor was property destroyed . Finally , the Court ruled that they did not consider the two @-@ day delay particularly offensive .
= = = Dissent = = =
Judge Fletcher dissented with the majority . She argued that the " sticking point " was not whether the government could transport property from the border to another location for inspection , but whether the government could seize property for inspection for an unknown amount of time with no reason to suspect the property contained contraband .
I would hold that officers must have some level of particularized suspicion in order to conduct a seizure and search like the one at issue here , because ( 1 ) seizing one ’ s personal property deprives the individual of his valid possessory interest in his property , and ( 2 ) authorizing a generalized computer forensic search ( untethered to any particularized suspicion ) permits the Government to engage in the type of generalized fishing expeditions that the Fourth Amendment is designed to prevent .
= = Supreme Court Appeal = =
A petition for Writ of Certiorari was filed with the United States Supreme Court on August 5 , 2013 , after several time extensions .
Did the Ninth Circuit violate the Constitution , create circuit splits , contravene this Court ’ s decisions , and subvert the appellate process by replacing the question presented by the parties with an issue that the prosecution deliberately abandoned , and by making a factual finding ( i.e. that reasonable suspicion existed ) for the first time on appeal that disregarded the factual findings of the district court and agents at the scene , and then by holding that a citizen ’ s personal belongings may be seized at the border with no suspicion of wrongdoing ?
On January 13 , 2014 , the Court denied the petition for Certiorari . In March of 2014 , the Court denied a Petition for Rehearing filed in February of 2014 , letting the Ninth Circuit 's decision stand , along with the reasonable suspicion standard it created .
= LW6 / 8 =
LW6 / 8 is a para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic standing skiing sport class , a classification defined by the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) for people with an upper extremity issue who have paralysis , motor paresis affecting one arm , a single upper arm amputation or CP8 classified cerebral palsy . LW6 / 8 skiers use two skis and one pole in both para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic skiing .
Skiers in this class include 2006 New Zealand Winter Paralympian Anthony Field , Germany 's Thomas Oelsner and Australia 's Mitchell Gourley .
= = Definition = =
This classification is used in para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic standing skiing , where LW stands for Locomotor Winter . Designed for people with an upper extremity issue , a skier may be classified as LW6 / 8 if they have paralysis , motor paresis affecting one arm , or a single upper arm amputation .
The International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) defined this classification for para @-@ Alpine as " Competitors with disabilities in one upper limb , skiing with two normal skis and one pole ... " The disability shall be such that the functional use of more than one pole is not possible . Typical disability profile of the class is single @-@ arm amputation . " In 2002 , the Australian Paralympic Committee described this classification as a standing skiing classification with " Two skis , one pole , disability in one arm or hand . " For para @-@ Nordic skiing , the IPC defines this class as for " those with impairment in one entire limb . "
For international para @-@ Alpine skiing competitions , classification is done through IPC Alpine Skiing . A national federation such as Alpine Canada handles classification for domestic competitions . For para @-@ Nordic skiing events , classification is handled by IPC Nordic Skiing Technical Committee on the international level and by the national sports federation such as Cross @-@ Country Canada on a country by country level . When being assessed into this classification , a number of things are considered including reviewing the skiers medical history and medical information on the skier 's disability , having a physical and an in person assessment of the skier training or competing .
= = = LW6 = = =
LW6 is used in para @-@ Nordic skiing for skiers with above the elbow amputations for paralysis affecting the whole arm . Cross Country Canada described LW6 as " Impairment in one entire upper limb . The athlete must not use a prosthesis . " in 2012 .
= = = LW8 = = =
LW8 is for skiers with below the elbow amputations or lacking functional use below the elbow . Cross Country Canada described LW8 as " Impairment in one upper limb below the elbow . The athlete must not use a prosthesis or use the affected arm to aid in poling in any way . "
= = Equipment and technique = =
LW6 / 8 skiers use two skis and one pole in both para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic skiing . The two types of skiing differ in that in para @-@ Nordic a skier cannot use a prosthesis while use prostheses or orthoses are allowed in para @-@ Alpine . FIS rules for ski boots and binding heights are followed for this class . Socks and other materials are used to pad and protect the stump of the arm as the use of a prosthesis is not allowed . Sometimes , a mitten or cork is used to protect the stump . If the limb is not properly protected , it may get frostbitten .
Lateral balance is an issue for LW6 / 8 skiers resulting from the missing arm , so skiing techniques are worked on by the skier to correct this . One technique used compensates for balance issues by using knee drives or hip motions . Unlike other para @-@ Alpine disciplines , in slalom skiers are more likely to use a partial ski pole or a prosthetic to hold a ski pole .
In the Biathlon , all Paralympic athletes shoot from a prone position . Athletes with amputations can use a rifle support while shooting .
= = Sport = =
A factoring system is used in the sport to allow different classes to compete against each other when there are too few individual competitors in one class in a competition . The factoring system works by having a number for each class based on their functional mobility or vision levels , where the results are calculated by multiplying the finish time by the factored number . The resulting number is the one used to determine the winner in events where the factor system is used .
In para @-@ Nordic skiing , which includes the cross @-@ country skiing and biathlon events , this classification is grouped with other standing classes . For the 2003 / 2004 para @-@ Nordic skiing season , the percentage for LW6 using the classic technique was 91 % and percentage for free was 96 % , and for LW8 using the classic technique was 92 % and percentage for free was 97 % . The percentage for the 2008 / 2009 and 2009 / 2010 ski seasons was 92 % for classic and 97 % for free . The percentage for LW6 the 2012 / 2013 par @-@ Nordic ski season was 91 % for classic and 96 % for free , and for LW8 was 92 % for classic and 97 % for free .
In para @-@ Alpine skiing events , this classification is grouped with standing classes , who are seeded to start after visually impaired classes and before sitting classes in the slalom and giant slalom . In downhill , Super @-@ G and Super Combined , this same group competes after the visually impaired classes and sitting classes . For alpine events , a skier is required to have their ski poles or equivalent equipment planted in the snow in front of the starting position before the start of the race . The IPC advises event organisers to run the men 's standing ski group after the blind men 's group and before the blind women 's group . Women 's standing classes are advised to go last . During the 2005 / 2006 para @-@ Alpine ski season , the giant slalom had a factor of 1 @.@ 000 . The 2011 / 2012 alpine @-@ skiing season factoring for LW6 / 8 @.@ 1 was 0 @.@ 9902 for Slalom , 0 @.@ 995 for Giant Slalom , 0 @.@ 9969 for Super @-@ G and 0 @.@ 998 for downhill , and for LW6 / 8 @.@ 2 was 0 @.@ 9926 for slalom , 1 for giant slalom , 1 for Super @-@ G and 1 for downhill .
If a skier in this class has an arm that is not functional , the rules require the limb be strapped to their body during competition . For Nordic events , LW8 skiers are not allowed to use the stump of their arm for paddling or to help in poling . In the biathlon , the skier is required to make sure " that the rifle touches the support in between the marked zone ( 5cm in front of / behind the balance point ) . " If a skier has partial use of their other arm or hand , the rules do not allow them to use it to site or support the rifle . The skier is not permitted to move the support from its upright position .
= = Events = =
At the 1984 Winter Olympics Exhibition Competition , 1986 World Disabled Ski Championships , 1988 World Winter Games for the Disabled , 1990 Disabled Alpine World Championships and 2002 Winter Paralympics , disciplines included on the programme were downhill and giant slalom and LW6 / 8 skiers were not grouped with others classes for medal events for men . At the 1998 Winter Paralympics , the women 's LW1 , LW3 , LW4 , LW5 and LW6 classes competed in one group . At the 2004 IPC Alpine World Championships , LW3 , LW6 / 8 and LW9 classified women all skied in the same group against each other during the downhill event . At the 2005 IPC Nordic Skiing World Championships , this class was grouped with other standing skiing classifications . In cross country , this class was eligible to compete in the men and women 's 5 km , 10 km and 20 km individual race . In the men and women 's biathlon , this classification was again grouped with standing classes in the 7 @.@ 5 km race with two shooting stages , and the 12 @.@ 5 km race , which had four shooting stages . At the 2009 IPC Alpine World Championships , there were four women and nine men from this class in the standing downhill event .
= = Competitors = =
Paralympic skiers in this class include 2006 New Zealand 's Anthony Field , Germany 's Thomas Oelsner , and Australia 's Mitchell Gourley .
= 3rd Parachute Brigade ( United Kingdom ) =
The 3rd Parachute Brigade was an airborne forces brigade raised by the British Army during the Second World War . The brigade was initially part of the 1st Airborne Division , but remained in Britain when that division was sent overseas , and became part of the 6th Airborne Division , alongside 5th Parachute Brigade and 6th Airlanding Brigade .
The brigade first went into action on 5 June 1944 during Operation Tonga , part of the Normandy landings . The objective was to destroy the Merville Gun Battery and the bridges over the River Dives . The brigade achieved all its objectives , and remained defending the left flank of the invasion zone until mid August . They then crossed the River Dives and advanced as far as the River Seine before they were withdrawn . While recovering in England , the brigade was moved to Belgium in December 1944 , to counter the German attack in the Ardennes . The brigade remained on the border between Belgium and the Netherlands carrying out patrols until March 1945 . Their next airborne mission was Operation Varsity , the assault crossing of the River Rhine in Germany . After this , the brigade advanced towards the Baltic Sea , arriving just ahead of the Red Army .
Still part of the 6th Airborne Division , the brigade was sent to the British mandate of Palestine in October 1945 after the end of the war . Carrying out an internal security role with the rest of 6th Airborne Division , it remained in Palestine until it was disbanded in 1947 .
= = Background = =
Impressed by the success of German airborne operations during the Battle of France , the British Prime Minister , Winston Churchill , directed the War Office to investigate the possibility of creating a force of 5 @,@ 000 parachute troops . As a result , on 22 June 1940 , No. 2 Commando assumed parachute duties , and on 21 November was re @-@ designated the 11th Special Air Service Battalion , with a parachute and glider wing .
On 21 June 1940 the Central Landing Establishment was formed at Ringway airfield near Manchester . Although tasked primarily with training parachute troops , it was also directed to investigate the use of gliders to transport troops into battle . At the same time , the Ministry of Aircraft Production contracted General Aircraft Ltd to design and produce a glider for this purpose . The result was the General Aircraft Hotspur , an aircraft capable of transporting eight soldiers , that was used for both assault and training purposes .
The success of the first British airborne raid , Operation Colossus , prompted the War Office to expand the airborne force through the creation of the Parachute Regiment , and to develop plans to convert several infantry battalions into parachute and glider battalions . On 31 May 1941 , a joint army and air force memorandum was approved by the Chiefs @-@ of @-@ Staff and Winston Churchill ; it recommended that the British airborne forces should consist of two parachute brigades , one based in England and the other in the Middle East , and that a glider force of 10 @,@ 000 men should be created .
= = Formation = =
The 3rd Parachute Brigade was raised on 7 November 1942 , under the command of Brigadier Sir Alexander Stanier Bart. Stanier was soon replaced by Brigadier Gerald Lathbury , who in turn was replaced in May 1943 by Brigadier James Hill , previously of the 1st Parachute Brigade . Hill remained in command through the remaining war years until July 1945 , when Lathbury once again assumed command . The last commander of the brigade was Brigadier Francis Rome , who took over on 15 November 1946 .
The brigade was initially composed of the 7th ( Light Infantry ) Parachute Battalion , the 8th ( Midlands ) Parachute Battalion and the 9th ( Eastern and Home Counties ) Parachute Battalion . On 11 August 1943 the 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion arrived in England and was assigned to the brigade , and the 7th Battalion was transferred to the 5th Parachute Brigade which was in the process of forming . At the end of the Second World War , the 1st Canadian Battalion returned to Canada , and was replaced in the brigade by the 3rd Parachute Battalion , which had previously been part of the 1st Parachute Brigade .
The brigade 's other units were the 3rd Airlanding Anti @-@ Tank Battery from the Royal Artillery , the 3rd Parachute Squadron of the Royal Engineers and the 224th ( Parachute ) Field Ambulance from the Royal Army Medical Corps . During operations the artillery support available to the brigade would also include a battery of howitzers from the 53rd ( Worcester Yeomanry ) Airlanding Light Regiment , although it was not part of the brigade .
On formation the brigade was assigned to the 1st Airborne Division , and as such had to supply reinforcements to make the 1st Parachute Brigade up to strength before they left to take part in Operation Torch . When the 1st Airborne Division left England for operations in the Mediterranean , the 3rd Parachute Brigade remained behind , and was assigned as the first unit of the newly raised 6th Airborne Division . The brigade would remain part of the 6th Airborne Division until 1947 , when it was disbanded .
= = Operational history = =
From June to December 1943 , the brigade prepared for operations as part of the 6th Airborne Division , training at every level from section up to division by day and night . Airborne soldiers were expected to fight against superior numbers of the enemy , who would be equipped with artillery and tanks . Training was therefore designed to encourage a spirit of self @-@ discipline , self @-@ reliance and aggressiveness , with emphasis given to physical fitness , marksmanship and fieldcraft . A large part of the training consisted of assault courses and route marching . Military exercises included capturing and holding airborne bridgeheads , road or rail bridges and coastal fortifications . At the end of most exercises , the troops would march back to their barracks , usually a distance of around 20 miles ( 32 km ) . An ability to cover long distances at speed was expected ; airborne platoons were required to cover a distance of 50 miles ( 80 km ) in 24 hours , and battalions 32 miles ( 51 km ) .
In April 1944 , under the command of 1st Airborne Corps , the brigade took part in Exercise Mush , in the counties of Gloucestershire , Oxfordshire and Wiltshire . This was an airborne military exercise spread over three days involving the 1st and 6th Airborne Divisions . Unknown to the 6th Airborne , it was a full @-@ scale rehearsal for the division 's involvement in the imminent Normandy invasion . In the invasion , the division 's two parachute brigades would land just after midnight on 6 June , while the 6th Airlanding Brigade arrived later in the day just before dark . The division 's objective was to secure the left flank of the invasion area by dominating the high ground in the area between the rivers Orne and Dives . For their part in the operation , the 3rd Parachute Brigade had to destroy the Merville Gun Battery , whose guns were in range of the Sword beach landings , and to demolish bridges across the River Dives to hamper the arrival of German reinforcements from the east .
= = = D @-@ Day = = =
Just after midnight on 6 June 1944 , Albermarle aircraft arrived , carrying the brigade 's pathfinders , a company from the 1st Canadian Battalion to clear the drop zone ( DZ ) of obstructions , a group from each battalion , and brigade headquarters . Some planes got lost and failed to reach the DZ or arrived late . Others were damaged before dropping all their paratroops and turned back , and one returned to base after failing to find the drop zone at all .
From around 00 : 50 the rest of the brigade arrived in Normandy after crossing the English Channel , transported in 108 C @-@ 47 Dakotas , along with 17 Horsa gliders carrying their heavy equipment . The 8th Parachute Battalion , landing on DZ @-@ K along with the brigade headquarters , was tasked with destroying the bridges over the River Dives at Bures and Troarn . The 1st Canadian Battalion , landing on DZ @-@ V , was required to destroy the bridges at Varaville and Robehomme . The 9th Battalion , also landing on DZ @-@ V , had arguably the hardest task ; neutralising the Merville Gun Battery . Due to a combination of poor navigation , heavy cloud cover , and several of the drop zones not being marked correctly , the parachute drop was widely scattered . One group of paratroops landed 10 miles ( 16 km ) away , and another landed on the wrong side of the River Orne , only 1 @,@ 200 yards ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) from the invasion beaches . Less than half of each battalion gathered at their individual assembly areas .
In the south , at DZ @-@ K , only 141 men of the 8th Parachute Battalion had assembled . Divided into two groups , they headed for their objectives . One group demolished the two bridges at Bures without opposition . The other group , while on their way to Troarn , intercepted and ambushed a convoy of six armoured vehicles belonging to the 21st Panzer Division . When they reached Troarn , they discovered it was defended by the Germans . A platoon , including engineers , managed to fight their way to the bridge . They found that it had already been damaged , so the engineers planted their explosives and enlarged the gap to around 70 feet ( 21 m ) .
The 1st Canadian Battalion successfully destroyed the bridges at Varaville and Robehomme after landing on the northern DZ . They then withdrew to defend Le Mesnil , where the brigade headquarters and the field ambulance were located . Meanwhile , by 02 : 50 only 150 men of the 9th Parachute Battalion had gathered at their assembly area , with virtually no heavy weapons or supplies . Unable to wait any longer , they headed for the Merville Gun Battery . The battalion captured the battery , but without explosives , could only damage two of its four guns . The battle had been costly , and only 85 men were left to head for their secondary objective , the village of Le Plein . The village was defended in strength by the Germans , and the weakened battalion could only dig in and wait the arrival of commandos from the 1st Special Service Brigade later that day . By nightfall the brigade was deployed facing east , along the ridge of high ground from Le Plein in the north to the Bois de Bavent in the south .
= = = Orne bridgehead = = =
On 7 June the 9th Parachute Battalion , relieved by the Special Service Brigade commandos , moved southwards to the Bois de Mont near Bréville , shortening the front held by the 3rd Parachute Brigade . The 6th Airborne Division 's deployments now had the 6th Airlanding Brigade in the south , holding a line between Longueval and Herourvillette , the 5th Parachute Brigade to the rear just to the east of the River Orne bridge , the attached 1st Special Service Brigade to the north with troops in Sallenelles and Franceville @-@ Plage , and finally the 3rd Parachute Brigade holding the ridge of high ground to the east .
The Germans still held the village of Bréville , between the 3rd Parachute and 1st Special Service Brigades , which gave them a vantage point to observe the airborne division 's positions . On 8 June the Germans launched a two pronged attack from Bréville , against the commandos and against the 9th Parachute Battalion . The German force , comprising elements of the 857th Grenadier Regiment , 346th Infantry Division , were only driven back by a counterattack led by the 9th Parachute Battalion 's Regimental Sergeant Major . The next morning the 9th Parachute Battalion was the target for a heavy mortar bombardment , followed by two further infantry attacks . Later the same morning , the 3rd Parachute Brigade 's headquarters was attacked by German troops who had infiltrated the lines . The brigade defence platoon managed to hold out until a counterattack by the 9th Parachute Battalion cleared the enemy away . On 10 June , 31 men who had landed in the wrong locations joined the battalion , bringing their numbers up to 270 all ranks . The fighting was now concentrated around the Château Saint Come , which was occupied by a German infantry company supported by two self propelled guns . One of the self @-@ propelled guns was blown up by Vickers machine gun fire , but the Germans then mounted a determined infantry assault , and the battalion had to call for support from HMS Arethusa . The leading German troops were undaunted by the naval bombardment , and reached the battalion 's lines before they were stopped . One of the German prisoners was a battalion commander , who informed his captors that the 875th Grenadier Regiment had been virtually destroyed in the previous day 's fighting . That evening the 9th Parachute Battalion captured the Château Saint Come , and was involved in skirmishes throughout the night . The following day , 11 June , the 5th Battalion Black Watch was attached to the brigade to assist in their attempt to capture Bréville , but their attacks were repulsed by the Germans with heavy losses . They tried again on the 12th , and the German response was an attack by infantry supported by armour , which not only drove the Black Watch back , but almost overran the 9th Parachute Battalion 's position . The situation was only saved by a counterattack by ' A ' Company 1st Canadian Battalion under the command of Brigadier Hill .
During this time the 8th Battalion , located in the thick forest of the Bois de Bavant , were under an almost constant mortar bombardment . Not being directly attacked , the battalion concentrated on night time patrols to harass the Germans , some going as far as the German occupied villages of Troan and Bures .
On 7 June the 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion at Le Mesnil was attacked by units from the 857th and 858th Grenadier Regiments , supported by tanks and self @-@ propelled guns . The battalion inflicted heavy casualties on the Germans , but only managed to drive them back with a bayonet charge by ' B ' Company . The next day the battalion was involved in several small battles , and on the 9 June sent a reconnaissance patrol to check if the Germans were still occupying Bavent . The patrol was driven back by a strong German force , but that night another patrol entered the village and planted explosive charges on weapons and in buildings . Attacks by German infantry and armour continued until the night of the 12 / 13 June , when Bréville was finally captured by the division 's only reserves , a mixed force from the 12th Parachute Battalion and 12th Devonshire Battalion supported by a troop of tanks from the 13th / 18th Royal Hussars . On 13 June the 51st ( Highland ) Infantry Division crossed the River Orne from the west , and took over responsibility for the southern sector of the Orne bridgehead . At the same time the 4th Special Service Brigade was attached to the 6th Airborne Division , which gave them the ability to rotate one brigade at a time out of the front line to allow them to rest . The 3rd Parachute Brigade , having suffered more casualties than the division 's other brigades , was the first formation relieved .
= = = Advance to the Seine = = =
With the capture of Breville the division was not attacked in force again , apart from an almost continuous artillery bombardment between 18 and 20 June . Further reinforcements arrived east of the River Orne on 20 July ; the 49th ( West Riding ) Infantry Division moved into the line between the 6th Airborne and the Highland Division . Then on 7 August , the 6th Airborne Division was ordered to prepare to move over to the offensive , with its objective being the mouth of the River Seine . The three divisions east of the Orne now became I Corps , and when issuing his orders Lieutenant General John Crocker , aware that the 6th Airborne had almost no artillery , vehicles or engineer equipment , did not expect them to advance very quickly . To reach the Seine the division would have to cross three major rivers , and there were only two main lines of advance ; one road running along the coast and another further inland from Troarn to Pont Audemer .
On 17 August the Germans started to withdraw northwards . The divisional commander had already decided that the 3rd Parachute Brigade would lead the advance along the interior road . Their objective was to capture Bures , cross the River Dives and secure the area between there and Dozulé . At 03 : 00 the brigade attacked the retreating Germans . By 08 : 00 the 8th and 9th Battalions had captured Bures , and the 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion moved through the Bois de Bavant . The bridges in Bures had been blown up previously , and it took the brigade 's engineers until the afternoon to build a crossing . By 21 : 00 the brigade had crossed the Dives and halted with the 8th Parachute Battalion out in front at Goustranville . The 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion was behind them , and the 9th Parachute Battalion in reserve . The next day the brigade met heavy resistance just beyond Goustranville , on the Dives Canal and at Dozulé train station . The 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion had taken over the advance and were ordered to seize four bridges crossing the canal . The assault began at 22 : 00 ; at 22 : 35 the railway bridge in the north had been captured , and by midnight all four bridges were secured with 150 prisoners taken . The 9th Parachute Battalion then passed through the Canadians and crossed the next water obstacle without boats , as they found the water was only 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) deep . At 01 : 00 on 19 August they reached Dozulé . It was not until 07 : 00 on 21 August that the advance restarted , with the objective of Pont @-@ l 'Evêque on the River Touques . After a hard battle the 8th Parachute Battalion captured Annebault , and the 5th Parachute Brigade then took over as the division 's lead unit . On 24 August the 3rd Parachute Brigade and 4th Special Service Brigade captured Beuzeville , and the 5th Parachute Brigade reached Pont Audemer , which was the division 's last objective . On 27 August the division was ordered to concentrate in the area between Honfleur and Pont Audemer and prepare to return to England .
In nine days of fighting the 6th Airborne Division had advanced 45 miles ( 72 km ) , despite , as the divisional commander Major @-@ General Richard Gale put it , his infantry units being " quite inadequately equipped for a rapid pursuit " . They had captured 400 square miles ( 1 @,@ 000 km2 ) of territory and taken over 1 @,@ 000 German prisoners . Since landing on 6 June , the division 's casualties were 4 @,@ 457 , of which 821 were killed , 2 @,@ 709 wounded and 927 missing . The 3rd Parachute Brigade had 207 killed . The division was withdrawn from France and embarked for England at the beginning of September .
= = = Ardennes = = =
In England the brigade went into a period of recruitment and training , concentrating on house @-@ to @-@ house street fighting in the bombed areas of Southampton and Birmingham . The training programme culminated in Exercise Eve , an assault on the River Thames , which was intended to simulate the River Rhine in Germany .
By December the brigade was preparing for Christmas leave , when news of the German offensive in the Ardennes broke . As part of the First Allied Airborne Army , 6th Airborne Division was available as a component of the strategic reserve for the Allied forces in northwest Europe . The other two divisions available in reserve , the American 82nd and 101st Airborne , were already at Rheims in northern France , and the 6th Airborne was sent by sea to Belgium to assist the defence . With 29 German and 33 Allied divisions involved , the Battle of the Bulge was the largest single battle on the Western Front during the war . On Christmas Day the division moved up to take position in front of the spearhead of the German advance ; by Boxing Day they had reached their allocated places in the defensive line between Dinant and Namur . The 3rd Parachute Brigade were on the left , 5th Parachute Brigade on the right , and the 6th Airlanding Brigade in reserve . Over the next days the German advance was halted and forced back , until at the end of January 1945 , the brigade crossed into the Netherlands . Here the division was made responsible for the area along the River Maas , between Venlo and Roermond . The brigade carried out patrols , on both sides of the river , against their opponents from the German 7th Parachute Division . Near the end of February the division returned to England to prepare for another airborne mission , to cross the River Rhine into Germany .
= = = Germany = = =
Whereas all other Allied airborne landings had been a surprise for the Germans , the Rhine crossing was expected , and their defences were reinforced in anticipation . The airborne operation was preceded by a two @-@ day round @-@ the @-@ clock bombing mission by the Allied air forces . Then on 23 March , 3 @,@ 500 artillery guns targeted the German positions . At dusk Operation Plunder , an assault river crossing of the Rhine by the 21st Army Group , began . For their part in Operation Varsity , the 6th Airborne Division was assigned to the American XVIII Airborne Corps alongside the United States 17th Airborne Division .
In the British sector the 3rd Parachute Brigade would be the first unit to arrive in Germany . Their initial objective was to secure the western edge of the Schneppenberg woods . Brigade headquarters was fully aware of the expected opposition to the landings , and the commander of the 224th ( Parachute ) Field Ambulance was warned to prepare for around 600 casualties ; almost a third of the brigade 's manpower . On 24 March 1945 at 07 : 00 the 122 C @-@ 47 Dakotas transporting the brigade took off from England in three waves . The first wave carried brigade headquarters and the 8th Parachute Battalion , the second carried the 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion , and the 9th Parachute Battalion came last . The gliders carrying the brigade 's heavy equipment were scheduled to arrive 40 minutes after the third wave . Nine minutes ahead of schedule , the brigade started landing at their DZs . Their premature arrival stopped the Allied artillery and fighter bombers which were engaging targets in the area , especially anti @-@ aircraft gun emplacements . The descending parachutists were met with heavy fire from the German defenders , causing several casualties . One of the dead was the commanding officer of the 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion . It was during the landing that one of the Canadian medics , Corporal Frederick Topham , won a Victoria Cross , becoming the division 's only recipient of the award during the war . By 11 : 00 the 8th Parachute Battalion had secured the DZ , and the other two battalions headed for the Schneppenberg woods , which were secured by 14 : 00 . The 9th Parachute Battalion dug in within the woods , and the 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion on the outskirts . At 15 : 00 the first troops of the Royal Scots arrived after completing their assault crossing of the Rhine . The day 's fighting had cost the brigade 80 dead and 190 wounded , however they had taken around 700 prisoners .
On 27 March the division started advancing further into Germany . The 8th Parachute Battalion was the first to reach Lembeck , which was defended by two Panzer Grenadier companies . A hand @-@ to @-@ hand battle ensued , lasting 18 hours and eventually drawing in all three battalions ; by midnight the town was secured , with around 300 prisoners taken . The brigade 's next objective was Greven and the bridge across the River Ems . At 21 : 30 the 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion were about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) away from the town . Leaving what vehicles they had behind , they attempted to approach the bridge unseen on foot , and by 23 : 00 had successfully secured the town and bridge . The 9th Parachute Battalion was called forward to continue the advance , but just as they approached the bridge it was blown up by the Germans . In the early hours of the morning , a footbridge across the river was discovered , and the 9th Battalion prepared to carry out an assault . ' A ' Company crossed the footbridge under fire just before dawn , and after a short fight had secured the crossing . After a few hours ' rest the advance continued with the 8th Battalion in the lead , and by nightfall they had reached their next objective , the Dortmund – Ems Canal . Resting overnight , the battalion crossed the half @-@ empty canal at 10 : 30 the next day . Over the next 36 hours the brigade advanced 70 miles ( 110 km ) to Minden .
The 15th ( Scottish ) Infantry Division then took over from the 6th Airborne Division as the lead formation until 30 April when the Airborne Division once more resumed the advance , crossing the River Elbe over a bridge captured by the Scottish division . The division 's objective was Wismar on the Baltic Sea ; the two parachute brigades advanced on separate routes to Gadebusch , aware that the brigade to arrive first would continue as the division 's lead formation . By this stage of the war the advance was hampered more by refugees fleeing westwards than by any organised opposition . The 3rd Parachute Brigade won the race and led the division to Wismar , arriving on 1 May only 30 minutes before the lead troops of the Soviet Red Army advancing from the east .
= = = Palestine = = =
At the end of May 1945 , the division was pulled out of Germany and returned to England . It was initially intended to send them to India to form an airborne corps with the 44th Indian Airborne Division . The division ’ s advance party , formed around
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1942 , Stojanović was severely wounded in a Chetnik ambush . He was taken to a field hospital in the village of Jošavka . Members of the Jošavka Partisan Company defected to the Chetniks on the night of 31 March , and took Stojanović prisoner . The next night , a group of Chetniks killed him . In April 1942 , the 2nd Krajina Detachment was named " Mladen Stojanović " in his honour , and a few months later he was posthumously awarded the Order of the People 's Hero . After the war , his service to the Partisan cause was commemorated by the construction of a memorial in Prijedor , the naming of streets , public buildings and a park after him , in song and in film .
= = Early life = =
Stojanović was the third child and the first son of Serbian Orthodox priest Simo Stojanović and his wife Jovanka . He was born in Prijedor on 7 April 1896 . Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina was then occupied by Austria @-@ Hungary ; Prijedor was located in Bosanska Krajina , the north @-@ western region of the province . Stojanović 's father was the third generation of his family to serve as a Serbian Orthodox priest . He had graduated from a theology faculty , becoming the first in the family to attain a higher level of education . Simo was active in the political struggle for ecclesiastical and educational autonomy for the Serbs in Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina . Mladen Stojanović 's maternal grandfather was a Serbian Orthodox priest from Dubica , Teodor Vujasinović ; he had participated in Pecija 's revolt against the Ottoman Empire .
Stojanović completed his elementary education at the Serbian Elementary School in Prijedor in 1906 . In 1907 , he finished the first grade of his secondary education at the gymnasium in Sarajevo , before he entered the gymnasium in Tuzla , where he would complete the remaining seven grades . His brother Sreten Stojanović — who would become a prominent sculptor — joined him at the Tuzla gymnasium in 1908 .
= = Young Bosnia activist = =
Austria @-@ Hungary annexed Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina on 6 October 1908 , which caused the Annexation Crisis in Europe . The Kingdom of Serbia protested and mobilised its army , but then on 31 March 1909 , it formally accepted the annexation . In 1911 , Mladen Stojanović became a member of the secret association of students of the Tuzla gymnasium called Narodno Jedinstvo ( National Unity ) ; its members described it as a youth society of nationalists . It was one of a group of diverse student organisations later called Young Bosnia , which strongly opposed Austria @-@ Hungary 's rule over Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina . The activists of Young Bosnia were Bosnian Serbs , Muslims , and Croats , though most were Serbs . The first organisation regarded to be part of this group was established in 1904 by Serb students of the Mostar gymnasium . 1905 saw considerable political unrest among the Serb and Croat students of the Tuzla gymnasium . Although the provincial government imposed the name " Bosnian " on the language of the province ( Serbo @-@ Croatian ) , the students demonstratively termed it as Serbian or Croatian depending on their ethnic affiliation .
Young Bosnia 's activists regarded literature as indispensable to revolution , and most of them wrote poems , short stories , or critiques . Stojanović wrote poems , and read the works of Petar Kočić , Aleksa Šantić , Vladislav Petković Dis , Sima Pandurović , Milan Rakić , and later the works of Russian authors . In his final years at the gymnasium , he read Plato , Aristotle , Rousseau , Bakunin , Nietzsche , Jaurès , Le Bon , Ibsen , and Marinetti . National Unity held meetings at which its members presented lectures and discussed current issues concerning the Serbian people of Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina . All members of the association were Serbs . Generally , Stojanović 's lectures were about educating people on practical issues of health and the economy . During the summer break of 1911 , Stojanović travelled across Bosanska Krajina lecturing in villages . One of the aims of Young Bosnia was to eliminate the backwardness of their country .
In early @-@ to @-@ mid 1912 , Stojanović and his schoolmate Todor Ilić joined Narodna Odbrana ( National Defence ) , an association founded in Serbia in December 1908 on the initiative of Branislav Nušić . It aimed to organise a guerrilla resistance to the Austrian annexation of Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina , and to spread nationalist propaganda . National Defence soon established a network of local committees throughout Serbia and Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina . Its members from the latter territory gathered intelligence on the Austrian army and passed it to the Serbian secret service .
Stojanović and Ilić travelled illegally to Serbia during the summer break of 1912 to receive military training that National Defence organised for its members . They stayed for several days in Belgrade , the capital of Serbia , where they met Gavrilo Princip , another activist of Young Bosnia who was also a member of National Defence . Stojanović and Ilić then spent a month at army barracks in Vranje in southern Serbia , undergoing military training under the command of Vojin Popović , a famous Chetnik guerrilla fighter . When they returned to school , they resumed their activities with National Unity . Its members decided that Muslims should also be drawn into the association . After Trifko Grabež was expelled from the Tuzla gymnasium for slapping a teacher during a quarrel , the association organised a school strike . Most of the students who participated were Serbs ; the strike gained little support among students of other ethnicities . The school took disciplinary measures against Ilić and Stojanović , who were regarded as the main organisers of the strike , and Ilić lost his scholarship .
In the autumn of 1913 , Stojanović commenced the final year of his secondary education . National Unity was visited that year by a group of activists of Young Bosnia who were university students in Prague , Vienna , and Switzerland . They held a series of lectures for the members of the association , explaining their views on the current political situation , and promoting the unity of South Slavic peoples in their struggle to liberate themselves from Austria @-@ Hungary . These lectures influenced Stojanović to adopt a Yugoslavist stance . At the beginning of 1914 , Ilić and Stojanović became , respectively , the president and the vice @-@ president of National Unity , which numbered 34 members , including four Muslims and four Croats . At that time , National Unity was one of the most active groups of Young Bosnia .
According to Vid Gaković , who was a member of National Unity in 1914 , Stojanović was an ambitious and talented young man . He was determined that his voice would be heard and he liked being the centre of attention . He was severe to younger members of the association , whom he sometimes sharply criticised . Nevertheless , younger students liked being around him . Gaković described him as a tall and handsome man who greatly cared about his appearance ; he wore a bow tie and a broad @-@ brimmed hat .
On the morning of 28 June 1914 , in Sarajevo , Princip assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria — heir presumptive to the throne of Austria @-@ Hungary — and his wife Sophie . Princip was a member of a group of conspirators , which included Trifko Grabež ; the whole group was arrested by the Austrian police after the assassination . Blaming Serbia for the attack , Austria @-@ Hungary declared war a month later , initiating World War I. Shortly after the assassination , Stojanović wrote in his notebook a quote from Giuseppe Mazzini : " There is no more sacred thing in the world than the duty of a conspirator , who becomes an avenger of humanity and the apostle of permanent natural laws . " On 29 June , Stojanović took his final exams at the Tuzla gymnasium . Soon afterwards , he and Ilić wrote a draft of their manifesto to South Slavic youth , referring to Young Bosnia in a sentence :
Зар не осјећате , синови једне Југославије , да у крви лежи наш живот и да је атентат бог богова Нације , јер он доказује да живи Млада Босна , да живи елеменат којег притишће несносни баласт империјалистички , елеменат који је готов да гине .
Vojislav Vasiljević , a close friend of Princip 's , was a member of National Unity , and when the Austrian police searched his notebooks they found a list of members . Vasiljević kept this information as evidence of the payment of membership fees . All those on the list , including Stojanović , were arrested on 3 July 1914 . Soon after , Stojanović 's younger brother Sreten was arrested for anti @-@ Austrian revolutionary correspondence between himself and Ilić . Beside the conspirators behind the assassination , six groups of activists of Young Bosnia were arrested . The group containing the members of National Unity was called the Tuzla group . The criminal investigation against them began on 9 July , and lasted for more than a year . They were kept in prisons in Tuzla , Banja Luka , and Bihać . In the Banja Luka prison , they were all kept in the same room , enabling them to organise political and literary discussions . They issued a comic and satirical magazine , called " Mala paprika " ( Little Paprika ) , the copies of which they made using carbon paper . A number of copies found their way out of the prison .
In the Bihać prison , the Tuzla group created a literary magazine named " Almanah " ( Almanac ) . In its first and only issue , Mladen contributed several poems and an essay . Its editor @-@ in @-@ chief was Ilić , while Sreten Stojanović and Kosta Hakman contributed illustrations . The Stojanović brothers and Ilić learned French during their incarceration . The trial of the Tuzla group was held between 13 and 30 September 1915 in Bihać . Ilić was sentenced to death , Mladen to sixteen years ' imprisonment , and the other members of the group received sentences between ten months and fifteen years . Especially aggravating for Ilić and Mladen was their participation in the 1912 military training in Serbia . The Austrians became aware of this because their army temporarily took Loznica in western Serbia at the beginning of World War I , and there they found National Defence documents containing records of all Bosnians that attended the training .
Mladen and other members of the Tuzla group were sent to the prison in Zenica . Three months after they were sentenced they were joined by Ilić , whose death penalty had been commuted to 20 years ' imprisonment . In the Zenica prison , each convict had to spend the first three months in solitary confinement . This was very hard on Mladen , who became mentally unwell and became so emaciated that Ilić could hardly recognise him . He recovered and took a course in shoe @-@ making which was given in the prison . Afterwards , he fell seriously ill and had to undergo surgery in the prison hospital . In late 1917 , the Austrian authorities pardoned all convicts of the Tuzla group except Ilić . Mladen went to his family in Prijedor . After a medical examination , he was declared unfit for army service due to his surgery and as a result was not drafted into the Austrian army . He entered the School of Medicine , University of Zagreb , shortly before the disintegration of Austria @-@ Hungary in November 1918 .
= = Interwar period = =
The Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes — renamed Yugoslavia in 1929 — was created on 1 December 1918 , and incorporated Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina . Stojanović continued studying medicine in Zagreb . As a former activist of Young Bosnia , he was offered a King 's scholarship but he refused it . In Zagreb , he reunited with his former schoolmate Nikola Nikolić , who had also been a member of National Unity . After his release from the Zenica prison , Nikolić was drafted into the Austrian army and sent to the Russian front where he surrendered to the Russians and participated in the October Revolution . Nikolić 's account of the revolution influenced Stojanović to adopt a more leftist stance . During this period , Stojanović 's favourite authors were Maksim Gorky and Miroslav Krleža . His professor of anatomy , Drago Perović , arranged for him to visit an anatomical institute in Vienna . Stojanović went there several times in 1921 and 1922 and befriended members of a leftist association of Yugoslav students at the Vienna University . When they held a protest against the king and government of Yugoslavia , Stojanović took part and delivered a speech . Behind the protest stood the Communist Party of Yugoslavia ( Komunistička partija Jugoslavije , KPJ ) .
Stojanović graduated as a Doctor of Medicine in 1926 , and he worked for two years as a trainee physician in Zagreb and Sarajevo . He then opened a private practice in Pučišća on the Adriatic island of Brač . In 1929 , he returned to Prijedor , where he opened a practice on the first floor of the Stojanović family house , where his mother had lived alone since his father 's death in 1926 . Stojanović soon became a popular figure in Prijedor ; his patients said that simply talking with him was curative . He treated poor people for free ; he once sent a homeless man to a hospital in Zagreb and paid for his surgery . Stojanović earned well and had a good standard of living . People from other areas of Bosanska Krajina also went to him for medical treatment . In villages around Prijedor , where brawls were common , rowdies sang about him :
In 1931 , Stojanović was contracted to the Prijedor branch of the state railway company to provide healthcare for its employees . In 1936 , he was contracted to an iron ore mining company in Ljubija , a town near Prijedor , and would visit the mining company clinic twice a week . He also taught hygiene at the gymnasium in Prijedor . Together with other intellectuals from the town , he gave lectures to the miners at their club in Ljubija . His lectures were usually about medical issues , but he also described the economic and social position of workers in more advanced countries . He socialised with the miners and treated their family members for free . He was very active socially , and also participated in sports . In 1932 , he founded the tennis club of Prijedor , which continues to bear his name . Stojanović once bought new kit for all members of the Rudar Ljubija football club . His contracts with the railway company and the mining company were both terminated in 1939 . The railway employees protested in Prijedor , and Stojanović 's contract with that company was subsequently renewed .
The Ljubija miners were on strike between 2 August and 8 September 1940 . Some of the leaders of the strike were members of a secret KPJ cell in Ljubija , which was formed in January 1940 . The KPJ had been outlawed in Yugoslavia since 1921 . The KPJ organisation of Banja Luka sent its experienced member Branko Babič to help the strike leaders . According to Babič , a communist from Prijedor introduced him to Stojanović at the beginning of September 1940 . Babič stayed for several days at the doctor 's house , running the strike . Seeing Stojanović as a communist sympathiser , Babič proposed that he join the KPJ . Stojanović at first declined , saying that he still had bourgeois habits , though he had read much of the Marxist literature . After further conversations with Babič , Stojanović agreed to become a member of the party .
At the end of September 1940 , Babič and all five members of the Ljubija cell held a meeting at which they unanimously decided to admit Stojanović into the KPJ . Babič held him in high esteem and regarded him as ardently devoted to the communist cause . Some communists , however , continued to refer to Stojanović as a communist sympathiser , and some regarded him as a " salon communist " .
= = Onset of World War II = =
On 6 April 1941 , Yugoslavia was invaded from all sides by the Axis powers , led by German forces . Stojanović was assigned as a physician to an infantry battalion based in Banja Luka . For several days after the invasion this battalion moved toward Dalmatia , before it completely disintegrated without fighting the enemy , and Stojanović returned to Prijedor . The Royal Yugoslav Army capitulated on 17 April , and the Axis powers proceeded to dismember Yugoslavia . Almost all of modern @-@ day Croatia , all of modern @-@ day Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina , and parts of modern @-@ day Serbia were combined into a puppet state called the Independent State of Croatia ( Croatian : Nezavisna Država Hrvatska , NDH ) . It was an " Italian @-@ German quasi @-@ protectorate " , which was controlled by the fascist Ustaše led by Ante Pavelić . One of its policies was to eliminate the ethnic Serb population of the NDH through mass killings , expulsions and forced assimilation , and many Serbs fled from the NDH to the German @-@ occupied territory of Serbia .
These repressive measures included taking prominent Serbs hostage against Serb attacks . To avoid being taken as a hostage , Stojanović paid 100 @,@ 000 dinars to the Ustaše in Prijedor . Resistance began to emerge in occupied Yugoslavia ; royalists and Serbian nationalists under the leadership of then @-@ Colonel Draža Mihailović founded the Ravna Gora Movement , whose members were called Chetniks . The KPJ , led by Josip Broz Tito , prepared to rise to arms at a favourable moment . In the view of the KPJ , the fight against the Axis and its domestic collaborators would be a common fight of all Yugoslav peoples .
Operation Barbarossa , the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union , began on 22 June 1941 . On the same day , the Ustaše began arresting communists and their known sympathisers in the towns of Bosanska Krajina , including Prijedor . The communists had predicted this , and most of them avoided capture by escaping to the villages or hiding in the towns . Stojanović was one of the few communists arrested in Prijedor . He was imprisoned with the Serb hostages on the second floor of a school in the town . They were subjected to forced labour , being led each morning through the town to repair the road to Kozarac . The column of hostages was usually headed by Stojanović carrying a shovel on his shoulder . The Croatian Home Guards guarding the prison treated him well . While detained , Stojanović lectured a group of hostages about Marxism .
On the day of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union , the Executive Committee of the Communist International — headquartered in Moscow — telegraphed the Central Committee of the KPJ to take all measures to support and alleviate the struggle of the Soviet people , and to organise partisan detachments to fight the Axis in Yugoslavia . The Executive Committee also stressed that the fight , at the current stage , should not be about socialist revolution , but about the liberation from the Axis occupiers . In response to this appeal , the leaders of the KPJ decided on 4 July in Belgrade to launch a nationwide armed uprising , which began three days later in western Serbia . The members of the KPJ @-@ led forces were called Partisans , and their supreme commander was Tito . On 13 July , in Sarajevo , the KPJ Provincial Committee for Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina , headed by Svetozar Vukmanović , organised the province into military regions : Bosanska Krajina , Herzegovina , Tuzla , and Sarajevo .
The Prijedor communists were keen to rescue Stojanović from his imprisonment , but their attempts to bribe the Ustaše to release him failed . They also considered storming the school in which he was kept . On 17 July , just after midnight , Stojanović asked a guard to let him go to the toilet on the first floor of the school . The guard let him go and followed closely behind him . When they were halfway down the stairs , Stojanović shouted " Fire ! " as smoke came from a room on the second floor . During the commotion of the guards and hostages extinguishing the fire , Stojanović entered the toilet and escaped through the window . He went to the village of Orlovci , several kilometres from Prijedor , where he was accompanied by Rade Bašić — a young communist who had earlier escaped from the town . Bašić escorted Stojanović toward Mount Kozara ( 978 m ( 3 @,@ 209 ft ) high ) , north of the Prijedor plain .
After Stojanović 's escape , the Ustaše arrested his wife , Mira . His son , Vojin , born in 1940 , was cared for by Mira 's former husband . Mira was released from prison after several months , and she and Vojin went to Dubrovnik . Stojanović 's brothers and sisters had lived in Belgrade since before the war .
= = Yugoslav Partisan = =
= = = Kozara area = = =
= = = = July – August 1941 = = = =
On the morning of 19 July 1941 , Stojanović and Bašić arrived at the camp of the communists and their sympathisers who escaped from Prijedor , situated at Rajlića Kosa above the village of Malo Palančište . The news of Stojanović 's escape soon spread throughout the Prijedor district . The group , mostly in the early twenties , enjoyed an increase in their credibility and esteem since a well @-@ known and respected doctor had joined their camp . People from surrounding Serb villages brought food and other supplies to Stojanović and his young comrades . Stojanović gave speeches to the villagers , telling them to be prepared for an impending uprising and urging them to bring him rifles they were hiding in their homes . The camp at Rajlića Kosa was the first Partisan camp in the Kozara area .
Kozara , located in northern Bosanska Krajina and centred around Mount Kozara , covers about 2 @,@ 500 square kilometres ( 970 square miles ) . In 1941 , the area had a population of nearly 200 @,@ 000 people . The villagers were mostly Serbs , and the towns in the area — the biggest of which was Prijedor — had a mixed Bosnian Muslim , Serb , and Croat population . Several villages were inhabited by ethnic Germans or Volksdeutsche . The economy of Kozara was dominated by agriculture , but there were about 6 @,@ 000 workers employed in a coal mine and several plants . The first communist cells in the area were established shortly before the Axis invasion , mostly in the towns . Kozara had seen four uprisings against the Ottomans during the 19th century .
On the night of 25 July 1941 , at Orlovci , Stojanović and seven other leading communists of Kozara had a meeting with Đuro Pucar , the head of the KPJ Regional Committee for Bosanska Krajina . Pucar told the assembled communists that military actions against the enemy should start as soon as possible . The actions should be of a guerrilla type , for which purpose Partisan detachments should be formed . Stojanović and Osman Karabegović were appointed to lead the uprising in the Prijedor district . On 27 July , in western Bosanska Krajina , Partisans took the town of Drvar , marking the beginning of the uprising in Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina . At this stage , the insurgents in Kozara were still not organised into military units . In the district of Prijedor , Stojanović and Karabegović had little control over the men from the villages who took up arms . Pucar referred to the district 's insurgents as the " Prijedor Company " , the bulk of which were villagers , numbering several hundred men . Many of them had no firearms .
According to Pucar , the Prijedor Company was directed to attack Ljubija . On 30 July , contrary to Stojanović 's direct order , the insurgents attacked Veliko Palančište and rescued fifteen hostages held by the Ustaše . The insurgents then advanced toward Prijedor and developed a position facing the town , which was defended by Croatian Home Guards , Ustaše , and German forces . A front line stabilised after three days of fighting , leaving the Prijedor Company in control of seven villages . Railway traffic between Ljubija and Zagreb was disrupted , stopping the export of iron ore from Ljubija to Germany . The uprising in Kozara also involved the districts of Dubica and Novi . By mid @-@ August , five detachments of Partisans had been formed within the territory held by the Kozara insurgents . These detachments , including the Prijedor Detachment commanded by Stojanović , together held the front line facing Kozarac , Prijedor , Lješljani , Dobrljin , Kostajnica , and Dubica .
The leaders of the uprising in Kozara met on 15 August 1941 in the village of Knežica . At the conference , Stojanović was recognised as the principal leader in Kozara ; this recognition mostly resulted from his pre @-@ war social status and good reputation among the people . It was concluded that forming a front line was a mistake because it was not consistent with guerrilla warfare . At some point during the conference , Stojanović stressed the importance of keeping as many enemy troops as possible in the area , so that they could not be sent to the Russian front to fight the Red Army . As the five detachments in the area were tied to their specific territories , it was decided that another detachment — which could operate anywhere in Kozara — should be formed . It was decided that Stojanović would command this new Kozara Detachment , and Karabegović would be the political commissar . It was promptly formed with about forty men . Carrying a red banner , the Kozara Detachment paraded for a couple of days through villages in the Partisan @-@ held territory . The villagers gathered and Stojanović delivered speeches .
Croatian Home Guards , Ustaše , and a German battalion from Banja Luka — about 10 @,@ 000 soldiers — attacked the Partisan @-@ held territory in Kozara on 18 August 1941 . The enemy troops broke through the Partisan front line and penetrated into the area . They burnt houses and looted cattle and grain in the villages . Some of the villagers became demoralised , and blamed the Partisans for their losses ; some placed white flags on their houses . The Partisan units retreated deeper into forested areas in the mountains . Stojanović led the Kozara Detachment toward Lisina , the highest peak of Kozara . In the evening , he assembled his men and told them that they were in the army of the KPJ and all peoples of Yugoslavia , so they could not allow themselves to be attached to any specific village or area . He advised those who could not detach themselves from their homes to lay down their weapons and leave . Several men left the detachment , which then moved toward Lisina where they organised a camp and spent some time in military training and political indoctrination . The attack of 18 August was the first counter @-@ insurgency operation in Kozara , and the Partisans emerged from it without significant losses .
= = = = September – December 1941 = = = =
The leaders of the Kozara uprising assembled again on 10 September 1941 , at the foot of Lisina . The five detachments of the Kozara Partisans were re @-@ arranged into three companies , possessing 217 rifles altogether . At the end of September , the Kozara Partisans began attacking NDH and German troops , initially targeting weaker elements . These operations gave them military experience and they also captured weapons and ammunition from the enemy . More men joined the Partisans , and two more companies had been formed in Kozara by the end of October . The Partisans gained control over a number of villages . After a reorganization , Partisan units in Kozara were merged into the 2nd Krajina National Liberation Partisan Detachment in early November 1941 . Stojanović was appointed commander of this detachment . By mid @-@ November , it consisted of 670 men organised in six companies and armed with 510 rifles , 5 light machine guns , and a heavy machine gun .
Between the end of September and the end of December 1941 , the Kozara Partisans conducted around forty military operations against the enemy . Stojanović helped plan and execute the major operations , including the battles of Podgradci , Mrakovica , and Turjak . Stojanović argued that the village of Podgradci should be captured because it was situated deep within Kozara , because the enemy could easily disrupt the Partisans ' advance toward other villages of the district of Gradiška , and because there was a sawmill in Podgradci which supplied the NDH and Germans . On 23 October 1941 , Partisans under Stojanović 's command took Podgradci after five hours of fighting . The sawmill and its stored products — including a large quantity of railroad ties , with which the Germans were allegedly planning to repair railways destroyed by Soviet partisans in occupied Ukraine — were burnt down . Stojanović saw this action as a symbolic collaboration with the Red Army . A number of Ustaše and Croatian Home Guards were captured in Podgradci . The Ustaše were promptly executed , and the Home Guards were given a speech by Stojanović before the Partisans gave them food and escorted them across the Una River .
The third counter @-@ insurgency operation in Kozara was undertaken at the end of November 1941 by about 19 @,@ 000 Croatian Home Guards , Ustaše , and Germans . The Partisans emerged from the operation without significant losses , though NDH propaganda claimed that the rebels in Kozara were destroyed and that Stojanović had been killed . The Kozara Partisans never repeated the mistake of frontal resistance . When stronger enemy forces advanced toward them , they manoeuvred to position themselves behind the attackers , thus avoiding battles they could not win . The Partisans therefore did not defend villages . During the third counter @-@ insurgency operation , the Ustaše and Germans killed hundreds of Serb civilians in the villages , resulting in a loss of support for the Partisans among the population . Stojanović thought that a significant victory over the enemy would be the best way to restore the lost support .
After the third counter @-@ insurgency operation , a battalion of the Croatian Home Guard was stationed on Mrakovica , a peak in Kozara . Stojanović ordered an attack by five companies of the 2nd Krajina Detachment on the battalion , which began on 5 December 1941 at 5 : 30 am . The battle ended by 9 : 30 am with a decisive victory to the Partisans . They lost five men , while 78 Home Guards were killed and around 200 were captured . The Partisans seized 155 rifles , 12 light and 6 heavy machine guns , 4 mortars , 120 mortar rounds , and 19 @,@ 000 rounds of small arms ammunition . The last action of the 2nd Krajina Detachment under Stojanović 's command was the battle of Turjak . Four companies of the detachment attacked and captured the village on 16 December 1941 , taking 134 Home Guards prisoner . Letters written by the Home Guards to their families revealed their extremely low morale . The capture of Turjak opened up the district of Gradiška to the Kozara Partisans . The Home Guards retreated from Podgradci without significant resistance . Soon , most of the district was under Partisan control and Stojanović 's detachment controlled most of Mount Kozara and the surrounding Potkozarje region .
More men joined Stojanović 's detachment , and at the end of 1941 it had over one thousand well @-@ armed soldiers organised in three battalions of three companies each . The detachment established good relations with the Muslim population of the area , with a number of Muslims from Kozarac joining the Partisans . On 21 December at Lisina , Pucar held a meeting with the communists of Kozara . At the meeting , Stojanović presented a short history of the uprising in Kozara . Pucar stated that the 2nd Krajina was the best @-@ organised detachment in Bosanska Krajina .
On 24 December , the Home Guard 's Banja Luka headquarters offered a reward for Stojanović . A Home Guard document described him as the most intelligent and dangerous rebel leader , who planned and carried out attacks in a highly systematic manner . The headquarters was especially concerned about Stojanović 's treatment of captured Home Guards : he would give them a communist propaganda speech , offer them food and cigarettes , dress their wounds , and let them go home . According to the headquarters , this treatment rendered these particular Home Guards useless in future operations against the Partisans . According to Drago Karasijević , the courage and fighting spirit of the Kozara Partisans became famous in Bosanska Krajina , in other parts of Bosnia and in the areas of the NDH bordering on Bosnia . In the villages of Kozara , people sang about Stojanović :
= = = Grmeč area = = =
On 29 or 30 December 1941 , Stojanović arrived in the area of Grmeč in western Bosanska Krajina , which was in the zone of responsibility of the 1st Krajina National Liberation Partisan Detachment . This zone also included Drvar , where the uprising in Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina began . The military activities of the Partisans there diminished after the capture of Drvar by Italian troops on 25 September 1941 . In the Italians ' propaganda , they presented themselves as protectors of the Serbian people against the Ustaše . Groups of Serbs collaborated with the Italians . According to Karabegović , the Partisans of the 1st Krajina Detachment became more active after Pucar held a conference with their commanders on 15 December 1941 , but this activity was still weak in northern parts of Grmeč . Stojanović went there to counter the Italian propaganda and to mobilise the Partisans against the Italians and their collaborators ; he was accompanied by Karabegović .
According to the writer Branko Ćopić , who was a Partisan in Grmeč , Stojanović was greeted by a crowd of villagers and welcomed with the traditional bread and salt ceremony when he crossed the Sana River . Prominent villagers shook hands with him , and they compared him with Miloš Obilić — a famous Serbian epic hero from the medieval Battle of Kosovo . Several women approached Stojanović to kiss his hands ; he declined this mark of respect , saying that he was not a priest but a communist .
Stojanović visited the villages in the area , inspecting individual companies and platoons of the 1st Krajina Detachment . His visits were accompanied by parades of Partisan units and by mass gatherings . Partisan songs were sung , slogans were shouted , and banners were waved . Stojanović gave speeches to the villagers and soldiers . He said that the Italian troops in the area were not protectors of the Serbs , but occupiers and enemies . He branded those who collaborated with the Italians as traitors to the Serbian people . Stojanović 's
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speeches were not well received by some people , who spread rumours that he was not Mladen Stojanović , but a " Turk " ( Muslim ) impersonator . According to them , Stojanović had been killed by the Ustaše in August 1941 and the communists were using an impersonator to deceive the people . Few people gave credence to these rumours .
On 22 January 1942 , at the headquarters of the 1st Krajina Detachment in the village of Majkić Japra , Stojanović presided over a conference of the detachment staff and political activists of Grmeč . He criticised the detachment headquarters because it had no division of functions and there was no personal accountability among its members . He also stated the headquarters had no communication with the companies of the detachment , did not act as a military @-@ political leadership , and there were no designated couriers available at all times at the headquarters . Stojanović was generally pleased with the Grmeč Partisans , describing them as courageous , enthusiastic , firm , and trustworthy but somewhat inexperienced . However , he said that the platoons of the detachment were dispersed in villages and had no contact with each other . In this way , according to Stojanović , the Partisans were losing their soldierly characteristics and becoming more like peasants . Stojanović criticised the views of some Partisans that political commissars should be abolished . He warned that the Partisans who wore emblems other than the red star would be punished for indiscipline .
At the conference , Stojanović installed Milorad Mijatović — a Partisan from Kozara — as the new commander of the 1st Krajina and Petar Vojnović as deputy commander , while Velimir Stojnić and Salamon " Moni " Levi remained as commissar and deputy commissar , respectively . Levi was an acquaintance of Stojanović 's from his visits to Vienna in 1921 and 1922 . During his tour of Grmeč , Stojanović met the young writer Branko Ćopić , and encouraged him to write poetry about the fight of the Partisans . Stojanović said poetry was more acceptable for the Partisans than prose . " Poetry and revolution , " he remarked , " always go hand in hand . " He stayed in the area until mid @-@ February 1942 . The Partisan leadership of Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina considered that Stojanović had successfully countered the Italian propaganda and improved the condition of the 1st Krajina Detachment during his tour .
= = = North @-@ west central Bosnia = = =
Stojanović left Grmeč and went to Skender Vakuf in northwest central Bosnia to participate in the first regional conference of the KPJ in Bosanska Krajina , which was held from 21 to 23 February 1942 . In the Partisan territorial structure , the military @-@ political region of Bosanska Krajina included central Bosnia . At the Skender Vakuf conference , presided over by Pucar , Stojanović and Karabegović , the participants analysed the military and political situation in the region . The increase of Chetnik influence — which was strongest in southeastern Bosanska Krajina and northwest central Bosnia in the zones of responsibility of the 3rd and 4th Krajina Detachments — was a big problem for the KPJ . A number of Partisans of these detachments joined the Chetnik side . Only in Kozara had Chetnik influence been held at bay . At the conference , Stojanović was appointed to lead a unified command of Partisan forces in Bosanska Krajina , but on 24 February he was replaced with Kosta Nađ . The unified command was named the Operational Headquarters for Bosanska Krajina , and Stojanović became its chief of staff and deputy commander .
According to Nađ , the split between the Partisans and the Chetniks in Bosanska Krajina and central Bosnia began on 14 December 1941 in the village of Javorani . Lazar Tešanović , the schoolteacher in Javorani , influenced members of the local Partisan unit to join the Chetnik side . Tešanović then organised a Chetnik unit of about 70 to 80 men , and at the beginning of March 1942 he and his men were in the village of Lipovac . On 5 March , Stojanović , Nađ , and Danko Mitrov ( the commander of the 4th Krajina Detachment ) set out for Lipovac with the Kozara Proletarian Company , an assault unit formed in February 1942 . According to some sources , they went to Lipovac for pre @-@ arranged negotiations with Tešanović , while other sources state that they intended to disarm Tešanović and his Chetniks . When the column of the Partisans approached the school in Lipovac , they were ambushed by Chetniks , and Stojanović was severely wounded in the head . The Partisans remained pinned down by Chetnik fire until evening ; thirteen were killed and eight beside Stojanović were wounded . At nightfall , he and the other wounded were transported to the Partisan field hospital in Jošavka .
Stojanović was in the field hospital for about 10 days before he was moved to a house around 800 metres ( 870 yards ) away . At the end of March 1942 , the Operational Headquarters for Bosanska Krajina and the headquarters of the 4th Krajina Detachment were both located in Jošavka . The two headquarters and the field hospital were attacked on the night of 31 March by members of the Jošavka Partisan Company , who had joined the Chetnik side under the influence and leadership of Radoslav " Rade " Radić , the deputy commissar of the 4th Krajina Detachment . That night , the Chetniks killed 15 Partisans in Jošavka . According to Danica Perović , the physician who attended Stojanović , the Chetniks took his weapons and posted a sentry outside the house . Through a messenger , Radić told Stojanović to write a letter ordering Danko Mitrov to remove all Partisan units from the area around Jošavka . Stojanović , however , wrote a letter encouraging Mitrov to continue the Partisan fight . The next night , a group of Chetniks came to Stojanović , placed him on a blanket , and carried him out of the house . When they approached a nearby stream called Mlinska Rijeka , one of them shot Stojanović twice , killing him .
On 2 April , local villagers buried Stojanović on a steep , wooded hillside . By the end of April 1942 , most of the companies of the 4th Krajina National Liberation Partisan Detachment had joined the Chetnik side or disintegrated . Rade Radić became the commander of the Chetnik detachments in Bosanska Krajina . After the war , Radić was sentenced to death by the Supreme Court of Yugoslavia ; he was executed by firing squad in 1945 . Stojanović 's remains were exhumed and reburied at Prijedor in November 1961 .
= = Legacy = =
On 19 April 1942 , the headquarters of the 2nd Krajina Detachment changed its name to the 2nd Krajina National Liberation Partisan Detachment " Mladen Stojanović " . The Kozara Partisans vowed to avenge Stojanović 's death on all the " enemies of the people " . The 2nd Krajina Detachment and four companies of the 1st Krajina Detachment liberated Prijedor on 16 May 1942 . On 7 August 1942 , the Partisans ' supreme headquarters proclaimed Stojanović a People 's Hero of Yugoslavia .
A monument to Stojanović was created by his brother Sreten after the war and erected in Prijedor . Streets , firms , schools , hospitals , pharmacies , and associations were named after Stojanović throughout socialist Yugoslavia , and songs were composed celebrating him as a hero . A Partisan film about him , titled Doktor Mladen , was released in Yugoslavia in 1975 . Stojanović was played by Ljuba Tadić , who received an award for his performance at the Pula Film Festival .
Each year in April , Stojanović is commemorated in Prijedor and wreaths are laid at his monument . At the 2012 commemoration , the president of the Partisan War Veterans ' Association of Republika Srpska declared :
Mladen je bio čovjek za primjer , revolucionar od najranije mladosti pa do kraja života , najpopularnija ličnost ustanka na Kozari , Krajini i mnogo šire i jedan od najhrabrijih boraca i rukovodilaca Narodnooslobodilačke borbe . Zato je njegov je lik ostao da živi u sjećanju zajedno sa slavom herojske Kozare .
= = Poetry = =
In his youth , Stojanović wrote poems , only one of which is published — in a 1918 issue of the literary magazine Književni jug , whose editor was future Nobel Prize winner Ivo Andrić . For this poem , Stojanović was inspired by the Serbian epic hero Ailing Dojčin . A number of Stojanović 's poems are preserved in a notebook that belonged to his closest school friend Todor Ilić . According to the poet Dragan Kolundžija , Stojanović 's poems are lyrical miniatures composed in free verse , focused on man and nature , and filled with melancholy . Kolundžija finds that what inspired Stojanović to write poetry is reflected in his verse Krvav je bol ( Pain is bloody ) . According to poet Miroslav Feldman , who first met Stojanović in 1919 in Zagreb , his poems were sad and permeated with a yearning for a brighter , more joyous life .
Stojanović wrote an essay , which is published as the foreword to a 1920 book of poetry by Feldman , titled Iza Sunca ( Behind the Sun ) . In 1925 , Stojanović initiated the creation of an anthology of Yugoslav lyric poetry . On this project , he worked with Feldman and Gustav Krklec . The poets completed the anthology , but for an unknown reason it was never published . Stojanović 's poetic inclinations were manifested in his letters to his wife Mira Stojanović , especially when he writes about his patients :
I , kad se podižu i osjećaju strujanje snage i proljeća u svojim žilama ja kao da dolazim sebi , ostavlja me neki zanos i ja tražim druge bolesne oči djece , žena , majki , staraca ; nalazim ih i ponovo zaboravljam sve .
= Harajuku Lovers Live =
Harajuku Lovers Live is the first live long @-@ form video by American recording artist Gwen Stefani . It was released on DVD on December 4 , 2006 , by Interscope Records . The DVD was directed by Sophie Muller and produced by Oil Factory Productions . It is a recording of one of Stefani 's concerts during her Harajuku Lovers Tour 2005 in late 2005 to promote her first album , Love . Angel . Music . Baby . , released in November 2004 . The performance was recorded in November 2005 , in Anaheim , California . The concert features performances of all twelve songs from Love . Angel . Music . Baby. and two new songs from her second studio album , The Sweet Escape , as well as interviews with the musicians and dancers and a documentary of tour preparation .
Harajuku Lovers Live was released in conjunction with the promotion for The Sweet Escape , which was also released on December 5 , 2006 . The DVD received mixed reviews , with reviewers praising Stefani 's musical performances and stage presence , but criticizing the lack of material and the long costume changes . The DVD was certified gold in Australia by the Australian Recording Industry Association and platinum in Canada by the Canadian Recording Industry Association .
= = Background = =
During her hiatus from the band No Doubt , Gwen Stefani recorded and released her first solo studio album , Love . Angel . Music . Baby. on November 23 , 2004 . Between September 2004 and January 2006 , Stefani released six of the album 's twelve tracks as singles : " What You Waiting For ? " , " Rich Girl " , " Hollaback Girl " , " Cool " , " Luxurious " and " Crash " . The album was a commercial success , selling seven million copies worldwide ; it was certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America , triple platinum by the British Phonographic Industry , five times platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association and four times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association . The International Federation of the Phonographic Industry certified Love . Angel . Music . Baby. platinum at the May 2005 Platinum Europe Awards .
Between October and December 2005 , Stefani toured North America in her Harajuku Lovers Tour 2005 to promote Love . Angel . Music . Baby . , performing 37 shows in the United States and five in Canada . Her opening acts included Ciara , M.I.A. and The Black Eyed Peas . Her performances received mixed reviews from critics , with criticism about her lack of musical material , frequent costume changes and perceived inability to dance , but praise for her stage presence and elaborate costumes . Stefani finished the recording of her second album , The Sweet Escape , in late 2006 , having recorded some of the material in 2005 , suspended the project due to pregnancy , and resumed recording in summer 2006 .
= = Content and release = =
Harajuku Lovers Live was released on December 5 , 2006 , the same day as the release of Stefani 's second album , The Sweet Escape . Both Harajuku Lovers Live and The Sweet Escape were released a day early in the UK , on December 4 , 2009 . The DVD carries a Parental Advisory sticker for profanity , although a clean version of the DVD is also available . The cover image of Stefani sitting in a throne imitates the cover image of Love . Angel . Music . Baby . ; both images were photographed by Nick Knight . It was directed by Sophie Muller , who has also produced music videos for Stefani 's singles " Cool " , " Luxurious " and " Crash " from Love . Angel . Music . Baby. and would later produce music videos for " Wind It Up " , " 4 in the Morning " and " Early Winter " from The Sweet Escape . The DVD was produced by Oil Factory Productions .
The DVD contains a recording of one of the concerts in Stefani 's " Harajuku Lovers Tour 2005 " . The concert was performed in late November 2005 in the Honda Centre in Anaheim , California , where Gwen Stefani was raised . The concert 's set list includes all twelve of the songs from Love . Angel . Music . Baby . , plus two new tracks , " Wind It Up " and " Orange County Girl " , from The Sweet Escape . " Wind It Up " and " Orange County Girl " were two of the four songs written and recorded in summer 2005 by Stefani during her sessions with Pharrell Williams and had been previewed at the finale of New York 's Olympus Fashion Week for the 2006 collection of Stefani 's line of clothing , L.A.M.B , in September 2005 . " Wind It Up " was later released as the lead single from The Sweet Escape .
The DVD includes extra features : a " Countdown to Tour " documentary of behind @-@ the @-@ scenes preparation footage with Stefani , a series of interviews with Stefani 's five band members and eight dancers ( including the four Harajuku Girls ) called " Meet the Band and Dancers " , a photo gallery of images from the concert and a video of an alternative performance of the song " The Real Thing " , called " The Real Thing Camera Remix " . " Countdown to Tour " was described by one reviewer as " boring " , but by another as " fascinating for anyone interested in how massive stadium tours develop " , praising how Stefani " shares how she works her strengths " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Sales and accreditations = = =
The DVD was certified gold in Australia by the Australian Recording Industry Association , indicating sales of at least 7 @,@ 500 copies ; and platinum in Canada by the Canadian Recording Industry Association , indicating sales of over 10 @,@ 000 copies .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Chart Attack reviewer Jodi Goulart gave Harajuku Lovers Live two out of five stars , criticising the DVD for being " no frills " and an " essentially word @-@ for @-@ word , dance @-@ move @-@ for @-@ dance @-@ move " copy of a performance fans saw a year earlier . Goulart comments that " concert experience doesn 't translate well " , notes the long gaps for costume changes and calls the extra features " boring " . Shawn Revelle , in the Mid @-@ Atlantic Edition of EXP magazine , gave Harajuku Lovers Live four stars , describing the DVD as " spectacular " and Stefani 's performance as " energetic " . He complimented the performances of " Rich Girl " , " Long Way to Go " and " Hollaback Girl " , calling them " steller " and the " highlights " of the DVD .
Manchester Evening News reviewer Glenn Meads gave the DVD three out of five stars and compared Stefani to Madonna . Meads described the show as " stunning " and " polished to perfection " , praising Stefani for " [ involving ] the audience on every level " and " [ bringing ] an assertiveness back to pop music " . He compliments the performances of the songs " What You Waiting For ? " , " Crash " , " Hollaback Girl " and " The Real Thing " , calling the former the " strongest " of all the songs and its performance " infectious " . However , he criticised Stefani 's wide variety of musical styles and the long gaps between songs needed for costume changes . DJ Pusspuss Benji of the San Francisco Bay Times reviewed the DVD , calling it a " wet @-@ dream to any Gwen fan " and describing Stefani as " a fashion icon , a blond threat and visionary artist " and her music as " delicious dance " and full of " pop insta @-@ classics " .
= = Track listing = =
= = = Bonus content = = =
" Meet the Band and Dancers "
Photo gallery
" Countdown to Tour " documentary
" The Real Thing " camera remix
= = Personnel = =
Gwen Stefani – vocals
Gail Ann Dorsey , Warren Fitzgerald , Gabrial McNair , Kristopher Pooley – backing vocals
Zachary Alford – drums
Gail Ann Dorsey , Warren Fitzgerald – guitar
Gabrial McNair , Kristopher Pooley – keyboard
Director – Sophie Muller
Producer – Oil Factory Productions
Programming – Kristopher Pooley
Cover image – Nick Knight
Back cover – Pete Black
= Kiss & Cry ( song ) =
" Kiss & Cry " is a song recorded by Japanese recording artist Hikaru Utada for her seventh studio and fifth Japanese album , Heart Station ( 2007 ) . It was written , composed , and arranged by Utada , whilst production was handled by Utada , her father Teruzane Utada , and Akira Miyake . The single premiered on May 31 , 2007 as the third single from the album in Japan . It was re @-@ released as a double A @-@ side single with " Beautiful World " , which also appeared on the parent album on August 29 in Japan , and digitally worldwide . Musically , " Kiss & Cry " is an R & B song , influenced by pop and hip @-@ hop music . Lyrically , it discusses both Utada 's upbringing and social beliefs between both Western and oriental regions .
Upon its release , the track garnered generally favorable reviews from music critics . Many critics agreed that it was one of the better singles from the album , and complimented its R & B composition . Charting as an A @-@ side single , it achieved success in Japan , peaking at number two on the Oricon Singles Chart . The single has been certified within four different categories by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) . An accompanying music video was shot by Toshitaka Shinoda ; it features animation in the style of Nissin 's Freedom Project , including major characters such as the protagonist Takeru lip @-@ synching to the song . The song had been promoted through several Japanese commercials and television shows .
= = Background and release = =
On April 23 , 2007 , American website Jame World confirmed the release of a new single , entitled " Kiss & Cry " . The song 's original working title was " Dancing Leah " , which is a reference to Filipina American model Leah Dizon . It was written , composed , and arranged by Utada , whilst production was handled by Utada , her father Teruzane Utada , and Akira Miyake . For the song , Hikaru had played the keyboards and synthesizers , and provided backing vocals . It was originally recorded for her studio album Ultra Blue by Atsushi Matsui at Bunkamura Studios and EMI Music Japan Studios , Shibuya , Tokyo in 2007 , but the idea was scrapped for unknown reasons . The finished composition was then mastered by American music engineer Ted Jensen at Sterling Studios , New York City , New York . The single also included the A @-@ side track " Beautiful World " , which also appeared on Utada 's seventh studio and fifth Japanese album , Heart Station ( 2007 ) .
It premiered as a promotional single on April 20 , 2007 , and debuted on Japanese radio on May 21 . It was served as the third single from the album on May 31 . Both singles were then released as a physical single on August 29 in Japan , and digitally worldwide . The CD single contains both " Beautiful World " and " Kiss & Cry " , plus their instrumental versions . It also contains a remixed version of Utada 's 1999 cover version of the 1954 Kaye Ballard song , " Fly Me to the Moon ( In Other Words ) " ; its instrumental version was also included on the CD format . Utada 's 1999 cover was originally included on her single " Wait & See ( Risk ) " . The artwork to " Kiss & Cry " features Utada sitting on a ledge at the bottom of a concrete garage building , while motion @-@ blurred school children walk past her . The CD features an extra lyric booklet , printed on plain white paper . The song was used as the theme song for the Nissin Cup Noodles product , which was released in Japan .
= = Composition = =
Musically , " Kiss & Cry " is an R & B song , influenced by pop and electronic music . According to the sheet music published at Music.j @-@ total.net , the song is written in the key of F minor . During the first and second verse and pre @-@ chorus , the song follows a key sequence of F minor . Through the first , second and third chorus , the song has a sequence of A # m7 – D # m7 – E – D # m7 . During the bridge section , the key sequence changes to A # m7 – C7 – F minor . It opens with a percussion section that includes a drum machine and cymbals ; it then carries on with Palm Products GmbH synthesizers and keyboards , as described by a member at Selective Hearing . In an interview with MSN Hotmail in 2008 , Utada said about the song ; " I wanted to write quite a lively song and after writing it , I still feel that this has the most energetic feeling to it and that it ’ s probably the most polished song too . " She personally enjoyed the end result of the song , as she described the arrangement and lyrical content , and cited it one of her favorite songs form the album . A reviewer from Selective Hearing said that the song " sound [ s ] like throw backs to her R & B days . " The editor analyzed the song 's music structure , and said that the " sample at the beginning sounds like it might be from a Godzilla movie . "
John Alroy and David Bertrand Wilson , American music editors writing from their own website , compared the production and composition to the work of Utada 's studio album Ultra Blue ( 2006 ) ; they labeled it " blissful formlessness " . Amanda Walujono from Audrey Magazine felt that , while the song had a " danceable beat " , " it ’ s not exactly club material . " CD Journal staff members noted elements of hip hop music , and identified instrumentation of horns , keyboards and a drum machine . She described the lyrical content as a tie between both her " Western and oriental beliefs " , and believed that people surrounded by Western culture tend to " follow their destiny " , whilst people growing up around Asian culture believe that destiny is " pre @-@ determined " . CD Journal staff members felt the lyrical delivery expressed both " joy " and " sorrow " topics . The title also references the ice skating area of the same name , where " Kiss " expresses " joy " , and " cry " expresses " sorrow " . The second chorus of the single 's lyrics references the Nissin Noodle product ( " Tonight I 'll have Nissin Cup Noodle " ) .
= = Critical response = =
" Kiss & Cry " received positive reviews from music critics . A reviewer from Selective Hearing was positive in their review , labeling it a " very catchy track " . They also selected it as one of the best track on the album . CD Journal reviewers noted the song 's " surprising introduction " , and described the song as an " impressive R & B tune with a heavy beat " . Tomoyuki Mori from Amazon was positive in his review , complimenting Utada 's songwriting and production . He also praised the " gorgeous atmospheric " composition , and labelled it " charming " . Tetsuo Hiraga from Hot Express described the song as " fun " , and highlighted its composition as a strong factor to its overall delivery . However , Daniel Robson , who wrote for The Japan Times , felt its inclusion into Heart Station was disappointing as he quoted , " [ After opening track " Fight the Blues " ] it ’ s followed by a run of five previous singles and a short , dull interlude track , which just feels so lazy . " He felt the inclusion , alongside other singles , made him question the value of the overall album .
" Kiss & Cry " has achieved several accolades from several different publications and organisations . Amanda Walujono from Audrey Magazine ranked the song at number four on her " Top 5 Hikaru Utada Songs " , praising the composition and " danceable beat " . In December 2015 , in honor of Utada 's comeback into the music business , Japanese website Goo.ne.jp hosted a poll for fans to rank their favorite songs by Utada out of 25 positions ; the poll was held in only twenty @-@ four hours , and thousands submitted their votes . As a result , " Kiss & Cry " was ranked at number 24 . In October 2007 , Utada became the highest selling digital artist in Japan , based on the sales of " Kiss & Cry " , and two other album singles " Flavor of Life " and " Beautiful World " ; she sold over 10 million digital units according to Listen Japan .
= = Commercial performance = =
Charting together as an A @-@ side single , " Beautiful World " and " Kiss & Cry " debuted at number three on Japan 's Oricon Singles Chart on the chart week of September 10 , 2007 ; it sold 93 @,@ 518 units in its first week of sales . The following week , it rose to its peak position of number two ; it sold 51 @,@ 637 units . It stayed in the top ten for two more weeks , until it fell to number 12 on June 1 . It stayed in the top 40 for eight weeks , and charted at number 100 during the two week New Years entries ; it sold 1 @,@ 689 for its two week accumulation of sales . In total , the A @-@ side singles stayed in the Top 200 chart for 26 weeks , one of her longest charting singles according to Oricon . By the end of 2007 , the single was ranked at number 20 on Oricon 's Annual 2007 chart ; it sold 230 @,@ 287 units by the end of the year . This became Utada 's second highest entry in that annual chart , behind " Flavor of Life " at number two , and both entries made her the highest selling female artist . As of April 2016 , the A @-@ side single has sold 245 @,@ 050 units in Japan , and is her 18th best selling single according to Oricon Database .
The single was certified platinum in September 2007 by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for physical shipments of 250 @,@ 000 units in Japan . Although it failed to chart on any digital charts in Japan , or on Billboard 's Japan Hot 100 and competent charts , the song was certified gold by the RIAJ for digital sales of 100 @,@ 000 units . " Kiss & Cry " charted at number 11 on the RIAJ Reco @-@ kyō Singles Chart , during the chart week of October 20 , 2007 . It then received a double platinum certification in November 2007 by the RIAJ for ringtone downloads from Chaku @-@ Uta stores , exceeding sales of 500 @,@ 000 units . The song received a gold certification by the RIAJ for full ringtone purchases of 100 @,@ 000 units , and tallied the overall sales of the single to 935 @,@ 000 units in Japan .
= = Music video and promotion = =
An animated music video was produced for the song , directed by Toshitaka Shinoda . It was unveiled on August 2 , 2007 , when it was uploaded to Utada 's EMI Music Japan website . The video featured animation in the style of Nissin 's Freedom OVA and commercials , including major characters such as the protagonist Takeru lip @-@ synching to the song . The project was a joint collaboration for the Freedom project and Nissin Cup Noodle as a celebration of their 35th year anniversary . The music video received negative reviews from critics . A review from Halcyin Realms criticized the production of the video , stating " The so called ' rough cut ' was a grotesquely put together , random collection of footages lifted from the Freedom series , with lip movement from the characters eerily synced to Utada ’ s vocals ... " For promotional activities , Utada performed the song live on Japanese music television series Music Station on August 31 , 2007 .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of the Heart Station album .
Recording and management
Recorded by Atsushi Matsui at Bunkamura Studios and EMI Music Japan Studios , Shibuya , Tokyo , 2007 .
Credits
Hikaru Utada – arrangement , keyboards , programming , production , songwriting , vocals
Goetz B. for 365 Artists – mixing
Atsushi Matsui – recording
Akira Miyake – production
Yuzuru Tomita – additional programming
Ted Jensen – engineer
Teruzane Utada – production
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Constance of Antioch =
Constance of Antioch ( 1128 – 1163 ) was the ruling Princess of Antioch from 1130 to 1163 . She was the only child of Bohemond II of Antioch by his wife , Alice of Jerusalem . Constance succeeded her father , who fell in battle , at the age of two , although his cousin , Roger II of Sicily , laid claim to Antioch . Her mother assumed the regency , but the Antiochene noblemen replaced her with her father ( Constance 's grandfather ) , Baldwin II of Jerusalem . After he died in 1131 , Alice again tried to take control of the government , but the Antiochene barons acknowledged the right of her brother @-@ in @-@ law , Fulk of Anjou , to rule as regent for Constance .
Constance was given in marriage to Raymond of Poitiers in 1136 . During the subsequent years , Raymond ruled Antioch while Constance gave birth to four children . After Raymond was murdered after a battle in 1149 , Fulk of Anjou 's son , Baldwin III of Jerusalem , assumed the regency . He tried to persuade Constance to remarry , but she did not accept his candidates . She also refused to marry a middle @-@ aged relative of the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenus . Finally , she found a love interest and was married to Raynald of Châtillon , a knight from France , in 1153 .
After her second husband fell into captivity around 1160 – 1161 , Constance wanted to rule Antioch alone , but Baldwin III of Jerusalem declared her fifteen @-@ year @-@ old son , Bohemond III , the lawful prince . Constance disregarded this declaration and took control of the administration of the principality with the assistance of Emperor Manuel . Constance was dethroned in favor of her son shortly before her death .
= = Early life = =
Constance who was born in 1128 was the only child of Bohemond II of Antioch and Alice of Jerusalem . Her mother , Alice , was the second daughter of Baldwin II of Jerusalem . Bohemond was killed in a battle at the Ceyhan River in February 1130 . After his death , Alice assumed the regency for Constance . According to rumors spreading in Antioch , Alice was planning to send Constance to a monastery or to marry her off to a commoner . Bohemond 's cousin , Roger II of Sicily , regarded himself as Bohemond 's lawful successor because he was the senior member of the House of Hauteville .
The Antiochene noblemen sent envoys to Baldwin II , urging him to come to the principality . Alice decided to resist and sought assistance from Imad ad @-@ Din Zengi , Atabeg of Aleppo . However , Baldwin II 's soldiers , who had meanwhile reached Antioch , captured Alice 's envoy . Before long , Alice was forced to beg for mercy from her father . He removed Alice from the regency , ordering her to leave Antioch .
= = Reign = =
= = = Childhood = = =
The Antiochene noblemen acknowledged Baldwin II as regent , swearing fealty to him and Constance . He made Joscelin I , Count of Edessa , her guardian to rule the principality until her marriage . Baldwin II died on August 21 , 1131 , and Joscelin I died a week later .
Alice again laid claim to the regency . However , most Antiochene lords remained hostile to the idea of a female ruler and sent envoys to Baldwin II 's successor , Fulk of Anjou , who was Alice 's brother @-@ in @-@ law . Alice made an alliance with Joscelin II , Count of Edessa , and Pons , Count of Tripoli , in early 1132 . Fulk had to travel to Antioch by sea , because Pons did not allow him to march through the County of Tripoli . Fulk landed at St. Symeon where the Antiochene barons acknowledged him as regent . He appointed Reynald Mazoir , Constable of Antioch , to administer the principality .
Fulk returned to Antioch when Zengi dispatched Sawar , governor of Aleppo , to invade the principality in 1132 or 1133 . After defeating the invaders , Fulk entered Antioch . Since the principality needed a firm government , the Antiochene noblemen approached Fulk to select a husband for Constance . He chose Raymond of Poitiers , the younger son of William IX , Duke of Aquitaine . He did not announce his decision in public because he wanted to prevent Alice and Roger II of Sicily from intervening .
Alice 's sister , Melisende , Fulk 's wife , persuaded Fulk to allow Alice to return to Antioch in 1135 . Alice wanted to tighten the relationship of the principality and the Byzantine Empire ; therefore , she offered Constance 's hand to Manuel , a son of the Byzantine Emperor , John II Komnenos . To prevent the Byzantine marriage , Fulk sent his envoy France to Raymond of Poitiers to urge him to come to Antioch , which he did , traveling in disguise , because Roger II of Sicily wanted to capture him in southern Italy .
= = = First marriage = = =
Raymond of Poitiers arrived at Antioch in April 1136 . Ralph of Domfront , Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem , made Alice believe that Raymond came to Antioch to marry her instead of her nine @-@ year @-@ old daughter . However , Constance was kidnapped from the palace , and Ralph of Domfront blessed her marriage to Raymond in the cathedral . With the marriage , Raymond became the ruler of the principality , and Alice retired to Lattakieh .
In early 1147 Roger II of Sicily extended an offer to Louis VII of France to transport the French crusaders to the Holy Land during the Second Crusade . Fearing that Roger only wanted to assert his claim to Antioch , Louis VII and his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine ( niece of Raymond of Poitiers ) declined . Louis and his crusaders came to the principality in March 1148 . Before long , rumors spread among the crusaders about a love affair between Raymond and Eleanor . The crusaders tried to convince her husband to launch a campaign against Aleppo , the capital of Nur ad @-@ Din , but Louis VII decided to leave Antioch to Jerusalem , forcing Eleanor to accompany him .
= = = Widowhood = = =
Raymond was killed in the Battle of Inab during an expedition against Nur ad @-@ Din Zangi on June 29 , 1149 . Since Raymond and Constance 's four children were still underage , there was no one to " perform the duties of a prince and raise the people from despair " , according to William of Tyre . Nur ad @-@ Din invaded the principality and seized all Antiochene territories to the east of the Orontes River . Aimery of Limoges , Latin Patriarch of Antioch , directed the defense , but most noblemen preferred a secular ruler . After learning of Raymond 's fate , Constance 's cousin , Baldwin III of Jerusalem , hurried to Antioch and assumed the regency . He also concluded a truce with Nur ad @-@ Din .
Baldwin III returned to Antioch in summer 1150 . He wanted to persuade Constance to remarry , proposing three candidates ( Yves , Count of Soissons , Walter of Saint Omer , and Ralph of Merle ) , but she declined . Urged by Baldwin III , Constance went to Tripoli in early 1152 to meet him and her two aunts , Melisende and Hodierna . The two ladies tried to persuade Constance to choose among the three candidates , but she returned to Antioch without making a promise to remarry . According to William of Tyre , Patriarch Aimery convinced Constance to resist , because he wanted to control the government of the principality . The Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos sent his widowed brother @-@ in @-@ law , the middle @-@ aged John Rogerios Dalassenos , to Antioch to marry Constance . However , because of his age , she " regarded him with displeasure " , according to the contemporaneous John Kinnamos , and refused to marry him .
Historian Steven Runciman says that Constance may have refused the candidates proposed by Baldwin III and Manuel I because she had met Raynald of Châtillon , a knight from France . Even though William of Tyre described Raynald as a " knight of common sort " , Constance decided to marry Raynald . Their betrothal was kept secret because Constance wanted to obtain Baldwin III 's permission for the marriage .
= = = Second marriage = = =
After Baldwin sanctioned the marriage , Constance and Raynald married in early 1153 . Raynald took charge of the administration of the principality . However , he was unpopular because his subjects regarded him as an upstart . His frequent attempts to raise funds brought him into conflict with Patriarch Aimery and Emperor Manuel I during the subsequent years . The emperor forced Raynald to pay homage to him in the spring of 1159 . Raynald was captured and imprisoned by Majd al @-@ Din , governor of Aleppo , during a plundering raid in November of 1160 or 1161 .
After her husband fell into captivity , Constance announced her intention to administer the principality , but most Antiochene noblemen preferred a male ruler . Baldwin III of Jerusalem hurried to Antioch and declared Constance 's fifteen @-@ year @-@ old son , Bohemond III , the lawful prince , charging Patriarch Aimery with the administration of the principality . Constance did not accept Baldwin 's decision and protested against it to Emperor Manuel .
Manuel dispatched his nephew , Alexios Bryennios Komnenos , and John Kamateros to Antioch to begin negotiations about his marriage to Constance 's daughter , Maria . The marriage contract was signed and the emperor 's delegates confirmed Constance 's position as the ruler of the principality . Baldwin III , who came to Antioch to meet the imperial envoys , did not protest .
Constance 's son , Bohemond , reached the age of majority in 1163 . To strengthen her position against her son , Constance sought assistance from Constantine Kalamanos , Byzantine governor of Cilicia . However , the Antiochene barons made an alliance with Thoros II of Cilician Armenia and forced her to leave Antioch . After Constance 's removal , Bohemond III took control of the principality . Before long , Constance died , probably in Lattakieh or Jebail , according to Steven Runciman .
= = Family = =
Constance 's first husband , Raymond of Poitiers , was the second son of William IX , Duke of Aquitaine and his second wife , Philippa of Toulouse . He was born in 1114 . According to William of Tyre , Constance was left with " two sons and as many daughters still underage " when her husband died in 1149 . Their elder son , Bohemond , was five at the time of Raymond 's death . He seized Antioch from his mother in 1163 . Constance and Raymond 's eldest daughter , Maria , who was born in the late 1140s , was famed for her beauty . She married the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos in the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople on Christmas Day 1161 . Her younger sister , Philippa of Antioch , was given in marriage to Humphrey II of Toron in the late 1160s .
Whether the father of Constance 's second son , Baldwin , was Raymond of Poitiers or Raynald of Châtillon cannot be determined with certainty . Baldwin died fighting at the head of a Byzantine cavalry regiment in the Battle of Myriokephalon on September 17 , 1176 . It is certain that Raynald fathered Agnes , who became the wife of Béla III of Hungary . Raynald and Constance 's second daughter , Alice , became the third wife of Azzo VI of Este in 1204 .
= Maurice Douglass =
Maurice Gerrard " Mo " Douglass ( born February 12 , 1964 ) is a high school football head coach at Springfield High School and former American football safety who played eleven seasons in the National Football League for the Chicago Bears and the New York Giants . Douglass played college football at the University of Kentucky after transferring from Coffeyville Community College .
Douglass played nine seasons with the Bears on special teams and as a nickel back . He then played two seasons with the Giants . In his early years , he was a witness in a federal trial involving illegal activities by a pair of sports agents .
In high school , he had played for Trotwood @-@ Madison High School and graduated in 1982 . He returned to coach the team in 2001 . In 2006 , he led the team to the playoffs for the first time in 25 years . That year , he was accused of luring players from other teams and found guilty the following year , which was met with a brief suspension .
= = Early life and amateur career = =
Born in Muncie , Indiana , Douglass graduated from Trotwood @-@ Madison High School in 1982 and then played defensive back for Kentucky . In 1984 , he was a junior college transfer from Coffeyville Community College and earned the starting job for Kentucky after two games . He made an interception on his first play from scrimmage against the Rutgers Scarlet Knights team on October 6 . Two weeks later he had an interception that set up a 36 @-@ yard field goal against LSU . He totalled three interceptions in his two @-@ year career at Kentucky . On November 3 , he recovered a fumble against North Texas State . That season Kentucky got off to a 5 – 0 start , but they lost to all three ranked Southeastern Conference schools that they faced and finished the season 9 – 3 .
In September 1985 , he suffered from a pinched nerve and was notable for having blown his defensive coverage on two plays in a 27 – 7 victory over Cincinnati Bearcats . The last of his interceptions occurred on November 16 , 1985 against the Florida Gators when his 43 @-@ yard return set up Kentucky 's touchdown that gave them a 13 – 12 lead . However , in the waning seconds as they clung to a 13 – 12 lead , his attempt at a second interception on an errant halfback option pass by future Bears teammate Neal Anderson slipped away and Florida was able to execute the winning field goal in their 15 – 13 victory . Douglass was selected to play for the Gray team in the 1985 Blue – Gray Football Classic .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Chicago Bears = = =
With the last pick of the eighth round of the 1986 NFL Draft and 221st overall selection , the Bears drafted Douglass . He was the third of four defensive backs selected by the Bears in that draft ( Vestee Jackson 2nd round , Bruce Jones 7th round and Barton Hundley 10th round ) . The 1986 Bears signed Douglass in mid @-@ July . In training camp , Douglas was switched from cornerback to safety and recovered a fumble in the first exhibition game against the Cowboys . He was described by bears scout Rod Graves as " built more like a fullback and could possibly help us inside as a strong @-@ safety type " . The Chicago Tribune listed him at 5 feet 10 inches ( 1 @.@ 78 m ) and 202 pounds ( 92 kg ) , and the Chicago Sun @-@ Times reported him at 5 feet 10 @.@ 5 inches ( 1 @.@ 79 m ) and 200 pounds ( 91 kg ) with the description that " Big , strong , tough hitter who likes to play . A little too slow to play cornerback . Makes some mistakes because of overeagerness . "
Douglass was one of the final five players cut during training camp by the Bears at the beginning of September , but they re @-@ signed him in late November when they put Jim McMahon on injured reserve . He did not play much in 1986 , but was described as a favorite of coach Mike Ditka by the Chicago Sun @-@ Times . Chicago Tribune writers noted that Ditka got a kick out of his big earring and fashion sense . In the 1987 – 88 NFL playoffs , although had only one previous start in his two @-@ year career , he started for the Bears in place of five @-@ year veteran Mike Richardson at left cornerback against the Redskins in their January 10 , 1988 Divisional playoff game . The following season , when Shaun Gayle suffered a season @-@ ending injury for the 1988 Bears , he took over the starting free safety assignment .
In March 1989 , he testified against sports agents Norby Walters of New York and Lloyd Bloom of California in United States District Court in Chicago in a trial about " inducing college athletes to sign professional contracts in violation of National Collegiate Athletic Association rules , and of threatening bodily harm " . He told the jury that Bloom threatened that " somebody might break my legs " if he attempted to break his contract . In April , the agents were convicted of five counts of racketeering and fraud .
In August 1989 , he was one of thirteen athletes issued a four @-@ game suspension for using steroids . Following the suspension , the Bears activated him in October .
In September 1994 , New York Jets fullback Richie Anderson dislocated an index finger punching Douglass in the head , while Douglass was wearing a football helmet , in reaction to what he believed was a late hit on teammate Adrian Murrell . Anderson was ejected from the game . In his nine seasons with the Bears , he earned a reputation as an excellent special teams player .
= = = New York Giants = = =
Prior to his time with the Giants , he worked as a male stripper . Following the 1994 NFL season , Douglass signed with the New York Giants in April . The two @-@ year contract was estimated at $ 1 @.@ 4 million . Douglass was impaired by a quadriceps injury in 1995 Giants training camp . The injury recurred during the season . He had performed well as the nickel back as a Giant . However , in October , he fractured his left fibula and was out for the rest of 1995 NFL season .
Douglass appeared to be a likely roster cut during the 1996 Giants training camp final selection of its 53 @-@ man roster of players , but he made the final roster cut . In the second game of the 1996 NFL season , he made a fourth @-@ and @-@ one goalline stop against the Cowboys . Later that season , he scored his only career touchdown when he intercepted a Scott Mitchell pass and returned it 32 yards against the Detroit Lions on October 27 . Late in the season he was affected by a hamstring injury .
Douglass re @-@ signed for the 1997 New York Giants season . Douglass was in competition with Sam Garnes and Rodney Young for the starting strong safety position for the 1997 NFL season . However , in training camp he was hampered by a deep thigh bruise . Despite the injury , he was projected as the starter . The injury caused him to miss an exhibition game . When he returned to practice he was soon also dealing with a sprained elbow . He lost the job to Garnes after missing a lot of exhibition time and allowing the latter to see plenty of action . In addition to the injury , Douglass had had a poor exhibition showing .
= = Coaching career = =
In 2001 he became the football coach at his alma mater Trotwood . He transformed the program by spending time creating player highlight reels , responding to college recruiters and taking his athletes on college tours . Subsequently , the athletes began getting college scholarship offers . In his first seven years nearly 100 of his players went on to play college football and over one @-@ third at Division I programs . He is said to have a relaxed mentoring style of coaching and is known as Coach Doug . In 2007 , the team made the playoffs for the first time since 1982 . That year , he was charged with illegally recruiting athletes to play for his team . Upon review by the Ohio High School Athletic Association , he and his staff were found guilty of the charge . In 2008 , he was placed on suspension for three weeks and his offensive coordinator resigned . The school was placed on two @-@ year probation .
In 2014 , Douglass left Trotwood and became the head coach at Springfield High School . Before taking the position at Springfield , Douglass turned down an opportunity to coach defensive backs for Vanderbilt under new head coach Derek Mason .
= SS Minnesotan =
SS Minnesotan was a cargo ship built in 1912 for the American @-@ Hawaiian Steamship Company . During World War I she was known as USAT Minnesotan in service for the United States Army and USS Minnesotan ( ID @-@ 4545 ) in service for the United States Navy . She ended her career as the SS Maria Luisa R. under Italian ownership . She was built by the Maryland Steel Company as one of eight sister ships for the American @-@ Hawaiian Steamship Company , and was employed in inter @-@ coastal service via the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and the Panama Canal after it opened .
In World War I , USAT Minnesotan carried cargo and animals to France under charter to the U.S. Army from September 1917 . When transferred to the U.S. Navy in August 1918 , USS Minnesotan continued in the same duties , but after the Armistice she was converted to a troop transport and returned over 8 @,@ 000 American troops from France . Returned to American @-@ Hawaiian in 1919 , Minnesotan resumed inter @-@ coastal cargo service , and , at least twice , carried racing yachts from the U.S. East Coast to California .
During World War II , Minnesotan was requisitioned by the War Shipping Administration and initially sailed between New York and Caribbean ports . In the latter half of 1943 , Minnesotan sailed between Indian Ocean ports . The following year the cargo ship sailed between New York and ports in the United Kingdom , before returning to the Caribbean . In July 1949 , American @-
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@ Hawaiian sold Minnesotan to Italian owners who renamed her Maria Luisa R. ; she was scrapped in 1952 at Bari .
= = Design and construction = =
In September 1911 , the American @-@ Hawaiian Steamship Company placed an order with the Maryland Steel Company of Sparrows Point , Maryland , for four new cargo ships — Minnesotan , Dakotan , Montanan , and Pennsylvanian . The contract cost of the ships was set at the construction cost plus an 8 % profit for Maryland Steel , but with a maximum cost of $ 640 @,@ 000 per ship . The construction was financed by Maryland Steel with a credit plan that called for a 5 % down payment in cash with nine monthly installments for the balance . Provisions of the deal allowed that some of the nine installments could be converted into longer @-@ term notes or mortgages . The final cost of Minnesotan , including financing costs , was $ 65 @.@ 65 per deadweight ton , which totaled just under $ 668 @,@ 000 .
Minnesotan ( Maryland Steel yard no . 124 ) was the first ship built under the original contract . She was launched on 8 June 1912 , and delivered to American @-@ Hawaiian in September . Minnesotan was 6 @,@ 617 gross register tons ( GRT ) , and was 428 feet 9 inches ( 130 @.@ 68 m ) in length and 53 feet 7 inches ( 16 @.@ 33 m ) abeam . She had a deadweight tonnage of 10 @,@ 175 LT DWT , and her cargo holds had a storage capacity of 490 @,@ 838 cubic feet ( 13 @,@ 899 @.@ 0 m3 ) . Minnesotan had a speed of 15 knots ( 28 km / h ) , and was powered by a single quadruple @-@ expansion steam engine with oil @-@ fired boilers , that drove a single screw propeller .
= = Early career = =
When Minnesotan began sailing for American @-@ Hawaiian , the company shipped cargo from East Coast ports via the Tehuantepec Route to West Coast ports and Hawaii , and vice versa . Shipments on the Tehuantepec Route would arrive at Mexican ports — Salina Cruz , Oaxaca , for eastbound cargo , and Coatzacoalcos , Veracruz , for westbound cargo — and would traverse the Isthmus of Tehuantepec on the Tehuantepec National Railway . Eastbound shipments were primarily sugar and pineapple from Hawaii , while westbound cargoes were more general in nature . Minnesotan sailed in this service on the east side of North America .
After the United States occupation of Veracruz on 21 April 1914 ( which found six American @-@ Hawaiian ships in Mexican ports ) , the Huerta @-@ led Mexican government closed the Tehuantepec National Railway to American shipping . This loss of access , coupled with the fact that the Panama Canal was not yet open , caused American @-@ Hawaii to return in late April to its historic route of sailing around South America via the Straits of Magellan . With the opening of the Panama Canal on 15 August , American @-@ Hawaiian ships switched to taking that route .
In October 1915 , landslides closed the Panama Canal and all American @-@ Hawaiian ships , including Minnesotan , returned to the Straits of Magellan route again . Minnesotan 's exact movements from this time through early 1917 are unclear . She may have been in the half of the American @-@ Hawaiian fleet that was chartered for transatlantic service . She may also have been in the group of American @-@ Hawaiian ships chartered for service to South America , delivering coal , gasoline , and steel in exchange for coffee , nitrates , cocoa , rubber , and manganese ore .
= = World War I = =
On 11 September 1917 , some five months after the United States declared war on Germany , the United States Army chartered Minnesotan for transporting animals to Europe in support of the American Expeditionary Force . Although there is no information about the specific conversion of Minnesotan , for other ships this typically meant that passenger accommodations had to be ripped out and replaced with ramps and stalls for the horses and mules carried .
On 23 August 1918 , Minnesotan was transferred to the United States Navy at Norfolk , Virginia . She was commissioned into the Naval Overseas Transportation Service the same day , with Lieutenant Commander E. L. Smith , USNRF , in command . Minnesotan was refitted and rearmed and made a brief roundtrip to New York . After taking on a general cargo , Minnesotan sailed 4 September to join a convoy from New York . After passing Gibraltar on 21 September , the cargo ship sailed on to Marseille and unloaded . Departing there on 21 October , she sailed for Newport News via Gibraltar , arriving back in the United States on 7 November .
Minnesotan next took on a load of 798 horses and sailed on 30 November for Bordeaux , where she arrived on 13 December . Stopping at Saint @-@ Nazaire the following day , Minnesotan departed for Norfolk on 21 December . After making port at Norfolk on 3 January 1919 , the cargo ship sailed for New York , where she was inspected and found to be suitable for use as a troop transport . She was transferred to the Cruiser and Transport Force on 7 January and fitted with bunks and living facilities over the next three months .
Sailing from New York on 30 March , Minnesotan began the first of her four voyages returning American servicemen from France . On 16 April at Saint @-@ Nazaire , Minnesotan began her first homeward journey with troops , embarking several companies of the 111th Infantry Regiment of the U.S. 28th Infantry Division . George W. Cooper , historian of the 2nd Battalion of the 111th Infantry , reported that even though the fighting had been over for some five months , the fear of striking floating mines necessitated that the men wear life jackets for the first three days at sea . Minnesotan landed her 1 @,@ 765 troops in New York on 28 April .
On her next journey , Minnesotan loaded some 2 @,@ 000 men of the 304th Ammunition Train and the U.S. 24th Infantry Division , for what turned out to be a rough passage with widespread seasickness . The men on board were greatly relieved when land was spotted , and the ship docked at Charleston , South Carolina , on 29 May .
Details of Minnesotan 's third journey are not available , but her final journey began by sailing from Brest on 23 July with elements of the U.S. 4th Infantry Division and ended upon arrival at Philadelphia on 3 August . In total , she carried 8 @,@ 038 troops in four voyages from France . By 15 August , Minnesotan had entered dry dock at the Philadelphia Navy Yard to prepare for decommissioning , which took place six days later . She was then returned to American @-@ Hawaiian . Leslie White , later a noted American anthropologist , was a crewman aboard USS Minnesotan .
= = Interwar years = =
Minnesotan resumed cargo service with American @-@ Hawaiian after her return from World War I service . Though the company had abandoned its original Hawaiian sugar routes by this time , Minnesotan continued inter @-@ coastal service through the Panama Canal . Hints at cargos she carried during this time can be gleaned from contemporary news reports from the Los Angeles Times . In March 1928 , for example , the newspaper reported that Minnesotan sailed from Los Angeles with a $ 2 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 cargo that included raw silk and 1 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 000 t ) of copper bullion . The 1 @,@ 000 bales of silk , picked up in Seattle , were worth $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 on their own , while the load of copper was reportedly the largest water shipment of Arizona copper to that time . Canned goods , grape juice , and locally grown cotton completed the load . The Los Angeles Times also reported that Minnesotan delivered a then @-@ record 3 @,@ 000 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 3 @,@ 000 t ) cargo from the East Coast to Los Angeles in October 1930 . Minnesotan also carried some less @-@ traditional cargo . In February 1928 , she delivered one R @-@ class and four six @-@ meter ( twenty @-@ foot ) sloops to Los Angeles . The five racing yachts , all from East Coast yacht clubs , arrived to sail in the national championships of six @-@ meter and R @-@ class sloops held 10 – 18 March . Minnesotan delivered two other six @-@ meter sloops for new owners in November 1938 .
Minnesotan did have one mishap during the interwar period . On 3 May 1936 , The New York Times reported that the day before , a receding tide had stranded Minnesotan about a half @-@ mile ( 800 m ) off of Monomoy Point , Massachusetts . Any damage the freighter sustained must have been minor ; the cargo ship sailed from New York for San Francisco two weeks later .
= = = Labor difficulties = = =
Minnesotan played a part in several labor difficulties in the interwar years . In March 1935 , the crew of Minnesotan called a wildcat strike that delayed the ship 's sailing from Los Angeles by a day , but ended the strike after they were ordered back to work by their union . In October 1935 , the deckhands and firemen of Minnesotan and fellow Hawaiian @-@ American ships Nevadan and Golden Tide walked out — this time with the sanction of their union , the Sailors ' Union of the Pacific ( SUP ) — after American @-@ Hawaiian had suspended a member of the International Seamen 's Union . In that same month , Minnesotan 's deck engineer , Otto Blaczinsky , was murdered while the ship was in Los Angeles Harbor . The Industrial Association of San Francisco , an organization of anti @-@ union businessmen and employers , believed that Blaczinsky was killed because he opposed union policies , and offered a $ 1 @,@ 000 reward for information leading to the arrest and conviction of Blaczinsky 's killer . Threats of another Pacific coast strike in late 1936 caused west coast shippers to squeeze as much cargo as possible into Minnesotan and other ships ; when Minnesotan arrived at Boston in October , The Christian Science Monitor reported that the ship had arrived " literally laden to her Plimsoll line " .
In September 1941 , Minnesotan played a peripheral part in a larger protest by union sailors over war bonuses for sailing in the West Indies . The SUP struck on Minnesotan and fellow American @-@ Hawaiian ship Oklahoman on 18 September in sympathy with the Seafarers International Organization , which had called a strike on eleven ships a week before . Both of the American @-@ Hawaiian ships were idled while docked in New York . President Franklin D. Roosevelt called on the unions to end the strike three separate times during his press conference on 24 September . Roosevelt 's admonition was heeded and both unions ended their strike after the National Mediation Board agreed to address the wartime bonus dispute .
= = World War II = =
By January 1941 , Minnesotan , though still operated by American @-@ Hawaiian , was engaged in defense work for the U.S. government , sailing to ports in South Africa . After the United States entered World War II , Minnesotan was requisitioned by the War Shipping Administration and frequently sailed in convoys . Though complete records of her sailings are unavailable , partial records indicate some of the ports Minnesotan visited during the conflict and some of the cargo she carried . From July 1942 to April 1943 , Minnesotan sailed between New York and Caribbean ports , calling at Trinidad , Key West , Hampton Roads , Guantánamo Bay , and Cristóbal .
In June 1943 , Minnesotan called at Bombay . She sailed in the Indian Ocean between Calcutta , Colombo , and Bandar Abbas through August . On her last recorded sailing in the Indian Ocean , Minnesotan carried steel rails between Colombo and Calcutta . Minnesotan was back in New York by early December , and sailed to Florida and back by the end of the month .
On 29 December , Minnesotan , loaded with a general cargo that included machinery and explosives , sailed as part of convoy HX 273 from New York for Liverpool . Minnesotan developed an undisclosed problem and returned to St. John 's , Newfoundland , where she arrived on 13 January 1944 . Thirteen days later , she sailed from St. John 's to join convoy HX 276 for Liverpool , where she arrived with the convoy on 7 February . After calling at Methil and Loch Ewe , Minnesotan returned to New York in mid March .
Minnesotan sailed on another roundtrip to Liverpool in May , but was back in New York by early June . Her last recorded World War II sailings were from New York to Key West , Guantánamo Bay , and Cristóbal , where she arrived in late July 1944 . Sources do not reveal where or in what capacity Minnesotan spent the remainder of the war .
= = Later career = =
After the war 's end , American @-@ Hawaiian continued operating Minnesotan for several more years , but in mid @-@ July 1949 , the company announced the sale of Minnesotan to Italian owners in a move approved by the United States Maritime Commission several days later . The sale of Minnesotan was protested by the Congress of Industrial Organizations which urged the United States Congress to intervene and to help retain American Merchant Marine jobs . Nevertheless , Maria Luisa R. , the new name of the former Minnesotan , remained in Italian hands until she was scrapped in 1952 at Bari .
= Washington State Route 509 =
State Route 509 ( SR 509 ) is a 35 @.@ 17 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 56 @.@ 60 km ) state highway in the U.S. state of Washington , connecting Tacoma in Pierce County to Seattle in King County . The highway travels north from Interstate 705 ( I @-@ 705 ) in Tacoma to SR 99 south of downtown Seattle . It serves cities along the Puget Sound and west of Seattle – Tacoma International Airport in south King County , including Federal Way , Des Moines , and Burien . SR 509 is part of the National Highway System and is a limited @-@ access highway near the Port of Tacoma and from Burien to its northern terminus in Seattle . Prior to the 1964 highway renumbering , the highway was part of Secondary State Highway 1V ( SSH 1V ) from Tacoma to Des Moines and SSH 1K from Des Moines to Seattle . SR 509 was re @-@ aligned onto the Burien Freeway in 1968 and the Port of Tacoma bypass in 1997 , coinciding with the opening of its interchange with I @-@ 705 and the cable @-@ stayed 21st Street Bridge . Various proposals since 1988 have recommended building a freeway extension of SR 509 within the city of SeaTac , connecting the Burien Freeway to I @-@ 5 , that remains unbuilt .
= = Route description = =
SR 509 begins as South 21st Street at a single @-@ point urban interchange with I @-@ 705 in downtown Tacoma in Pierce County , providing access to the Tacoma campus of the University of Washington and the Tacoma Link light rail line on Pacific Avenue . The highway travels east over the Thea Foss Waterway on the cable @-@ stayed 21st Street Bridge into the Port of Tacoma as a four @-@ lane limited @-@ access highway , intersecting Portland Avenue in a half @-@ diamond interchange before crossing the Puyallup River . SR 509 continues east , parallel to a City of Tacoma rail line through a partial cloverleaf interchange with Port of Tacoma Road before the divided highway ends at Taylor Way . The highway turns northwest along the Hylebos Waterway as Marine View Drive through the neighborhood of Northeast Tacoma towards Browns Point . SR 509 passes through Dash Point and its state park along the Puget Sound into King County and the city of Federal Way . The highway travels east as Dash Point Road through Federal Way past Decatur and Federal Way high schools before a junction with SR 99 west of I @-@ 5 . The concurrent SR 99 and SR 509 travel north as the Pacific Highway past Highline Community College to an intersection with SR 516 in western Kent . SR 509 turns west to form a concurrency with SR 516 , heading past Mount Rainier High School and into Des Moines , where SR 516 ends .
SR 509 continues north onto Marine View Drive through the city of Normandy Park and into SeaTac . The highway turns southeast onto Ambaum Boulevard and Des Moines Memorial Drive to a trumpet interchange , the southern terminus of a limited @-@ access freeway section of SR 509 . The four @-@ lane freeway travels west of Seattle – Tacoma International Airport through a closed half @-@ diamond interchange with South 176th Street and a partial cloverleaf interchange with South 160th Street before entering the city of Burien . SR 509 passes Highline High School before reaching a partial cloverleaf interchange with Southwest 148th Street and the western terminus of SR 518 . The freeway continues north into the West Seattle neighborhood of Seattle and intersects South 128th Street in a diamond interchange and South 112th Street in a half @-@ diamond interchange . SR 509 enters the Industrial District of Seattle and heads through an interchange with Cloverdale Street and Myers Way before ending at a partial cloverleaf interchange with SR 99 south of the First Avenue South Bridge over the Duwamish Waterway . The roadway continues north as the SR 99 divided highway toward downtown Seattle and the Alaskan Way Viaduct .
Every year , the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2011 , WSDOT calculated that the busiest section of SR 509 was the limited @-@ access highway between Burien and its northern terminus in Seattle , serving 54 @,@ 000 vehicles , while the least busiest section was within Dash Point and Dash Point State Park , serving 2 @,@ 600 vehicles . SR 509 between SeaTac and Seattle is designated as part of the National Highway System , which includes roadways important to the national economy , defense , and mobility . The highway from Tacoma to Federal Way and from SeaTac to Seattle are designated as part of WSDOT 's Highways of Statewide Significance , which includes highways that connect major communities in the state of Washington .
= = History = =
The present route of SR 509 from Des Moines to Seattle roughly follows a wagon road constructed in the late 1890s by King County along the Puget Sound . The highway between Federal Way and Kent was codified in 1923 as part of State Road 1 and in 1937 as Primary State Highway 1 ( PSH 1 ) . During the creation of the primary and secondary state highways in 1937 , the highway between Tacoma and Federal Way was designated as SSH 1V and the highway between Des Moines and Seattle was designated as SSH 1K . SSH 1V traveled 19 @.@ 54 miles ( 31 @.@ 45 km ) north from PSH 1 in Tacoma through the Port of Tacoma on the 11th Street Bridge and the Blair Bridge , opened in 1913 and 1951 respectively , to Federal Way , ending at an intersection with SSH 1K . SSH 1K traveled 12 @.@ 76 miles ( 20 @.@ 54 km ) south from PSH 1 at the First Avenue South Bridge in Seattle through Burien and east through Des Moines to PSH 1 in Midway . The two highways were combined during the 1964 highway renumbering to become SR 509 and was codified into law in 1970 . SR 509 was realigned onto the newly constructed north – south Burien Freeway in 1968 , extending from Seattle to SeaTac . The highway was originally routed through Saltwater State Park on Marine View Drive until 1991 , when SR 509 was moved to two concurrencies with SR 99 in Federal Way and SR 516 in Des Moines .
The freeway was planned to be extended south to SR 516 in the 1970s after a 4 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) right @-@ of @-@ way was acquired by WSDOT before the project was canceled . The King County Department of Public Works recommended extending SR 509 southeast from South 188th Street to I @-@ 5 in 1988 , with construction planned to begin in 1999 at an estimated cost of $ 252 million in 1996 , raised to $ 1 @.@ 4 billion a decade later . A freeway bypass of the Port of Tacoma was opened in 1997 and the highway was truncated to its current southern terminus , a single @-@ point urban interchange with I @-@ 705 in downtown Tacoma near the 21st Street Bridge . No major revisions to the route of SR 509 have occurred since 1997 , however , WSDOT is proposing a freeway extension to SR 509 to I @-@ 5 along with interchange improvements and new arterial streets .
= = Major intersections = =
= Tatsunoko vs. Capcom : Ultimate All @-@ Stars =
Tatsunoko vs. Capcom : Ultimate All @-@ Stars is a crossover fighting game developed by Eighting and published by Capcom . The game features characters from both Capcom 's video game franchises and various anime series produced by Tatsunoko Production . The game was originally released in Japan for arcades and the Wii video game console in December 2008 as Tatsunoko vs. Capcom : Cross Generation of Heroes ( タツノコ VS . CAPCOM CROSS GENERATION OF HEROES ) . Following high demand from international fans , Capcom worked with Tatsunoko to resolve international licensing issues and a second version , Ultimate All @-@ Stars , was released for the Wii in North America , Japan , and Europe in January 2010 , featuring additional characters and an online mode .
In Tatsunoko vs. Capcom , players engage in combat with a team of two characters or with a single giant character and attempt to knock out their opponents . It is the seventh Capcom @-@ designed installment in their Vs. fighting game series , which includes the Marvel vs. Capcom and Capcom vs. SNK series , and the first to be fully rendered in 3D graphics . The game is set in a 2.5D environment ; characters fight in a two @-@ dimensional arena , but character models and backgrounds are rendered in three @-@ dimensional graphics . The game is designed around a simplified three @-@ button attack system , which was inspired by the simplistic control schemes commonly used by both the Vs. series and the Wii .
The game received generally positive reviews from critics , who praised its approachable gameplay for newcomers and depth for veteran players . However , reviewers had mixed experiences with its online component , and found Arcade mode lacking in replay value . According to the game 's producer , Ryota Niitsuma , development difficulties and a lack of Wii fighting games were the reasons for its platform exclusivity ; however , multiple critics questioned if that was the best choice . Capcom announced in April 2010 that the game was a commercial success .
= = Gameplay = =
Tatsunoko vs. Capcom is a tag team @-@ based fighting game in which players control characters with different attacks and fighting styles , and engage in combat to deplete their opponent 's life gauge . The gameplay is set in a 2.5D environment where the characters are rendered in three @-@ dimensional graphics , but their movements are restricted to a two dimensional plane ; they may only move left and right , and upward through the air . Each player may select a team of two characters and can switch between them during combat . Alternatively , players may select one of two " giant " characters , who cannot be played as part of a team . When characters switch , the incoming one performs a special attack upon entry , and the previous one can regenerate health . Characters not in play may be used to assist , and to perform powerful team moves . A match ends when a team has no characters left , or when the timer reaches zero — in which case , the team with the most remaining life wins .
The arcade release of Cross Generation of Heroes has a control scheme consisting of a joystick and four buttons . Wii versions of Tatsunoko vs. Capcom have five control options : the Classic Controller , Nintendo GameCube controller , third @-@ party arcade sticks , and two simplified control schemes — intended for inexperienced players — for the Wii Remote . Players use controller inputs to perform attacks ; the most basic attacks are executed by pressing one of three attack buttons : light , medium , or strong . Players may augment basic attacks with joystick or control pad directional inputs ; for example , a standard strong attack can become a sweep when the down input is added . Basic attacks can be strung together to perform combos .
Each character has unique " universal techniques " — special attacks that are more powerful than normal moves — that require complex control inputs . Similar inputs are used to perform even stronger versions of special moves called Hyper Combos and Team Hyper Combos ; these deal damage relative to the size of the player 's Hyper Combo gauge , which increases when the character does or receives damage . Certain universal techniques are usable by all characters ; for example , each character possesses one that launches opponents upward , rendering them vulnerable to an " air combo " . Other common universal techniques include the " Baroque Combo " , which sacrifices the regenerable portion of a character 's life gauge , but allows players to extend combos and deal more damage ; and the " Mega Crash " , which creates a temporary barrier around the character to knock back opponents , but partially drains their Hyper Combo and life gauges .
= = = Modes = = =
Cross Generation of Heroes , the 2008 Wii version of Tatsunoko vs. Capcom , has an Arcade game mode : the player fights against artificial intelligence ( AI ) -controlled opponents to reach the final boss character , Yami from Ōkami . Time attack and Survival modes are also available , and require the player to defeat every character in the game . While Survival limits health regeneration , Time attack challenges players to win in the shortest time possible . Other modes include Vs . Mode , in which two players engage in combat , and Original Games , which sees up to four players competing in character @-@ specific minigames . Using money obtained throughout the game , the player may purchase unlockable characters , alternate character costumes , minigames , character profiles , movies , illustrations , and background music . Once purchased , the latter four are viewable in a gallery . The arcade release of Cross Generation of Heroes omits the game modes , and instead features a character selection screen from which a player may compete against either AI opponents or a second player .
Ultimate All @-@ Stars has largely the same features as the Wii version of Cross Generation of Heroes , with the exception of Original Games ; instead , it features a top @-@ down shooter minigame called " Ultimate All @-@ Shooters " . Unique to Ultimate All @-@ Stars is Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi Connection support for Vs . Mode competition over the Internet . Online multiplayer matches may be played either with registered friends or opponents , or randomly selected participants . Players can choose from randomly selected opponents to be of a rank similar to their own . Rank is decided by battle points , which fluctuate when a ranked match is won or lost . Once a match is completed , players can add a consenting opponent to a Rival Roster for future matches .
= = = Playable characters = = =
Ultimate All @-@ Stars contains 26 playable characters from Capcom video game franchises like Street Fighter , Mega Man , and Viewtiful Joe and Tatsunoko Production anime franchises such as Science Ninja Team Gatchaman , Yatterman , and Neo @-@ Human Casshern . The original arcade version of Cross Generation of Heroes features 18 characters , which was increased to 22 for its Wii release . The rosters of both Ultimate All @-@ Stars and Cross Generation of Heroes are evenly divided between Tatsunoko and Capcom characters . The game 's two largest and most powerful characters , Tatsunoko 's Gold Lightan and Capcom 's PTX @-@ 40A , cannot have partners ; by extension , they cannot perform universal techniques that require a partner . Non @-@ playable characters , derived from Capcom and Tatsunoko intellectual properties , make cameo appearances during certain attacks ; for example , Casshan is assisted by his robotic dog , Friender , while Doronjo is accompanied by her lackeys Boyacky and Tonzura .
† Wii @-@ exclusive character
‡ Exclusive to Cross Generation of Heroes
§ Exclusive to Ultimate All @-@ Stars
= = Development = =
Tatsunoko vs. Capcom was conceived when Tatsunoko Production asked Capcom to develop a game with Tatsunoko characters . In @-@ company discussions at Capcom about it started in mid @-@ 2006 ; Capcom producer Ryota Niitsuma was interested in producing a fighting game , and agreed with other Capcom employees that Tatsunoko 's characters would be better suited for a Vs. game than a Street Fighter game . The resulting project was the seventh Capcom @-@ designed entry in the Vs. series and the first in over seven years . In the 2000s decade , fighting games were less popular and plentiful than in the mid @-@ 1990s , with multiplayer competition shifting towards other genres .
The research and development team started work in parallel with Street Fighter IV . " Capcom [ hoped to ] bring back the fighting genre into the mainstream market [ ... ] with a serious fighting game for very hardcore fans , and another with a slightly lowered barrier to entry , " Niitsuma said . Eighting , Capcom 's hired developer , took on the job in early 2007 . Tatsunoko vs. Capcom 's design was a departure from the complex attack systems of the Street Fighter series , and of certain Vs. titles . The game is built around a simplified three @-@ button attack system ( light , medium , and strong ) ; it was inspired by the control systems commonly used by both the Vs. series and the Wii , which allows intricate moves to be performed with basic control inputs .
On May 22 , 2008 , Capcom announced the game , titled Tatsunoko vs. Capcom : Cross Generation of Heroes , for release in Japanese arcades . The arcade cabinets ' system board was proprietary hardware based on the Wii . Beta units were sent to test locations in Tokyo ( July 10 – 13 ) and Osaka ( July 25 – 27 ) . By September , the game was 70 % complete , and a Wii version was announced for Japanese release . Capcom gradually revealed the game 's cast until release . It was released in Japan on the Wii on December 11 , 2008 , and an arcade version followed in mid @-@ December 2008 .
When choosing candidates for the Tatsunoko and Capcom character rosters , the development team was free to nominate any character it wished . However , the team faced limitations on its Tatsunoko candidates ; Niitsuma explained , " [ We ] had to consider licensing issues . Once we had that list we had to figure out how to make a balanced fighting game . On top of that we wanted a good balance between male and female characters . " Selection emphasis was placed on main characters , rather than on villains . Certain characters were denied by Tatsunoko Production without explanation to Capcom . " We weren 't privy to a lot of their decision making process . They didn 't share a lot of reasons with us . When they said no and we asked why , they wouldn 't tell us , but would give us another suggestion , " Niitsuma said . They disallowed characters from Genesis Climber MOSPEADA or Samurai Pizza Cats , despite the high number of fan requests for the latter . The eponymous characters of Tatsunoko 's Muteking , The Dashing Warrior and Nurse Witch Komugi were among those planned for inclusion , but were eventually scrapped . The finalized Tatsunoko cast consists of characters that the team enjoyed in their youth . The development team hoped to include Capcom 's Phoenix Wright and Franziska von Karma from the Ace Attorney series , but , while the latter 's use of a whip made her easy to incorporate , the team struggled to find appropriate attacks for Phoenix . Since Phoenix doesn 't move from the waist down in his original game environment , the team considered adding tires to his desk and having the entirety move as a single character . However , this was abandoned due to potential collision issues . Though they envisioned an attack that used his catch @-@ phrase " Objection ! ( 異議あり ! , Igiari ! ) " , with the letters themselves used to attack the opponent , they found that localization would have changed the Japanese four @-@ character phrase ( in kanji ) to a ten @-@ letter word in English , unbalancing the game . Arthur from Ghosts ' n Goblins , and Ingrid from Capcom Fighting Evolution were also scrapped .
The game is the first Capcom @-@ designed Vs. installment to be rendered fully in 3D . Tatsunoko vs. Capcom and its graphical characteristics were optimized for the Wii , which prevents the game from being ported to other consoles without completely re @-@ building the game . Niitsuma explained that its Wii exclusivity was also due to a lack of Capcom fighting games for the console , and because the Wii 's casual quality matches the Vs. series trait of accessibility . The producer suggested that porting a sequel would be easier , but that Capcom would gauge the reception of the Wii game before making such plans . On November 7 , 2012 , Capcom USA 's senior vice president Christian Svensson revealed that Capcom 's rights with Tatsunoko have lapsed , meaning Capcom is no longer authorized to sell Tatsunoko vs. Capcom physically or digitally .
= = = Localization = = =
On May 6 , 2009 , Capcom listed two " mystery games " as part of their Electronic Entertainment Expo 2009 ( E3 2009 ) lineup . Nintendo Power magazine revealed " Capcom Mystery Game # 1 " to be the North American localization of Tatsunoko vs. Capcom : Cross Generation of Heroes , with the new subtitle " Ultimate All @-@ Stars " . It was playable at the company 's E3 booth . European and Australian releases were announced on later dates . The game was originally unintended for release outside Japan , but was localized by Capcom due to positive fan reception . Tatsunoko Production assisted Capcom with its character licensing issues ; while Tatsunoko Production holds such rights in Japan , they are licensed to companies such as Time Warner in other countries . Niitsuma said that acquiring character licenses was difficult , as it was largely done one at a time , and characters cleared in North America had to be checked separately in Europe . Another issue was the possibility that Eighting would be occupied with other projects . Time constraints led Niitsuma to replace the character @-@ specific minigames of Cross Generation of Heroes with " Ultimate All @-@ Shooters " , an expansion of PTX @-@ 40A 's minigame . Artwork by UDON replaced the animated character @-@ specific endings .
A Capcom press release in June 2009 stated that the North American release would have more mini @-@ games , an " enhanced " story mode , and support for online play . The roster would be expanded by five characters , but would lose one unnamed Tatsunoko character . However , Capcom later revised this press release , as it was incorrect , with the statement that they were " looking into adding new features to the game , including possible additions of several new characters from both Capcom and Tatsunoko and [ ... ] exploring the option of online gameplay . "
On September 9 , 2009 , Capcom announced the Japanese release of Ultimate All @-@ Stars . Starting on that day , the company periodically revealed the game 's new characters ; however , the full cast was leaked through JavaScript code on the game 's official Japanese site . With the exception of Hakushon Daimaō , who was removed due to unspecified licensing issues , every playable character from the original Wii release was included . Hakushon Daimaō was also removed in Ultimate All @-@ Stars ' Japanese release , due to both his unpopularity with players , and the game 's status as a localization of the North American version . The new characters encompassed Frank West from Dead Rising , Zero from Mega Man X , Yatterman @-@ 2 from Yatterman , Joe the Condor from Gatchaman , and the title character from Tekkaman Blade . Shinji Ueda served as a director along with Hidetoshi Ishizawa . Ishizawa admitted that , just as Cross Generation of Heroes was not initially planned to be released internationally , neither was Ultimate All @-@ Stars planned to be released in Japan . However , fan appeals and the research and development team 's own hopes resulted in the game 's Japanese localization .
= = = Launch = = =
An official launch event for Tatsunoko vs. Capcom : Ultimate All Stars was held at the Nintendo World Store in the Rockefeller Center on January 23 , 2010 , featuring autograph signings by Niitsuma , giveaways , competitions , and playable demo kiosks . Hundreds of fans were expected to attend between 11 pm and 3 pm . The game was released in North America on January 26 , in Japan on January 28 , and in Europe on January 29 . Capcom 's Community Manager Seth Killian expressed satisfaction with the North American sales of Ultimate All @-@ Stars . " [ Tatsunoko Vs Capcom ] certainly beat the initial expectations . It didn 't set any land speed records , but it was a success , " Killian stated . " And that 's really saying something considering that we 're talking about a game that was not only never coming out , but has a title that most people can 't even pronounce . " In Japan , Ultimate All @-@ Stars sold 18 @,@ 913 units as of January 2 , 2011 , and , as of December 27 , 2009 , Cross Generation of Heroes has sold 62 @,@ 805 units .
Certain versions of Tatsunoko vs. Capcom : Ultimate All @-@ Stars are bundled with a Mad Catz arcade stick , whose artwork was produced by Japanese artist Shinkiro . Pre @-@ orders from GameStop included eight of thirteen lenticular trading cards . As a buying incentive , Capcom 's Japanese online store offered a Secret File compilation book of concept art , illustrations and design notes ; it is the twenty @-@ seventh volume of the Secret File series , which was originally published between 1996 and 1999 as a supplement to Capcom games of the time . The store also included an audio CD with four vocal tracks from the game : the opening song from Cross Generation of Heroes , " Across the Border " , sung by Asami Abe ; Ultimate All @-@ Stars ' English re @-@ recording of this song , sung by Anna Gholston , with rap by James C. Wilson ; and the Japanese and English versions of Roll 's theme song .
= = Reception = =
Famitsu 's four reviewers each gave Tatsunoko vs. Capcom : Cross Generation of Heroes a score of 8 / 10 . They believed that its variety of characters and its fighting system were strong points , but found its gameplay to be slightly flat , as skilled players are obligated to use Baroque Combos repeatedly . Licensing and resource issues made GameSpot 's Ricardo Torres , IGN 's John Tanaka , GamesRadar and other critics doubtful that the game would see an international release . Describing the game 's cast of licensed characters , Adam Sessler of X @-@ Play stated that " clearing the American rights to show them all in one game would be a logistical nightmare . " He also pointed out the largely unknown cast to non @-@ Japanese audiences — a notion IGN 's Mark Bozon agreed with . When Ultimate All @-@ Stars debuted at E3 2009 , it garnered numerous genre @-@ specific awards , and won the Game Critics Award for " Best Fighting Game " .
Tatsunoko vs. Capcom : Ultimate All @-@ Stars received positive reviews , with an average score of 85 % on review aggregate sites Metacritic and GameRankings . Critics praised its balance between accessibility and depth ; Adam Sessler called it the perfect game for the Wii 's demographic , and remarked that it allows " grandmas , kiddies and junkies " to perform intricate combos , while including deeper gameplay mechanics for the " more refined palate " . Contrasting the game with previous Vs. titles , GameSpot reviewer Randolph Ramsay stated that its use of fewer buttons " may seem less complex [ ... ] , but this simplicity belies the depth of each character 's move set . " Eurogamer 's Matt Edwards believed that , compared to the separate buttons for punches and kicks in Marvel vs. Capcom 2 : New Age of Heroes , Tatsunoko vs. Capcom 's streamlined approach was moderately easy to learn . Edwards claimed that the game is a " slightly slower and more user @-@ friendly Marvel , without losing the ability to pull @-@ off crazy 50 + hit combos . "
Reviewers lauded the variety of Tatsunoko vs. Capcom 's graphical presentation and character playstyles . Ben Kuchera of Ars Technica wrote that its over @-@ the @-@ top attacks can be " huge , colorful , screen @-@ filling blasts of light and movement , " and that combos " flash across the screen , claiming you landed billions of points of damage . " Adam Sessler and 1UP.com 's Richard Li found that each character played in a vastly different way ; Li explained that there are characters who take advantage of sheer speed and long range moves , others who use momentum to apply pressure to opponents and those who rely on a single opportune moment to deal vast amounts of damage . Heidi Kemps of GamePro contrasted the game with Marvel vs. Capcom 2 , and noted that " every combatant in Tatsunoko feels carefully designed to be unique , intriguing , and most importantly , worth investing time into mastering . " Bozon , Edwards , and VideoGamer.com 's Wesley Yin @-@ Poole believed that the characters were well @-@ animated , and chained attacks together seamlessly .
Li criticized Capcom for not providing an easy alternative to unlock characters since the multiple Arcade mode playthroughs needed to unlock them could be frustrating . Nintendo World Report 's Neal Ronaghan mentioned it can get tedious , and echoing Li 's sentiment , Ryan Scott of GameSpy complained that " arcade mode needs to be left to die , " as multiplayer is the primary reason for playing fighting games . Both Scott and Ramsay thought many of the other unlockables obtainable through Arcade mode didn 't offer sufficient value . Reviewers had mixed experiences with its online component ; GameDaily 's Robert Workman reported that it ran fluidly , but Scott said that the game lagged often enough to be unplayable . Edwards thought " the netcode hasn 't shown itself to be particularly sturdy , " but the situation may improve as the number of local players increase . Both Bozon and GameTrailers said that performance depends on each player 's connection ; the latter explained that lag is more likely to occur when playing against a distant opponent .
The game 's soundtrack was lauded , with Robert Workman of GameDaily highlighting its " fantastic mix of strong techno tunes and dramatic battle themes . " Ramsay cited its " convincing battle effects " and " catchy music " ; he believed that the latter complemented the game 's dynamic nature and presentation . Bozon and Official Nintendo Magazine 's Chris Scullion expressed annoyance with the voice work of the top @-@ down shooter minigame . Bozon explained that three of the four playable characters yell every time they fire .
Critics speculated on the commercial risk of localizing Tatsunoko vs. Capcom for the Wii . Kemps considered it a risky undertaking for Capcom , as the console isn 't renowned for fighting titles , and as the game abandons the three @-@ on @-@ three matches of the Marvel titles — which popularized the Vs. series — in favor of the two @-@ on @-@ two formula used in the older , more obscure Vs. games . Kemps and Bozon pointed out that the game 's Tatsunoko characters are largely unknown to non @-@ Japanese audiences ; this caused Bozon to liken the game to a dark horse , as he considered it to be one of the Wii 's best titles . Li reported that " Many wondered why Capcom chose Nintendo 's Wii as the exclusive platform [ ... ] , a multiplatform release would reach a broader audience , critics argued . " The game 's quality led Yin @-@ Poole to question whether it would stay exclusive to the Wii ; he speculated , " Perhaps TvC is a test , then . If it sells even remotely well , maybe we 'll see a sequel on Microsoft and Sony 's consoles . Or maybe , fingers crossed , it 'll add further weight to the case for [ Marvel vs. Capcom 3 ] . "
= Gregorian mission =
The Gregorian mission or Augustinian mission was sent by Pope Gregory the Great in AD 596 to convert Britain 's Anglo @-@ Saxons . Headed by Augustine of Canterbury , by the death of the last missionary in 635 the mission had established Christianity in southern Britain . Along with the Irish and Frankish missions it converted other parts of Britain as well and influenced the Hiberno @-@ Scottish missions to Continental Europe .
By the time the Roman Empire recalled its legions from the province of Britannia in 410 , parts of the island had already been settled by pagan Germanic tribes who , later in the century , appear to have taken control of Kent and other coastal regions . In the late 6th century Pope Gregory sent a group of missionaries to Kent to convert Æthelberht , King of Kent , whose wife , Bertha of Kent , was a Frankish princess and practising Christian . Augustine was the prior of Gregory 's own monastery in Rome and Gregory prepared the way for the mission by soliciting aid from the Frankish rulers along Augustine 's route .
In 597 the forty missionaries arrived in Kent and were permitted by Æthelberht to preach freely in his capital of Canterbury . Soon the missionaries wrote to Gregory telling him of their success and that conversions were taking place . The exact date of Æthelberht 's conversion is unknown but it occurred before 601 . A second group of monks and clergy was dispatched in 601 bearing books and other items for the new foundation . Gregory intended Augustine to be the metropolitan archbishop of the southern part of the British Isles , and gave him power over the clergy of the native Britons , but in a series of meetings with Augustine the long @-@ established Celtic bishops refused to acknowledge his authority .
Before Æthelberht 's death in 616 a number of other bishoprics had been established but after that date , a pagan backlash set in and the see , or bishopric , of London was abandoned . Æthelberht 's daughter , Æthelburg , married Edwin , the king of the Northumbrians , and by 627 Paulinus , the bishop who accompanied her north , had converted Edwin and a number of other Northumbrians . When Edwin died , in about 633 , his widow and Paulinus were forced to flee to Kent . Although the missionaries could not remain in all of the places they had evangelised , by the time the last of them died in 653 , they had established Christianity in Kent and the surrounding countryside and contributed a Roman tradition to the practice of Christianity in Britain .
= = Background = =
By the 4th century the Roman province of Britannia was converted to Christianity and had even produced its own heretic in Pelagius . Britain sent three bishops to the Synod of Arles in 314 , and a Gaulish bishop went to the island in 396 to help settle disciplinary matters . Lead baptismal basins and other artefacts bearing Christian symbols testify to a growing Christian presence at least until about 360 .
After the Roman legions withdrew from Britannia in 410 the natives of Great Britain were left to defend themselves , and non @-@ Christian Angles , Saxons , and Jutes — generally referred to collectively as Anglo @-@ Saxons — settled the southern parts of the island . Though most of Britain remained Christian , isolation from Rome bred a number of distinct practices — Celtic Christianity — including emphasis on monasteries instead of bishoprics , differences in calculation of the date of Easter , and a modified clerical tonsure . Evidence for the continued existence of Christianity in eastern Britain at this time includes the survival of the cult of Saint Alban and the occurrence of eccles — from the Latin for church — in place names . There is no evidence that these native Christians tried to convert the Anglo @-@ Saxon newcomers .
The Anglo @-@ Saxon invasions coincided with the disappearance of most remnants of Roman civilisation in the areas held by the Anglo @-@ Saxons , including the economic and religious structures . Whether this was a result of the Angles themselves , as the early medieval writer Gildas argued , or mere coincidence is unclear . The archaeological evidence suggests much variation in the way that the tribes established themselves in Britain concurrently with the decline of urban Roman culture in Britain . The net effect was that when Augustine arrived in 597 the Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdoms had little continuity with the preceding Roman civilisation . In the words of the historian John Blair , " Augustine of Canterbury began his mission with an almost clean slate . "
= = Gregory the Great and his motivations = =
= = = Immediate background = = =
In 595 , when Pope Gregory I decided to send a mission to the Anglo @-@ Saxons , the Kingdom of Kent was ruled by Æthelberht . He had married a Christian princess named Bertha before 588 , and perhaps earlier than 560 . Bertha was the daughter of Charibert I , one of the Merovingian kings of the Franks . As one of the conditions of her marriage she had brought a bishop named Liudhard with her to Kent as her chaplain . They restored a church in Canterbury that dated to Roman times , possibly the present @-@ day St Martin 's Church . Æthelberht was at that time a pagan but he allowed his wife freedom of worship . Liudhard does not appear to have made many converts among the Anglo @-@ Saxons , and if not for the discovery of a gold coin , the Liudhard medalet , bearing the inscription Leudardus Eps ( Eps is an abbreviation of Episcopus , the Latin word for bishop ) his existence may have been doubted . One of Bertha 's biographers states that , influenced by his wife , Æthelberht requested Pope Gregory to send missionaries . The historian Ian Wood feels that the initiative came from the Kentish court as well as the queen .
= = = Motivations = = =
Most historians take the view that Gregory initiated the mission , although exactly why remains unclear . A famous story recorded by Bede , an 8th @-@ century monk who wrote a history of the British Church , relates that Gregory saw fair @-@ haired Anglo @-@ Saxon slaves from Britain in the Roman slave market and was inspired to try to convert their people . Supposedly Gregory inquired about the identity of the slaves , and was told that they were Angles from the island of Great Britain . Gregory replied that they were not Angles , but Angels . The earliest version of this story is from an anonymous Life of Gregory written at Whitby Abbey about 705 . Bede , as well as the Whitby Life of Gregory , records that Gregory himself had attempted to go on a missionary journey to Britain before becoming pope . In 595 Gregory wrote to one of the papal estate managers in southern Gaul , asking that he buy English slave boys in order that they might be educated in monasteries . Some historians have seen this as a sign that Gregory was already planning the mission to Britain at that time , and that he intended to send the slaves as missionaries , although the letter is also open to other interpretations .
The historian N. J. Higham speculates that Gregory had originally intended to send the British slave boys as missionaries , until in 596 he received news that Liudhard had died , thus opening the way for more serious missionary activity . Higham argues that it was the lack of any bishop in Britain which allowed Gregory to send Augustine , with orders to be consecrated as a bishop if needed . Another consideration was that cooperation would be more easily obtained from the Frankish royal courts if they no longer had their own bishop and agent in place .
Higham theorises that Gregory believed that the end of the world was imminent , and that he was destined to be a major part of God 's plan for the apocalypse . His belief was rooted in the idea that the world would go through six ages , and that he was living at the end of the sixth age , a notion that may have played a part in Gregory 's decision to dispatch the mission . Gregory not only targeted the British with his missionary efforts , but he also supported other missionary endeavours , encouraging bishops and kings to work together for the conversion of non @-@ Christians within their territories . He urged the conversion of the heretical Arians in Italy and elsewhere , as well as the conversion of Jews . Also pagans in Sicily , Sardinia and Corsica were the subject of letters to officials , urging their conversion .
Some scholars suggest that Gregory 's main motivation was to increase the number of Christians ; others wonder if more political matters such as extending the primacy of the papacy to additional provinces and the recruitment of new Christians looking to Rome for leadership were also involved . Such considerations may have also played a part , as influencing the emerging power of the Kentish Kingdom under Æthelberht could have had some bearing on the choice of location . Also , the mission may have been an outgrowth of the missionary efforts against the Lombards . At the time of the mission Britain was the only part of the former Roman Empire which remained in pagan hands and the historian Eric John argues that Gregory desired to bring the last remaining pagan area of the old empire back under Christian control .
= = = Practical considerations = = =
The choice of Kent and Æthelberht was almost certainly dictated by a number of factors , including that Æthelberht had allowed his Christian wife to worship freely . Trade between the Franks and Æthelberht 's kingdom was well established , and the language barrier between the two regions was apparently only a minor obstacle as the interpreters for the mission came from the Franks . Another reason for the mission was the growing power of the Kentish kingdom . Since the eclipse of King Ceawlin of Wessex in 592 , Æthelberht was the leading Anglo @-@ Saxon ruler ; Bede refers to Æthelberht as having imperium , or overlordship , south of the River Humber . Lastly , the proximity of Kent to the Franks allowed for support from a Christian area . There is some evidence , including Gregory 's letters to Frankish kings in support of the mission , that some of the Franks felt they had a claim to overlordship over some of the southern British kingdoms at this time . The presence of a Frankish bishop could also have lent credence to claims of overlordship , if Liudhard was felt to be acting as a representative of the Frankish Church and not merely as a spiritual adviser to the queen . Archaeological remains support the notion that there were cultural influences from Francia in England at that time .
= = = Preparations = = =
In 595 , Gregory chose Augustine , prior of Gregory 's own monastery of St Andrew in Rome , to head the mission to Kent . Gregory selected monks to accompany Augustine and sought support from the Frankish kings . The pope wrote to a number of Frankish bishops on Augustine 's behalf , introducing the mission and asking that Augustine and his companions be made welcome . Copies of letters to some of these bishops survive in Rome . The pope wrote to King Theuderic II of Burgundy and to King Theudebert II of Austrasia , as well as their grandmother Brunhilda of Austrasia , seeking aid for the mission . Gregory thanked King Chlothar II of Neustria for aiding Augustine . Besides hospitality , the Frankish bishops and kings provided interpreters and were asked to allow some Frankish priests to accompany the mission . By soliciting help from the Frankish kings and bishops , Gregory helped to ensure a friendly reception for Augustine in Kent , as Æthelbert was unlikely to mistreat a mission which enjoyed the evident support of his wife 's relatives and people . The Franks at that time were attempting to extend their influence in Kent , and assisting Augustine 's mission furthered that goal . Chlothar , in particular , needed a friendly realm across the Channel to help guard his kingdom 's flanks against his fellow Frankish kings .
= = Arrival and first efforts = =
= = = Composition and arrival = = =
The mission consisted of about forty missionaries , some of whom were monks . Soon after leaving Rome , the missionaries halted , daunted by the nature of the task before them . They sent Augustine back to Rome to request papal permission to return , which Gregory refused , and instead sending Augustine back with letters to encourage the missionaries to persevere . Another reason for the pause may have been the receipt of news of the death of King Childebert II , who had been expected to help the missionaries ; Augustine may have returned to Rome to secure new instructions and letters of introduction , as well as to update Gregory on the new political situation in Gaul . Most likely , they halted in the Rhone valley . Gregory also took the opportunity to name Augustine as abbot of the mission . Augustine then returned to the rest of the missionaries , with new instructions , probably including orders to
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seek consecration as a bishop on the Continent if the conditions in Kent warranted it .
In 597 the mission landed in Kent , and it quickly achieved some initial success : Æthelberht permitted the missionaries to settle and preach in his capital of Canterbury , where they used the church of St. Martin 's for services , and this church became the seat of the bishopric . Neither Bede nor Gregory mentions the date of Æthelberht 's conversion , but it probably took place in 597 .
= = = Process of conversion = = =
In the early medieval period , large @-@ scale conversions required the ruler 's conversion first , and large numbers of converts are recorded within a year of the mission 's arrival in Kent . By 601 , Gregory was writing to both Æthelberht and Bertha , calling the king his son and referring to his baptism . A late medieval tradition , recorded by the 15th @-@ century chronicler Thomas Elmham , gives the date of the king 's conversion as Whit Sunday , or 2 June 597 ; there is no reason to doubt this date , but there is no other evidence for it . A letter of Gregory 's to Patriarch Eulogius of Alexandria in June 598 mentions the number of converts made , but does not mention any baptism of the king in 597 , although it is clear that by 601 he had been converted . The royal baptism probably took place at Canterbury but Bede does not mention the location .
Why Æthelberht chose to convert to Christianity is uncertain . Bede suggests that the king converted strictly for religious reasons , but most modern historians see other motives behind Æthelberht 's decision . Certainly , given Kent 's close contacts with Gaul , it is possible that Æthelberht sought baptism in order to smooth his relations with the Merovingian kingdoms , or to align himself with one of the factions then contending in Gaul . Another consideration may have been that new methods of administration often followed conversion , whether directly from the newly introduced church or indirectly from other Christian kingdoms .
Evidence from Bede suggests that , although Æthelberht encouraged conversion , he could not compel his subjects to become Christians . The historian R. A. Markus feels that this was due to a strong pagan presence in the kingdom that forced the king to rely on indirect means including royal patronage and friendship to secure conversions . For Markus this is demonstrated by the way in which Bede describes the king 's conversion efforts which , when a subject converted , were to " rejoice at their conversion " and to " hold believers in greater affection " .
= = = Instructions and missionaries from Rome = = =
After these conversions , Augustine sent Laurence back to Rome with a report of his success along with questions about the mission . Bede records the letter and Gregory 's replies in chapter 27 of his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum , this section of the History is usually known as the Libellus responsionum . Augustine asked for Gregory 's advice on some issues , including how to organise the church , the punishment for church robbers , guidance on who was allowed to marry whom , and the consecration of bishops . Other topics were relations between the churches of Britain and Gaul , childbirth and baptism , and when it was lawful for people to receive communion and for a priest to celebrate mass . Other than the trip by Laurence , little is known of the activities of the missionaries in the period from their arrival until 601 . Gregory mentions the mass conversions , and there is mention of Augustine working miracles that helped win converts , but there is little evidence of specific events .
According to Bede , further missionaries were sent from Rome in 601 . They brought a pallium for Augustine , gifts of sacred vessels , vestments , relics , and books . The pallium was the symbol of metropolitan status , and signified that Augustine was in union with the Roman papacy . Along with the pallium , a letter from Gregory directed the new archbishop to ordain twelve suffragan bishops as soon as possible , and to send a bishop to York . Gregory 's plan was that there would be two metropolitan sees , one at York and one at London , with twelve suffragan bishops under each archbishop . Augustine was also instructed to transfer his archiepiscopal see to London from Canterbury , which never happened , perhaps because London was not part of Æthelberht 's domain . Also , London remained a stronghold of paganism , as events after the death of Æthelberht revealed . London at that time was part of the Kingdom of Essex , which was ruled by Æthelberht 's nephew Sæbert of Essex , who converted to Christianity in 604 . The historian S. Brechter has suggested that the metropolitan see was indeed moved to London , and that it was only with the abandonment of London as a see after Æthelberht 's death that Canterbury became the archiepiscopal see , contradicting Bede 's version of events . The choice of London as Gregory 's proposed southern archbishopric was probably due to his understanding of how Britain was administered under the Romans , when London was the principal city of the province .
Along with the letter to Augustine , the returning missionaries brought a letter to Æthelberht that urged the king to act like the Roman Emperor Constantine I and force the conversion of his followers to Christianity . The king was also urged to destroy all pagan shrines . However , Gregory also wrote a letter to Mellitus , the Epistola ad Mellitum of July 601 , in which the pope took a different tack in regards to pagan shrines , suggesting that they be cleansed of idols and converted to Christian use rather than destroyed ; the pope compared the Anglo @-@ Saxons to the ancient Israelites , a recurring theme in Gregory 's writings . He also suggested that the Anglo @-@ Saxons build small huts much like those built during the Jewish festival of Sukkot , to be used during the annual autumn slaughter festivals so as to gradually change the Anglo @-@ Saxon pagan festivals into Christian ones .
The historian R. A. Markus suggests that the reason for the conflicting advice is that the letter to Æthelberht was written first , and sent off with the returning missionaries . Markus argues that the pope , after thinking further about the circumstances of the mission in Britain , then sent a follow @-@ up letter , the Epistolae ad Mellitum , to Mellitus , then en route to Canterbury , which contained new instructions . Markus sees this as a turning point in missionary history , in that forcible conversion gave way to persuasion . This traditional view that the Epistola represents a contradiction of the letter to Æthelberht has been challenged by George Demacopoulos who argues that the letter to Æthelberht was mainly meant to encourage the king in spiritual matters , while the Epistola was sent to deal with purely practical matters , and thus the two do not contradict each other . Flora Spiegel , a writer on Anglo @-@ Saxon literature , suggests that the theme of comparing the Anglo @-@ Saxons to the Israelites was part of a conversion strategy involving gradual steps , including an explicitly proto @-@ Jewish one between paganism and Christianity . Spiegel sees this as an extension of Gregory 's view of Judaism as halfway between Christianity and paganism . Thus , Gregory felt that first the Anglo @-@ Saxons must be brought up to the equivalent of Jewish practices , then after that stage was reached they could be brought completely up to Christian practices .
= = = Church building = = =
Bede relates that after the mission 's arrival in Kent and conversion of the king , they were allowed to restore and rebuild old Roman churches for their use . One such was Christ Church , Canterbury , which became Augustine 's cathedral church . Archaeological evidence for other Roman churches having been rebuilt is slight , but the church of St Pancras in Canterbury has a Roman building at its core , although it is unclear whether that older building was a church during the Roman era . Another possible site is Lullingstone , in Kent , where a religious site dating to 300 was found underneath an abandoned church .
Soon after his arrival , Augustine founded the monastery of Saints Peter and Paul , which later became St Augustine 's Abbey , on land donated by the king . This foundation has often been claimed as the first Benedictine abbey outside Italy , and that by founding it Augustine introduced the Rule of St. Benedict into England , but there is no evidence that the abbey followed the Benedictine Rule at the time of its foundation .
= = Efforts in the south = =
= = = Relations with the British Christians = = =
Gregory had ordered that the native British bishops were to be governed by Augustine and , consequently , Augustine arranged a meeting with some of the native clergy some time between 602 and 604 . The meeting took place at a tree later given the name " Augustine 's Oak " , probably around the present @-@ day boundary between Somerset and Gloucestershire . Augustine apparently argued that the British church should give up any of its customs not in accordance with Roman practices , including the dating of Easter . He also urged them to help with the conversion of the Anglo @-@ Saxons .
After some discussion , the local bishops stated that they needed to consult with their own people before agreeing to Augustine 's requests , and left the meeting . Bede relates that a group of native bishops consulted an old hermit who said they should obey Augustine if , when they next met with him , Augustine rose when he greeted the natives . But if Augustine failed to stand up when they arrived for the second meeting , they should not submit . When Augustine failed to rise to greet the second delegation of British bishops at the next meeting , Bede says the native bishops refused to submit to Augustine . Bede then has Augustine proclaim a prophecy that because of lack of missionary effort towards the Anglo @-@ Saxons from the British church , the native church would suffer at the hands of the Anglo @-@ Saxons . This prophecy was seen as fulfilled when Æthelfrith of Northumbria supposedly killed 1200 native monks at the Battle of Chester . Bede uses the story of Augustine 's two meetings with two groups of British bishops as an example of how the native clergy refused to cooperate with the Gregorian mission . Later , Aldhelm , the abbot of Malmesbury , writing in the later part of the 7th century , claimed that the native clerks would not eat with the missionaries , nor would they perform Christian ceremonies with them . Laurence , Augustine 's successor , writing to the Irish bishops during his tenure of Canterbury , also stated that an Irish bishop , Dagan , would not share meals with the missionaries .
One probable reason for the British clergy 's refusal to cooperate with the Gregorian missionaries was the ongoing conflict between the natives and the Anglo @-@ Saxons , who still were encroaching upon British lands at the time of the mission . The British were unwilling to preach to the invaders of their country , and the invaders saw the natives as second @-@ class citizens , and would have been unwilling to listen to any conversion efforts . There was also a political dimension , as the missionaries could be seen as agents of the invaders ; because Augustine was protected by Æthelberht , submitting to Augustine would have been seen as submitting to Æthelberht 's authority , which the British bishops would have been unwilling to do .
Most of the information on the Gregorian mission comes from Bede 's narrative , and this reliance on one source necessarily leaves the picture of native missionary efforts skewed . First , Bede 's information is mainly from the north and the east of Britain . The western areas , where the native clergy was strongest , was an area little covered by Bede 's informants . In addition , although Bede presents the native church as one entity , in reality the native British were divided into a number of small political units , which makes Bede 's generalisations suspect . The historian Ian Wood argues that the existence of the Libellus points to more contact between Augustine and the native Christians because the topics covered in the work are not restricted to conversion from paganism , but also dealt with relations between differing styles of Christianity . Besides the text of the Libellus contained within Bede 's work , other versions of the letter circulated , some of which included a question omitted from Bede 's version . Wood argues that the question , which dealt with the cult of a native Christian saint , is only understandable if this cult impacted Augustine 's mission , which would imply that Augustine had more relations with the local Christians than those related by Bede .
= = = Spread of bishoprics and church affairs = = =
In 604 , another bishopric was founded , this time at Rochester , where Justus was consecrated as bishop . The king of Essex was converted in the same year , allowing another see to be established at London , with Mellitus as bishop . Rædwald , the king of the East Angles , also was converted , but no see was established in his territory . Rædwald had been converted while visiting Æthelberht in Kent , but when he returned to his own court he worshiped pagan gods as well as the Christian god . Bede relates that Rædwald 's backsliding was because of his still @-@ pagan wife , but the historian S. D. Church sees political implications of overlordship behind the vacillation about conversion . When Augustine died in 604 , Laurence , another missionary , succeeded him as archbishop .
The historian N. J. Higham suggests that a synod , or ecclesiastical conference to discuss church affairs and rules , was held at London during the early years of the mission , possibly shortly after 603 . Boniface , an Anglo @-@ Saxon native who became a missionary to the continental Saxons , mentions such a synod being held at London . Boniface says that the synod legislated on marriage , which he discussed with Pope Gregory III in 742 . Higham argues that because Augustine had asked for clarifications on the subject of marriage from Gregory the Great , it is likely that he could have held a synod to deliberate on the issue . Nicholas Brooks , another historian , is not so sure that there was such a synod , but does not completely rule out the possibility . He suggests it might have been that Boniface was influenced by a recent reading of Bede 's work .
The rise of Æthelfrith of Northumbria in the north of Britain limited Æthelbertht 's ability to expand his kingdom as well as limiting the spread of Christianity . Æthelfrith took over Deira about 604 , adding it to his own realm of Bernicia . However , the Frankish kings in Gaul were increasingly involved in internal power struggles , leaving Æthelbertht free to continue to promote Christianity within his own lands . The Kentish Church sent Justus , then Bishop of Rochester , and Peter , the abbot of Sts Peter and Paul Abbey in Canterbury , to the Council of Paris in 614 , probably with Æthelbertht 's support . Æthelbertht also promulgated a code of laws , which was probably influenced by the missionaries .
= = = Pagan reactions = = =
A pagan reaction set in following Æthelbert 's death in 616 ; Mellitus was expelled from London never to return , and Justus was expelled from Rochester , although he eventually managed to return after spending some time with Mellitus in Gaul . Bede relates a story that Laurence was preparing to join Mellitus and Justus in Francia when he had a dream in which Saint Peter appeared and whipped Laurence as a rebuke for his plans to leave his mission . When Laurence woke whip marks had miraculously appeared on his body . He showed these to the new Kentish king , who promptly was converted and recalled the exiled bishops .
The historian N. J. Higham sees political factors at work in the expulsion of Mellitus , as it was Sæberht 's sons who banished Mellitus . Bede said that the sons had never been converted , and after Æthelberht 's death they attempted to force Mellitus to give them the Eucharist without ever becoming Christians , seeing the Eucharist as magical . Although Bede does not give details of any political factors surrounding the event , it is likely that by expelling Mellitus the sons were demonstrating their independence from Kent , and repudiating the overlordship that Æthelberht had exercised over the East Saxons . There is no evidence that Christians among the East Saxons were mistreated or oppressed after Mellitus ' departure .
Æthelberht was succeeded in Kent by his son Eadbald . Bede states that after Æthelberht 's death Eadbald refused to be baptised and married his stepmother , an act forbidden by the teachings of the Roman Church . Although Bede 's account makes Laurence 's miraculous flogging the trigger for Eadbald 's baptism , this completely ignores the political and diplomatic problems facing Eadbald . There are also chronological problems with Bede 's narrative , as surviving papal letters contradict Bede 's account . Historians differ on the exact date of Eadbald 's conversion . D. P. Kirby argues that papal letters imply that Eadbald was converted during the time that Justus was Archbishop of Canterbury , which was after Laurence 's death , and long after the death of Æthelberht . Henry Mayr @-@ Harting accepts the Bedan chronology as correct , and feels that Eadbald was baptised soon after his father 's death . Higham agrees with Kirby that Eadbald did not convert immediately , contending that the king supported Christianity but did not convert for at least eight years after his father 's death .
= = Spread of Christianity to Northumbria = =
The spread of Christianity in the north of Britain gained ground when Edwin of Northumbria married Æthelburg , a daughter of Æthelbert , and agreed to allow her to continue to worship as a Christian . He also agreed to allow Paulinus of York to accompany her as a bishop , and for Paulinus to preach to the court . By 627 , Paulinus had converted Edwin , and on Easter , 627 , Edwin was baptised . Many others were baptised after the king 's conversion . The exact date when Paulinus went north is unclear ; some historians argue for 625 , the traditional date , whereas others believe that it was closer to 619 . Higham argues that the marriage alliance was part of an attempt by Eadbald , brother of the bride , to capitalise on the death of Rædwald in about 624 , in an attempt to regain the overkingship his father had once enjoyed . According to Higham , Rædwald 's death also removed one of the political factors keeping Eadbald from converting , and Higham dates Eadbald 's baptism to the time that his sister was sent to Northumbria . Although Bede 's account gives all the initiative to Edwin , it is likely that Eadbald also was active in seeking such an alliance . Edwin 's position in the north also was helped by Rædwald 's death , and Edwin seems to have held some authority over other kingdoms until his death .
Paulinus was active not only in Deira , which was Edwin 's powerbase , but also in Bernicia and Lindsey . Edwin planned to set up a northern archbishopric at York , following Gregory the Great 's plan for two archdioceses in Britain . Both Edwin and Eadbald sent to Rome to request a pallium for Paulinus , which was sent in July 634 . Many of the East Angles , whose king , Eorpwald appears to have converted to Christianity , were also converted by the missionaries . Following Edwin 's death in battle , in either 633 or 634 , Paulinus returned to Kent with Edwin 's widow and daughter . Only one member of Paulinus ' group stayed behind , James the Deacon . After Justus ' departure from Northumbria , a new king , Oswald , invited missionaries from the Irish monastery of Iona , who worked to convert the kingdom .
About the time that Edwin died in 633 , a member of the East Anglian royal family , Sigeberht , returned to Britain after his conversion while in exile in Francia . He asked Honorius , one of the Gregorian missionaries who was then Archbishop of Canterbury , to send him a bishop , and Honorius sent Felix of Burgundy , who was already a consecrated bishop ; Felix succeeded in converting the East Angles .
= = Other aspects = =
The Gregorian missionaries focused their efforts in areas where Roman settlement had been concentrated . It is possible that Gregory , when he sent the missionaries , was attempting to restore a form of Roman civilisation to England , modelling the church 's organisation after that of the church in Francia at that time . Another aspect of the mission was how little of it was based on monasticism . One monastery was established at Canterbury , which later became St Augustine 's Abbey , but although Augustine and some of his missionaries had been monks , they do not appear to have lived as monks at Canterbury . Instead , they lived more as secular clergy serving a cathedral church , and it appears likely that the sees established at Rochester and London were organised along similar lines . The Gaulish and Italian churches were organised around cities and the territories controlled by those cities . Pastoral services were centralised , and churches were built in the larger villages of the cities ' territorial rule . The seat of the bishopric was established in the city and all churches belonged to the diocese , staffed by the bishop 's clergy .
Most modern historians have noted how the Gregorian missionaries come across in Bede 's account as colourless and boring , compared to the Irish missionaries in Northumbria , and this is related directly to the way Bede gathered his information . The historian Henry Mayr @-@ Harting argues that in addition , most of the Gregorian missionaries were concerned with the Roman virtue of gravitas , or personal dignity not given to emotional displays , and this would have limited the colourful stories available about them .
One reason for the mission 's success was that it worked by example . Also important was Gregory 's flexibility and willingness to allow the missionaries to adjust their liturgies and behaviour . Another reason was the willingness of Æthelberht to be baptised by a non @-@ Frank . The king would have been wary of allowing the Frankish bishop Liudhard to convert him , as that might open Kent up to Frankish claims of overlordship . But being converted by an agent of the distant Roman pontiff was not only safer , it allowed the added prestige of accepting baptism from the central source of the Latin Church . As the Roman Church was considered part of the Roman Empire in Constantinople , this also would gain Æthelberht acknowledgement from the emperor . Other historians have attributed the success of the mission to the substantial resources Gregory invested in its success ; he sent over forty missionaries in the first group , with more joining them later , a quite significant number .
= = Legacy = =
The last of Gregory 's missionaries , Archbishop Honorius , died on 30 September 653 . He was succeeded as archbishop by Deusdedit , a native Englishman .
= = = Pagan practices = = =
The missionaries were forced to proceed slowly , and could not do much about eliminating pagan practices , or destroying temples or other sacred sites , unlike the missionary efforts that had taken place in Gaul under St Martin . There was little fighting or bloodshed during the mission . Paganism was still practised in Kent until the 630s , and it was not declared illegal until 640 . Although Honorius sent Felix to the East Angles , it appears that most of the impetus for conversion came from the East Anglian king .
With the Gregorian missionaries , a third strand of Christian practice was added to the British Isles , to combine with the Gaulish and the Hiberno @-@ British strands already present . Although it is often suggested that the Gregorian missionaries introduced the Rule of Saint Benedict into England , there is no supporting evidence . The early archbishops at Canterbury claimed supremacy over all the bishops in the British Isles , but their claim was not acknowledged by most of the rest of the bishops . The Gregorian missionaries appear to have played no part in the conversion of the West Saxons , who were converted by a missionary sent directly by Pope Honorius I. Neither did they have much lasting influence in Northumbria , where after Edwin 's death the conversion of the Northumbrians was achieved by missionaries from Iona , not Canterbury .
= = = Papal aspects = = =
An important by @-@ product of the Gregorian mission was the close relationship it fostered between the Anglo @-@ Saxon Church and the Roman Church . Although Gregory had intended for the southern archiepiscopal see to be located at London , that never happened . A later tradition , dating from 797 , when an attempt was made to move the archbishopric from Canterbury to London by King Coenwulf of Mercia , stated that on the death of Augustine , the " wise men " of the Anglo @-@ Saxons met and decided that the see should remain at Canterbury , for that was where Augustine had preached . The idea that an archbishop needed a pallium in order to exercise his archiepiscopal authority derives from the Gregorian mission , which established the custom at Canterbury from where it was spread to the Continent by later Anglo @-@ Saxon missionaries such as Willibrord and Boniface . The close ties between the Anglo @-@ Saxon church and Rome were strengthened later in the 7th century when Theodore of Tarsus was appointed to Canterbury by the papacy .
The mission was part of a movement by Gregory to turn away from the East , and look to the Western parts of the old Roman Empire . After Gregory , a number of his successors as pope continued in the same vein , and maintained papal support for the conversion of the Anglo @-@ Saxons . The missionary efforts of Augustine and his companions , along with those of the Hiberno @-@ Scottish missionaries , were the model for the later Anglo @-@ Saxon missionaries to Germany . The historian R. A. Markus suggests that the Gregorian mission was a turning point in papal missionary strategy , marking the beginnings of a policy of persuasion rather than coercion .
= = = Cults of the saints = = =
Another effect of the mission was the promotion of the cult of Pope Gregory the Great by the Northumbrians amongst others ; the first Life of Gregory is from Whitby Abbey in Northumbria . Gregory was not popular in Rome , and it was not until Bede 's Ecclesisastical History began to circulate that Gregory 's cult also took root there . Gregory , in Bede 's work , is the driving force behind the Gregorian mission , and Augustine and the other missionaries are portrayed as depending on him for advice and help in their endeavours . Bede also gives a leading role in the conversion of Northumbria to Gregorian missionaries , especially in his Chronica Maiora , in which no mention is made of any Irish missionaries . By putting Gregory at the centre of the mission , even though he did not take part in it , Bede helped to spread the cult of Gregory , who not only became one of the major saints in Anglo @-@ Saxon England , but continued to overshadow Augustine even in the afterlife ; an Anglo @-@ Saxon church council of 747 ordered that Augustine should always be mentioned in the liturgy right after Gregory .
A number of the missionaries were considered saints , including Augustine , who became another cult figure ; the monastery he founded in Canterbury was eventually rededicated to him . Honorius , James the Deacon , Justus , Lawrence , Mellitus , Paulinus , and Peter , were also considered saints , along with Æthelberht , of whom Bede said that he continued to protect his people even after death .
= = = Art , architecture , and music = = =
A few objects at Canterbury have traditionally been linked with the mission , including the 6th @-@ century St Augustine Gospels produced in Italy , now held at Cambridge as Corpus Christi College MS 286 . There is a record of an illuminated and imported Bible of St Gregory , now lost , at Canterbury in the 7th century . Thomas of Elmham , in the late 15th century , described a number of other books held at that time by St Augustine 's Abbey , believed to have been gifts to the abbey from Augustine . In particular , Thomas recorded a psalter as being associated with Augustine , which the antiquary John Leland saw at the Dissolution of the Monasteries in the 1530s , but it has since disappeared .
Augustine built a church at his foundation of Sts Peter and Paul Abbey at Canterbury , later renamed St Augustine 's Abbey . This church was destroyed after the Norman Conquest to make way for a new abbey church . The mission also established Augustine 's cathedral at Canterbury , which became Christ Church Priory . This church has not survived , and it is unclear if the church that was destroyed in 1067 and described by the medieval writer Eadmer as Augustine 's church , was built by Augustine . Another medieval chronicler , Florence of Worcester , claimed that the priory was destroyed in 1011 , and Eadmer himself had contradictory stories about the events of 1011 , in one place claiming that the church was destroyed by fire and in another claiming only that it was looted . A cathedral was also established in Rochester ; although the building was destroyed in 676 , the bishopric continued in existence . Other church buildings were erected by the missionaries in London , York , and possibly Lincoln , although none of them survive .
The missionaries introduced a musical form of chant into Britain , similar to that used in Rome during the mass . During the 7th and 8th centuries Canterbury was renowned for the excellence of its clergy 's chanting , and sent singing masters to instruct others , including two to Wilfrid , who became Bishop of York . Putta , the first Bishop of Rochester , had a reputation for his skill at chanting , which he was said to have learned from the Gregorian missionaries . One of them , James the Deacon , taught chanting in Northumbria after Paulinus returned to Kent ; Bede noted that James was accomplished in the singing of the chants .
= = = Legal codes and documents = = =
The historian Ann Williams has argued that the missionaries ' familiarity with the Roman law , recently codified by the Emperor Justinian in the Corpus Iuris Civilis promulgated in 534 , were an influence on the English kings promulgating their own law codes . Bede specifically calls Æthelberht 's code a " code of law after the Roman manner " . Another influence , also introduced by the missionaries , on the early English law codes was the Old Testament legal codes . Williams sees the issuing of legal codes as not just laws but also as statements of royal authority , showing that the kings were not just warlords but also lawgivers and capable of securing peace and justice in their kingdoms . It has also been suggested that the missionaries contributed to the development of the charter in England , for the earliest surviving charters show not just Celtic and Frankish influences but also Roman touches . Williams argues that it is possible that Augustine introduced the charter into Kent .
= Russ Christopher =
Russell Ormand Christopher ( September 12 , 1917 – December 5 , 1954 ) was an American right @-@ handed pitcher in Major League Baseball who played for seven seasons in the American League with the Philadelphia Athletics and Cleveland Indians . In 241 career games , Christopher pitched 999 ⅔ innings and posted a win @-@ loss record of 54 – 64 , with 46 complete games , three shutouts , and a 3 @.@ 37 earned run average ( ERA ) .
A 6 ' 3 , 180 lb. player from Richmond , California , he played minor league baseball in the New York Yankees organization before being acquired by the Athletics in the rule 5 draft . Christopher joined the Athletics ' major league roster in 1942 and played six seasons for them , and made his only All @-@ Star appearance in 1945 . He was traded to the Indians before the 1948 season , and played one year of baseball with them . After the season ended , he retired due to health concerns and worked at an aircraft plant until his death in 1954 .
= = Early life and minor leagues = =
Christopher was born in Richmond , California . His brother , Loyd Christopher , went on to become a major league outfielder . Loyd was the one first interested in becoming a professional baseball player , but would not sign a contract unless Russ signed one as well . As a child , Christopher had a case of rheumatic fever , which damaged his heart .
He had his first taste of professional baseball in 1938 , when he signed with the Clovis Pioneers of the West Texas – New Mexico League . He pitched in 13 games for the pioneers , posting a 7 – 5 record , 106 innings pitched and a 4 @.@ 50 ERA . The following year , Christopher joined the El Paso Texans , the rookie @-@ level minor league team of the New York Yankees farm system . In 32 games with the Texans , he posted an 18 – 7 record , pitched 225 innings and had an ERA of 3 @.@ 68 . He was promoted in 1940 to the Wenatchee Chiefs of the Western International League , where he finished the year with an 8 – 8 record and a 4 @.@ 72 ERA in 20 games . At the end of the season , he was promoted to the Newark Bears of the International League along with seven other minor league players .
In his lone season with the Bears , Christopher pitched in 31 games . Among those games was a four @-@ hit shutout against the Rochester Red Wings in the International League playoffs to put the Bears up two games to none . In the championship series against the Montreal Royals , Christopher pitched seven solid innings in a victory for the Bears , but injured his back and did not play another game that season . He finished the season with a 16 – 7 record , a 2 @.@ 82 ERA and 12 complete games . At the conclusion of the season , Christopher was considered the top prospect in the rule 5 draft , and the Philadelphia Athletics selected him with the first pick of the draft .
= = Philadelphia Athletics = =
After pitching with the Athletics in spring training , manager Connie Mack placed Christopher on the major league roster , and he made his debut on April 14 , 1942 . On May 5 , Christopher made his first appearance as a starting pitcher against the Detroit Tigers . The Athletics won the game , 2 – 1 , and he got his first major league win . After another win five days later , he began a long losing streak . Many of the games he did pitch were in relief , including a game in June against the Cleveland Indians where he only allowed one hit in three innings . He got his third win of the season three months after his second on August 20 in a 2 – 1 victory over the Washington Nationals . He finished the season with a 4 – 13 record , a 3 @.@ 82 ERA , 30 total games , 58 strikeouts and 99 walks . The following season , Christopher re @-@ signed with the Athletics , and was one of the few remaining pitchers from the previous year on the team , the rest having been called to serve in World War II . He began the season in the starting rotation , winning his first start of the season against the Boston Red Sox in a 5 – 0 shutout . Over the course of the season , he converted to a sidearm pitching delivery , which led to three victories in a row for him . After a July 9 loss to the Tigers brought his record to 4 – 6 , Christopher did not pitch again until August 24 , and spent the rest of the season pitching in relief . He finished the season with a 5 – 8 record and a 3 @.@ 45 ERA .
Christopher began the 1944 Philadelphia Athletics season as a member of the starting rotation along with Don Black , Lum Harris and Bobo Newsom . However , he did split time in the first half of the year between the starting rotation and the bullpen . Among those appearances was a 16 @-@ inning match against the Chicago White Sox ; Christopher pitched the final four innings , losing 4 – 2 after Hal Trosky stole home plate . On July 14 , he pitched a 4 – 3 victory against the Senators , helping his team defeat Hall of Fame pitcher Early Wynn for the first time in three years . After starting the season with a 4 – 10 record , on July 22 Christopher went on a seven @-@ game winning streak that culminated with a 5 – 1 complete game victory over the White Sox . He finished the season with a 14 – 14 record , 84 strikeouts and an ERA of 2 @.@ 97 . After the season ended , Christopher and others went on a barnstorming tour throughout the United States , ending in Wenatchee , Washington .
The following season , Christopher was part of an optimistic 1945 Athletics team , so much so that coach Earle Mack felt that Christopher , Black , Newsom and Jesse Flores were the best quartet of starting pitchers in the league . He spent most of spring training holding out for a new contract , which was eventually agreed on in the middle of March . He missed the first couple weeks of the season due to injury , and won his season debut on April 18 , a 12 @-@ inning shutout against the Senators . He followed that up with a victory over the Boston Red Sox , allowing only one earned run in his first 21 innings of the season . In mid @-@ June , Christopher had won ten games , which not only led the league , but was more than the seven the rest of the Athletics pitching staff had combined . On July 21 , Christopher was part of a 24 @-@ inning game against the Tigers that ended in a 1 – 1 tie ; he went 13 innings in the game while Joe Berry pitched the other 11 . Although Christopher had a strong start to the season , he struggled during the second half . He lost seven straight games over a two @-@ month period before winning another on August 19 against the Tigers . He finished the year with a 13 – 13 record and a 3 @.@ 17 ERA . He was selected to the American League All @-@ Star team , however the game was canceled as a result of World War II .
The 1946 Philadelphia Athletics season began with Christopher the subject of a possible trade . The Athletics tried to obtain Johnny Lindell from the Yankees , but they wanted Christopher in return . Mack refused to give him up , and as a result the trade never materialized . He began the season in the starting rotation , and was the opening day starting pitcher in a 5 – 0 loss against the Yankees . Over the first part of the season , Christopher again split time between the rotation and the bullpen . In a 7 – 3 loss to the Indians on July 18 , Christopher could not get out of the second inning , allowing five earned runs . After this , he did not pitch for a month , and spent the rest of the season as an occasional reliever . He finished the season with five wins , seven losses and a 4 @.@ 30 ERA . After the season ended , Christopher began contemplating retirement from baseball . He had lost 10 pounds in the final months of the season and was light to begin with , and decided that he would retire if he could not gain the weight back over the winter .
Christopher gained the weight back and rejoined the Athletics for the 1947 season . While there was talk of keeping him in the rotation , he ended up becoming a full @-@ time reliever for the team . Despite this , Christopher was still able to contribute with his bat ; he drove in the winning run in a May 29 game against the Red Sox . Over the course of the season , Christopher evolved into the Athletics ' closer , finishing the games when the team 's pitchers could not go the distance . He finished the season having played 44 games , finishing 38 of them and getting 12 saves in the process . He also had 10 wins , seven losses , and a 2 @.@ 90 ERA . At the end of the season , Christopher was holding out on his contract , wanting either a starting role in the rotation or more money to remain a reliever . The two sides agreed to a deal at the end of February , and he looked to be a starting pitcher during the 1948 season .
= = Cleveland Indians = =
While Christopher was holding out for a new deal from the Athletics , he was also trying to gain weight . He went to around 40 banquets on behalf of Connie Mack during the offseason , and despite his eating habits , he remained at 170 pounds , not gaining an ounce . After apparently reaching an agreement with the Athletics , Christopher was purchased by the Cleveland Indians on April 3 , 1948 . While the deal was made between Mack and Indians owner Bill Veeck , Mack said he would not have made it unless Christopher consented to it , which he did not expect to happen . Indians manager Lou Boudreau reacted positively to the trade and felt that he was the missing piece for a pennant run . He said of the trade , " With Christopher on out staff , we 're definitely contenders . "
While Christopher was hoping to start , the Indians felt , like the Athletics , that he would be better as a relief pitcher for them . Early in the season , Christopher told Veeck that 1948 would be his final year , as his wife joined the doctors ' side , wanting him to retire and noting that he was playing on " borrowed time " already . He spent the season as the Indians ' chief relief pitcher alongside Ed Klieman , both of whom were considered two of the best relievers in the league that season . Christopher finished the season with 45 games played , a 3 – 2 record , a 2 @.@ 90 ERA , and 17 saves , which led the league . In the 1948 World Series , he pitched in game five , facing Mike McCormick and Eddie Stanky . He allowed singles to both hitters and allowed two runs to score , and was relieved by Satchel Paige , ending his only playoff appearance .
After the World Series ended , Christopher mulled over retirement , and in January 1949 , he made it official . However , at the start of February , he reconsidered and signed a contract with the Indians , deciding to play for one more year . A month later , as spring training began , he decided to retire for good , ending his career in baseball .
= = Later life = =
After retiring , Christopher moved to San Diego , where he lived with his wife and three children . In December 1950 , Christopher underwent heart surgery , and afterward felt optimistic about the possibility of pitching again . After a tryout with the Indians in 1951 , he joined the San Diego Padres for a salary of $ 1 a year . He spent several weeks training with the team , but was eventually released at the end of April , ending his comeback attempt .
When his final attempt at a comeback failed , Christopher went on to work in an aircraft plant in San Diego . He died in his hometown of Richmond , California , at the age of 37 on December 5 , 1954 and is interred at Chapel of the Chimes in Oakland , California .
Russ ' youngest daughter , Lynn Mary Christopher , born August 10 , 1950 , lives 6 months in San Diego County , and 6 months in Prescott , Arizona .
= Washington Park Race Track =
Washington Park Race Track was a popular horse racing venue in the Chicago metropolitan area from 1884 until 1977 . It had two locations during its existence . It was first situated in what is the current location of the Washington Park Subdivision of the Woodlawn community area of Chicago in Cook County , Illinois , United States . This is located immediately south of both the current Washington Park community area and Washington Park . The track was later relocated to Homewood , Illinois , which is also in Cook County .
The original track and its accompanying Jockey Club were social draws in the late 19th century , but modern developments and changes in the law led to the decline of both . In its prime , the track was an especially important social gathering place on opening day and the day of the American Derby , which ranked as one of horse racing 's highest purses . The Jockey club , designed by Solon Spencer Beman , hosted a social gathering led by General Philip Sheridan who was an early leader of the track and club . The track was closed and reopened according to the contemporary state and local laws on gambling and eventually waned in popularity and social importance .
Over the years , numerous famous horses and jockeys appeared at the track . In the 19th century , notable horses of the time , such as Emperor of Norfolk and Domino raced . In the 20th century , some of the most notable Thoroughbreds to race at Washington Park included Triple Crown winners Citation and Whirlaway . Other notable horses included Native Dancer and Swaps , who each won legs of the Triple Crown . Jockey Eddie Arcaro won both the 1948 and 1953 American Derby races at the track . In addition to the American Derby , several other notable graded stakes races were run at the track such as the Stars and Stripes Turf Handicap and the Washington Park Handicap . In addition , notable match races were held at the track .
= = Original track = =
In 1883 , a group of about 500 Chicagoans , led by General Philip Sheridan , banded together to create the Washington Park Jockey Club . Selecting a location at 61st and Cottage Grove , the Club opened and operated the Washington Park Race Track , valued at $ 150 @,@ 000 , the following year , claiming it to be " the Midwest ’ s preeminent track . " The track was part of the long tradition of constructing special facilities for sporting events and public assembly in the Chicago parks . At that time it was fashionable for the social elite to maintain close ties to equestrian sports . Some owned Thoroughbreds and thus were members of the Washington Park Jockey Club . The track 's clubhouse , which was completed in 1896 , was designed by Solon Spencer Beman , and C. B. McDonald built a short nine @-@ hole club members ' golf course in the infield of the track .
= = = Major races = = =
Each June , the track sponsored the American Derby , which had a purse ranked among the highest in the country . When Washington Park Race Track first organized the American Derby in 1883 , General Philip Sheridan served as its first President . By 1893 , the American Derby was the 2nd richest American race in the 19th century . Both The American Derby and Opening Day ( the first race of the season ) became important social calendar dates . Residents of elite late 19th century neighborhoods organized a number of related public activities outside the track grounds , including the annual Washington Park Race Track opening day parade .
Horse racing was not the only draw of the track . In 1900 , a race was staged at the track between a gasoline @-@ powered automobile and an electrically powered automobile . At the time , there were more electric cars in the country than gasoline powered ones . The race in Chicago was the first time a gasoline @-@ powered car beat an electric @-@ powered one in a race .
= = = Decline and closure of the original track = = =
The track ran into difficulties when Hempstead Washburne was elected Mayor of Chicago in 1892 . In 1893 , he began a gambling reform campaign , which included a goal of closing all race tracks in Chicago . His campaign eventually resulted in the 1894 closure of Washington Park Race Track , although the track reopened in 1898 . It remained open until 1905 , when the state of Illinois banned gambling and stopped all horse racing . By that time , the prestige of the club had declined , independently of Washburne 's reform movement , because more modern and spacious golf courses drew the members to other locations , and the residential dispersion of elite members from the community area made the club less important . However , the stables used by the track were not torn down and currently form a portion of the DuSable Museum of African @-@ American History .
= = New track = =
In 1926 , a second Washington Park Race Track opened up in south suburban Homewood . The new Washington Park Race Track was located west of Halsted Street just outside Homewood village bounds . The Illinois Central Railroad built a spur line directly between Chicago and the newly relocated track . The relocated track continued to be a famous and popular attraction . The inaugural meeting of organizers was July 3 , 1926 . The new track was constructed amongst a construction boom of racetracks in the United States during the 1920s , which included fifteen new large racetracks constructed during the decade . Others constructed at this time were Arlington Park nearby in Chicago and Hialeah Park in Florida .
Benjamin F. Lindheimer purchased Washington Park Race Track in 1935 and owned it until his death in 1960 . Long involved with the business , adopted daughter Marjorie Lindheimer Everett then took over management of the racetracks .
The American Derby was also reborn at the new track , and was run at Washington through 1957 , when it was moved to Arlington Park , in northwest suburban Arlington Heights . However , racing venues had previously shifted between Chicago @-@ area tracks . For example , in 1943 , Arlington Park shifted its major races to Washington Park as a result of curtailed racing due to World War II .
Another significant race run at the new track was the Grade 2 stakes Washington Park Handicap for three @-@ year @-@ olds and up . It was first held at Washington Park in 1926 , and continued to be held there until 1958 ,
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had an interest in chemistry and metallurgy and when he was 15 he built a smelting furnace and began working with copper , bronze , and iron . Haynes was also interested in nature and spent considerable time in the forest cataloging and observing plants , insects , and animals . Because he spent so much time there , his family nicknamed him " Wood " , a nickname they used for most of his life . As he grew older , he became an avid reader of books , including Principles of Natural Philosophy and Chemistry by William Wells . His early experiments and studies interested him in the fundamental properties of matter , and he was intrigued by how mixing compounds could create completely different alloys .
= = = Education = = =
Haynes attended public schools through eighth grade and received a basic education . He had not determined a career path for himself and his parents often criticized him for lacking ambition ; they insisted that he seek employment . He began by working as a custodian at a local church and later for the railroad , hauling ballast to construction sites . At the church , he joined the choir where he met and began to court Bertha Lanterman . When Portland 's first public high school was opened in 1876 , Haynes returned to school at age 19 and completed two more years . Bertha and her family moved to Alabama during the spring of 1877 , and Haynes began a regular correspondence with her . During the summer of that year , a series of revival meetings were held in Indiana by Francis Murphy , a leader of a national temperance organization known as the Murphy Movement . Haynes attended the meetings , probably at his parents ' urging , and became interested in temperance . He took two of Murphy 's pledge cards and carried one for most of his life ; the other he mailed to Bertha .
Haynes ' father attended the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition in 1876 where he learned of a school that would fit his son 's interests . Using the money he had saved , Haynes decided to attend the college and enrolled in the Worcester Technical Institute in Worcester , Massachusetts , in September 1878 . The school was revolutionary for its time , combining technical training with a classical liberal arts education . Although he easily passed the difficult entrance exam , he found that he was ill @-@ prepared for some of his college courses , and he struggled with mathematics . To earn an income while away from home , he worked as a custodian and night guard at the local public library . He cleaned the building overnight and used his spare time to read books and study . During his final year at the school , boarding rates were increased beyond what Haynes could afford so with no other option , he lived in the library for several months . He could not afford to return home during his stay at the institute , so during the holidays he spent time with his family and friends in New England .
During his first term , he was required to receive a grade of 60 to remain in the school . Although he only achieved a 59 @.@ 2 after completing his final exams , he was permitted to remain because of his " recent progress . " Older than the other students in his class , he often spoke out against their use of alcohol . In his final year he took courses in metallurgy , ore analysis and assaying , and participated in a research project developing razors . His graduation thesis was entitled " The effects of Tungsten on Iron and Steel " . It laid out the basic principles of what would later become his two greatest advances in metallurgy . Haynes spent many hours in the institute 's laboratory working with tungsten and other metals before graduating in 1881 ; he was fourteenth out of twenty @-@ one graduates — twenty did not pass .
Haynes took a job teaching at the Jay County public school after returning home . Soon his income allowed him to buy a home near Portland High School where he worked and was promoted to principal in 1882 . That summer he took a week @-@ long trip to visit Bertha in Chattanooga , Tennessee , where he became sick with a cold and spent most of his time in bed nursed by Bertha , learning that her family would be returning to live in Portland in 1883 . After returning from the trip , he continued saving money and in 1884 he decided to continue his education by enrolling at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore , Maryland . He chose the school because , as it was only eight years old , it had one of the most modern laboratories available . He took courses in chemistry and biology and learned advanced metallurgic techniques . His mother died in May 1885 and he decided to leave the university without completing his second year , as he was not working to attain a degree but only taking courses of interest . After he had returned home again , he took a position at the newly established Eastern Indiana Normal School and Commercial College ( now Ball State University ) and served as the head of the chemistry department .
= = = Gas boom = = =
Natural gas was first found in Indiana in 1876 but it was not until 1886 that the magnitude of the discovery was known ; the Trenton Gas Field was the largest deposit of natural gas discovered in the 19th century and the first giant oil reserve found in the United States . As a professor at a university in the Trenton Field , Haynes offered his services to the drillers and worked to analyze soil samples , determine well pressure , and give estimates on the amount of energy that could be created by the gas . He delivered several lectures to large crowds about the importance of the gas discovery and the many possible applications of this new source of fuel . He began a petition to have the local citizens create a corporation to pump the fuel from the ground and pipe it to area homes and businesses . His promotion was successful and Portland Natural Gas and Oil Company was formed ; Haynes ' father was named to the new company 's board of directors .
In the fall of 1886 , the board hired Haynes as superintendent to manage the company and oversee the creation of wells and piping . The company was one of the first in the Trenton Field , and many of the others which soon followed modeled themselves on the Portland company . As a fuel and industry , natural gas was in its earliest stages . Haynes invented several devices that became important to the success of the industry . One of his first inventions was a device capable of measuring the amount of gas being pumped from wells . Haynes ' reputation as an industry leader grew out of his operations at Portland and the Kokomo Democrat referred to him as " the only infallible authority on natural gas in eastern Indiana " in an 1889 article .
Haynes married Bertha Lanterman in October 1887 after a ten @-@ year relationship . The ceremony was held at her parents ' Portland home and the couple honeymooned in Cincinnati . Their first child , Marie , was born on January 28 , 1889 , but she soon succumbed to illness and died when six months old . Their second child , a son born in 1890 , also died in infancy . The deaths saddened the family and caused them to turn more to their religion . Haynes became increasingly active in the Presbyterian church and became an elder . In December 1892 , the Haynes ' third child , Bernice , was born . A second son , March , was born 1896 . The two children were well educated and grew up to assist their father in his enterprises .
A primary pipeline was laid between Portland and a neighboring town during 1889 . Haynes oversaw construction of the ten @-@ mile ( 16 km ) long pipeline and the creation of the wells for pumping the gas . During his numerous buggy rides between the two towns , he first began to conceive of a novel form of motorized transportation . His thoughts on the topic were spurred by his need to regularly change horses because of their inability to endure the long distances and sandy roads he frequently traveled . He theorized that a motorized vehicle would be more economical than horse @-@ and @-@ buggy transportation , and could potentially move at a faster rate of speed .
The Indiana Natural Gas and Oil Company , headquartered in Chicago , hired Haynes as their field superintendent in 1890 after the company 's board of directors " discovered that Elwood Haynes knew more about natural gas than anyone in the state " . He and his wife moved to Greentown where he oversaw the construction of the company 's first pumping wells . The company planned to construct a natural gas line from eastern Indiana to Chicago , a distance of over 150 miles ( 240 km ) , which would be the first long @-@ distance natural gas pipeline built in the United States . Haynes supervised the design and construction phases of the project . Because of the length of the line and the temperature changes between the two points , moisture in the natural gas condensed on the pipe , and during colder times would freeze the pipes in some locations . The problem was a significant setback to the operation , which had to stop pumping during the winter months . Haynes solved the problem by creating a refrigeration device that would cause the moisture ( which was a diluted form of gasoline ) to condense , freeze , and fall into a reservoir . These devices were installed between the main lines and pumping stations and effectively removed all the moisture from the natural gas before it was pumped into the lines . This prevented water buildup in the pipes and allowed the pipes to be used year round . The concept was a significant advance in early refrigeration technology and was further developed by others in later years .
Haynes was offered a higher ranking position within Indiana Gas at the Chicago headquarters , but by then he had become aware of the business 's connection to the corrupt and disgraced monopolist Charles T. Yerkes . A deeply religious man who feared involvement in any corruption , Haynes entertained the offer only briefly ; Bertha 's advice to refuse the position persuaded him and he declined the offer and instead sought a position more removed from the company 's Chicago leadership . After the pipeline became fully operational in 1892 , Haynes moved to Kokomo where he was made a supervisor of the Indiana Gas 's local operations . The Indiana General Assembly began attempts to regulate the gas industry and accused the field operations of various companies of gross waste ; Indiana Gas became the primary target of scathing reports . Haynes helped the company compile reports and offered opinions on the validity of their claims . He was disturbed to find that many of the claims proved true , and advocated that the gas be used more conservatively . He specifically recommended that the flambeaus ( the flames fed by natural gas to show that the gas was flowing ) be extinguished , as they were found to be the largest source of waste . He calculated that the company daily wasted $ 10 @,@ 000 ( $ 240 @,@ 000 in 2009 chained dollars ) worth of gas by burning flambeaus , a figure that shocked the company 's leaders . Despite his support of the governmental anti @-@ waste regulations , he was steadfastly against other rules that regulated pressure and hindered productivity . He personally filed lawsuits against the regulations a month after their passage , claiming that the government had no right to regulate artificial increases in well pressure . The court case continued until 1896 , when the Indiana Supreme Court ruled that the regulations were unconstitutional . The entire set of regulations was repealed , including the anti @-@ waste measures . The gross waste continued among other companies and the field 's wells began to run dry by 1905 — modern experts estimate as much as 90 % of the one trillion cubic feet ( 30 km3 ) of natural gas in the field was lost into the atmosphere or misused .
= = Enterprises = =
= = = 1894 First Haynes car = = =
According to Haynes , he began laying out " plans for the construction of a mechanically propelled vehicle for use on highways " in 1891 . His first idea was for a steam @-@ powered vehicle , but after careful consideration he decided the use of a furnace on the device would be too dangerous . His second plan was to use electrical power , but after research he found that no practical means existed to store the electricity required for operation . He continued to develop his plans until the summer of 1893 when he attended the Chicago World 's Fair , where he first witnessed a gasoline engine . The demonstration of the newly invented engine inspired him to decide that an internal combustion engine would be the most practical method to propel his vehicle . A gasoline powered European automobile built by German inventor Karl Benz ( who patented the first automobile in 1886 ) also was on display during the fair , although it is unknown if Haynes witnessed this vehicle during his visit .
Haynes ordered a one @-@ horsepower marine upright , two @-@ cycle engine from Sintz Gas Engine Company in Grand Rapids , Michigan for $ 225 . Although the engine was intended for use on a small boat , Haynes believed it could be adapted for his purposes . The 180 lb ( 82 kg ) engine arrived in the fall of 1893 . Haynes soon had the device attached to a carriage he built in his kitchen . He found when he started the engine that its vibrations were too severe for the harness it was in , and before he could stop the engine it had done considerable damage to the carriage and the floor of his kitchen , and filled the room with smoke .
Haynes decided he needed a different facility to continue the experiment after his wife told him she would not abide his destruction of the family kitchen . He contacted Elmer Apperson , the operator of the Riverside Machine Works , and arranged to use a space in his shop for the continued development . He agreed to work on his vehicle only after @-@ hours , pay 40 cents per hour for the help of Elmer and his brother Edgar , and to not hold them responsible should his project fail . He started building a new carriage , this time with a heavier steel harness . He described the appearance of the vehicle as a " small truck " . The wheel axles were also made of steel and the entire front axle was constructed to swivel . A central column was built of steel and laid across the axles in such a way as to allow it move in all directions within a small radius to accommodate any sudden movements by the motor or vehicle .
Because the traction of rubber tires was unknown , Haynes completed a series of tests with a bicycle on paved roads . He used a wagon built to the weight of his automobile and a horse to pull a device that would cause the wheels to turn , thereby providing traction . With this , he was able to determine the ratio of weight to gear sizes needed to enable the tires to provide sufficient traction for propulsion . Once completed , his vehicle weighed about 820 pounds ( 370 kg ) .
He named his car the Pioneer and first test drove the vehicle on July 4 , 1894 . The Apperson brothers had notified the Kokomo townspeople of the test drive and a crowd gathered to witness the event . Haynes was concerned that his vehicle could injure someone in the crowd , so he had the vehicle towed by a horse and buggy to Pumpkinvine Pike , away from the crowd . The car started with Haynes driving and Elmer Apperson riding as a passenger , and traveled at 7 mph ( 11 km / h ) . He traveled for 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) and then stopped the vehicle to manually turn it around with Elmer 's help . He proceeded to drive it several more miles back into town without stopping . His trip convinced him that the vehicle was worthwhile and could become a valuable enterprise , although he was disappointed in the vehicle 's handling and decided he needed to improve the steering system and find a way to divert the motor 's exhaust smoke away from the carriage .
Haynes ' car is believed to be the second gasoline @-@ engine powered vehicle successfully road tested in the United States , according to its exhibit information at the Smithsonian Institution . It was built two years before Henry Ford 's Quadricycle , and preceded only by Charles Duryea 's Motorized Wagon less than a year earlier . Unlike Duryea 's car , which was an adapted buckboard wagon that was designed to run under its own power but still able to be pulled by horse , Haynes ' car was designed only to run on its own . Some automotive historians use this difference to determine that Haynes ' car was the first true American automobile . The Sintz company continued to be intrigued by Haynes ' use of their motor and sent representatives to photo his vehicle and published the images as an advertisement for one of their engine 's possible uses . The publicity spurred the creation of numerous other automobiles across the American midwest .
Haynes continued to drive his car as he added improvements to the vehicle , and constructed the Pioneer II in 1895 to incorporate his improved steering designs and an exhaust pipe . He built the new car with the intention of running it in the 1895 Chicago Times @-@ Herald Race , the first automobile race in the United States . Although over seventy @-@ five cars were entered in the race , most of their owners did not have them completed in time for race so only three cars and six early motorcycles showed up . While driving to the race , Haynes had a confrontation with a Chicago policeman who insisted that Haynes had no right to drive his vehicle on public roads , forcing him to requisition a horse to pull the car the rest of the way . Similar incidents happened with the other race 's entries so the city passed an ordinance a few days later to clear up any ambiguity in the laws and allow automobiles equal access to the city streets , allowing the postponed race to take place . While giving his car a ride around the town on the following day Haynes was involved in what is believed to be the first automobile accident after swerving to miss a street car and striking a sharp curb , busting a tire and damaging the axle . Without a spare tire , Haynes was unable to run in the race . The race was held on November 28 , and thousands of spectators turned out . Duryea 's car won first place and a German Benz came in second . Another contest was held in which Haynes won a prize for most intuitive design .
= = = Haynes @-@ Apperson = = =
Haynes continued to perfect his auto design , and in late 1895 he began his work to create a new hard alloy for use as a crankcase and other auto parts . His intent was to make a metal that would be resistant to rusting . He experimented with the use of aluminum and found that when used , it significantly deadened the noise produced by the engine parts . As his designs progressed , he decided to form a partnership for the manufacture of his vehicles . At the end of 1894 , Haynes joined with Elmer and Edgar Apperson to create an automobile company and began producing cars that year . Their company is recognized as being the first viable automotive company in the United States , and the second company to produce autos commercially . The Duryea Motor Wagon Company had formed a year earlier , but went out of business after producing only thirteen vehicles . Haynes became involved in a dispute with the Duryea company over the advertisements Haynes @-@ Apperson ran , claiming to have created the first automobile . The Haynes @-@ Apperson advertisement was clearly false , but after Duryea 's company went bankrupt in 1898 , there was no one to continue to dispute the claim . " America 's First Car " remained the company 's motto for the rest of its existence .
By 1896 , the company produced one new car every two to three weeks and built vehicles on order for $ 2 @,@ 000 . As the orders increased , the company formally incorporated as Haynes @-@ Apperson on May 5 , 1898 , with $ 25 @,@ 000 in capital from stock issued to Portland and Kokomo businessmen . At the end of that year the company relocated to a large factory it had built in Kokomo . Two new models were designed and the workforce expanded as production increased . Haynes @-@ Apperson ran advertisements in area newspapers and demonstrated cars at county fairs and other exhibitions . Demand for the vehicles grew rapidly from five cars produced in 1898 to thirty in 1899 , 192 in 1900 , and 240 in 1901 . The work kept the factory open 24 hours a day , and two shifts totaling more than 350 workers were needed to keep the factory running at capacity by 1902 . Sales totaled over $ 400 @,@ 000 that year .
Haynes @-@ Apperson automobiles were known for their long @-@ distance running capability . The company 's cars regularly competed and won prizes in endurance races that demonstrated the distance and terrain over which the cars could travel . Haynes had soon designed superior methods of achieving traction and his car could climb hills easier than his competitors in the early races . The last model designed under the Haynes @-@ Apperson name had three speeds and was capable of 24 mph on pneumatic tires . In 1901 , a Haynes car was entered in the first Long Island Non @-@ Stop endurance race . The Haynes car took first place in the race , adding to the company 's publicity and helping to feed a large jump in sales .
Another event to gain the company significant publicity was the sale of a car to Dr. Ashley A. Webber in New York City . Webber refused to buy any car unless the seller could prove the car 's endurance by driving it to his home . Haynes and Edgar Apperson readily agreed to the demand and drove the car from Kokomo to Webber 's New York home , the first time an automobile traveled over 1 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) . The trip took over a month ; after driving several days in the rain , the two decided to install a roof on future models .
Haynes began to have disagreements with the Apperson brothers for reasons that were never made public but were probably over money and design plans . Haynes wanted to produce luxury cars because much of the company 's early clientele was wealthy , while the Appersons wanted to produce utilitarian vehicles that could be marketed to businesses . The disagreement led the two brothers to split from Haynes and start a company of their own in 1902 . The loss of his partners necessitated that Haynes leave his position at Indiana Gas to devote more time to his growing business . Haynes was most interested in working on development , and turned over daily management to Victor Minich in 1903 . Haynes spent most of his research efforts developing metals in an attempt to discover lighter and stronger alloys for automobile parts . He also investigated other areas and published a 1906 paper on the impurities in gasoline and recommended that the sulfur content in the fuel be lowered to increase engine performance .
= = = Haynes Automobile Company = = =
In 1905 , three years after the Apperson brothers split from Haynes , Haynes @-@ Apperson was renamed the Haynes Automobile Company and Haynes launched a series of publicity campaigns . A parade of 2 @,@ 000 cars was organized in New York City during 1908 and Haynes , whom many recognized as the inventor of the American automobile , led the parade down Broadway riding in the Pioneer . He was followed by ten Haynes cars , a model from each year to display the advancement in technology . On his way to the parade , Haynes was unaware of the city 's newly established speeding laws and was arrested for driving too fast — in a car with a top speed of 15 mph ( 17 km / h ) — and taken to jail . He was soon able to see a magistrate who released him after learning that he was Elwood Haynes and had come to lead the parade . The celebration was intended to be a ten @-@ year commemoration of the invention of the automobile , although earlier self @-@ vehicles dated back nearly twenty years in Europe . Haynes donated the Pioneer to the United States Government in 1910 to be placed in the Smithsonian Institution where it is still on display in the National Museum of American History as the second oldest motorized vehicle in the United States .
Haynes ' Model L was his most popular vehicle . First designed in 1905 , the three @-@ speed car could travel at 35 mph ( 58 km / h ) and carry four passengers ; the company sold over 4 @,@ 300 . Haynes expanded the company significantly in 1908 to accommodate ever @-@ increasing sales . More stock was issued and more capital raised to build a new and larger factory . By 1909 the company was producing 650 cars annually with models priced between $ 2 @,@ 500 and $ 5 @,@ 500 . In 1910 , Haynes Auto became the first company to build a car with a roof , windshield , headlights , and a speedometer as standard on each vehicle to continue their goal of producing the best luxury vehicles .
More than 1 @,@ 000 autos were built by Haynes Automobile Company in 1910 and the company continued to experience growth , until a devastating fire swept the company factory in 1911 and killed one employee . Recovery from the blaze was slow , and it was not until 1913 that the company was able to resume its growth . To continue the promotion of his cars , Haynes organized a trip in which he crossed the country by automobile in 1914 . The trip gained considerable attention from the press and gave his company publicity and a much needed sales boost in the wake of the fire . Almost every town he visited printed newspaper stories on his invention and many hailed him as the " Father of the Automobile " .
= = = Haynes Stellite Company = = =
Haynes continued his research into ways to produce corrosion resistant metals . While working on alloys for use in spark plugs , he created a metal he named stellite . Realizing the value of his discovery , he patented his first version in 1907 . The metal was very resistant to corrosion and had immediate application in tool making and numerous other implementations . He continued to experiment with it until 1910 when he published his findings in a paper to the International Congress of Applied Chemistry and the American Institute of Metals , where he held memberships . His final version was completed in 1912 and his patent issued on June 20 .
He applied for another patent on an alloy he called stainless steel , now known as martensitic stainless steel . The Patent Office rejected his application saying that it was not a new alloy . Haynes conceded their point , but submitted a second application and supplied a sample showing the stainlessness of his alloy when created using his exact proportions of metals , and it was granted . At the urging of his wife , he created the first set of stainless steel silverware for her personal use . The first piece of stainless steel was forged by Homer Dan Farmer in Haynes laboratory . It was a large meat knife and was donated to the Haynes Museum by the family of Dan Heflin , grandson of Homer Dan Farmer . In later years he claimed to have created stainless steel because she did not enjoy polishing their silver tableware . British metallurgist Harry Brearley independently produced an identical alloy around the same time and applied for an American patent and found that one already existed . Brearley had also created other innovations for the metal , but they were of little value without the stainless steel patent . He sought out Haynes and the two decided to pool their findings in a single company to produce the alloy . Haynes sold his stainless steel patent in 1918 to the American Stainless Steel Company , a company Brearley had created with the assistance of investors in Pennsylvania . In exchange he and his estate received royalties on its production until the patent expired in 1930 . The stock he received as payment allowed him to gain a seat among the company 's board of directors and he installed his son , March , to represent him . The income from the transaction led Haynes to begin the accumulation of a large fortune .
Seeing stellite as a far more valuable metal , he decided to keep its patent for himself and founded the Haynes Stellite Company in Kokomo to produce the metal in September 1912 . Many of his initial requests for the metal were from medical tool manufacturers who saw the alloy as the best for surgical tools . Because his company could not produce enough of the metal to satisfy demand , Haynes issued licenses to several companies in the United States , Canada , and Europe to produce the alloy and pay him royalties . Haynes strictly controlled production , and did not permit the other licensees to sell stellite in its raw form , but to only sell it as specific finished products . In that way , he remained the only vendor who could sell sheets of the metal . As World War I broke out , his company received large government contracts for use of the material . Stellite was found to have excellent applications in airplanes , and because it was non @-@ corrosive and could protect its contents indefinitely , it proved to be the best metal available for ammunition casing . In 1916 alone , the company registered $ 1 @.@ 3 million in sales . The rapid growth of the business made Haynes increasingly wealthy and he became a millionaire that year . Despite his large income , he refused to provide his employees a year @-@ end bonus , causing a significant stir in the factory . When a foreman demanded to know the reason that their wages were not raised , he told him , " It doesn 't pay to give the working man too much money — it makes him too independent . " His statement was widely repeated and , although he claimed to have made it in jest , it alienated a large part of his workforce and began a period of labor problems .
After the war , Haynes Stellite moved to producing tableware , jewelry , and pocket knives . The employees of the company unionized and began to demand wage increases beyond what Haynes believed was fair . The threat of labor strikes and Haynes ' desire to avoid the problem led him to sell the company to Union Carbide on April 10 , 1920 , in exchange for 25 @,@ 000 shares of Union Carbide stock valued at $ 2 million . He later made an additional half million from dividends . Other details of the deal were never made public , and Haynes may have made as much $ 4 million on the sale . After a series of owners , the company is now called Haynes International and is again independent .
= = Later life = =
= = = Prohibition = = =
Haynes was an avid supporter of prohibition and spoke several times on behalf of prohibitionist leader Frank Hanly , lending him both personal and financial support . Hanly advocated the passage of a local option law that allowed most of Indiana to ban liquor sales in 1909 . He continued in his support of the Prohibition Party and donated it thousands of dollars and an automobile nicknamed the " Prohibition Flyer " . He became increasingly involved in the organization and in 1916 he ran for the United States Senate on the prohibition ticket , making many speeches and stumping across the state . He was overwhelmingly defeated , receiving only 15 @,@ 598 votes out of nearly one million cast . Harry Stewart New , the Republican candidate narrowly won the election by plurality , and Haynes was accused of costing Incumbent Democratic Senator John W. Kern 's re @-@ election . Despite his personal electoral failure , liquor sales were completely banned in Indiana by a 1918 law that went into effect in 1919 . With his goals achieved , Haynes switched to join the Republican Party , but was significantly less active in politics thereafter .
Although Haynes was a prohibitionist , he was a critic of the Indiana Branch of the Ku Klux Klan , which was in the height of its power during the 1910s and 1920s . In letters to friends and fellow prohibitionists , he ridiculed the organization for using violent and illegal tactics to achieve prohibition , and accused them of hypocrisy for supporting many anti @-@ prohibition Democratic politicians . Kokomo politics was dominated by the Klan during that period and it is unknown if Haynes spoke publicly against the organization .
= = = Philanthropy = = =
Haynes purchased a new home on Webster Street in Kokomo in 1915 . The home , known as the Haynes Mansion , was large enough to house a personal laboratory for Haynes to work in . As he grew older and became less involved in his businesses , Haynes became increasingly philanthropic . He made regular large donations to the Presbyterian church and became a patron of the Worcester Institute he had attended , providing scholarships and donating funds for expansion .
He funded the formation of a Young Men 's Christian Association in Kokomo where he and his son became active . Haynes taught swimming classes and regularly took underprivileged young boys to movies and bought them dinners . After several years of active membership at the local level , he was elected president of the national YMCA in 1919 and served two one @-@ year terms . His primary focus during his tenure was the launching of several successful membership drives . In 1920 , he was appointed to the Indiana State Board of Education by Governor James P. Goodrich where he advocated increased state funding for vocational education .
The United States economy went into a recession in the early 1920s and automobile sales decreased . Coupled with increasing competition , Haynes Automobile Company began running into debt problems . Haynes had to use his personal savings to rescue the company in 1921 and pay off some outstanding accounts . A bond drive was launched to raise $ 1 million to help fund the company through the period , but it fell significantly short of raising enough money . Haynes was the primary purchaser of the bonds . Unlike the other large auto companies like Ford and General Motors , Haynes Auto did not have the widespread dealership agreements that were able to sustain their companies through the hard times ; his company relied on customer 's ordering directly from the factory . Haynes Auto sales quickly began to slip from a peak of nearly 6 @,@ 000 cars sold in 1922 . In 1923 sales dropped to 4 @,@ 300 , and 1 @,@ 500 in 1924 . The situation continued to be bleak for the company , and it was forced to declare bankruptcy in October 1924 . Haynes sought a merger with multiple other auto companies , including Henry Ford , but partners were not forthcoming and Haynes was forced to agree to a liquidation in 1925 . He was held personally responsible for about $ 95 @,@ 000 of the company 's debt . In addition , he lost $ 335 @,@ 700 in stock he held in the company and a substantial amount in investment bonds . In total , the loss cost Haynes an estimated quarter of his net worth .
= = = Death and legacy = = =
On January 6 , 1925 , Haynes , the Apperson brothers , and other automotive pioneers were awarded gold medals by the National Automobile Chamber of Commerce at a New York City auto exhibition for their contributions to the industry . On his return trip home , he contracted influenza and his health began to deteriorate rapidly . In March , he asked his son to take over his business interests while he traveled to Florida to seek rest in the warmer climate . His condition steadily worsened , causing him to cancel his planned trip to Cuba and return to Kokomo . He remained in his home , attended by his personal physician and a nurse until his death from congestive heart failure on April 13 , 1925 . Haynes ' funeral was held in Kokomo before his interment at the city 's Memorial Park cemetery .
Haynes ' fortune had shrunk considerably with the collapse of his auto company . He still held an estimated $ 2 @.@ 85 million ( $ 35 million in 2009 chained dollars ) in stocks , bonds , and other assets , but almost all of his cash savings were gone . He had already been forced to borrow money using future dividends and royalties as collateral , leaving his family with some difficulty in coming up with funds to maintain his home . Haynes ' estate was left to his wife who continued to live in the family mansion until her own death from a stroke in August 1933 . The family assets were distributed between Bernice and March who separately oversaw their portion of the family 's interests . March inherited the family mansion , but sold it in 1957 to Martin J. Caserio , General Manager of the Delco Electronics Division of the General Motors Company who lived there until he was transferred to Detroit in 1964 . General Motors purchased the house from Caserio at that time so that he could purchase a home in Detroit . GM maintained ownership for about a year ( it was vacant ) and then sold the mansion in 1965 to Bernice , who donated it to the city of Kokomo . The city converted it into the Elwood Haynes Museum and it has been open to the public since 1967 . In January 1944 the SS Elwood Haynes , a Liberty Ship built during World War II , was named in Haynes ' honor .
Haynes is remembered as a pioneer of the American automobile , and as the creator of the first automobile design viable for mass production . He is credited as being one of those primarily responsible for the rapid growth of the natural gas industry in Indiana , a boom that made northern Indiana one of the leading industrial regions of the United States . He is also remembered for his development of stainless steel and stellite , materials that are commonly used across the world today . Stellite remains an important metal , as its ability to withstand high temperatures has made it a component in American spacecraft . In July 2015 , he was inducted into the 75th class of the Automotive Hall of Fame in Detroit , Michigan .
Haynes is the grandfather of Margaret Hillis , founder and director of the Chicago Symphony Chorus , and Elwood Hillis , an eight term Congressman representing Indiana 's 5th District .
= Gemini ( 2002 Tamil film ) =
Gemini is a 2002 Indian Tamil @-@ language action film written and directed by Saran and produced by AVM Productions . The film features Vikram in the title role of a small @-@ time criminal and aspiring don who , after falling in love , decides to refrain from crime ; Kiran Rathod plays his love interest . Murali stars as Singaperumal , a police officer who inspires and guides Gemini in his attempts to reform . The cast includes Kalabhavan Mani as the principal antagonist while Vinu Chakravarthy , Manorama and Thennavan portray significant roles . Based on gang wars in Chennai , the film delves into the lives of outlaws and the roles the police and society play in their rehabilitation and acceptance .
In early 2001 , rival gangsters " Vellai " Ravi and Chera reformed themselves with the patronage of a police officer . Saran was inspired by this incident and scripted a story based on it . The film was initially entitled Erumugam with Ajith Kumar intended to play the lead role , but the project was shelved after a week 's shoot when Ajith lost interest and left . Saran reworked the script , retitled the production Gemini and cast the new leads . The revived project was announced in August 2001 . Production began shortly afterwards in December the same year and was completed by March 2002 . The film was shot mainly at the AVM Studios in Chennai , while two song sequences were filmed in Switzerland . The film had cinematography by A. Venkatesh and editing by Suresh Urs while the soundtrack was scored by Bharathwaj .
The film 's soundtrack was well received , with the song " O Podu " becoming a sensation in Tamil Nadu . Gemini was released two days ahead of the Tamil New Year on 12 April 2002 and received mixed reviews from critics , with praise directed towards the performances of Vikram and Mani but criticism towards Saran 's script . Made at an estimated cost of ₹ 40 million ( US $ 590 @,@ 000 ) , the film earned ₹ 210 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 1 million ) at the box office and became the highest @-@ grossing Tamil film of the year . The film 's success , largely attributed to the popularity of " O Podu " , resurrected the Tamil film industry , which was experiencing difficulties after a series of box office failures . The film won three Filmfare Awards , three ITFA Awards and four Cinema Express Awards . Later that same year , Saran remade the film in Telugu as Gemeni .
= = Plot = =
Teja ( Kalabhavan Mani ) is a high @-@ profile gangster in North Madras , who often imitates the behaviour characteristic of different animals for sarcastic effect . Accompanied by his gang , he arrives at a magistrate 's court for a hearing . His animal antics are mocked at by " Chintai " Jeeva , another accused . Teja and his gang retaliate and kill Jeeva within the court premises . Jeeva was a member of a rival gang headed by Gemini ( Vikram ) , an aspiring goon from Chintadripet who aspires to dethrone Teja and take his place . To avenge Jeeva 's death , Gemini hunts down the murderer Pandian while Isaac , one of Gemini 's men , kills him . This incident leads to a feud between Gemini and Teja , and a fight for supremacy ensues . Pandian 's mother Annamma ( Manorama ) , a destitute woman , locates the whereabouts of her son 's murderers . She approaches Gemini , becomes the gang 's cook and awaits a chance to poison them .
Gemini meets and falls in love with Manisha Natwarlal ( Kiran Rathod ) , a Marwari woman . To pursue her , he joins an evening class at the college that she attends and she falls in love with him , unaware of his true identity . Two businessmen approach Gemini to evict traders from a market so that a shopping complex can be built in its place . As the market is in his control , Gemini refuses the offer and the businessmen hire Teja to execute the job . Feigning an altercation with Gemini , his sidekick Kai ( Thennavan ) joins Teja 's gang , acts as the inside man and foils the plan . Teja becomes enraged at being outsmarted by Gemini .
Singaperumal ( Murali ) , an astute police officer , is promoted to the position of Director General of Police ( DGP ) . Keen on eradicating crime , he arrests both Gemini and Teja and the arrests are made " off the record " owing to their political influence . Aware of the rivalry between them , Singaperumal puts them in a private cell so they can beat each other to death . While Teja tries to exact revenge for the market issue , Gemini does not fight back but persuades Teja to trick Singaperumal by pleading guilty and requesting a chance to reform . Gemini 's trick works and they are released .
Since Gemini was arrested at the college , Manisha discovers his identity and resents him . To regain her attention , Gemini reforms his ways . Though his gang initially disapprove of it , they relent . As Gemini and his gang regret their actions , Annamma reveals her true identity and forgives them . Singaperumal helps Gemini to get back into college and reunite with Manisha . Teja returns to his gang and continues his illegal activities . He pesters Gemini to help him in his business . Gemini informs Singaperumal of Teja 's activities ; Teja is caught smuggling narcotics , is prosecuted and serves a term in prison .
A few months later , Singaperumal is transferred and a corrupt officer ( Vinu Chakravarthy ) takes his place . The current DGP releases Teja and together , they urge Gemini to work for them and repay for the losses they incurred but Gemini refuses . To force him to return to his old ways , Teja persuades Isaac to conspire against Gemini . With Isaac 's help , Teja plots and kills Kai . Gemini is infuriated and confronts Teja to settle the issue . During the fight , Gemini beats up Teja and swaps their clothes , leaving Teja bound and gagged . The new DGP arrives and shoots Gemini dead ; he later realises that he had actually shot Teja who was in Gemini 's clothes . While the DGP grieves over Teja 's death , he receives news that he has been transferred to the Sewage Control Board .
= = Cast = =
Vikram as Gemini , an aspiring don who reforms later
Kiran Rathod as Manisha Natwarlal , a free @-@ spirited Marwari woman
Kalabhavan Mani as Teja , a don who mimics animals
Vinu Chakravarthy as a power @-@ obsessed and corrupt police officer
Murali as Singaperumal , a sincere and dignified police officer
Charle as Chinna Salem , a pimp operating a mobile brothel
Ramesh Khanna as Gopal M.A. , a professor at the evening college
Dhamu as Ram , the chief mechanic at Auto Hospital , the auto workshop from where the gang operates
Vaiyapuri as Oberoi , Dawood 's sidekick
Rani as Kamini , a divorcée and Gemini 's classmate who lusts for him
Thennavan as Kai , Gemini 's loyal deputy
Isaac Varghese as Isaac , Gemini 's gang member who betrays him later
Thyagu as Sammandham , a police officer
Madhan Bob as R. Anilwal I.P.S , a police officer trying to eradicate prostitution
Ilavarasu as Commissioner of Police
Omakuchi Narasimhan as Bombay Dawood ( named after Dawood Ibrahim ) , a butcher
Gemini Ganesan in a cameo as himself
Manorama as Annamma , a woman who seeks to avenge her son 's death
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In February 2001 , underworld dons " Vellai " Ravi and Chera , who terrorised the city of Madras ( now Chennai ) in the 1990s , abandoned a life of crime and took up social work . The then @-@ DCP of Flower Bazaar Shakeel Akhter presided over the oath @-@ taking ceremony and welcomed the rehabilitation programme . During the making of his film Alli Arjuna ( 2002 ) , director Saran came across a newspaper article carrying this piece of news and was fascinated . Shortly afterwards in March 2001 , Saran announced his next directorial venture would be inspired by the incident . Titled Erumugam ( meaning " upward mobility " ) , the project was scheduled to enter production after the completion of Alli Arjuna .
The director disclosed that it was " a modern day rags to riches story " where the protagonist rises from humble origins to an enviable position . The venture was to be funded by A. Purnachandra Rao of Lakshmi Productions . The film would mark the director 's third collaboration with Ajith Kumar in the lead after the success of Kaadhal Mannan ( 1998 ) and Amarkalam ( 1999 ) . Laila Mehdin and Richa Pallod , who played the heroine in Saran 's Parthen Rasithen ( 2000 ) and Alli Arjuna respectively , were to play the female lead roles . While the recording for the film 's audio reportedly began on 16 March 2001 , the filming was to start in mid @-@ June and continue until August that year , followed by post @-@ production work in September . It was planned to release the film on 14 November 2001 coinciding with Diwali . However , after finding a more engaging script in Red ( 2002 ) , Ajith lost interest ; he left the project after a week 's shoot and the production was shelved . Following this incident , Saran stated that he would never do another film with Ajith . The pair would , however , reconcile their differences later , and collaborate on Attahasam ( 2004 ) and Aasal ( 2010 ) .
Saran rewrote the script based on gang wars in Chennai and began the project again . The film , then untitled , was announced in August 2001 with Vikram to star in the lead role . The production was taken over by M. Saravanan , M. Balasubramaniam , M. S. Guhan and B. Gurunath of AVM Productions . The film was AVM 's 162nd production and their first film after a five @-@ year hiatus , their last production being Minsara Kanavu ( 1997 ) , the release of which marked fifty years since their debut Naam Iruvar ( 1947 ) . By producing Gemini , AVM became one of the four film studios that had been producing films for over fifty years . While titling the film , producer M. Saravanan chose Gemini among the many titles suggested to him , but because Gemini Studios was the name of a major production house , Saravanan wrote to S. Balasubramanian , editor of Ananda Vikatan and son of Gemini Studios founder S. S. Vasan , requesting permission to use the title . In response , Balasubramanian gave his consent .
= = = Cast and crew = = =
With Vikram cast in the title role , Saran was searching for a newcomer to play the female lead role of a Marwari woman . Kiran Rathod is a native of Rajasthan , the place where the Marwaris originate from . She is a relative of actress Raveena Tandon , whose manager brought Rathod the offer to act in Gemini . Saran was convinced after seeing a photograph of Rathod and cast her ; Gemini thus became her debut Tamil film . Malayalam actors Kalabhavan Mani and Murali were approached to play significant roles .
Gemini is widely believed to be Mani 's first Tamil film , though he had already starred in Vaanchinathan ( 2001 ) . There have been varying accounts on how he was cast : while Vikram claims to have suggested Mani for the role of Teja , Saran said in one interview that casting Mani was his idea , and contradicted this in another interview , saying that Mani was chosen on his wife 's recommendation . While searching for an unfamiliar actor for the DGP 's role , Saran saw Murali in Dumm Dumm Dumm ( 2001 ) and found him " very dignified " . He chose Murali as he wanted that dignity for the role . Though he had planned to make Murali a villain at the end of the film , Saran decided against it because he was " amazed to see awe in everyone 's eyes when Murali entered the sets and performed " .
Thennavan , Vinu Chakravarthy , Ilavarasu , Charle , Dhamu , Ramesh Khanna , Vaiyapuri , Madhan Bob , Thyagu and Manorama form the supporting cast . A cameo appearance by Gemini Ganesan was his last film appearance before his death in March 2005 . The technical departments were handled by Saran 's regular crew , which consisted of cinematographer A. Venkatesh , editor Suresh Urs , production designer Thota Tharani and costume designers Sai and Nalini Sriram . The choreography was by Super Subbarayan ( action ) and Suchitra , Brinda and Ashok Raja ( dance ) . The music was composed by Bharathwaj and the lyrics were written by Vairamuthu . Kanmani who went on to direct films like Aahaa Ethanai Azhagu ( 2003 ) and Chinnodu ( 2006 ) worked as an assistant director .
= = = Filming = = =
Gemini was formally launched on 21 November 2001 at the Hotel Connemara , Chennai in the presence of celebrities including Rajinikanth ( through video conferencing ) and Kamal Haasan . The launch function was marked by the submission of the script , songs and lyrics . Principal photography was scheduled to begin in mid @-@ December that year , but commenced slightly earlier . Vikram shot for the film simultaneously with Samurai ( 2002 ) . When Kalabhavan Mani was hesitant in accepting the film due to other commitments in Malayalam , shooting was re @-@ scheduled to film his scenes first . Saran persuaded Mani to allot dates for twelve days to complete his scenes . Since Mani was a mimicry artist , Saran asked him to exhibit his talents ; Mani aped the behaviour of a few animals and Saran chose among them , which were added to the film .
Gemini , with the exception of two songs which were filmed in Switzerland , was shot at AVM Studios . One of the songs , " Penn Oruthi " , was shot at Jungfraujoch , the highest railway station in Europe . Part of the song sequence was filmed on a sledge in Switzerland , making it the second Indian film to have done so after the Bollywood film Sangam ( 1964 ) . Though there were problems in acquiring permission , executive producer M. S. Guhan persisted . The overseas shoots were arranged by Travel Masters , a Chennai @-@ based company owned by former actor N. Ramji . Gemini was completed on schedule and M. Saravanan praised the director , saying , " ... we felt like we were working with S. P. Muthuraman himself , such was Saran 's efficiency " .
= = Inspiration = =
The characters of Gemini and Teja were modelled on " Vellai " Ravi and Chera respectively — Tamil @-@ Burma repatriates who settled in Bhaktavatsalam colony ( B.V. Colony ) in Vyasarpadi , North Madras . They were members of rival gangs headed by Benjamin and Subbhaiah respectively . Their rivalry began when Benjamin , a DYFI member , questioned the illegal activities of Subbhaiah who , apart from running a plastics and iron ore business , held kangaroo courts . When their feud developed into a Christian @-@ Hindu conflict , they recruited jobless men and formed gangs to wage wars against each other . While Subbhaih 's nephew Chera became his right @-@ hand man , " Vellai " Ravi became Benjamin 's aide . Benjamin and Ravi 's gang killed Subbaiah in 1991 . A year later , Chera 's gang retaliated by killing Benjamin with the help of another gang member , Asaithambi . Another gangster , Kabilan , joined Chera 's gang and they killed more than fourteen people to avenge Subbaiah 's murder . One of the murders took place inside the Egmore court in early 2000 when Chera 's gang killed Ravi 's aide Vijayakumar , leading to a police crackdown on the gangsters . Fearing an encounter , both " Vellai " Ravi and Chera decided to give up their lives of crime and reform . The then @-@ DCP of Flower Bazaar , Shakeel Akhter , held the " transition ceremony " in February 2001 . " Vellai " Ravi and Chera were re @-@ arrested under Goondas Act during the film 's pre @-@ production .
When asked about his fascination for " rowdy themes " , Saran said :
I come from a lower middle class background and have lived all my life in ' Singara Chennai ' . I used to go to college from my house in Aminjikkarai by bus and many of the incidents that you see in my films are inspired by those days . Chennai city and its newspapers have been my source material .
The characters of DGP Singaperumal and " Chintai " Jeeva were based on Shakeel Akhter and Vijayakumar respectively . Since the criminals were re @-@ arrested after being given a chance , the initial script had Singaperumal turning villainous during the climax . When Saran felt that the audience would not be kind to him and that it would damage the film , he added another corrupt police officer to do the job while maintaining Singaperumal as a " very strong , good police officer
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1574 , for example , was already badly dated in continental terms by the time it was built . The limited number of modern fortifications built in Ireland , such as those with the first gunports retrofitted to Carrickfergus Castle in the 1560s and at Corkbeg in Cork Harbour and built in the 1570s in fear of an invasion , were equally unexceptional by European standards .
Nonetheless , improved gunpowder artillery played a part in the reconquest of Ireland in the 1530s , where the successful English siege of Maynooth Castle in 1530 demonstrated the power of the new siege guns . There were still relatively few guns in Ireland however and , during the Nine Years ' War at the end of the century , the Irish were proved relatively unskilled in siege warfare with artillery used mainly by the English . In both Ireland and Scotland the challenge was how to transport artillery pieces to castle sieges ; the poor state of Scottish roads required expensive trains of pack horses , which only the king could afford , and in Ireland the river network had to be frequently used to transport the weapons inland . In these circumstances older castles could frequently remain viable defensive features , although the siege of Cahir Castle in 1599 and the attack on Dunyvaig Castle on Islay in 1614 proved that if artillery could be brought to bear , previously impregnable castle walls might fall relatively quickly .
= = 17th century = =
= = = Wars of the Three Kingdoms = = =
In 1603 James VI of Scotland inherited the crown of England , bringing a period of peace between the two countries . The royal court left for London and , as a result – with the exceptions of occasional visits , building work on royal castles north of the border largely ceased . Investment in English castles , especially royal castles , declined dramatically . James sold off many royal castles in England to property developers , including York and Southampton Castle . A royal inspection in 1609 highlighted that the Edwardian castles of North Wales , including Conwy , Beaumaris and Caernarfon were " [ u ] tterlie decayed " . ; a subsequent inspection of various English counties in 1635 found a similar picture : Lincoln , Kendal , York , Nottingham , Bristol , Queenborough , Southampton and Rochester were amongst those in a state of dilapidation . In 1642 one pamphlet described many English castles as " muche decayed " and as requiring " much provision " for " warlike defence " . Those maintained as private homes ; such as Arundel , Berkeley , Carlisle and Winchester were in much better condition , but not necessarily defendable in a conflict ; while some such as Bolsover were redesigned as more modern dwellings in a Palladian style . A handful of coastal forts and castles , amongst them Dover Castle , remained in good military condition with adequate defences .
In 1642 the English Civil War broke out , initially between supporters of Parliament and the Royalist supporters of Charles I. The war expanded to include Ireland and Scotland , and dragged on into three separate conflicts in England itself . The war was the first prolonged conflict in Britain to involve the use of artillery and gunpowder . English castles were used for various purposes during the conflict . York Castle formed a key part of the city defences , with a military governor ; rural castles such as Goodrich could be used a bases for raiding and for control of the surrounding countryside ; larger castles , such as Windsor , became used for holding prisoners of war or as military headquarters . During the war castles were frequently brought back into fresh use : existing defences would be renovated , while walls would be " countermured " , or backed by earth , in order to protect from cannons . Towers and keeps were filled with earth to make gun platforms , such as at Carlisle and Oxford Castle . New earth bastions could be added to existing designs , such as at Cambridge and Carew Castle and at the otherwise unfortified Basing House the surrounding Norman ringwork was brought back into commission . The costs could be considerable , with the work at Skipton Castle coming to over £ 1000 .
Sieges became a prominent part of the war with over 300 occurring during the period , many of them involving castles . Indeed , as Robert Liddiard suggests , the " military role of some castles in the seventeenth century is out of all proportion to their medieval histories " . Artillery formed an essential part of these sieges , with the " characteristic military action " according to military historian Stephen Bull , being " an attack on a fortified strongpoint " supported by artillery . The ratio of artillery pieces to defenders varied considerably in sieges , but in all cases there were more guns than in previous conflicts ; up to one artillery piece for every nine defenders was not unknown in extreme cases , such as near Pendennis Castle . The growth in the number and size of siege artillery favoured those who had the resources to purchase and deploy these weapons . Artillery had improved by the 1640s but was still not always decisive , as the lighter cannon of the period found it hard to penetrate earth and timber bulwarks and defences – demonstrated in the siege of Corfe . Mortars , able to lob fire over the taller walls , proved particularly effective against castles – in particular those more compact ones with smaller courtyards and open areas , such as at Stirling Castle .
The heavy artillery introduced in England eventually spread to the rest of the British Isles . Although up to a thousand Irish soldiers who had served in Europe returned during the war , bringing with them experience of siege warfare from the Thirty Years ' War in Europe , it was the arrival of Oliver Cromwell 's train of siege guns in 1649 that transformed the conflict , and the fate of local castles . None of the Irish castles could withstand these Parliamentary weapons and most quickly surrendered . In 1650 Cromwell invaded Scotland and again his heavily artillery proved decisive .
= = = The Restoration = = =
The English Civil War resulted in Parliament issuing orders to slight or damage many castles , particularly in prominent royal regions . This was particularly in the period of 1646 to 1651 , with a peak in 1647 . Around 150 fortifications were slighted in this period , including 38 town walls and a great many castles . Slighting was quite expensive and took some considerable effort to carry out , so damage was usually done in the most cost @-@ effective fashion with only selected walls being destroyed . In some cases the damage was almost total , such as Pontefract Castle which had been involved in three major sieges and in this case at the request of the townsfolk who wished to avoid further conflict .
By the time that Charles II was restored to the throne in 1660 , the major palace @-@ fortresses in England that had survived slighting were typically in a poor state . As historian Simon Thurley has described , the shifting " functional requirements , patterns of movement , modes of transport , aesthetic taste and standards of comfort " amongst royal circles were also changing the qualities being sought in a successful castle . Palladian architecture was growing in popularity , which sat awkwardly with the typical design of a medieval castle . Furthermore , the fashionable French court etiquette at the time required a substantial number of enfiladed rooms , in order to satisfy court protocol , and it was impractical to fit these rooms into many older buildings . A shortage of funds curtailed Charles II 's attempts to remodel his remaining castles and the redesign of Windsor was the only one to be fully completed in the Restoration years .
Many castles still retained a defensive role . Castles in England , such as Chepstow and York Castle , were repaired and garrisoned by the king . As military technologies progressed the costs of upgrading older castles could be prohibitive – the estimated £ 30 @,@ 000 required for the potential conversion of York in 1682 , approximately £ 4 @,@ 050 @,@ 000 in 2009 terms , gives a scale of the potential costs . Castles played a minimal role in the Glorious Revolution of 1688 , although some fortifications such as Dover Castle were attacked by mobs unhappy with the religious beliefs of their Catholic governors , and the sieges of King John 's Castle in Limerick formed part of the endgame to the war in Ireland . In the north of Britain security problems persisted in Scotland . Cromwellian forces had built a number of new modern forts and barracks , but the royal castles of Edinburgh , Dumbarton and Stirling , along with Dunstaffnage , Dunollie and Ruthven Castle , also continued in use as practical fortifications . Tower houses were being built up until the 1640s ; after the Restoration the fortified tower house fell out of fashion , but the weak state of the Scottish economy was such that while many larger properties were simply abandoned , the more modest castles continued to be used and adapted as houses , rather than rebuilt . In Ireland tower houses and castles remained in use until after the Glorious Revolution , when events led to a dramatic shift in land ownership and a boom in the building of Palladian country houses ; in many cases using timbers stripped from the older , abandoned generation of castles and tower houses .
= = 18th century = =
= = = Military and governmental use = = =
Some castles in Britain and Ireland continued to have modest military utility into the 18th century . Up until 1745 a sequence of Jacobite risings threatened the Crown in Scotland , culminating in the rebellion in 1745 . Various royal castles were maintained during the period either as part of the English border defences , like Carlisle , or forming part of the internal security measures in Scotland itself , like Stirling Castle . Stirling was able to withstand the Jacobite attack in 1745 , although Carlisle was taken ; the siege of Blair Castle , at the end of the rebellion in 1746 , was the final castle siege to occur in the British Isles . In the aftermath of the conflict Corgaff and many others castles were used as barracks for the forces sent to garrison the Highlands . Some castles , such as Portchester , were used for holding prisoners of war during the Napoleonic Wars at the end of the century and were re @-@ equipped in case of a popular uprising during this revolutionary period . In Ireland Dublin Castle was rebuilt following a fire and reaffirmed as the centre of British administrative and military power .
Many castles remained in use as county gaols , run by gaolers as effectively private businesses ; frequently this involved the gatehouse being maintained as the main prison building , as at Cambridge , Bridgnorth , Lancaster , Newcastle and St Briavels . During the 1770s the prison reformer John Howard conducted his famous survey of prisons and gaols , culminating in his 1777 work The State of the Prisons . This documented the poor quality of these castle facilities ; prisoners in Norwich Castle lived in a dungeon , with the floor frequently covered by an inch of water ; Oxford was " close and offensive " ; Worcester was so subject to gaol @-@ fever that the castle surgeon would not enter the prison ; Gloucester was " wretched in the extreme " . Howard 's work caused a shift in public opinion against the use of these older castle facilities as gaols .
= = = Social and cultural use = = =
By the middle of the century medieval ruined castles had become fashionable once again . They were considered an interesting counterpoint to the now conventional Palladian classical architecture , and a way of giving a degree of medieval allure to their new owners . Historian Oliver Creighton suggests that the ideal image of a castle by the 1750s included " broken , soft silhouettes and [ a ] decayed , rough appearance " . In some cases the countryside surrounding existing castles was remodelled to highlight the ruins , as at Henderskelfe Castle , or at " Capability " Brown 's reworking of Wardour Castle . Alternatively , ruins might be repaired and reinforced to present a more suitable appearance , as at Harewood Castle . In other cases mottes , such as that at Groby Castle , were reused as the bases for dramatic follies , or alternatively entirely new castle follies could be created ; either from scratch or by reusing original stonework , as occurred during the building of Conygar Tower for which various parts of Dunster Castle were cannibalised .
At the same time castles were becoming tourist attractions for the first time . By the 1740s Windsor Castle had become an early tourist attraction ; wealthier visitors who could afford to pay the castle keeper could enter , see curiosities such as the castle 's narwhal horn , and by the 1750s buy the first guidebooks . The first guidebook to Kenilworth Castle followed in 1777 with many later editions following in the coming decades . By the 1780s and 1790s visitors were beginning to progress as far as Chepstow , where an attractive female guide escorted tourists around the ruins as part of the popular Wye Tour . In Scotland Blair Castle became a popular attraction on account of its landscaped gardens , as did Stirling Castle with its romantic connections . Caernarfon in North Wales appealed to many visitors , especially artists . Irish castles proved less popular , partially because contemporary tourists regarded the country as being somewhat backward and the ruins therefore failed to provide the necessary romantic contrast with modern life .
The appreciation of castles developed as the century progressed . During the 1770s and 1780s the concept of the picturesque ruin was popularised by the English clergyman William Gilpin . Gilpin published several works on his journeys through Britain , expounding the concept of the " correctly picturesque " landscape . Such a landscape , Gilpin argued , usually required a building such as a castle or other ruin to add " consequence " to the natural picture . Paintings in this style usually portrayed castles as indistinct , faintly coloured objects in the distance ; in writing , the picturesque account eschewed detail in favour of bold first impressions on the sense . The ruins of Goodrich particularly appealed to Gilpin and his followers ; Conwy was , however , too well preserved and uninteresting . By contrast the artistic work of antiquarians James Bentham and James Essex at the end of the century , while stopping short of being genuine archaeology , was detailed and precise enough to provide a substantial base of architectural fine detail on medieval castle features and enabled the work of architects such as Wyatt .
= = 19th century = =
= = = Military and governmental use = = =
The military utility of the remaining castles in Britain and Ireland continued to diminish . Some castles became regimental depots , including Carlisle Castle and Chester Castle . Carrickfergus Castle was re @-@ equipped with gunports in order to provide coastal defences at the end of the Napoleonic period . Political instability was a major issue during the early 19th century and the popularity of the Chartist movement led to proposals to refortify the Tower of London in the event of civil unrest . In Ireland Dublin Castle played an increasing role in Ireland as Fenian pressures for independence grew during the century .
The operation of local prisons in locations such as castles had been criticised , since John Howard 's work in the 1770s , and pressure for reform continued to grow in the 1850s and 1860s . Reform of the legislation surrounding bankruptcy and debt in 1869 largely removed the threat of imprisonment for unpaid debts , and in the process eliminated the purpose of the debtor 's prisons in castles such as St Briavels . Efforts were made to regularise conditions in local prisons but without much success , and these failures led to prison reform in 1877 which nationalised British prisons , including prisons at castles like York . Compensation was paid to the former owners , although in cases such as York where the facilities were considered so poor as to require complete reconstruction , this payment was denied . In the short term this led to a 39 % reduction in the number of prisons in England , including some famous castle prisons such as Norwich ; over the coming years , centralisation and changes in prison design led to the closure of most remaining castle prisons .
= = = Social and cultural use = = =
Many castles saw increased visitors by tourists , helped by better transport links and the growth of the railways . The armouries at the Tower of London opened for tourists in 1828 with 40 @,@ 000 visitors in their first year ; by 1858 the numbers had grown to over 100 @,@ 000 a year . Attractions such as Warwick Castle received 6 @,@ 000 visitors during 1825 to 1826 , many of them travelling from the growing industrial towns in the nearby Midlands , while Victorian tourists recorded being charged six @-@ pence to wander around the ruins of Goodrich Castle . The spread of the railway system across Wales and the Marches strongly influenced the flow of tourists to the region 's castles . In Scotland tourist tours became increasingly popular during the 19th century , usually starting at Edinburgh complete with Edinburgh Castle , and then spending up to two weeks further north , taking advantage of the expanding rail and steamer network . Blair Castle remained popular , but additional castles joined the circuit – Cawdor Castle became popular once the railway line reached north to Fort William .
Purchasing and reading guidebooks became an increasingly important part of visiting castles ; by the 1820s visitors could buy an early guidebook at Goodrich outlining the castle 's history , the first guidebook to the Tower of London was published in 1841 and Scottish castle guidebooks became well known for providing long historical accounts of their sites , often drawing on the plots of Romantic novels for the details . Indeed , Sir Walter Scott 's historical novels Ivanhoe and Kenilworth helped to establish the popular Victorian image of a Gothic medieval castle . Scott 's novels set in Scotland also popularised several northern castles , including Tantallon which was featured in Marmion . Histories of Ireland began to stress the role of castles in the rise of Protestantism and " British values " in Ireland , although tourism remained limited .
One response to this popularity was in commissioning the construction of replica castles . These were particularly popular at beginning of the 19th century , and again later in the Victorian period . Design manuals were published offering details of how to recreate the appearance of an original Gothic castles in a new build , leading to a flurry of work , such as Eastnor in 1815 , the fake Norman castle of Penrhyn between 1827 and 1837 and the imitation Edwardian castle of Goodrich Court in 1828 . The later Victorians built the Welsh Castell Coch in the 1880s as a fantasy Gothic construction and the last such replica , Castle Drogo , was built as late as 1911 .
Another response was to improve existing castles , bringing their often chaotic historic features into line with a more integrated architectural aesthetic in a style often termed Gothic Revivalism . There were numerous attempts to restore or rebuild castles so as to produce a consistently Gothic style , informed by genuine medieval details , a movement in which the architect Anthony Salvin was particularly prominent – as illustrated by his reworking of Alnwick and much of Windsor Castle . A similar trend can be seen at Rothesay where William Burges renovated the older castle to produce a more " authentic " design , heavily influenced by the work of the French architect Eugène Viollet @-@ le @-@ Duc . North of the border this resulted in the distinctive style of Scots Baronial Style architecture , which took French and traditional medieval Scottish features and reinvented them in a baroque style . The style also proved popular in Ireland with George Jones ' Oliver Castle in the 1850s , for example , forming a good example of the fashion . As with Gothic Revivalism , Scots Baronial architects frequently " improved " existing castles : Floors Castle was transformed in 1838 by William Playfair who added grand turrets and cupolas . In a similar way the 16th @-@ century tower house of Lauriston Castle was turned into the Victorian ideal of a " rambling medieval house " . The style spread south and the famous architect Edward Blore added a Scots Baronial touch to his work at Windsor .
With this pace of change concerns had begun to grow by the middle of the century about the threat to medieval buildings in Britain , and in 1877 William Morris established the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings . One result of public pressure was the passing of the Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1882 , but the provisions of the act focused on unoccupied prehistoric structures and medieval buildings such as castles were exempted from it leaving no legal protection .
= = 20th – 21st century = =
= = = 1900 – 1945 = = =
During the first half of the century several castles were maintained , or brought back into military use . During the Irish War of Independence Dublin Castle remained the centre of the British administration , military and intelligence operations in Ireland until the transfer of power and the castle to the Irish Free State in 1922 . During the Second World War the Tower of London was used to hold and execute suspected spies , and was used to briefly detain Rudolf Hess , Adolf Hitler 's deputy , in 1941 . Edinburgh Castle was used as a prisoner of war facility , while Windsor Castle was stripped of more delicate royal treasures and used to guard the British royal family from the dangers of the Blitz . Some coastal castles were used to support naval operations : Dover Castle 's medieval fortifications used as basis for defences across the Dover Strait ; Pitreavie Castle in Scotland was used to support the Royal Navy ; and Carrickfergus Castle in Ireland was used as a coastal defence base . Some castles , such as Cambridge and Pevensey , were brought into local defence plans in case of a German invasion . A handful of these castles retained a military role after the war ; Dover was used as a nuclear war command centre into the 1950s , while Pitreavie was used by NATO until the turn of the 21st century .
The strong cultural interest in British castles persisted in the 20th century . In some cases this had destructive consequences as wealthy collectors bought and removed architectural features and other historical artefacts from castles for their own collections , a practice that produced significant official concern . Some of the more significant cases included St Donat 's Castle , bought by William Randolph Hearst in 1925 and then decorated with numerous medieval buildings removed from their original sites around Britain , and the case of Hornby , where many parts of the castle were sold off and sent to buyers in the United States . Partially as a result of these events , increasing legal powers were introduced to protect castles – acts of parliament in 1900 and 1910 widened the terms of the earlier legislation on national monuments to allow the inclusion of castles . An act of Parliament in 1913 introduced preservation orders for the first time and these powers were extended in 1931 . Similarly , after the end of the Irish Civil War , the new Irish state took early action to extend and strengthen the previous British legislation to protect Irish national monuments .
Around the beginning of the century there were a number of major restoration projects on British castles . Before the outbreak of the First World War work was undertaken at Chepstow , Bodiam , Caernarfon and Tattershal ; after the end of the war various major state funded restoration projects occurred in the 1920s with Pembroke , Caerphilly and Goodrich amongst the largest of these . This work typically centred on cutting back the vegetation encroaching on castle ruins , especially ivy , and removing damaged or unstable stonework ; castles such as Beaumaris saw their moats cleaned and reflooded . Some castles such as Eilean Donan in Scotland were substantially rebuilt in the inter @-@ war years . The early UK film industry took an interest in castles as potential sets , starting with Ivanhoe filmed at Chepstow Castle in 1913 and starring US leading actor King Baggot .
= = = 1945 – 21st century = = =
After the Second World War picturesque ruins of castles became unfashionable . The conservation preference was to restore castles so as to produce what Oliver Creighton and Robert Higham have described as a " meticulously cared for fabric , neat lawns and [ a ] highly regulated , visitor @-@ friendly environment " , although the reconstruction or reproduction of the original appearance of castles was discouraged . As a result , the stonework and walls of today 's castles , used as tourist attractions , are usually in much better condition than would have been the case in the medieval period . Preserving the broader landscapes of the past also rose in importance , reflected in the decision by the UNESCO World Heritage Site programme to internationally recognise several British castles including Beaumaris , Caernarfon , Conwy , Harlech , Durham and the Tower of London as deserving of special international cultural significance in the 1980s .
The single largest group of English castles are now those owned by English Heritage , created out of the former Ministry of Works in 1983 . The National Trust increasingly acquired castle properties in England in the 1950s , and is the second largest single owner , followed by the various English local authorities and finally a small number of private owners . Royal castles such as the Tower of London and Windsor are owned by the Occupied Royal Palaces Estate on behalf of the nation . Similar organisations exist in Scotland , where the National Trust for Scotland was established 1931 , and in Ireland , where An Taisce was created in 1948 to working alongside the Irish Ministry of Works to maintain castles and other sites . Some new organisations have emerged in recent years to manage castles , such as the Landmark Trust and the Irish Landmark Trust , which have restored a number of castles in Britain and Ireland over the last few decades .
Castles remain highly popular attractions : in 2009 nearly 2 @.@ 4 million people visited the Tower of London , 1 @.@ 2 million visited Edinburgh Castle , 559 @,@ 000 visited Leeds Castle and 349 @,@ 000 visited Dover Castle . Ireland , which for many years had not exploited the tourist potential of its castle heritage , began to encourage more tourists in the 1960s and 1970s and Irish castles are now a core part of the Irish tourist industry . British and Irish castles are today also closely linked to the international film industry , with tourist visits to castles now often involving not simply a visit to an historic site , but also a visit to the location of a popular film .
The management and handling of Britain 's historic castles has at times been contentious . Castles in the late 20th and early 21st century are usually considered part of the heritage industry , in which historic sites and events are commercially presented as visitor attractions . Some academics , such as David Lowenthal , have critiqued the way in which these histories are constantly culturally and socially reconstructed and condemned the " commercial debasement " of sites such as the Tower of London . The challenge of how to manage these historic properties has often required very practical decisions . At one end of the spectrum owners and architects have had to deal with the practical challenges of repairing smaller decaying castles used as private houses , such as that at Picton Castle where damp proved a considerable problem . At the other end of the scale the fire at Windsor Castle in 1992 opened up a national debate about how the burnt out castle wing should be replaced , the degree to which modern designs should be introduced and who should pay the £ 37 million costs ( £ 50 @.@ 2 million in 2009 terms ) . At Kenilworth the speculative and commercial reconstruction of the castle gardens in an Elizabethan style led to a vigorous academic debate over the interpretation of archaeological and historical evidence . Trends in conservation have altered and , in contrast to the prevailing post @-@ war approach to conservation , recent work at castles such as Wigmore , acquired by English Heritage in 1995 , have attempted to minimise the degree of intervention to the site .
= = Historiography = =
The earliest histories of British and Irish castles were recorded , albeit in a somewhat fragmented fashion , by John Leland in the 16th century and , by the 19th century , historical analysis of castles had become popular . Victorian historians such as George Clark and John Parker concluded that British castles had been built for the purposes of military defence , but believed that their history was pre @-@ Conquest – concluding that the mottes across the countryside had been built by either the Romans or Celts .
The study of castles by historians and archaeologists developed considerably during the 20th century . The early @-@ 20th @-@ century historian and archaeologist Ella Armitage published a ground @-@ breaking book in 1912 , arguing convincingly that British castles were in fact a Norman introduction , while historian Alexander Thompson also published in the same year , charting the course of the military development of English castles through the Middle Ages . The Victoria County History of England began to document the country 's castles on an unprecedented scale , providing an additional resource for historical analysis .
After the Second World War the historical analysis of British castles was dominated by Arnold Taylor , R. Allen Brown and D. J. Cathcart King . These academics made use of a growing amount of archaeological evidence , as the 1940s saw an increasing number of excavations of motte and bailey castles , and the number of castle excavations as a whole went on to double during the 1960s . With an increasing number of castle sites under threat in urban areas , a public scandal in 1972 surrounding the development of the Baynard 's Castle site in London contributed to reforms and a re @-@ prioritisation of funding for rescue archaeology . Despite this the number of castle excavations fell between 1974 and 1984 , with the archaeological work focusing on conducting excavations on a greater number of small @-@ scale , but fewer large @-@ scale sites . The study of British castles remained primarily focused on analysing their military role , however , drawing on the evolutionary model of improvements suggested by Thompson earlier in the century .
In the 1990s a wide @-@ reaching reassessment of the interpretation of British castles took place . A vigorous academic discussion over the history and meanings behind Bodiam Castle began a debate , which concluded that many features of castles previously seen as primarily military in nature were in fact constructed for reasons of status and political power . As historian Robert Liddiard has described it , the older paradigm of " Norman militarism " as the driving force behind the formation of Britain 's castles was replaced by a model of " peaceable power " . The next twenty years was characterised by an increasing number of major publications on castle studies , examining the social and political aspects of the fortifications , as well as their role in the historical landscape . Although not unchallenged , this " revisionist " perspective remains the dominant theme in the academic literature today .
= Caesar cipher =
In cryptography , a Caesar cipher , also known as Caesar 's cipher , the shift cipher , Caesar 's code or Caesar shift , is one of the simplest and most widely known encryption techniques . It is a type of substitution cipher in which each letter in the plaintext is replaced by a letter some fixed number of positions down the alphabet . For example , with a left shift of 3 , D would be replaced by A , E would become B , and so on . The method is named after Julius Caesar , who used it in his private correspondence .
The encryption step performed by a Caesar cipher is often incorporated as part of more complex schemes , such as the Vigenère cipher , and still has modern application in the ROT13 system . As with all single @-@ alphabet substitution ciphers , the Caesar cipher is easily broken and in modern practice offers essentially no communication security .
= = Example = =
The transformation can be represented by aligning two alphabets ; the cipher alphabet is the plain alphabet rotated left or right by some number of positions . For instance , here is a Caesar cipher using a left rotation of three places , equivalent to a right shift of 23 ( the shift parameter is used as the key ) :
Plain : ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
Cipher : XYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVW
When encrypting , a person looks up each letter of the message in the " plain " line and writes down the corresponding letter in the " cipher " line .
Plaintext : THE QUICK BROWN FOX JUMPS OVER THE LAZY DOG
Ciphertext : QEB NRFZH YOLTK CLU GRJMP LSBO QEB IXWV ALD
Deciphering is done in reverse , with a right shift of 3 .
The encryption can also be represented using modular arithmetic by first transforming the letters into numbers , according to the scheme , A
= 0 , B =
1 , ... , Z = 25 . Encryption of a letter <formula> by a shift n can be described mathematically as ,
<formula>
Decryption is performed similarly ,
<formula>
( There are different definitions for the modulo operation . In the above , the result is in the range 0 ... 25 . I.e. , if x + n or x @-@ n are not in the range 0 ... 25 , we have to subtract or add 26 . )
The replacement remains the same throughout the message , so the cipher is classed as a type of monoalphabetic substitution , as opposed to polyalphabetic substitution .
= = History and usage = =
The Caesar cipher is named after Julius Caesar , who , according to Suetonius , used it with a shift of three to protect messages of military significance . While Caesar 's was the first recorded use of this scheme , other substitution ciphers are known to have been used earlier .
If he had anything confidential to say , he wrote it in cipher , that is , by so changing the order of the letters of the alphabet , that not a word could be made out . If anyone wishes to decipher these , and get at their meaning , he must substitute the fourth letter of the alphabet , namely D , for A , and so with the others .
His nephew , Augustus , also used the cipher , but with a right shift of one , and it did not wrap around to the beginning of the alphabet :
Whenever he wrote in cipher , he wrote B for A , C for B , and the rest of the letters on the same principle , using AA for Z.
There is evidence that Julius Caesar used more complicated systems as well , and one writer , Aulus Gellius , refers to a ( now lost ) treatise on his ciphers :
There is even a rather ingeniously written treatise by the grammarian Probus concerning the secret meaning of letters in the composition of Caesar 's epistles .
It is unknown how effective the Caesar cipher was at the time , but it is likely to have been reasonably secure , not least because most of Caesar 's enemies would have been illiterate and others would have assumed that the messages were written in an unknown foreign language . There is no record at that time of any techniques for the solution of simple substitution ciphers . The earliest surviving records date to the 9th century works of Al @-@ Kindi in the Arab world with the discovery of frequency analysis .
A Caesar cipher with a shift of one is used on the back of the mezuzah to encrypt the names of God . This may be a holdover from an earlier time when Jewish people were not allowed to have mezuzot . The letters of the cryptogram themselves comprise a religiously significant " divine name " which Orthodox belief holds keeps the forces of evil in check .
In the 19th century , the personal advertisements section in newspapers would sometimes be used to exchange messages encrypted using simple cipher schemes . Kahn ( 1967 ) describes instances of lovers engaging in secret communications enciphered using the Caesar cipher in The Times . Even as late as 1915 , the Caesar cipher was in use : the Russian army employed it as a replacement for more complicated ciphers which had proved to be too difficult for their troops to master ; German and Austrian cryptanalysts had little difficulty in decrypting their messages .
Caesar ciphers can be found today in children 's toys such as secret decoder rings . A Caesar shift of thirteen is also performed in the ROT13 algorithm , a simple method of obfuscating text widely found on Usenet and used to obscure text ( such as joke punchlines and story spoilers ) , but not seriously used as a method of encryption .
A construction of 2 rotating disks with a Caesar cipher can be used to encrypt or decrypt the code .
The Vigenère cipher uses a Caesar cipher with a different shift at each position in the text ; the value of the shift is defined using a repeating keyword . If the keyword is as long as the message , chosen random , never becomes known to anyone else , and is never reused , this is the one @-@ time pad cipher , proven unbreakable . The conditions are so difficult they are , in practical effect , never achieved . Keywords shorter than the message ( e.g. , " Complete Victory " used by the Confederacy during the American Civil War ) , introduce a cyclic pattern that might be detected with a statistically advanced version of frequency analysis .
In April 2006 , fugitive Mafia boss Bernardo Provenzano was captured in Sicily partly because some of his messages , clumsily written in a variation of the Caesar cipher , were broken . Provenzano 's cipher used numbers , so that " A " would be written as " 4 " , " B " as " 5 " , and so on .
In 2011 , Rajib Karim was convicted in the United Kingdom of " terrorism offences " after using the Caesar cipher to communicate with Bangladeshi Islamic activists discussing plots to blow up British Airways planes or disrupt their IT networks . Although the parties had access to far better encryption techniques ( Karim himself used PGP for data storage on computer disks ) , they chose to use their own scheme ( implemented in Microsoft Excel ) , rejecting a more sophisticated code program called Mujhaddin Secrets " because ' kaffirs ' , or non @-@ believers , know about it , so it must be less secure " .
The animated series Gravity Falls uses the Caesar cipher as one of three different ciphers ( the other two being Atbash and an A1Z26 cipher ) during the end credits of the first six episodes .
= = Breaking the cipher = =
The Caesar cipher can be easily broken even in a ciphertext @-@ only scenario . Two situations can be considered :
an attacker knows ( or guesses ) that some sort of simple substitution cipher has been used , but not specifically that it is a Caesar scheme ;
an attacker knows that a Caesar cipher is in use , but does not know the shift value .
In the first case , the cipher can be broken using the same techniques as for a general simple substitution cipher , such as frequency analysis or pattern words . While solving , it is likely that an attacker will quickly notice the regularity in the solution and deduce that a Caesar cipher is the specific algorithm employed .
In the second instance , breaking the scheme is even more straightforward . Since there are only a limited number of possible shifts ( 26 in English ) , they can each be tested in turn in a brute force attack . One way to do this is to write out a snippet of the ciphertext in a table of all possible shifts – a technique sometimes known as " completing the plain component " . The example given is for the ciphertext " EXXEGOEXSRGI " ; the plaintext is instantly recognisable by eye at a shift of four . Another way of viewing this method is that , under each letter of the ciphertext , the entire alphabet is written out in reverse starting at that letter . This attack can be accelerated using a set of strips prepared with the alphabet written down in reverse order . The strips are then aligned to form the ciphertext along one row , and the plaintext should appear in one of the other rows .
Another brute force approach is to match up the frequency distribution of the letters . By graphing the frequencies of letters in the ciphertext , and by knowing the expected distribution of those letters in the original language of the plaintext , a human can easily spot the value of the shift by looking at the displacement of particular features of the graph . This is known as frequency analysis . For example , in the English language the plaintext frequencies of the letters E , T , ( usually most frequent ) , and Q , Z ( typically least frequent ) are particularly distinctive . Computers can also do this by measuring how well the actual frequency distribution matches up with the expected distribution ; for example , the chi @-@ squared statistic can be used .
For natural language plaintext , there will , in all likelihood , be only one plausible decryption , although for extremely short plaintexts , multiple candidates are possible . For example , the ciphertext MPQY could , plausibly , decrypt to either " aden " or " know " ( assuming the plaintext is in English ) ; similarly , " ALIIP " to " dolls " or " wheel " ; and " AFCCP " to " jolly " or " cheer " ( see also unicity distance ) .
Multiple encryptions and decryptions provide no additional security . This is because two encryptions of , say , shift A and shift B , will be equivalent to an encryption with shift A + B. In mathematical terms , the encryption under various keys forms a group .
= SM UB @-@ 8 =
SM UB @-@ 8 was a German Type UB I submarine or U @-@ boat in the German Imperial Navy ( German : Kaiserliche Marine ) during World War I. She was sold to Bulgaria in 1916 and renamed Podvodnik No. 18 ( Bulgarian : Пoдвoдник № 18 ) , and was the first ever Bulgarian submarine .
UB @-@ 8 was ordered in October 1914 and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in November . UB @-@ 8 was a little under 28 metres ( 92 ft ) in length and displaced between 127 and 141 tonnes ( 125 and 139 long tons ) , depending on whether surfaced or submerged . She carried two torpedoes for her two bow torpedo tubes and was also armed with a deck @-@ mounted machine gun . UB @-@ 8 was originally one of a pair of UB I boats sent to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy to replace an Austrian pair to be sent to the Dardanelles , and was broken into sections and shipped by rail to Pola in March 1915 for reassembly . She was launched and commissioned as SM UB @-@ 8 in the German Imperial Navy in April when the Austrians opted out of the agreement .
Although briefly a part of the Pola Flotilla at commissioning , UB @-@ 8 spent the majority of her German career patrolling the Black Sea as part of the Constantinople Flotilla . The U @-@ boat sank two ships . One of them , SS Merion , was disguised by the British Admiralty as a Royal Navy battlecruiser as part of a decoy operation . In October , she helped repel a Russian bombardment of Bulgaria .
In May 1916 , the submarine was transferred to the Bulgarian Navy as Podvodnik No. 18 and commissioned in a ceremony that was attended by Crown Prince Boris and Prince Kiril . In Bulgarian service , the submarine patrolled the Bulgarian Black Sea coast and had encounters with Russian vessels on several occasions . After the war ended , the submarine was surrendered to France in February 1919 and scrapped at Bizerta in August 1921 . However , in July 2011 Viceadmiral Manushev , Commander of the Bulgarian Navy , announced that the submarine , discovered in 2010 at the sea bottom near the town of Varna , is UB @-@ 8 . Divers discovered manufacturer numbers and according to them the identity is confirmed .
= = Design and construction = =
After the German Army 's rapid advance along the North Sea coast in the earliest stages of World War I , the German Imperial Navy found itself without suitable submarines that could be operated in the narrow and shallow seas off Flanders . Project 34 , a design effort begun in mid @-@ August 1914 , produced the Type UB I design : a small submarine that could be shipped by rail to a port of operations and quickly assembled . Constrained by railroad size limitations , the UB I design called for a boat about 28 metres ( 92 ft ) long and displacing about 125 tonnes ( 123 long tons ) with two torpedo tubes . UB @-@ 8 was last boat of the initial allotment of eight submarines — numbered from UB @-@ 1 — ordered on 15 October from Germaniawerft of Kiel , just shy of two months after planning for the class began .
UB @-@ 8 was laid down by Germaniawerft in Kiel on 4 December . As built , UB @-@ 8 was 28 @.@ 10 metres ( 92 ft 2 in ) long , 3 @.@ 15 metres ( 10 ft 4 in ) abeam , and had a draft of 3 @.@ 03 metres ( 9 ft 11 in ) . She had a single 59 @-@ brake @-@ horsepower ( 44 kW ) Daimler 4 @-@ cylinder diesel engine for surface travel , and a single 119 @-@ shaft @-@ horsepower ( 89 kW ) Siemens @-@ Schuckert electric motor for underwater travel , both attached to a single propeller shaft . Her top speeds were 6 @.@ 47 knots ( 11 @.@ 98 km / h ; 7 @.@ 45 mph ) , surfaced , and 5 @.@ 51 knots ( 10 @.@ 20 km / h ; 6 @.@ 34 mph ) , submerged . At more moderate speeds , she could sail up to 1 @,@ 650 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 060 km ; 1 @,@ 900 mi ) on the surface before refueling , and up to 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ; 52 mi ) submerged before recharging her batteries . Like all boats of the class , UB @-@ 8 was rated to a diving depth of 50 metres ( 160 ft ) , and could completely submerge in 33 seconds .
UB @-@ 8 was armed with two 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedoes in two bow torpedo tubes . She was also outfitted for a single 8 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun on deck . UB @-@ 8 's standard complement consisted of one officer and thirteen enlisted men .
While UB @-@ 8 's construction neared completion in early March 1915 , Enver Pasha and other Turkish leaders were pleading with their German and Austro @-@ Hungarian allies to send submarines to the Dardanelles to help attack the British and French fleet pounding Turkish positions . The Germans induced the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( German : Kaiserliche und Königliche Kriegsmarine or K.u.K. Kriegsmarine ) to send two boats — its own Germaniawerft @-@ built boats U @-@ 3 and U @-@ 4 — with the promise of UB @-@ 7 and UB @-@ 8 as replacements .
When work on UB @-@ 7 and UB @-@ 8 was complete at the Germaniwerft yard , they were both readied for rail shipment . The process of shipping a UB I boat involved breaking the submarine down into what was essentially a knock down kit . Each boat was broken into approximately fifteen pieces and loaded on to eight railway flatcars . The boats were ready for shipment to the main Austrian naval base at Pola on 15 March , despite the fact that the Austrian pair was still not ready . German engineers and technicians that accompanied the German boats to Pola worked under the supervision of Kapitänleutnant Hans Adam , head of the newly created U @-@ boat special command ( German : Sonderkommando ) . Typically , the UB I assembly process took about two to three weeks , and , accordingly , UB @-@ 8 was launched at Pola sometime in April .
= = German career = =
During her trials , UB @-@ 8 was assigned the Austrian number of U @-@ 8 and an Austrian commander . Her German crew at Pola — since it was still the intent for UB @-@ 8 to be transferred to the K.u.K. Kriegsmarine — wore either civilian clothes or Austrian uniforms . As time dragged on , the Austrian U @-@ 3 and U @-@ 4 were still not ready , and eventually Admiral Anton Haus , the head of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , reneged on his commitment because of the overt hostility from neighbor and former ally Italy .
With the change of heart from the Austrians , Germany resolved to retain UB @-@ 8 and send her to the aid of the Turks . So , the boat was commissioned into the German Imperial Navy as SM UB @-@ 8 on 23 April under the command of Kapitänleutnant Ernst von Voigt , a 27 @-@ year @-@ old first @-@ time U @-@ boat commander . At commissioning , the boat temporarily joined the Pola Flotilla ( German : Deutsche U @-@ Halbflotille Pola ) .
Because of her limited range , UB @-@ 8 would not have been able to make the entire journey to Turkey , so on 2 May , she was towed by the Austrian cruiser SMS Novara from Pola down the Adriatic and through the Straits of Otranto . The duo continued until spotted by French forces near Kefalonia . UB @-@ 8 slipped the tow and Novara raced back into the Adriatic without incident . Two days after her departure , UB @-@ 8 was running on the surface when the stern of the boat suddenly dropped . The watch officer , on the conning tower with the helmsman and a lookout , was able to partially close the hatch before the entire submarine slipped below the waves , depositing the three men in the water . On board the submarine , water continued to pour in through the hatch and the boat was sinking by the stern . Voigt ordered the interior hatch to the control room sealed and all the ballast tanks filled with compressed air to increase buoyancy . The tactic returned UB @-@ 8 to the surface where the boat 's diesel engines were restarted . Voigt circled back for the missing crewmen but only the watch officer and helmsman were recovered ; the lookout had drowned .
On 29 May 1915 , UB @-@ 8 came upon an Allied convoy near Lemnos , and , enticed by the prospect of hitting what he identified as the Royal Navy battlecruiser HMS Tiger , Voigt allowed five fully laden transport ships to pass unmolested . When he had a clear shot , Voigt launched one of his torpedoes at the stationary ship and hit it , sending debris into the air . Unfortunately for Voigt and UB @-@ 8 , they had in fact torpedoed the British ocean liner SS Merion , which was a participant in an Admiralty plan to disguise large liners as Royal Navy capital ships . Merion , which eventually sank on 31 May , had been outfitted with wood and canvas " guns " and overloaded with cement and stones to approximate the profile of Tiger . There are no reports of any deaths during Merion 's sinking .
On 4 June , UB @-@ 8 became the first submarine in the new Constantinople Flotilla ( German : U @-@ boote der Mittelmeer division in Konstantinopel ) based in Constantinople ( present @-@ day Istanbul ) . Despite German intentions to use her in the Dardanelles , UB @-@ 8 was ineffective because she was hampered by her limited torpedo supply and her weak engines , which made negotiating the strong currents there nearly impossible . Because of this , UB @-@ 8 was sent to patrol in the Black Sea , where she was active by late July . Off Sevastopol on 31 July , UB @-@ 8 sank her second and final ship , the 1 @,@ 265 @-@ ton Russian ship Peter Melnikoff .
On 12 August , UB @-@ 8 fired a torpedoe at HMS Manica from 500 yards , which passed under Manica 's shallow draught , the submarine was then sighted outside net , two torpedoes fired and missed Manica , which hit the net at an acute angle and burst . An attack two days later on similar vessels was also unsuccessful .
In September , UB @-@ 7 and UB @-@ 8 were sent to Varna , Bulgaria , and from there , to patrol off the Russian Black Sea coast . Because Bulgaria had joined the Central Powers , battleships of the Russian Black Sea Fleet , and aircraft from the seaplane carriers Almaz and Imperator Nikolai I began attacks on Varna and the Bulgarian coast on 25 October . UB @-@ 7 and UB @-@ 8 , both based out of Varna by this time , sortied to disrupt the bombardment . UB @-@ 8 was never able to launch any attacks , but UB @-@ 7 launched a torpedo at the Russian battleship Panteleimon ( most well @-@ known under her former name of Potemkin ) , but it missed . Despite the lack of any success by either submarine , their presence did cause the Russians to break off their attacks and withdraw .
In early 1916 , UB @-@ 7 and UB @-@ 8 were still cruising in the Black Sea out of Varna . The Germans did not have good luck in the Black Sea , which was not a priority for them . The Bulgarians , who saw the value of the submarines in repelling Russian attacks , began negotiations to purchase UB @-@ 7 and UB @-@ 8 . Bulgarian sailors practiced in the pair of boats and technicians were sent to Kiel for training at the German submarine school there . The transfer of UB @-@ 8 to the Bulgarian Navy took place on 25 May 1916 , but for reasons unreported in sources , UB @-@ 7 remained under the German flag .
= = Bulgarian career = =
Upon acceptance of UB @-@ 8 by the Bulgarian Navy , she was renamed Podvodnik No. 18 ( in Cyrillic : Пoдвoдник № 18 ) . Although the commissioning ceremony for Podvodnik No. 18 was kept out of newspapers , it was attended by Crown Prince Boris and his brother Prince Kiril , who both boarded the submarine for a ceremonial first voyage to Euxinograd , the Bulgarian summer palace located just north of Varna . In Bulgarian service , the submarine was armed with a 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) deck gun that supplemented its machine gun .
Podvodnik No. 18 's first patrol under the Bulgarian flag took place on 4 and 5 July 1916 when she sailed to Cape Shabla and Mangalia . The submarine was used for reconnaissance and coastal defense , and patrolled a regular route . This route was a loop that began in Varna and went northward to Kaliakra , Mangalia , and Constanţa ; then southward to Burgas , and Sozopol ; then ended at Varna . On 6 September , she had an encounter with the Russian destroyers Bystry and Gromki , drove off Russian submarines on other occasions , and on 16 December helped turn back a Russian sortie against Balchik . After the Russian withdrawal from World War I in 1917 , Podvodnik No. 18 's activities were greatly reduced .
After the end of the war , Podvodnik No. 18 was surrendered to the French on 23 February 1919 . Towed to Bizerta , she was scrapped after August 1921 .
= = Ships sunk or damaged = =
= Whitechapel Road =
Whitechapel Road is a major arterial road in Whitechapel , Tower Hamlets , in the East End of London . It is named after a small chapel of ease dedicated to St Mary and connects Aldgate to the west ( as Whitechapel High Street ) with Mile End Road to the east . The road is part of the historic Roman Road from London to Colchester , now the A11 .
The road had become built up by the 19th century and is now a main shopping district in the Whitechapel area . There is an established street market along the road next to Whitechapel tube station . The Whitechapel Bell Foundry and the Royal London Hospital have been based on Whitechapel Road since the 18th century . It remains an important road and is marked with bus lanes , with limited parking .
Several ethnic minority communities have centred on Whitechapel Road . The road was a focal point of the Jewish Community from the 1850s to the 1930s , with many Jewish shops and market stalls . Towards the latter part of the 20th century , the street became an established settlement of the British Bangladeshi community , who now sell a range of authentic Asian food and clothes in the market and on shop fronts . Altab Ali Park sits on the site of the original church at the western end of Whitechapel Road , and is a memorial to an Asian worker who suffered a fatal racial attack in 1978 .
= = Geography = =
The road 's name , along with the area , is derived from the original 14th @-@ century White Chapel . It follows the section of the Roman road between Londinium ( London ) and Camulodunum ( Colchester ) , which connected to the Pye Road to Venta Icenorum ( Caistor St Edmund near Norwich ) . The section of the Roman Road that is now Whitechapel Road is a Primary A @-@ road , the A11 , and has bus lanes running along its length . Owing to the popularity of the market , parking is heavily restricted , limited to occasional parking metered spaces along the road .
Cycle Superhighway CS2 runs along Whitechapel Road . The nearest London Underground stations are Whitechapel station and Aldgate East station and the nearest National Rail station is Bethnal Green railway station . A number of local London Buses routes run along Whitechapel Road , including 25 , 205 and 254 .
= = History = =
The road has been an important thoroughfare and coaching route for centuries . Whitechapel High Street and Whitechapel Road are named as such on John Rocque 's Map of London , 1746 , both marked as " White Chapel " . On John Cary 's " Environs of London " of 1795 ( published in his New Itinerary of 1798 ) there are properties on both sides of the road . By the ninth edition in 1821 , the road is shown as extensively built up . In the mid @-@ 19th century , drovers steered livestock from local farms along the road towards Smithfield Market , causing considerable traffic congestion . By the 1870s , the road had become extensively developed with properties along the entire stretch of the road .
The Freedom Press Bookshop is on Angel Alley , No. 84b Whitechapel High Street , and was established in the 1880s by Peter Kropotkin and Charlotte Wilson as the first publishing house to deal with anarchism and radical publications . The press has been controversial , and was fire @-@ bombed in 2013 , but quickly reopened . The Whitechapel Art Gallery on Whitechapel High Street opened in 1899 . It was designed by Charles Harrison Townsend in 1895 and was the first major art gallery in East London . It has shown works of Jackson Pollock , Robert Rauschenberg and David Hockney . It continues to be the centre of the arts scene in the area .
The Whitechapel Bell Foundry , a principal supplier of church bells in Britain , is based at No. 32 – 34 Whitechapel Road . The buildings date from 1670 and are Grade II listed . Originally a coaching inn known as The Artichoke , it has been occupied by the foundry since 1738 , replacing smaller premises on the north side of the road . Davenant Foundation School moved to No. 173 Whitechapel Road in 1818 . The school expanded with a new hall and classrooms in 1896 , with further improvements in 1909 . However , a decreasing child population meant that in 1965 , the school moved to Loughton , Essex . The building remains on the north side and is Grade II listed .
Continuing eastwards , Whitechapel tube station is on the north side of the road , alongside the street market . Behind the tube station is the former site of Blackwall Buildings a set of philanthropic houses built in 1890 . Just to the east of the market are almshouses at Trinity House , that were originally built in 1695 for retired seamen .
Nearby is the former site of St. Mary 's ( Whitechapel Road ) tube station . The station opened in March 1884 but its close proximity to both Whitechapel and Aldgate East tube stations made it superfluous , leading to its closure in April 1938 . It was used as an air raid shelter in World War II , but was destroyed by bombing in 1940 . Opposite to the south is the former Royal London Hospital building , built in 1740 . The hospital suffered significant structural damage during World War II , but much of the 18th- and 19th @-@ century architecture still remains . A new building now sits adjacent to the original .
The Pavilion Theatre opened on Nos.191 – 193 Whitechapel Road , the site of a former clothes factory , in 1828 . It was the first major theatre to open in the East End of London . The original building was destroyed in a fire in 1856 , and was replaced by a larger theatre that could accommodate over 1 @,@ 000 people , becoming the centre of Yiddish theatre in Britain . It closed in 1934 .
During the 1940s , the Metropolitan Police attempted to crack down on illegal gambling held in social clubs along Whitechapel Road . The Brancroft Social Club was based at No. 69 , and in March 1944 , a police raid uncovered unlicensed horse and dog race betting which led to the arrest of the club 's
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appointed commander of the Royalist cavalry during the English Civil War , becoming the archetypal Cavalier of the war and ultimately the senior Royalist general . He surrendered after the fall of Bristol and was banished from England . He served under Louis XIV of France against Spain , and then as a Royalist privateer in the Caribbean . Following the Restoration , Rupert returned to England , becoming a senior British naval commander during the Second and Third Anglo @-@ Dutch wars , engaging in scientific invention , art , and serving as the first governor of the Hudson 's Bay Company . Rupert died in England in 1682 , aged 62 .
Rupert is considered to have been a quick @-@ thinking and energetic cavalry general , but ultimately undermined by his youthful impatience in dealing with his peers during the Civil War . In the Interregnum , Rupert continued the conflict against Parliament by sea from the Mediterranean to the Caribbean , showing considerable persistence in the face of adversity . As the head of the Royal Navy in his later years , he showed greater maturity and made impressive and long @-@ lasting contributions to the Royal Navy 's doctrine and development . As a colonial governor , Rupert shaped the political geography of modern Canada — Rupert 's Land was named in his honour . He also played a role in the early African slave trade . Rupert 's varied and numerous scientific and administrative interests combined with his considerable artistic skills made him one of the more colourful individuals of the Restoration period .
= = Early life and exile = =
Rupert was born in Prague in 1619 , at the start of the Thirty Years ' War , to Frederick V , Elector Palatine , and Elizabeth Stuart , and was declared a prince by the principality of Lusatia . He was given his name in honour of King Rupert of Germany , a famous Wittelsbach ancestor . Rupert 's father was a leading member of the Holy Roman Empire and the head of the Protestant Union , with a martial family tradition stretching back several centuries . Rupert 's family was at the heart of a network of Protestant rulers across the north of Europe , as Frederick had close ties through his mother to the ruling House of Orange @-@ Nassau in the United Provinces , and Elizabeth was the daughter of James I of England and Anne of Denmark . The family lived an extremely wealthy lifestyle in Heidelberg , enjoying the palace gardens — the Hortus Palatinus , designed by Inigo Jones and Salomon de Caus — and a lavish castle with one of the best libraries in Europe .
Frederick had allied himself with rebellious Protestant Bohemian nobility in 1619 , expecting support from the Protestant Union in his revolt against the Catholic Ferdinand II , the newly elected Holy Roman Emperor . This support was not forthcoming , resulting in a crushing defeat at the hands of his Catholic enemies at the Battle of White Mountain in 1620 . Rupert 's parents were mockingly termed the " Winter King and Queen " as a consequence of their reigns in Bohemia having lasted only a single season . Rupert was almost left behind in the court 's rush to escape Ferdinand 's advance on Prague , until Kryštof z Donína ( Christopher Dhona ) , a court member , tossed the prince into a carriage at the last moment .
Rupert accompanied his parents to The Hague , where he spent his early years at the Hof te Wassenaer , the Wassenaer Court . Rupert 's mother paid her children little attention even by the standards of the day , apparently preferring her pet monkeys and dogs . Instead , Frederick employed Monsieur and Madame de Plessen to act as governors to his children , with instructions to inculcate a positive attitude towards the Czechs / Bohemians and the English , and to bring them up as strict Calvinists . The result was a strict school routine including logic , mathematics , writing , drawing , singing and playing instruments . As a child , Rupert was at times badly behaved , " fiery , mischievous , and passionate " and earned himself the nickname Robert le Diable , or " Rupert The Devil " . Nonetheless , Rupert proved to be an able student . By the age of three he could speak some English , Czech and French , and mastered German while still young , but had little interest in Latin and Greek . He excelled in art , being taught by Gerard van Honthorst , and found the maths and sciences easy . By the time he was 18 he stood about 6 ft 4 in ( 1 @.@ 93 m ) tall .
Rupert 's family continued their attempts to regain the Palatinate during their time in The Hague . Money was short , with the family relying upon a relatively small pension from The Hague , the proceeds from family investments in Dutch raids on Spanish shipping , and revenue from pawned family jewellery . Frederick set about convincing an alliance of nations — including England , France and Sweden — to support his attempts to regain the Palatinate and Bohemia . By the early 1630s Frederick had built a close relationship with the Swedish King Gustavus , the dominant Protestant leader in Germany . In 1632 , however , the two men disagreed over Gustavus ' insistence that Frederick provide equal rights to his Lutheran and Calvinist subjects after regaining his lands ; Frederick refused and started to return to The Hague . He died of a fever along the way and was buried in an unmarked grave . Rupert had lost his father at the age of 13 , and Gustavus ' death at the battle of Lützen in the same month deprived the family of a critical Protestant ally . With Frederick gone , King Charles proposed that the family move to England ; Rupert 's mother declined , but asked that Charles extend his protection to her remaining children instead .
= = Teenage years = =
Rupert spent the beginning of his teenage years in England between the courts of The Hague and his uncle King Charles I , before being captured and imprisoned in Linz during the middle stages of the Thirty Years ' War . Rupert had become a soldier early ; at the age of 14 he attended the Dutch pas d 'armes with the Protestant Frederick Henry , Prince of Orange . Later that year he fought alongside him and the Duke of Brunswick at the Anglo @-@ German siege of Rheinberg , and by 1635 he was acting as a military lifeguard to Prince Frederick . Rupert went on to fight against imperial Spain in the successful campaign around Breda in 1637 during the Eighty Years ' War in the Netherlands . By the end of this period , Rupert had acquired a reputation for fearlessness in battle , high spirits and considerable industry .
In between these campaigns Rupert had visited his uncle 's court in England . The Palatinate cause was a popular Protestant issue in England , and in 1637 a general public subscription helped fund an expedition under Charles Louis to try and regain the electorate as part of a joint French campaign . Rupert was placed in command of a Palatinate cavalry regiment , and his later friend Lord Craven , an admirer of Rupert 's mother , assisted in raising funds and accompanied the army on the campaign . The campaign ended badly at the Battle of Vlotho ( 17 October 1638 ) during the invasion of Westphalia ; Rupert escaped death , but was captured by the forces of the Imperial General Melchior von Hatzfeldt towards the end of the battle .
After a failed attempt to bribe his way free of his guards , Rupert was imprisoned in Linz . Lord Craven , also taken in the battle , attempted to persuade his captors to allow him to remain with Rupert , but was refused . Rupert 's imprisonment was surrounded by religious overtones . His mother was deeply concerned that he might be converted from Calvinism to Catholicism ; his captors , encouraged by Emperor Ferdinand III , deployed Jesuit priests in an attempt to convert him . The Emperor went further , proffering the option of freedom , a position as an Imperial general and a small principality if Rupert would convert . Rupert refused .
Rupert 's imprisonment became more relaxed on the advice of the Archduke Leopold , Ferdinand 's younger brother , who met and grew to like Rupert . Rupert practised etching , played tennis , practised shooting , read military textbooks and was taken on accompanied hunting trips . He also entered into a romantic affair with Susan Kuffstein , the daughter of Count von Kuffstein , his gaoler . He received a present of a rare white poodle that Rupert called Boye , and which remained with him into the English Civil War . Despite attempts by a Franco @-@ Swedish army to seize Linz and free Rupert , his release was ultimately negotiated through Leopold and the Empress Maria Anna ; in exchange for a commitment never again to take up arms against the Emperor , Rupert would be released . Rupert formally kissed the Emperor 's hand at the end of 1641 , turned down a final offer of an Imperial command and left Germany for England .
= = Career during the First English Civil War = =
Rupert is probably best remembered today for his role as a Royalist commander during the English Civil War . He had considerable success during the initial years of the war , his drive , determination and experience of European techniques bringing him early victories . As the war progressed , Rupert 's youth and lack of maturity in managing his relationships with other Royalist commanders ultimately resulted in his removal from his post and ultimate retirement from the war . Throughout the conflict , however , Rupert also enjoyed a powerful symbolic position : he was an iconic Royalist Cavalier and as such was frequently the subject of both Parliamentarian and Royalist propaganda , an image which has endured over the years .
= = = Early phases , 1642 – 43 = = =
Rupert arrived in England following his period of imprisonment and final release from captivity in Germany . In August 1642 , Rupert , along with his brother Prince Maurice and a number of professional soldiers , ran the gauntlet across the sea from the United Provinces , and after one initial failure , evaded the pro @-@ Parliamentary navy and landed in Newcastle . Riding across country , he found the King with a tiny army at Leicester Abbey , and was promptly appointed General of Horse , a coveted appointment at the time in European warfare . Rupert set about recruiting and training : with great effort he had put together a partially trained mounted force of 3 @,@ 000 cavalry by the end of September . Rupert 's reputation continued to rise and , leading a sudden , courageous charge , he routed a Parliamentarian force at Powick Bridge , the first military engagement of the war . Although a small engagement , this had a propaganda value far exceeding the importance of the battle itself , and Rupert became an heroic figure for many young men in the Royalist camp .
Rupert joined the King in the advance on London , playing a key role in the resulting Battle of Edgehill in October . Once again , Rupert was at his best with swift battlefield movements ; the night before , he had undertaken a forced march and seized the summit of Edgehill , giving the Royalists a superior position . When he quarrelled with his fellow infantry commander , Lindsey , however , some of the weaknesses of Rupert 's character began to display themselves . Rupert vigorously interjected — probably correctly , but certainly tactlessly — that Lindsey should deploy his men in the modern Swedish fashion that Rupert was used to in Europe , which would have maximised their available firepower . The result was an argument in front of the troops and Lindsey 's resignation and replacement by Sir Jacob Astley . In the subsequent battle Rupert 's men made a dramatic cavalry charge , but despite his best efforts a subsequent scattering and loss of discipline turned a potential victory into a stalemate .
After Edgehill , Rupert asked Charles for a swift cavalry attack on London before the Earl of Essex 's army could return . The King 's senior counsellors , however , urged him to advance slowly on the capital with the whole army . By the time they arrived , the city had organised defences against them . Some argue that , in delaying , the Royalists had perhaps lost their best chance of winning the war , although others have argued that Rupert 's proposed attack would have had trouble penetrating a hostile London . Instead , early in 1643 , Rupert began to clear the South @-@ West , taking Cirencester in February before moving further against Bristol , a key port . Rupert took Bristol in July with his brother Maurice using Cornish forces and was appointed Governor of the city . By mid @-@ 1643 Rupert had become so well known that he was an issue in any potential peace accommodation — Parliament was seeking to see him punished as part of any negotiated solution , and the presence of Rupert at the court , close to the King during the negotiations , was perceived as a bellicose statement in itself .
= = = Later stages , 1644 – 46 = = =
During the second half of the war , political opposition within the Royalist senior leadership against Rupert continued to grow . Rupert 's personality during the war had made him both friends and enemies . He enjoyed a " frank and generous disposition " , showed a " quickness of ... intellect " , was prepared to face grave dangers , and could be thorough and patient when necessary . However , he lacked the social gifts of a courtier , and his humour could turn into a " sardonic wit and a contemptuous manner " : with a hasty temper , he was too quick to say who he respected , and who he disliked . The result was that , while Rupert could inspire great loyalty in some , especially his men , he also made many enemies at the Royal court . When he took Bristol , he also slighted the Marquess of Hertford , the lethargic but politically significant Royalist leader of the South @-@ West . Most critically , Rupert fell out with George Digby , a favourite of both the King and the Queen . Digby was a classic courtier and Rupert fell to arguing with him repeatedly in meetings . The result was that towards the end of the war Rupert 's position at court was increasingly undermined by his enemies .
Rupert continued to impress militarily . By 1644 , now the Duke of Cumberland and Earl of Holderness , he led the relief of Newark and York and its castle . Having marched north , taking Bolton and Liverpool along the way in two bloody assaults , Rupert then intervened in Yorkshire in two highly effective manoeuvres , in the first outwitting the enemy forces at Newark with speed ; in the second , striking across country and approaching York from the north . Rupert then commanded much of the royalist army at its defeat at Marston Moor , with much of the blame falling on the poor working relationship between Rupert and the Marquess of Newcastle , and orders from the King that wrongly conveyed a desperate need for a speedy success in the north .
In November 1644 Rupert was appointed General of the entire Royalist army , which increased already marked tensions between him and a number of the King 's councillors . By May 1645 , and now desperately short of supplies , Rupert captured Leicester , but suffered a severe reversal at the Battle of Naseby a month later . Although Rupert had counselled the King against accepting battle at Naseby , the opinions of Digby had won the day in council : nonetheless , Rupert 's defeat damaged him , rather than Digby , politically . After Naseby , Rupert regarded the Royalist cause as lost , and urged Charles to conclude a peace with Parliament . Charles , still supported by an optimistic Digby , believed he could win the war . By late summer Rupert had become trapped in Bristol by Parliamentary forces ; faced with an impossible military situation on the ground , Rupert surrendered Bristol in September 1645 , and Charles dismissed him from his service and command .
Rupert responded by making his way across Parliamentary held territory to the King at Newark with Prince Maurice and around a hundred men , fighting their way through smaller enemy units and evading larger ones . King Charles attempted to order Rupert to desist , fearing an armed coup , but Rupert arrived at the royal court anyway . After a difficult meeting , Rupert convinced the King to hold a court @-@ martial over his conduct at Bristol , which exonerated him and Maurice . After a final argument over the fate of his friend Richard Willis , the governor of Newark , who had let Rupert into the royal court to begin with , Rupert resigned and left the service of King Charles , along with most of his best cavalry officers . Earlier interpretations of this event focused on Rupert 's concern for his honour in the face of his initial dismissal by the King ; later works have highlighted the practical importance of the courts martial to Rupert 's future employability as a mercenary in Europe , given that Rupert knew that the war by this point was effectively lost . Rupert and Maurice spent the winter of 1645 in Woodstock , examining options for employment under the Venetian Republic , before returning to Oxford and the King in 1646 . Rupert and the King were reconciled , the Prince remaining to defend Oxford when the King left for the north . After the ensuing siege and surrender of Oxford in 1646 , Parliament banished both Rupert and his brother from England .
= = = Reputation = = =
Rupert 's contemporaries believed him to have been involved in some of the bloodier events of the war , although later histories have largely exonerated him . Rupert had grown up surrounded by the relatively savage customs of the Thirty Years ' War in Europe . Shortly after his arrival in England he caused consternation by following similar practices ; one of his early acts was to demand two thousand pounds from the people of Leicester for the King as the price of not sacking Leicester . Although in keeping with European practices , this was not yet considered appropriate behaviour in England and Rupert was reprimanded by the King .
Rupert 's reputation never truly recovered , and in subsequent sieges and attacks he was frequently accused of acting without restraint . Birmingham , a key arms producing town , was taken in April 1643 , and Rupert faced allegations — probably untrue — of wilfully burning the town to the ground ( see the battle of Camp Hill ) . Shortly afterwards Rupert attempted to take the town of Lichfield , whose garrison had executed Royalist prisoners , angrily promising to kill all the soldiers inside . Only the urgent call for assistance from the King prevented him from doing so , forcing him to agree more lenient terms in exchange for a prompt surrender . Towards the end of the war , practices were changing for the worse across all sides ; a rebellious Leicester was retaken by the Prince in May 1645 , and no attempt was made to limit the subsequent killing and plunder .
Rupert was accordingly a prominent figure in Parliamentary propaganda . He faced numerous accusations of witchcraft , either personally or by proxy through his pet dog , Boye . Boye , a large white hunting poodle , accompanied Rupert everywhere from 1642 up until the dog 's death at Marston Moor and was widely suspected of being a witch 's familiar . There were numerous accounts of Boye 's abilities ; some suggested that he was the Devil in disguise , come to help Rupert . Pro @-@ Royalist publications ultimately produced parodies of these , including one which listed Rupert 's dog as being a " Lapland Lady " transformed into a white dog ; Boye was able , apparently , to find hidden treasure , possessed invulnerability to attack , could catch bullets fired at Rupert in his mouth , and could prophesy as well as the 16th century soothsayer , Mother Shipton . Similar stories from the period relate to Rupert 's pet monkey . Like his dog , the monkey was featured in newsprint of the day and was also reputed to have shape shifting powers , being able to disguise itself behind enemy lines .
= = Career during the Second English War and Interregnum = =
After the end of the First English Civil War Rupert was employed by the young King Louis XIV of France to fight the Spanish during the final years of the Thirty Years ' War . Rupert 's military employment was complicated by his promises to the Holy Roman Emperor that had led to his release from captivity in 1642 , and his ongoing commitment to the English Royalist faction in exile . He also became a Knight of the Garter in 1642 . Throughout the period Rupert was inconvenienced by his lack of secure income , and his ongoing feuds with other leading members of the Royalist circle .
= = = Service in the French army = = =
Rupert first travelled to the Royal court in exile at St Germain but found it still dominated by the Queen and her favourite , Rupert 's enemy Digby . Instead , Rupert moved on , accepting a well paid commission from Anne of Austria to serve Louis XIV as a mareschal de camp , subject to Rupert being free to leave French service to fight for King Charles , should he be called upon to do so . In 1647 Rupert fought under Marshal de Gassion against the Spanish . After a three @-@ week siege , Rupert took the powerful fortress of La Bassée through quiet negotiations with the enemy commander — an impressive accomplishment , and one that won him favour in French court circles . Gassion and Rupert were ambushed shortly afterwards by a Spanish party ; during the resulting fight , Rupert was shot in the head and seriously injured . Afterwards , Gassion noted : " Monsieur , I am most annoyed that you are wounded . " " And me also , " Rupert is recorded as replying . Gassion was himself killed shortly afterwards , and Rupert returned to St Germain to recuperate .
= = = Service in the Royalist navy = = =
In 1648 , the relatively brief Second English Civil War broke out , and Rupert informed the French King that he would be returning to King Charles ' service . The Parliamentary navy mutinied in favour of the King and sailed for Holland , providing the Royalists with a major fleet for the first time since the start of the civil conflict ; Rupert joined the fleet under the command of the Duke of York , who assumed the rank of Lord High Admiral . Rupert argued that the fleet should be used to rescue the King , then being held prisoner on the Isle of Wight , while others advised sailing in support of the fighting in the north . The fleet itself rapidly lost discipline , with many vessels ' crews focussing on seizing local ships and cargoes . This underlined a major problem for the Royalists — the cost of maintaining the new fleet was well beyond their means . Discipline continued to deteriorate , and Rupert had to intervene personally several times , including defusing one group of mutinous sailors by suddenly dangling the ringleader over the side of his vessel and threatening to drop him into the sea . Most of the fleet finally switched sides once more , returning to England in late 1648 .
Then , following a degree of reconciliation with Charles , Rupert obtained command of the Royalist fleet himself . The intention was to restore Royalist finances by using the remaining vessels of the fleet to conduct a campaign of organised piracy against English shipping across the region . One of the obstacles that this plan faced was the growing strength of the Parliamentary fleet and the presence of Robert Blake , one of the finest admirals of the period , as Rupert 's opponent during the campaign .
Rupert 's naval campaign formed two phases . The first involved the Royalist fleet sailing from Kinsale in Ireland to Lisbon in Portugal . He took three large ships , HMS Constant Reformation , the Convertine and the Swallow , accompanied by four smaller vessels . Rupert sailed to Lisbon taking several prizes on route , where he received a warm welcome from King John IV , the ruler of recently independent Portugal , who was a supporter of Charles II . Blake arrived shortly afterwards with a Parliamentary fleet , and an armed stand @-@ off ensued . Tensions rose , skirmishes began to break out and King John became increasingly keen for his Royalist guests to leave . In October 1650 , Rupert 's fleet , now comprising six vessels , broke out and headed into the Mediterranean . Still pursued by Blake , the Royalist fleet manoeuvred up the Spanish coast , steadily losing vessels to their pursuers .
The second phase of the campaign then began . Rupert crossed back into the Atlantic and , during 1651 , cut west to the Azores , capturing vessels as he went . He intended to continue on to the West Indies , where there would be many rich targets . Instead he encountered a late summer storm , leading to the sinking of the Constant Reformation with the loss of 333 lives — almost including Rupert 's brother , Prince Maurice , who only just escaped — and a great deal of captured treasure . Turning back to regroup , repair and re @-@ equip in early 1652 , Rupert 's reduced force moored at Cape Blanc , an island near what is now Mauritania . Rupert took the opportunity to explore and acquired a Moorish servant boy , who remained in his service for many years . Rupert also explored 150 miles up the Gambia River , taking two Spanish vessels as prizes and contracting malaria in the process .
Rupert then finally made a successful crossing into the Caribbean , landing first at Saint Lucia , before continuing up the chain of the Antilles to the Virgin Islands . There the fleet was hit by a terrible hurricane , which scattered the ships and sank the Defiance , this time with Prince Maurice on board . It was a while before Maurice 's death became certain , which came as a terrible blow to Rupert . He was forced to return to Europe , arriving in France in March 1653 with a fleet of five ships . It became clear , as the profits and losses of the piracy campaign were calculated , that the venture had not been as profitable as hoped . This complicated tensions in the Royalist court , and Charles II and Rupert eventually split the spoils , after which Rupert , tired and a little bitter , returned to France to recuperate from the long campaign .
In 1654 , Rupert appears to have been involved in a plot to assassinate Oliver Cromwell , an event that would then have been followed by a coup , the landing of a small army in Sussex , and the restoration of Charles II . Charles himself is understood to have rejected the assassination proposal , but three conspirators — who implicated Rupert in the plan — were arrested and confessed in London . Rupert 's presence at the royal court continued to be problematic ; as in 1643 , he was regarded by Edward Hyde ( later Earl of Clarendon ) and others as a bellicose figure and an obstacle to peace negotiations ; in 1655 Rupert left for Germany .
= = = Service in Germany = = =
After his quarrel with the Royalist court in exile , Rupert travelled to Heidelberg to visit his brother Charles Louis , now partially restored as Elector Palatine , where the two had an ambivalent reunion . Charles Louis and Rupert had not been friendly as children and had almost ended up on opposite sides during the Civil War . To make matters worse , Charles Louis had been deprived of half the old Palatinate under the Peace of Westphalia , leaving him badly short of money , although he still remained responsible under the Imperial laws of apanage for providing for his younger brother and had offered the sum of £ 375 per annum , which Rupert had accepted . Rupert travelled on to Vienna , where he attempted to claim the £ 15 @,@ 000 compensation allocated to him under the Peace of Westphalia from the Emperor . Emperor Ferdinand III warmly welcomed him , but was unable to pay such a sum immediately — instead , he would have to pay in installments , to the disadvantage of Rupert .
Over the next twelve months , Rupert was asked by the Duke of Modena in northern Italy to raise an army against the Papal States — having done so , and with the army stationed in the Palatinate , the enterprise collapsed , with the Duke requesting that Rupert invade Spanish held Milan instead . Rupert moved on , having placed his brother Charles Louis in some diplomatic difficulties with Spain . Rupert travelled onwards , continuing to attempt to convince Ferdinand to back Charles II 's efforts to regain his throne .
In 1656 relations between Rupert and Charles Louis deteriorated badly . Rupert had fallen in love with Louise von Degenfeld , one of his sister @-@ in @-@ law 's maids of honour . One of Rupert 's notes proffering his affections accidentally fell into the possession of Charles Louis ' wife Charlotte , who believed it was written to her . Charlotte was keen to engage in an affair with Rupert and became unhappy when she was declined and the mistake explained . Unfortunately , von Degenfeld was uninterested in Rupert , but was engaged in an affair with Charles Louis — this was discovered in due course , leading to the annulment of the marriage . Rupert , for his part , was unhappy that Charles Louis could not endow him with a suitable estate , and the two parted on bad terms in 1657 , Rupert refusing to ever return to the Palatinate again and taking up employment under Ferdinand III in Hungary .
During this period Rupert became closely involved in the development of the printmaking process of mezzotint , a method of " negative " , or intaglio ) , printing which eventually superseded the older woodcut method of printmaking . Rupert appears to have told a range of associates that he had conceived of the mezzotint process having watched a soldier scrape the rust from the barrel of his musket during a military campaign ; John Evelyn credited Rupert as the inventor of the technique in 1662 , and Rupert 's story was further popularised by Horace Walpole during the 18th century . Considerable academic debate surrounds the issue , but the modern consensus is that mezzotint was instead invented in 1642 by Ludwig von Siegen , a German Lieutenant @-@ Colonel who was also an amateur artist . Siegen may or may not have met Rupert : Siegen had worked as chamberlain , and probably part @-@ tutor , to Rupert 's young cousin William VI , Landgrave of Hesse @-@ Kassel , with whom Rupert discussed the technique in letters from 1654 . Rupert did , however , became a noted artist in mezzotint in his own right . He produced a few stylish prints in the technique , mostly interpretations of existing paintings , and introduced the form to England after the Restoration , though it was Wallerant Vaillant , Rupert 's artistic assistant or tutor , who first popularised the process and exploited it commercially . Rupert 's most famous and largest art work , The Great Executioner , produced in 1658 , is still regarded by critics such as Arthur Hind and Antony Griffiths as full of " brilliance and energy " , " superb " and " one of the greatest mezzotints " ever produced ; other important works by Rupert include the Head of Titian and The Standard Bearer .
= = Career following the Restoration = =
Following the Restoration of the monarchy under Charles II in 1660 , Rupert returned to England , where Charles had already largely completed the process of balancing the different factions across the country in a new administration . Since most of the better government posts were already taken , Rupert 's employment was limited , although Charles rewarded him with the second highest pension he had granted , £ 4 @,@ 000 a year . Rupert 's close family ties to King Charles were critical to his warm reception ; following the deaths of the Duke of Gloucester and Princess Mary , Rupert was the King 's closest adult relation in England after his brother , the Duke of York , and so a key member of the new regime . Rupert , as the Duke of Cumberland , resumed his seat in the House of Lords . For the first time in his life , Rupert 's financial position was relatively secure , and he had matured . Near @-@ contemporaries described how " his temper was less explosive than formerly and his judgement sounder " . Rupert continued to serve as an admiral in the Royal Navy throughout the period , ultimately rising to the rank of " General at Sea and Land " .
= = = Restoration statesman = = =
Rupert was appointed to the King 's Privy Council in 1662 , taking roles on the Foreign Affairs Committee , the Admiralty Committee and the Tangier Committee . Accounts vary of Rupert 's role in all these committees of government . Samuel Pepys , no friend of Rupert 's , sat on the Tangier Committee with him and later declared that all Rupert did was to laugh and swear occasionally : other records , such as those of the Foreign Affairs Committee , show him taking a full and active role in proceedings .
In 1668 , the King appointed Rupert to be the Constable of Windsor Castle . Rupert was already one of the Knights of the Garter , who had their headquarters at the castle , and was a close companion of the King , who would wish to be suitably entertained at the castle . Rupert immediately began to reorder the castle 's defences , sorting out the garrison 's accommodation , repairing the Devil 's Tower , reconstructing the real tennis court and improving the castle 's hunting estate . Rupert acquired his own apartments in the castle , which were recorded as being " very singular " with some decorated with an " extraordinary " number of " pikes , muskets , pistols , bandoliers , holsters , drums , back , breast , and head pieces " , and his inner chambers " hung with tapisserie , curious and effeminate pictures " . King Charles II and Rupert spent much time together over the years hunting and playing tennis together at Windsor , and Rupert was also a close companion of James , the Duke of York . Rupert was considered by Pepys to be the fourth best tennis player in England .
Rupert became romantically engaged to Frances Bard ( 1646 – 1708 ) , the daughter of the English explorer and Civil War veteran Henry Bard . Frances claimed to have secretly married Rupert in 1664 , although this was denied by him and no firm proof exists to support the claim . Rupert acknowledged the son he had with Frances , Dudley Bard ( 1666 – 86 ) , often called " Dudley Rupert " , who was schooled at Eton College . In 1673 , Rupert was urged by Charles Louis to return home , marry and establish an heir to the Palatinate , as it appeared likely that Charles Louis 's own son would not survive infancy . Rupert refused , and remained in England .
= = = Career in the Restoration navy = = =
For much of the 17th century , England was embroiled in conflict with commercial rival Holland through the Anglo @-@ Dutch Wars . Rupert became closely involved in these as a senior Admiral to King Charles II , rising to command the Royal Navy by the end of his career . Although several famous admirals of the day had previously been army commanders , including Blake and Monk , they had commanded relatively small land forces and Rupert was still relatively unusual for the period in having both practical experience of commanding large land armies and having extensive naval experience from his campaigns in the 1650s .
At the start of the Second Anglo @-@ Dutch War ( 1665 – 67 ) , Rupert was appointed as one of the three squadron commanders of the English fleet , under the overall command of the Duke of York , taking HMS Royal James as his flagship . As the commander of the White Squadron , Rupert fought at the Battle of Lowestoft in 1665 , breaking through the enemy defences at a critical moment ; Rupert 's leg was injured in the battle , an injury that caused him ongoing pain . Recalled to accompany the King during the plague that was sweeping London , Rupert continued to argue in favour of the fleet seeking a set @-@ piece engagement with the Dutch that would force the Dutch back to the negotiating table . The following year , Rupert was made joint commander of the fleet with Monk and given the opportunity to put this plan into practice . In June 1666 , they fought the Dutch at the Four Days Battle , one of the longest naval battles in history ; the battle saw the new aggressive tactics of Rupert and Monk applied , resulting in " a sight unique till then in sailing @-@ ship warfare , the English beating upwind and breaking the enemy 's line from leeward . " However , the Four Days Battle was considered a victory for the Dutch , but the St. James 's Day Battle the following month allowed Rupert and Monk to use the same tactics to inflict heavy damage on the Dutch and the battle resulted in a significant English victory . The Dutch however would see a favourable end to the war with the decisive Raid on the Medway .
Rupert also played a prominent role in the Third Anglo @-@ Dutch War ( 1672 – 74 ) . This time Louis XIV of France was a key English ally against Holland , and it was decided that the French would form a squadron in a combined fleet . The English fleet had been much expanded , and Rupert had three ships , HMS Royal Charles , HMS Royal James and HMS Royal Oak , equipped with a high @-@ specification , annealed and lathe @-@ produced gun of his own design , the Rupertinoe . Unfortunately the cost of the weapon — three times that of a normal gun — prevented its wider deployment in the fleet . The French role in the conflict proved a problem when Charles turned to the appointment of an admiral . Rupert 's objection to the French alliance was well known , and accordingly the King appointed the Duke of York to the role instead . Rupert was instead instructed to take over the Duke 's work at the Admiralty , which he did with gusto . The Allied naval plans were stalled after the Duke 's inconclusive battle with the Dutch at Solebay .
The English plan for 1673 centred on first achieving naval dominance , followed by landing an army in Zeeland . The King appointed the Duke as supreme commander , with Rupert as his deputy , combining the rank of General and Vice Admiral of England . During the winter of 1672 , however , Charles — still ( legitimately ) childless — decided that the risk to the Duke , his heir , was too great and made Rupert supreme Allied commander in his place . Rupert began the 1673 campaign against the Dutch knowing the logistical support for his fleet remained uncertain , with many ships undermanned . The result was the Battle of Schooneveld in June and the Battle of Texel in August , a controversial sequence of engagements in which , at a minimum , poor communications between the French and English commanders assisted the marginal Dutch victory . Many English commentators were harsher , blaming the French for failing to fully engage in the battles and Rupert — having cautioned against the alliance in the first place — was popularly hailed as a hero . Rupert finally retired from active seagoing command later that year .
Rupert had a characteristic style as an admiral ; he relied upon " energetic personal leadership backed by close contact with his officers " ; having decided how to proceed in a naval campaign , however , it could be difficult for his staff to change his mind . Recent work on Rupert 's role as a commander has also highlighted the progress the prince made in formulating the way that orders were given to the British fleet . Fleet communications were limited during the period , and the traditional orders from admirals before a battle were accordingly quite rigid , limiting a captain 's independence in the battle . Rupert played a key part in the conferences held by the Duke of York in 1665 to review tactics and operational methods from the first Dutch war , and put these into practice before the St James Day battle . These instructions and supplementary instructions to ships ' captains , which attempted to balance an adherence to standing orders with the need to exploit emerging opportunities in a battle , proved heavily influential over the next hundred years and shaped the idea that an aggressive fighting spirit should be at the core of British naval doctrine .
After 1673 Rupert remained a senior member of the Royal Navy and Charles ' administration . Rupert allied himself with Lord Shaftesbury on matters of foreign policy , but remained loyal to King Charles II on other issues , and was passionate about protecting the Royal Prerogative . As a consequence he opposed Parliament 's plan in 1677 to appoint him to Lord High Admiral — on the basis that only the King should be allowed to propose such appointments — but noted that he was willing to become Admiral if the King wished him to do so . The King 's solution was to establish a small , empowered Admiralty Commission , of which Rupert became the first commissioner . As a result , from 1673 to 1679 Rupert was able to focus on ensuring a closer regulation of manning , gunning and the selection of officers . He was also involved in setting priorities between the different theatres of operations that the English Navy were now involved in around the world . Rupert was also appointed to the supreme position of " General at Sea and Land " , effectively assuming the wartime powers of the Lord High Admiral .
= = Later life = =
After the end of his seagoing naval career Rupert continued to be actively involved in both government and science , although he was increasingly removed from current politics . To the younger members of the court the prince appeared increasingly distant — almost from a different era . Count Grammont described Rupert as " brave and courageous even to rashness , but cross @-@ grained and incorrigibly obstinate ... he was polite , even to excess , unseasonably ; but haughty , and even brutal , when he ought to have been gentle and courteous ... his manners were ungracious : he had a dry hard @-@ favoured visage , and a stern look , even when he wished to please ; but , when he was out of humour , he was the true picture of reproof " . Rupert 's health during this period was also less robust ; his head wound from his employment in France required a painful trepanning treatment , his leg wound continued to hurt and he still suffered from the malaria he had caught while in the Gambia .
= = = Colonial administration = = =
Rupert had demonstrated an interest in colonial issues for many years . On arriving in England in 1660 , he had encouraged the government to continue Rupert 's own exploration of the Gambia in an attempt to find gold , leading to Robert Holmes 's expedition the following year . Rupert was an active shareholder in the Company of Royal Adventurers Trading into Africa that was established as a result in 1662 . The company continued operations for the next eight years , with backers including the King , the Duke of York and the Royal Society , with operations including engaging in the West Africa slave trade until it folded in 1670 . The company 's operations merged with those of the Gambia Merchants ' Company into the new Royal African Company , with a royal charter to set up forts , factories , troops and to exercise martial law in West Africa , in pursuit of trade in gold , silver and slaves ; Rupert was the third named member of the company 's executive committee .
By then , however , Rupert 's attention had turned to North America . The French explorers Radisson and des Groseilliers had come to England after conducting a joint exploration of the Hudson 's Bay region in 1659 ; there their account attracted the attention of the King and Rupert . Rupert put an initial investment of £ 270 of his own money into a proposal for a fresh expedition and set about raising more ; despite setbacks , including the Great Fire of London , by 1667 he had formed a private syndicate and leased the Eaglet from the King for the expedition . The Eaglet failed , but her sister vessel , the Nonsuch , made a successful expedition , returning in 1669 with furs worth £ 1 @,@ 400 . In 1670 , the King approved the charter for " The Governor and Company of Adventurers of England trading into Hudson 's Bay " that would form the Hudson 's Bay Company , which was granted a trading monopoly in the whole Hudson Bay watershed area , an immense territory named Rupert 's Land , with Rupert appointed the first Governor . Rupert 's first company secretary was Sir James Hayes and Radisson named the Hayes River , in present @-@ day Manitoba , in his honour . The company continued to prosper , forming the basis for much of the commercial activity of colonial Canada . Rupert 's role in colonial commerce was marked by his being asked to lay the cornerstone of the new Royal Exchange in 1670 , and being made one of its first councillors .
= = = Science and the Royal Society = = =
After Rupert 's retirement from active seafaring in around 1674 , he was able to spend more time engaged in scientific research and became credited with many inventions and discoveries , although some subsequently turned out to be the innovative introduction of European inventions into England . Rupert converted some of the apartments at Windsor Castle to a luxury laboratory , complete with forges , instruments and raw materials , from where he conducted a range of experiments .
Rupert had already become the third founding member of the scientific Royal Society , being referred to by contemporaries as a " philosophic warrior " , and guided the Society as a Councillor during its early years . Very early on in the Society 's history , Rupert demonstrated Prince Rupert 's Drops to King Charles II and the Society , glass teardrops which explode when the tail is cracked ; although credited with their invention at the time , later interpretations suggest that he was instead responsible for the introduction of an existing European discovery into England . He demonstrated a new device for lifting water at the Royal Society , and received attention for his process for " painting colours on marble , which , when polished , became permanent " . During this time , Rupert also formulated a mathematical question concerning the paradox that a cube can pass through a slightly smaller cube ; Rupert questioned how large a cube had to be in order to fit . The question of Prince Rupert 's cube was first solved by the Dutch mathematician Pieter Nieuwland . Rupert was also known for his success in breaking cypher codes .
Many of Rupert 's inventions were military . After designing the Rupertinoe naval gun , Rupert erected a water @-@ mill on Hackney Marshes for a revolutionary method of boring guns , however his secret died with him , and the enterprise failed . Rupert enjoyed other military problems , and took to manufacturing gun locks ; he devised both a gun that fired multiple rounds at high speed , and a " handgun with rotating barrels " . He is credited with the invention of a form of gunpowder , which when demonstrated to the Royal Society in 1663 had a force of over ten times that of regular powder ; a better method for using gunpowder in mining ; and a torpedo . He also developed a form of grapeshot for use by artillery . Rupert also focussed on naval inventions : he devised a balancing mechanism to allow improved quadrant measurements at sea , and produced a diving engine for retrieving objects on the ocean floor . While recovering from his trepanning treatment Rupert set about inventing new surgical equipment to improve future operations .
Other parts of Rupert 's scientific work lay in the field of metallurgy . Rupert invented a new brass alloy , slightly darker in hue than regular brass involving three parts of copper to one part of zinc , combined with charcoal ; this became known as " Prince 's metal " in his honour — sometimes also referred to as " Bristol Brass " . Rupert invented the alloy in order to improve naval artillery , but it also became used as a replacement for gold in decorations . Rupert was also credited with having devised an exceptional method for tempering kirby fish hooks , and for casting objects into an appearance of perspective . He also invented an improved method for manufacturing shot of varying sizes in 1663 , that was later retained by the scientist Robert Hooke , one of Rupert 's Royal Society friends during the period .
= = = Peg Hughes = = =
Towards the end of his life Rupert fell in love with an attractive Drury Lane actress named Peg Hughes . Rupert became involved with her during the late 1660s , leaving his previous mistress , Frances Bard , although Hughes appears to have held out from reciprocating his attentions with the aim of negotiating a suitable settlement . Hughes rapidly received advancement through his patronage ; she became a member of the King 's Company by 1669 , giving her status and immunity from arrest for debt , and was painted four times by Sir Peter Lely , the foremost court artist of the day .
Despite being encouraged to do so , Rupert did not marry Hughes , but acknowledged their daughter , Ruperta ( later Howe ) , born in 1673 . Hughes lived an expensive lifestyle during the 1670s , enjoying gambling and jewels ; Rupert gave her at least £ 20 @,@ 000 worth of jewellery during their relationship , including several items from the Palatinate royal collection . Margaret continued to act even after Ruperta 's birth , returning to the stage in 1676 with the prestigious Duke 's Company at the Dorset Garden Theatre , near the Strand in London . The next year Rupert established Hughes with a " grand building " worth £ 25 @,@ 000 that he bought in Hammersmith from Sir Nicholas Crispe . Rupert seems rather to have enjoyed the family lifestyle , commenting that his young daughter " already rules the whole house and sometimes argues with her mother , which makes us all laugh . "
= = Death and legacy = =
Rupert died at his house at Spring Gardens , Westminster , on 29 November 1682 after a bout of pleurisy , and was buried in the crypt of Westminster Abbey on 6 December in a state funeral . Rupert left most of his estate , worth some £ 12 @,@ 000 , equally to Hughes and Ruperta . Hughes had an " uncomfortable widowhood " without Rupert 's support , allegedly not helped by her unproductive gambling . Presents from Rupert such as his mother 's earrings were sold to the Duchess of Marlborough , while a pearl necklace given by Elector Frederick to Electress Elizabeth was sold to fellow actress Nell Gwynn . Hughes sold the house in Hammersmith to two London merchants : Timothy Lannoy and George Treadwell — it was then purchased by the Margrave of Brandenburg @-@ Ansbach and became known as Brandenburg ( or Brandenburgh ) House .
Ruperta later married Emanuel Scrope Howe , future MP and English general , and had five children , Sophia , William , Emanuel , James and Henrietta . Through William 's daughter , Mary , Rupert is an ancestor of the Bromley baronets .
Rupert 's son , Dudley Bard , became a military officer , frequently known as " Captain Rupert " , and died fighting at the Siege of Budapest while in his late teens .
In Canada , the city of Prince Rupert , British Columbia , the community of Prince Rupert in the city of Edmonton , Alberta and the Rupert River in Quebec are all named after the Prince . In Bristol there was also a street , Rupert Street and formerly a public house , The Prince Rupert in Rupert Street named to commemorate Prince Rupert .
= = Ancestors = =
= = In fiction = =
Prince Rupert is the protagonist of Poul Anderson 's alternative history / fantasy book A Midsummer Tempest , where the Prince , with the help of various Shakespearean characters who are actual persons in this timeline , eventually defeats Cromwell and wins the English Civil War .
Prince Rupert is the key character in the King Crimson song Lizard from their 1970 album of the same name . The 23 @-@ minute suite includes several sections , one named Prince Rupert Awakes and another The Battle of Glass Tears ( an artistic reference to the battle of Naseby ) in turn including a sub @-@ section called Prince Rupert 's Lament .
Prince Rupert appears in The Oak Apple and The Black Pearl , volumes 4 and 5 of The Morland Dynasty , a series of historical novels by author Cynthia Harrod @-@ Eagles . He is assisted during the Civil War by the staunchly Royalist fictional Morland family , and is father to the illegitimate Annunciata Morland , with whom he has a complicated relationship .
Prince Rupert and his sister Elisabeth are minor characters in Eric Flint 's 1632 series books Grantville Gazette IV and Grantville Gazette VI
Prince Rupert is the protagonist of Margaret Irwin 's novel The Stranger Prince and appears in her later novel The Bride . Both novels deal with the Civil War period .
Prince Rupert is the subject of Samuel Edwards 's biographical novel The White Plume , published by William Morrow and Company Ltd. in 1961 , a semi @-@ fictional account of his life from his late teens until his marriage to Peg ( Margaret Hughes ) .
Prince Rupert 's Tower is the name given to a Georgian Lock @-@ Up in the Everton area of Liverpool . Rupert stayed in the area during the siege of Liverpool .
= = Film and television = =
Rupert was portrayed by Timothy Dalton in the 1970 film Cromwell .
Harry Lloyd played Rupert in the 2008 TV drama The Devil 's Whore .
Rupert was portrayed by Will Bowden in the 2015 Dutch film Michiel de Ruyter .
= = Additional reading = =
Ashley , Maurice . ( 1976 ) Rupert of the Rhine . London : Hart Davis , MacGibbon .
De Viet , Rens . ( 2010 ) Vlootinstructies en de eerste twee oorlogen met Engeland in de zeventiende eeuw . MA Thesis . Rotterdam : Erasmus University . ( Dutch )
Fergusson , Bernard . ( 1952 ) Rupert of the Rhine . London : Collins .
Irwin , Margaret . ( 1937 ) The Stranger Prince : The story of Rupert of the Rhine . New York : Harcourt , Brace .
Kitson , Frank . ( 1994 ) Prince Rupert : Portrait of a Soldier . London : Constable . ISBN 0 @-@ 09 @-@ 473700 @-@ 2 .
Morrah , Patrick . ( 1976 ) Prince Rupert of the Rhine . London : Constable .
Petrie , Charles . ( 1974 ) King Charles , Prince Rupert , and the Civil War : From Original Letters . London : Routledge and Kegan Paul .
Thomson , George Malcolm . ( 1976 ) Warrior Prince : Prince Rupert of the Rhine . London : Secker and Warburg .
Wilkinson , Clennell . ( 1935 ) Prince Rupert , the Cavalier . Philadelphia : J.B. Lippincott .
= AT & T Plaza =
AT & T Plaza ( formerly Ameritech Plaza and SBC Plaza ) is a public space that hosts the Cloud Gate sculpture . It is located in Millennium Park , which is a park built to celebrate the third millennium and which is located within the Loop community area of Chicago , Illinois in the United States . The sculpture and the plaza are sometimes jointly referred to as Cloud Gate on the AT & T Plaza .
It was opened in the summer of 2004 with the initial unveiling of the sculpture during the grand opening weekend of the park . Ameritech Corporation / SBC Communications Inc. donated US $ 3 million for the naming right to the space . The plaza has become a place view the McCormick Tribune Plaza & Ice Rink and during the Christmas holiday season , the Plaza hosts Christmas caroling .
= = Details = =
Lying between Lake Michigan to the east and the Loop to the west , Grant Park has been Chicago 's front yard since the mid @-@ 19th century . Its northwest corner , north of Monroe Street and the Art Institute , east of Michigan Avenue , south of Randolph Street , and west of Columbus Drive , had been Illinois Central rail yards and parking lots until 1997 , when it was made available for development by the city as Millennium Park . Today , Millennium Park trails only Navy Pier as a Chicago tourist attraction .
The plaza is located above Park Grill , above and behind the McCormick Tribune Plaza & Ice Rink , adjacent to the Chase Promenade , and between the North and South Boeing Galleries . The plaza and sculpture sit atop the 300 @-@ seat $ 6 million Park Grill , which opened in November 2003 behind the McCormick Tribune Plaza & Ice Rink . The surface of the plaza is concrete . The plaza is composed of 25 @,@ 200 square feet ( 2 @,@ 340 m2 ) of concrete pavers . Each paver is 30 by 30 inches ( 76 by 76 cm ) , and each is 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 6 @.@ 4 cm ) thick .
= = History = =
The plaza was originally named Ameritech Plaza for Ameritech Corporation , the corporate sponsor , who donated $ 3 million for the sculpture @-@ hosting plaza 's naming rights . By the time the park officially opened in 2004 , Ameritech had merged with SBC Communications and the plaza was called SBC Plaza . When SBC acquired AT & T and subsequently changed the name from SBC to AT & T in 2005 , the name of the plaza changed again .
Cloud Gate was originally estimated to weigh 60 short tons ( 54 @.@ 4 t ; 53 @.@ 6 long tons ) because it was impossible to estimate the thickness of the steel compatible with the desired aesthetics . The final piece , however , weighs 110 short tons ( 99 @.@ 8 t ; 98 @.@ 2 long tons ) and care had to be taken in supporting it . The roof of the Park Grill , upon which Cloud Gate sits , had to be strong enough to bear the weight . A large retaining wall separating Chicago 's Metra train tracks from the North Grant Park garage travels along the back side of the restaurant and supports much of the sculpture 's weight . This wall , along with the rest of the garage 's foundation , required additional bracing before the piece was erected . In June 2004 , when construction of the shell began , a large tent ( pictured left ) was erected around the piece in order to shield it from public view .
= = Activities = =
In 2006 , annual Christmas caroling began at the plaza . Following Thanksgiving , weekly sing @-@ alongs are led by choral groups including Bella Voce , Chicago Mass Choir , and Chicago Children 's Choir .
Because of its elevation above the McCormick Tribune Plaza & Ice Rink , the plaza has become a prime viewing location for Jazz music concerts held during the summer at the McCormick Tribune Plaza . McCormick Tribune Plaza is located below and to the west of AT & T Plaza as well as adjacent to Michigan Avenue 's Historic Michigan Boulevard District , which are slightly further west .
= Grand Quartier Général ( 1914 – 1919 ) =
The Grand Quartier Général ( abbreviated to GQG or Grand QG in spoken French ) was the general headquarters of the French Army during the First World War . It served as the wartime equivalent of the Conseil Supérieur de la Guerre and had extensive powers within an area defined by the French parliament . The GQG was activated by parliament on 2 August 1914 , after the violation of French borders by German military patrols and remained in existence until 20 October 1919 .
GQG was commanded by the Chief @-@ of @-@ Staff , assisted by a varying number of subordinate generals and had representatives to the French government and president . The headquarters of GQG was originally at Vitry @-@ le @-@ François in the Marne department but rapid German advances in the early stages of the war forced its withdrawal to Chantilly , near Paris , by November 1914 and it remained there for much of the rest of the war . General Joseph Joffre served as the first Chief of Staff of GQG from the start of the war until December 1916 and his replacement by General Robert Nivelle . Nivelle was replaced in May 1917 after the failure of his Spring offensive and was succeeded by General Philippe Pétain , who retained command of GQG until its dissolution in 1919 . In April 1918 the Grand Quartier Général des Armées Alliées was established under General Ferdinand Foch as an equivalent organisation with authority for Allied operations in France .
GQG was organised into a complex series of departments and bureaux that changed frequently throughout the war . This structure has been criticised by historians for failing to encourage co @-@ operation between departments and for widespread infighting . There were also concerns about the autonomy and power vested in GQG . French policy , laid down in 1913 , had been for the two most important field armies , the north and north @-@ east , to retain operational independence . GQG , under Joffre , assumed control of these armies in December 1915 and retained them until his replacement by Nivelle when the Minister of War , Joseph Gallieni , raised concerns that the pre @-@ war policy was being violated . GQG failed accurately to assess German casualties , basing military operations on wildly optimistic assessments of the weakness of German units and reserves .
= = Origins and structure = =
The Grand Quartier Général had its origins in the reforms instituted by France after their defeat in the Franco @-@ Prussian War . The position and supporting staff , of the Chief of Staff of the French Army was created with responsibility for training and mobilisation in peace and the formation of the army high command in times of war . The establishment of GQG in 1911 formalised this situation , with GQG becoming the wartime counterpart of the Conseil Supérieur de la Guerre ( CSG ) and the vice @-@ president of CSG becoming the chief of staff of the GQG . The GQG received extensive military powers within an area defined as the zone of army control ; control of the remainder of the armed forces was retained by the Minister of War . GQG was activated upon the mobilisation of the French Army by parliament , who also defined the zone of army control .
The chief of staff was assisted by an état @-@ major @-@ général , who ran the GQG general staff of around 50 officers and saw that the commander @-@ in @-@ chief 's orders were carried out and two aides @-@ majors with responsibilities for the individual departments of GQG . GQG was originally organised into four bureaux ( or departments ) . The First Bureau was responsible for organization , personnel and equipment ; the Second Bureau for intelligence , information and political affairs ; the Third Bureau for the planning of military operations and the Fourth Bureau ( sometimes called the Direction de l 'Arrière - Directorate of the Rear [ lines ] ) for transport , communication and supply .
The Third Bureau was considered by far the most powerful as it had control of active military operations . Its staff consisted mainly of liaison officers , embedded with individual unit headquarters . Though these officers were junior in rank to the generals commanding the armies , they held significant power over their careers through the reports made on their operations to GQG . One officer from the Third Bureau liaised with the French government and another with the president and they were said to wield " considerable political power " . The Fourth Bureau had a wide remit , with responsibility for the management of military railways , motor vehicles , water transport , financial offices , post offices and telegraphy and its chief
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plantation laborers , and fishermen ( or those with fishing @-@ related occupations ) that were affected by the tsunami . Almost two thirds of the group reported that they lived in permanent structures made of wood , brick , or cement , while the remainder lived in semi @-@ permanent facilities made from earth or stone . The government was cited as the first responder for water , relocation and medical assistance , and helping with the deceased . For rescue , shelter , clothing , and locating missing people , individuals were listed as the primary provider , but 100 % of those surveyed replied that the government should be responsible for relief . Most of those requiring aid stated that they were given effective assistance within 48 hours and that they were satisfied with the help .
= Serval =
The serval / ˈsɜːrvəl / ( Leptailurus serval ) , also known as the tierboskat , is a wild cat found in Africa . The sole member of the genus Leptailurus , it was first described by German naturalist Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber in 1776 . Eighteen subspecies are recognised . The serval is a slender , medium @-@ sized cat that stands 54 – 62 centimetres ( 21 – 24 in ) at the shoulder and weighs 8 – 18 kilograms ( 18 – 40 lb ) . It is characterised by a small head , large ears , a golden @-@ yellow to buff coat spotted and striped with black , and a short , black @-@ tipped tail . The serval has the longest legs of any cat relative to its body size .
Active in the day as well as at night , servals tend to be solitary with minimal social interaction . Both sexes establish highly overlapping home ranges of 10 to 32 square kilometres ( 3 @.@ 9 to 12 @.@ 4 sq mi ) , and mark them with excrement and saliva . Servals are omnivores – they prey on rodents ( particularly vlei rats ) , small birds , frogs , insects and reptiles , and are also known to consume grasses . The serval uses its sense of hearing to locate the prey ; to kill small prey , it leaps over 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) above the ground to land on the prey on its forefeet , and finally kills it with a bite on the neck or the head . Mating takes place at different times of the year in different parts of their range , but typically once or twice a year in an area . After a gestational period of two to three months , a litter of one to four is born . Weaning occurs at one month , and kittens begin hunting on their own at six months . The juveniles leave their mother at 12 months .
The serval prefers areas with cover such as reeds and tall grasses and proximity to water bodies , such as wetlands and savannahs . It is rare in northern Africa and the Sahel , but widespread in southern Africa . The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources ( IUCN ) classifies the serval as least concern . It occurs in protected areas across its range , and hunting of servals is either prohibited or regulated in several countries .
= = Taxonomy and etymology = =
The scientific name of the serval is Leptailurus serval . It is the sole member of its genus and is placed under the family Felidae . The species was first described by German naturalist Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber as Felis serval in the journal Die Säugetiere in Abbildungen nach der Natur mit Beschreibungen in 1776 . In 1858 , Russian naturalist Nikolai Severtzov proposed the genus Leptailurus for the serval , a name constructed from Greek roots meaning " slender cat " . The name " serval " could have been derived from the Medieval Latin words Lupus cervalis ( " deer @-@ like wolf " ) or from the Portuguese Lobos cerval ( referring to the lynx ) . The first recorded use of this name dates back to 1771 . Another name for the serval is " tierboskat " .
In the 19th and 20th centuries , some taxonomists inspected serval skins and identified two species on the basis of coat pattern : Felis serval ( serval ) , with large , pronounced spots , and F. servalina or F. ornata ( servaline cat ) , marked by freckle @-@ sized dots . F. servalina was first described in 1839 by Irish naturalist William Ogilby from Sierra Leone ; in 1867 , British zoologist John Edward Gray described F. herschelii from an Indian skin , which was probably the same as the servaline cat . In 1907 , British zoologist Reginald Innes Pocock commented that the two forms should be considered independent species , but reverted from this in 1917 . Eventually , the two forms came to be recognised as the same species . Another form , F. himalayanus ( Himalayan serval ) , was described from a skin procured from the Himalayan region ; however , Scottish naturalist William Jardine noted in The Naturalist 's Library ( 1843 ) that no such specimen had been identified by him or his colleagues , and that it differed considerably from the common serval . In 1944 , Pocock identified three races of the serval from northern Africa .
The phylogenetic relationships of the serval have remained in dispute ; in 1997 , palaeontologists M. C. McKenna and S. K. Bell classified Leptailurus as a subgenus of Felis , while others like O. R. P. Bininda @-@ Edmonds ( of the Technical University of Munich ) have grouped it with Felis , Lynx and Caracal . Studies in the 2000s and the 2010s show that the serval , along with the caracal and the African golden cat , forms one of the eight lineages of Felidae . According to a 2006 genetic study , the Caracal lineage came into existence 8 @.@ 5 mya , and the ancestor of this lineage arrived in Africa 8 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 6 mya .
Up to 18 subspecies are currently recognised , although some authors recognize fewer :
The 2006 study gave the phylogenetic relationships of the serval as follows :
= = Hybrid = =
On 7 April 1986 , a healthy hybrid kitten between a male serval and a female domestic cat was born ; this kitten was larger than a typical domestic kitten and resembled its father in its coat pattern . It appeared to have inherited a few domestic traits , such as tameness , from its mother . The hybrid cat may have a doglike habit of following its owner about , and can be a good swimmer . Over the years , savannah cats have gained popularity as pets .
= = Description = =
The serval is a slender , medium @-@ sized cat ; it stands 54 – 62 centimetres ( 21 – 24 in ) at the shoulder and weighs 8 – 18 kilograms ( 18 – 40 lb ) , but females tend to be lighter . The head @-@ and @-@ body length is typically between 67 and 100 centimetres ( 26 and 39 in ) . Males tend to be sturdier than females . Prominent characteristics include the small head , large ears , spotted and striped coat , long legs and a black @-@ tipped tail that is around 30 centimetres ( 12 in ) long . In fact , the serval has the longest legs of any cat relative to its body size , likely due to the greatly elongated metatarsal bones in the feet . The toes are elongated as well , and unusually mobile .
The coat is basically golden @-@ yellow to buff , and extensively marked with black spots and stripes . The spots show great variation in size . Melanistic servals are also known . Facial features include the brownish or greenish eyes , white whiskers on the snout and near the ears , ears as large as those of a domestic cat ( but large relative to the size of the head ) and black on the back with a white horizontal band in the middle , whitish chin , and spots and streaks on the cheeks and the forehead . Three to four black stripes run from the back of the head onto the shoulders , and then break into rows of spots . The white underbelly has dense and fluffy basal fur , and the soft guard hairs ( the layer of fur protecting the basal fur ) are 5 – 10 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) long . Guard hairs are up to 3 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) long on the neck , back and the flanks , and are merely 1 centimetre ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) long on the face . The closely set ears are black on the back with a horizontal white band ; the ears can rotate up to 180 degrees independently of each other . The serval has a good sense of smell , hearing and vision .
The serval is similar to the sympatric caracal , but has a narrower spoor , a rounder skull , and lacks its prominent ear tufts . The African golden cat is darker , with different cranial features . It resembles the cheetah in its build and coat pattern , though not in size . The serval shares its adaptations to its marshy habitat with the jungle cat ; both cats have large and sharp ears that help in locating the prey efficiently , and their long legs raise them above muddy ground and water .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
The serval is active in the day as well as at night ; activity might peak in early morning , around twilight and at midnight . Servals might be active for a longer time on cool or rainy days . During the hot midday , they rest or groom themselves in the shade of bushes and grasses . Servals remain cautious of their vicinity , though they may be less alert when no large carnivores or prey animals are around . Serval walk as much as 2 – 4 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 5 mi ) every night . Servals will often use special trails to reach certain hunting areas . A solitary animal , there is little social interaction among servals except in the mating season , when pairs of opposite sexes may stay together . The only long @-@ lasting bond appears to be of the mother and her cubs , which leave their mother only when they are a year old .
Both males and females establish home ranges , and are most active only in certain regions ( ' core areas ' ) within them . The area of these ranges can vary from 10 to 32 square kilometres ( 3 @.@ 9 to 12 @.@ 4 sq mi ) ; prey density , availability of cover and human interference could be significant factors in determining their size . Home ranges might overlap extensively , but occupants show minimal interaction . Aggressive encounters are rare , as servals appear to mutually avoid one another rather than fight and defend their ranges . Agonistic behaviour involves vertical movement of the head ( contrary to the horizontal movement observed in other cats ) , raising the hair and the tail , displaying the teeth and the white band on the ears , and yowling . Individuals mark their ranges and preferred paths by spraying urine on nearby vegetation , dropping scats along the way , and rubbing their mouth on grasses or the ground while releasing saliva . Servals tend to be sedentary , shifting only a few kilometres away even if they leave their range .
The serval is vulnerable to hyaenas and wild dogs . It will seek cover to escape their view , and , if the predator is very close , immediately flee in long leaps , changing its direction frequently and with the tail raised . The serval is an efficient , though not frequent , climber ; an individual was observed to have climbed a tree to a height of more than 9 metres ( 30 ft ) to escape dogs . Like many cats , the serval is able to purr ; it also has a high @-@ pitched chirp , and can hiss , cackle , growl , grunt and meow .
= = = Hunting and diet = = =
The serval is an omnivore that preys on rodents ( particularly vlei rats ) , small birds , frogs , insects and reptiles , and also feeds on grasses ( that can facilitate digestion or act as an emetic ) . Up to 90 percent of the preyed animals weigh less than 200 grams ( 7 @.@ 1 oz ) ; larger prey , such as duikers , hares , flamingoes and young antelopes , may occasionally be hunted . Several studies have estimated the percentage of rodents in the diet at 80 to 97 percent . Apart from vlei rats , other rodents recorded frequently in the diet include the African grass rat , African pygmy mouse and multimammate mice .
Servals locate prey by their strong sense of hearing . To kill small prey , the serval will slowly stalk it , then pounce on it with the forefeet directed toward the chest , and finally land on it with its forelegs outstretched . The prey , receiving a blow from one or both of the serval 's forepaws , is incapacitated , and the serval gives it a bite on the head or the neck and immediately swallows it . Snakes are dealt more blows and even bites , and may be consumed even as they are moving . Larger prey , such as larger birds , are killed by a sprint followed by a leap to catch them as they are trying to flee , and are eaten slowly . Servals have been observed caching large kills to be consumed later by concealing them in dead leaves and grasses . Servals typically get rid of the internal organs of rodents while eating , and pluck feathers from birds before consuming them . During a leap , a serval can reach more than 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) above the ground and cover a horizontal distance of up to 3 @.@ 6 metres ( 12 ft ) ; the cat can even change direction mid @-@ air . Servals appear to be efficient hunters ; a study in Ngorongoro showed that servals were successful in half of their hunting attempts , regardless of the time of hunting , and a mother serval was found to have a success rate of 62 % . The number of kills in a 24 @-@ hour period averaged 15 to 16 . Scavenging has been observed , but very rarely .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Both sexes become sexually mature when they are one to two years old . Oestrus in females lasts one to four days ; it typically occurs once or twice a year , though it can occur three or four times a year if the mother loses her litters . Observations of captive servals suggest that when a female enters oestrus , the rate of urine @-@ marking increases in her as well as the males in her vicinity . Zoologist Jonathan Kingdon described the behaviour of a female serval in oestrus in his 1997 book East African Mammals . He noted that she would roam restlessly , spray urine frequently holding her vibrating tail in a vertical manner , rub her head near the place she has marked , salivate continuously , give out sharp and short " miaow " s that can be heard for quite a distance , and rub her mouth and cheeks against the face of an approaching male . The time when mating takes place varies geographically ; births peak in winter in Botswana , and toward the end of the dry season in the Ngorongoro Crater . A trend generally observed across the range is that births precede the breeding season of murid rodents .
Gestation lasts for two to three months , following which a litter of one to four kittens is born . Births take place in secluded areas , for example in dense vegetation or burrows abandoned by aardvarks and porcupines . Blind at birth , newborn weigh nearly 250 grams ( 8 @.@ 8 oz ) and have soft , woolly hair ( greyer than in adults ) and unclear markings . The eyes open after nine to thirteen days . Weaning begins after a month of birth ; the mother brings small kills to her kittens and calls out to them as she approaches the " den " . A mother with young kittens rests for a notably lesser time and has to spend almost twice the time and energy for hunting than do other servals . If disturbed , the mother will shift her kittens one by one to a more secure place . Kittens eventually start accompanying their mother to hunts . At around six months , they acquire their permanent canines and begin to hunt themselves ; they leave their mother at about 12 months of age . They may reach sexual maturity from 12 to 25 months of age . Life expectancy is about 10 years in the wild , and up to 20 years in captivity .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The serval prefers areas with cover , such as reeds and tall grasses , and proximity to water bodies , such as wetlands and savannahs . It typically shuns rainforests and arid areas , though it can occur in semi @-@ arid areas and cork oak forests in northern Africa , close to the Mediterranean Sea . Servals also occur on grasslands , moorlands and bamboo thickets at high altitudes ; they are known to occur up to 3 @,@ 800 metres ( 12 @,@ 500 ft ) above the sea level on Mount Kilimanjaro . In the Luambe National Park ( Zambia ) , the population density was recorded as 0 @.@ 1 individual per square kilometre in 2011 .
The serval is confined to Africa – it is rare in northern Africa and the Sahel , but widespread in southern Africa , where their range is reportedly expanding . In northern Africa , the serval is known only from Morocco and has been reintroduced in Tunisia , but is feared to be extinct in Algeria .
= = Threats and conservation = =
The IUCN ( International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources ) lists the serval as least concern ; the animal is also included in CITES Appendix II . A major threat to the survival of the serval include the degradation of wetlands and grasslands . Trade of serval skins , though on the decline , still occurs in countries such as Benin and Senegal . In western Africa , the serval has significance in traditional medicine . Pastoralists often kill servals to protect their animals , though servals generally do not prey upon livestock .
Servals occur in several protected areas across its range . Hunting of servals is prohibited in Algeria , Botswana , Congo , Kenya , Liberia , Morocco , Mozambique , Nigeria , Rwanda , Cape Province ( South Africa ) , and Tunisia ; regulations apply in Angola , Burkina Faso , Central African Republic , the Democratic Republic of the Congo , Ghana , Malawi , Senegal , Sierra Leone , Somalia , Tanzania , Togo and Zambia .
= = Relationship with human beings = =
The association of servals with human beings dates to the time of Ancient Egypt . Servals are depicted as gifts or traded objects from Nubia in Egyptian art . Servals are common pets in Europe , but became popular in the Americas only in the twentieth century .
= Gregor the Overlander =
Gregor the Overlander is a children 's novel by Suzanne Collins containing elements of high fantasy . It was published in 2003 and is the first book of The Underland Chronicles . It was received well by critics , and was listed as one of New York Public Library 's 100 Books for Reading and Sharing . It was featured by the U.S. National Public Radio in 2005 . Scholastic has rated the book 's " grade level equivalent " as 4 @.@ 9 and the book 's lexile score as 630L , making it reading @-@ level @-@ appropriate for the average fourth or fifth grader .
The novel has been published in several languages and is available as both an audiobook and ebook . Its United Kingdom edition was published under the alternate title Gregor and the Rats of the Underland .
= = Plot summary = =
Eleven @-@ year @-@ old Gregor is left home alone in his family 's New York City apartment to watch his sisters and grandmother . When Gregor 's baby sister Boots falls through an old air duct grate in the building 's basement , he dives in after her . The two fall miles below into the Underland : a subterranean world home to humans with near @-@ translucent skin ; giant sentient bats , rodents , and insects ; and an escalating conflict between the human city of Regalia and the rats ' King Gorger . They meet several " Underlanders " , among them the Regalians ' crown princess Luxa , her cousin Henry , and the bats who are " bonded " to them . At first , Gregor wants only to return home , but when he is attacked by two rats during an escape attempt and saved by the Underlanders , he inadvertently brings the conflict between the two groups to a head .
It is then that he learns the real reason for the rats ' hatred of Overlanders : a mysterious prophecy written by the human colony 's founder Bartholomew of Sandwich hints that an Overland " warrior " will stop an attempt by the rats to take over the underground realm once and for all . The Regalian council believes Gregor to be this warrior , and tries to convince him to undertake the quest mentioned in the " Prophecy of Gray " . Though he sympathizes , Gregor is reluctant to help until he learns a surprising fact : his father , who disappeared unexpectedly over two years before , had actually fallen down into Regalia just like Gregor and Boots and been taken prisoner by the rats . Gregor , his sister , and a group of Regalians go on a journey to rescue Gregor 's father and recruit allies for a war against the rats .
The quest group is challenged to successfully recruit allies for the Regalians , and then journeys to find Gregor 's dad emaciated and tortured in the personal prison of King Gorger . When the rat king discovers their rescue attempt , Henry reveals that he has been helping the rats all along , hoping to ally them with the Regalians and conquer the entire Underland . During the questers ' attempt to escape , Gregor sacrifices himself to lure the rats ' attack force — King Gorger and Henry among them — off the edge of a cliff . Henry 's bat Ares , who had no knowledge of his bond 's treachery , chooses to save Gregor rather than Henry as they fall . When the few remaining quest members make it back to Regalia , Luxa and her family are devastated , both because of Henry 's treason and death and because Ares has been sentenced to banishment ( essentially a death sentence in the Underland ) for allowing his bond to die . Gregor saves his life by using his status as the " warrior " to form a new bond with him . When things have settled down somewhat and the Regalian doctors have done all they can for his father , Gregor and his family return to the surface .
= = = The Prophecy of Gray = = =
Beware , Underlanders , time hangs by a threadThe hunters are hunted , white water runs red.The gnawers will strike to extinguish the rest.The hope of the hopeless resides in a quest .
Meaning : The usually uneasy balance of power in the Underland is in flux , with the rats ' king planning to launch an attack against the other species in the Underland . The phrase " white water runs red " refers specifically to how the humans deposit the bodies of two rats who try to kill Gregor into a fast @-@ flowing river beneath the Regalian palace . " Hope of the hopeless " may be interpreted as a reference to Gregor , who refuses to " allow himself to think about the future at all " , because it makes him sad that he has lost his father .
An Overlander warrior , a son of the sun , May bring us back light , he may bring us back none.But gather your neighbors and follow his callOr rats will most surely devour us all .
Meaning : Gregor is an Overlander and the son of another fallen Overlander ( thus a " son " of the " sun " , in multiple ways ) . He brings the Regalians " light " ( an Underland idiom for " life " ) by killing King Gorger and the traitor Henry . The humans ally themselves with the other species of their world , warding off an attack by the rats , who are carnivores and occasionally cannibalistic .
Two over , two under , of royal descent , Two fliers , two crawlers , two spinners assent.One gnawer beside and one lost up ahead.And eight will be left when we count up the dead .
Meaning : Gregor and Boots ; Luxa and Henry ; the bats Ares and Aurora ; two giant cockroaches named Temp and Tick ; the spiders Gox and Treflex ; and the rat Ripred all journey on a quest to find the " one lost up ahead " : Gregor 's dad . Out of the original twelve , Tick , Treflex , Gox , and Henry all die during the quest .
The last who will die must decide where he stands.The fate of the eight is contained in his hands.So bid him take care , bid him look where he leaps , As life may be death , and death life again reaps .
Meaning : Henry , the last " quester " to die , decides that he is a traitor to the humans , and seals his fate by failing to notice as Gregor leads him off a cliff . He may be interpreted as controlling the " fate of the eight " because of his powerful connection with the rats , whom he could have manipulated had he lived . The final line may have many different meanings ; among them may be a hint about how miserable Luxa is even though she lives , as Henry was her best friend until he had his life " reaped " .
= = = Characters = = =
= = = = Quest Members = = = =
Gregor : An ordinary eleven @-@ year @-@ old boy from New York City , said to be the warrior mentioned in " The Prophecy of Gray " . He is later bonded to Ares the flier .
Boots ( Margaret ) : Boots is Gregor 's two @-@ year @-@ old sister . She accidentally discovers the entrance to the Underland . She befriends the crawlers immediately and is the only reason they decide to come on the quest .
Luxa : The future queen of the Underland , about the same age as Gregor . Her parents were killed by rats shortly after Henry 's . She is bonded to Aurora the flier .
Henry : Luxa 's cousin , next in line to the throne after her . He wants to ally with the rats to conquer the " weak " species of the Underland . He dies chasing Gregor off the edge of a cliff , believing his bond Ares would always come catch him .
Ripred : A gnawer ( rat ) with deadly fighting skills and intelligence ; Vikus asks him to help the quest group into the rats ' domain .
Temp : One of two crawlers ( cockroaches ) to join the quest . He is one of the first crawlers who encounters Boots and her brother and befriends the two .
Tick : A friend of Temp who sacrifices herself to save Boots from a group of rats .
Ares : A large black flier ( bat ) bonded to Henry who chooses to save Gregor rather than his bond when the two fall off a cliff . He does not know of Henry 's treachery until after the fact , and so Gregor decides to bond with him to save him from banishment .
Aurora : A flier who is bonded to Luxa . She has a golden coat .
Gox and Treflex : Two spinners ( spiders ) who help the quest group .
Gregor 's dad : Though never named , Gregor 's father is an important member of the quest because it is he the group goes to find and rescue .
= = Publication = =
Several editions of the novel have been published since the first in 2003 , each with new or adapted cover art . To date , editions have appeared in German , French , Spanish , Norweigan , Italian , Polish , Greek , Dutch , Finnish , and Chinese . Scholastic has also licensed the novel 's rights to publishers in several other languages . In 2006 The Chicken House produced yet another edition , distributed in the UK by Gardners Books . This edition was published under the alternate title Gregor and the Rats of the Underland .
The novel was available as an ebook as early as 2010 , and as part of a boxed set . An audiobook edition was published December 13 , 2005 , read by actor and narrator Paul Boehmer .
= = Reception = =
Gregor the Overlander has received much critical acclaim , primarily for its new treatment of common themes in fantasy . School Library Journal called it " an engrossing adventure for fantasy fans and for those new to the genre . " Common Sense Media gave it a 5 / 5 and credited the book 's " strong characters , vivid descriptions , flawless pacing , breathless excitement , laughs and scares , and a vision that makes this fantasy very different . " Readers have also praised the novel ; Jane LeGak , an Amazon Reviewer , stated that , " Rats and other wonderfully creepy creatures fill the story 's dark underworld , but what makes this book so wonderful is how human it is . " A. Reid , also from Amazon.com , praised the believable characters , saying , " Gregor is one of the most warmly believable characters I 've encountered in a children 's novel in a long time . " As of August 2015 , users on Amazon.com had given the book a rating of 4 @.@ 5 stars out of 5 , and Barnes & Noble reviews awarded it a total of 4 @.@ 4 stars .
The book has also been praised for covering political themes , such as war and genocide , while still maintaining an adventurous feeling . Collins herself has stated that " she spent hours ... plotting strategic alliances that would make military sense " in a way that kept such themes accessible for younger audiences . Publishers Weekly 's review of the novel was " starred " , an honor reserved for books of " exceptional merit " . The reviewer stated , " Collins does a grand job of world @-@ building , with a fine economy of words @-@ no unnecessary details bog down either the setting or the invigorating story . In her world , a child singing " Patty @-@ Cake " can change the course of history and a stoic rat can mourn the fact that although he is able to read , he cannot write because he has no thumb . Unlike Gregor who cannot wait to leave , readers will likely find it to be a fantastically engaging place . "
Despite the mainly positive reviews , the novel has received some negative criticism . One critical review by Children 's Literature writer Tina Gregory points out that " the novel lacks at certain points necessary descriptive details of the characters and settings . For instance , the descriptions of Regalia , the Underland city , and many of the book 's characters should be so distinct that we visualize them . " The same School Library Journal review which praised the novel 's " exciting scenes and cliff @-@ hanger chapters " also had this to say : " Gregor is not the most compelling figure at first , but as the story progresses he becomes more interesting , maturing through the challenges he faces . "
Gregor the Overlander was named a Kirkus Reviews Editors ' Choice and placed third for the Nutmeg Children 's Book Award in 2006 in the intermediate category . It was also nominated for the Kansas William Allen White Children 's Book Award , the Pacific Northwest Young Reader 's Choice Award , and several other awards . It won the Pennsylvania Young Readers ' Choice Award for 2005 – 2006 and was the first runner @-@ up for the Texas Bluebonnet Award .
= Cool World =
Cool World is a 1992 American live @-@ action / animated fantasy film directed by Ralph Bakshi , and starring Kim Basinger , Gabriel Byrne and Brad Pitt . It tells the story of a cartoonist who finds himself in the animated world he thinks he created , and is seduced by one of the characters , a comic strip vamp who wants to be real . Cool World marked Bakshi 's return to feature films after nine years . The film was originally pitched as an animated horror film about an underground cartoonist who fathers an illegitimate half @-@ real / half @-@ cartoon daughter , who hates herself for what she is and tries to kill him .
During production , Bakshi 's original screenplay was scrapped by producer Frank Mancuso , Jr. and heavily rewritten by Michael Grais and Mark Victor in secret . Reviews praised the film 's visuals , but criticized the story and characters , as well as the combination of live @-@ action and animation , which some critics felt was unconvincing . The film would eventually gross only half its production budget . It was filmed in 1991 .
= = Plot = =
In 1945 Las Vegas , World War II veteran Frank Harris ( Brad Pitt ) returns to his mother . Riding on a motorcycle that he won in Italy during his service , Frank and his mother are struck by a drunk couple . Frank survives , but his mother dies . As an ambulance takes her away , Frank is transported to " Cool World " , an animated city of surrealistic landscapes and random cartoon violence . He was inadvertently teleported by Dr. Vincent Whiskers ( Maurice LaMarche ) , a doctor who created a " spike " that was supposed to take him to the real world , but brought Frank to Cool World instead . Whiskers finds Frank useful enough to run things in the Cool World while he is gone to the real world .
Forty seven years later , Jack Deebs ( Gabriel Byrne ) , a cartoonist , is detained after murdering a man he found in bed with his wife . He creates the highly acclaimed comic book series Cool World , which features the femme fatale Holli Would ( Kim Basinger ) . On the night before his release , Holli summons Jack into the Cool World , and he sees Holli dance in the local dance club . After he sees her dance , Jack is teleported back to the real world . It turns out that Holli wants to enter the real world , but is forbidden to do so by Frank , who is now a police officer in the Cool World .
After he is released , Jack is transported to the Cool World once again and meets Holli and her goons , who have been encouraging his misled beliefs that he himself created the Cool World . In reality , Holli has simply been bringing him there , and Jack created his comic book series on what he 's seen there , which he initially believed were his own dreams . Meanwhile , Frank is about to go on a date with his longtime girlfriend Lonette ( Candi Milo ) , when his partner Nails ( Charlie Adler ) , a spider , tells him about Jack 's presence . Frank confronts Jack at the local Slash Club , confiscating his fountain pen , informing him that it 's a dangerous weapon in the Cool World . Frank then tells Jack the truth : the Cool World has existed long before he created the comic series and forewarns him that " noids " , real humans from the real world , are not allowed to have sex with " doodles " , the cartoon inhabitants of the Cool World . He further advises Jack not to get involved with Holli before Jack returns to the real world .
Holli brings Jack back into the Cool World , where he is taken to Holli 's apartment . Holli and Jack have sex , transforming Holli into a real human . While Frank attempts to mend his relationship with Lonette , he temporarily leaves detective duties to Nails . Nails receives a call from an informant named Sparks , who tells him that Jack and Holli have had sex and are leaving for the real world . Nails decides that he can do this on his own and goes off to stop Holli . Nails attempts to stop her from leaving the Cool World , but Holli uses Jack 's fountain pen to suck Nails in . Jack and Holli return to the real world , where Holli sings " Let 's Make Love " at a nightclub with Frank Sinatra , Jr .. Frank discovers that Nails is gone and decides to venture into the real world to pursue Jack and Holli . Meanwhile , Jack and Holli have started to flicker between real and doodle states . While contemplating their situation , Holli tells Jack about the " Spike of Power " , an artifact placed on the top of a Las Vegas casino by a doodle who crossed into the real world . When Jack displays skepticism about Holli and the idea , Holli abandons him to search for the spike on her own .
Frank meets up with Jack later on , explaining that the flickering both Jack and Holli have been experiencing is the disappearance of both worlds . They decide to team up and stop Holli from removing the spike . They get Jennifer ( Michele Abrams ) , the daughter of Jack 's neighbor to drive them to the casino , and on the way , Frank explains that it was Doc Whiskers who crossed worlds and put the spike on the top of the hotel and if it were removed , it could potentially destroy both the real world and the Cool World .
Holli is escorted out of the casino for not spending any money , all the while asking about Vegas Vinnie , which is the alias of Doc Whiskers . When she spots the Doc , she tells him that she couldn 't find him , but when she starts to flicker between real human and doodle state again , she begins to become suspicious and starts to see through Doc 's disguise and shakes him out of it , revealing his identity . Doc tries to convince Holli not to get the Spike of Power , but Holli becomes enraged and threatens Doc Whiskers with the fountain pen . When Frank , Jack , and Jennifer get to the destination , Frank pursues Holli on the casino , while Jack and Jennifer put Doc Whiskers back together after being popped by Holli 's pen . Frank chases after Holli throughout the hotel , while she 's still flickering from real to doodle state . While in doodle form , Holli pushes Frank off the building to his death . Holli finds and takes the Spike of Power , transforming her , Jack , and everyone in Vegas into doodles and opening a gateway between the two worlds , releasing numerous monstrous doodles . Transformed into a superhero doodle , Jack gets a hold of the spike . Holli tries to seduce it away from Jack , but instead he returns the Spike of Power to its place , trapping him , Holli and the rest of the doodles in Cool World .
Meanwhile , Nails escapes from Holli 's pen and both he and Doc Whiskers return Frank 's body to Cool World . Lonette discovers that Holli was a doodle when she killed Frank and explains when a noid is killed by a doodle , he is reborn in Cool World as a doodle . He is transformed into a doodle , allowing him to pursue his relationship with Lonette . Meanwhile , Jack and Holli are last seen together in the panels of a comic book . Jack ( still a superhero doodle ) is planning out how they will live , much to Holli 's dismay .
= = Cast = =
Live action actors
Kim Basinger as Holli Would , a femme fatale and who wishes to be real in the real world .
Gabriel Byrne as Jack Deebs , the cartoonist seemingly responsible for the creation of Cool World .
Brad Pitt as Detective Frank Harris , a Cool World police detective who is bent on catching Holli .
Deirdre O 'Connell as Isabelle Malley
Frank Sinatra , Jr. as Himself
Michele Abrams as Jennifer Malley
Janni Brenn – Lowen as Agatha Rose Harris
Voice actors
Charlie Adler as Nails , an anthropomorphic spider who serves as Frank 's partner . He actually has four arms and two legs .
Candi Milo as Lonette / Bob
Joey Camen as Interrogator No. 1 / Slash / Holli 's Door
Michael Lally as Sparks
Maurice LaMarche as Interrogator No. 2 / Mash / Dr. Vincent " Vegas Vinnie " Whiskers / Super Jack Deebs
Patrick Pinney as Chico the bouncer
Gregory Snegoff as Bash
Frank Welker as a telephone
Jenine Jennings as Craps Bunny
Marilyn Monroe ( archival footage )
= = Production = =
In 1990 , Ralph Bakshi decided that it was time to make another animated film . According to Bakshi , " I made 1 @,@ 500 bucks in 10 years of painting ; I thought it would be nice to pick up a piece of change . So I called my lawyer , who was still speaking to me because no one ever leaves Hollywood , and asked him where I should go to sell a movie . " Bakshi pitched Cool World to Paramount Pictures ( where Bakshi had worked as the final head of the studio 's animation division ) as an animated horror film . The concept of the film involved a cartoon and live action human having sex and conceiving a hybrid child who visits the real world to murder the father who abandoned her . Bakshi states that Paramount Pictures " bought the idea in ten seconds " .
As the sets were being built in Las Vegas , producer Frank Mancuso , Jr . , son of Paramount president Frank Mancuso , Sr. , had the screenplay rewritten in secret , and gave Bakshi a new screenplay by screenwriters Michael Grais and Mark Victor that " was barely the same " . Larry Gross also contributed to the script , but his work would later go on to be uncredited . In interviews at the time of the film 's release , Mancuso , Jr . , who was best known for the Friday the 13th franchise , stated a desire to move away from horror films , and wanted to produce a film " about what happens when someone creates a world , becomes defined by it , and then can 't escape [ ... ] a film about being trapped by your own creation . " Bakshi remembers that he got into a fight with Mancuso , Jr. and " punched [ him ] in the mouth . " Paramount threatened Bakshi with a lawsuit if he refused to complete the film . " I thought if I did the animation well , it would be worth it , but you know what ? It wasn 't worth it . " Bakshi also stated that he " had a lot of animators there that I 'd brought in and I thought that maybe I could just have fun animating this stuff , which I did . " Bakshi had developed the film as a mix of comedy and horror that he described as " a hard R @-@ rated story " but Paramount wanted a PG @-@ 13 film , one of the reasons for the doomed and angry relationship between filmmaker and studio .
Bakshi had originally intended to cast Drew Barrymore and Brad Pitt in the film 's leading roles . Brad Pitt was cast as Frank Harris instead , with Gabriel Byrne as Deebs and Kim Basinger as Holli . The film 's voice cast includes Maurice LaMarche and Charles Adler . According to Bakshi , Basinger had attempted to rewrite the film halfway into its production because she " thought it would be great [ ... ] if she would be able to show this picture in hospitals to sick children [ ... ] I said , ' Kim , I think that 's wonderful , but you 've got the wrong guy to do that with . ' [ ... ] [ Mancuso ] was sitting there with Kim [ ... ] agreeing with her . "
The visual design of the live @-@ action footage was intended to look like " a living , walk @-@ through painting " , a visual concept Bakshi had long wanted to achieve . The film 's sets were based upon enlargements of designer Barry Jackson 's paintings . The animation was strongly influenced by Fleischer Studios ( whose cartoons were released by Paramount ) and Terrytoons ( where Bakshi once worked , and whose Mighty Mouse character was also adapted into a series by Bakshi ) . The artwork by the character Jack Deebs was drawn by underground comix artist Spain Rodriguez . The film 's animators were never given a screenplay , and were instead told by Bakshi to " Do a scene that 's funny , whatever you want to do ! "
A soundtrack album , Songs from the Cool World , featuring recordings by My Life with the Thrill Kill Kult , Moby , Ministry , The Future Sound of London , and others , was released in 1992 by Warner Bros. Records . It included the track " Real Cool World " , a David Bowie song written for the film . The soundtrack received stronger reviews from critics than the film itself , including a four @-@ star rating from Allmusic . Mark Isham 's original score for Cool World , featuring a mixture of jazz , orchestral pieces , and electronic remixes , and performed by the Munich Symphony Orchestra , was released on compact disc by Varèse Sarabande , and in complete form in 2015 by Quartet . It also received positive reviews .
= = Release and reception = =
= = = Promotion and merchandising = = =
As part of the film 's promotion , the Hollywood Sign was altered to include a 75 @-@ foot @-@ tall cutout of Holli Would . The alteration angered local residents . In a letter to the city 's Recreation and Park Board , commission officials wrote that they were " appalled " by the board 's approval of the alterations and that " the action your board has taken is offensive to Los Angeles women and is not within your role as custodian and guardian of the Hollywood sign . The fact that Paramount Pictures donated a mere $ 27 @,@ 000 to Rebuild L.A. should not be a passport to exploit women in Los Angeles . " Protestors picketed the unveiling of the altered sign . The promotional campaign was focused on the sex appeal of Holli . It was considered by some experts as misaimed , with Paramount 's marketing president Barry London saying " Cool World unfortunately did not seem to satisfy the younger audience it was aimed at , " and designer Milton Knight recalling that " Audiences actually wanted a wilder , raunchier Cool World . The premiere audience I saw it with certainly did . "
Several different licensed video games based on the film were created by Ocean Software . The first game was developed by Twilight and released in 1992 for the Amiga , Atari ST , Commodore 64 and DOS . Two different games were released in 1993 for the Nintendo Entertainment System and Super NES , alongside a Game Boy version of the former . A four @-@ issue comic book prequel to the film was published as a miniseries by DC Comics .
= = = Reception = = =
Cool World opened at sixth on the North American box office , with $ 5 @.@ 5 million . Its lifetime gross was $ 14 @.@ 1 million , a little more than half its reported $ 28 million budget . The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes collected a sample of 45 reviews and judged 4 % of them to be positive . Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times wrote that Cool World " misses one opportunity after another " , describing it as " a surprisingly incompetent film " . Deseret News reviewer Chris Hicks described it as " a one @-@ joke movie – and it 's a dirty joke . [ ... ] And much of what 's going on here seems more angry and nasty than inspired or funny . " Variety reviewer Brian Lowry compared the film to an extended music video , praising the soundtrack and visuals , but panning the story . Leonard Maltin described the film as " too serious to be fun [ and ] too goofy to take seriously " , and the lead characters as " unlikable and unappealing " . The Washington Post reviewer Hal Hinson wondered " whether Kim Basinger is more obnoxious as a cartoon or as a real person , " and felt that the combination of animation and live action was unconvincing . Contributing to the low box office was the fact the studio withdrew all advertising support after the opening weekend .
In 1997 , John Grant wrote in The Encyclopedia of Fantasy that Cool World " stands as one of the fantastic cinema 's most significant achievements , an instauration fantasy that reveals greater depths with each viewing . " Animation historian Jerry Beck described the film as being " for adults and Bakshi completists only , " writing that the film " has a great premise , a great cast , and the best animation he 's ever been involved with , " but critiquing it as a " pointless rehash of many of Ralph 's favorite themes , and the story literally goes nowhere . " The film garnered a Razzie Award nomination for Worst Actress ( Kim Basinger ; also for Final Analysis ) .
= Amanita bisporigera =
Amanita bisporigera is a deadly poisonous species of fungus in the family Amanitaceae . It is commonly known as the eastern North American destroying angel or the destroying angel , although it shares this latter name with three other lethal white Amanita species , A. ocreata , A. verna and A. virosa . The fruit bodies are found on the ground in mixed coniferous and deciduous forests of eastern North America south to Mexico , but are rare in western North America ; the fungus has also been found in pine plantations in Colombia . The mushroom has a smooth white cap that can reach up to 10 cm ( 4 in ) across , and a stipe , up to 14 cm ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) long by 1 @.@ 8 cm ( 0 @.@ 7 in ) thick , that has a delicate white skirt @-@ like ring near the top . The bulbous stipe base is covered with a membranous sac @-@ like volva . The white gills are free from attachment to the stalk and crowded closely together . As the species name suggests , A. bisporigera typically bears two spores on the basidia , although this characteristic is not as immutable as was once thought .
Amanita bisporigera was described as a new species in 1906 . It is classified in the section Phalloideae of the genus Amanita together with other amatoxin @-@ containing species . Amatoxins are cyclic peptides which inhibit the enzyme RNA polymerase II and interfere with various cellular functions . The first symptoms of poisoning appear 6 to 24 hours after consumption , followed by a period of apparent improvement , then by symptoms of liver and kidney failure , and death after four days or more . Amanita bisporigera closely resembles a few other white amanitas , including the equally deadly A. virosa and A. verna . These species , difficult to distinguish from A. bisporigera based on visible field characteristics , do not have two @-@ spored basidia , and do not stain yellow when a dilute solution of potassium hydroxide is applied . The DNA of A. bisporigera has been partially sequenced , and the genes responsible for the production of amatoxins have been determined .
= = Taxonomy , classification , and phylogeny = =
Amanita bisporigera was first described scientifically in 1906 by American botanist George Francis Atkinson in a publication by Cornell University colleague Charles E. Lewis . The type locality was Ithaca , New York , where several collections were made . In his 1941 monograph of world Amanita species , Édouard @-@ Jean Gilbert transferred the species to his new genus Amanitina , but this genus is now considered synonymous with Amanita . In 1944 , William Murrill described the species Amanita vernella , collected from Gainesville , Florida ; that species is now thought to be synonymous with A. bisporigera after a 1979 examination of its type material revealed basidia that were mostly 2 @-@ spored . Amanita phalloides var. striatula , a poorly known taxon originally described from the United States in 1902 by Charles Horton Peck , is considered by Amanita authority Rodham Tulloss to be synonymous with A. bisporigera . Vernacular names for the mushroom include " destroying angel " , " deadly amanita " , " white death cap " , " angel of death " and " eastern North American destroying angel " .
Amanita bisporigera belongs to section Phalloideae of the genus Amanita , which contains some of the deadliest Amanita species , including A. phalloides and A. virosa . This classification has been upheld with phylogenetic analyses , which demonstrate that the toxin @-@ producing members of section Phalloideae form a clade — that is , they derive from a common ancestor . In 2005 , Zhang and colleagues performed a phylogenetic analysis based on the internal transcribed spacer ( ITS ) sequences of several white @-@ bodied toxic Amanita species , most of which are found in Asia . Their results support a clade containing A. bisporigera , A. subjunquillea var. alba , A. exitialis , and A. virosa . The Guangzhou destroying angel ( Amanita exitialis ) has two @-@ spored basidia , like A. bisporigera .
= = Description = =
The cap is 3 – 10 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter and , depending on its age , ranges in shape from egg @-@ shaped to convex to somewhat flattened . The cap surface is smooth and white , sometimes with a pale tan- or cream @-@ colored tint in the center . The surface is either dry or , when the environment is moist , slightly sticky . The flesh is thin and white , and does not change color when bruised . The margin of the cap , which is rolled inwards in young specimens , does not have striations ( grooves ) , and lacks volval remnants . The gills , also white , are crowded closely together . They are either free from attachment to the stipe or just barely reach it . The lamellulae ( short gills that do not extend all the way to the stipe ) are numerous , and gradually narrow .
The white stipe is 6 – 14 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 – 5 @.@ 5 in ) by 0 @.@ 7 – 1 @.@ 8 cm ( 0 @.@ 3 – 0 @.@ 7 in ) thick , solid ( i.e. , not hollow ) , and tapers slightly upward . The surface , in young specimens especially , is frequently floccose ( covered with tufts of soft hair ) , fibrillose ( covered with small slender fibers ) , or squamulose ( covered with small scales ) ; there may be fine grooves along its length . The bulb at the base of the stipe is spherical or nearly so . The delicate ring on the upper part of the stipe is a remnant of the partial veil that extends from the cap margin to the stalk and covers the gills during development . It is white , thin , membranous , and hangs like a skirt . When young , the mushrooms are enveloped in a membrane called the universal veil , which stretches from the top of the cap to the bottom of the stipe , imparting an oval , egg @-@ like appearance . In mature fruit bodies , the veil 's remnants form a membrane around the base , the volva , like an eggshell @-@ shaped cup . On occasion , however , the volva remains underground or gets torn up during development . It is white , sometimes lobed , and may become pressed closely to the stipe . The volva is up to 3 @.@ 8 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) in height ( measured from the base of the bulb ) , and is about 2 mm thick midway between the top and the base attachment . The mushroom 's odor has been described as " pleasant to somewhat nauseous " , becoming more cloying as the fruit body ages . The cap flesh turns yellow when a solution of potassium hydroxide ( KOH , 5 – 10 % ) is applied ( a common chemical test used in mushroom identification ) . This characteristic chemical reaction is shared with A. ocreata and A. virosa , although some authors have expressed doubt about the identity of North American A. virosa , suggesting those collections may represent four @-@ spored A. bisporigera . Tulloss suggests that reports of A. bisporigera that do not turn yellow with KOH were actually based on white forms of A. phalloides . Findings from the Chiricahua Mountains of Arizona and in central Mexico , although " nearly identical " to A. bisporigera , do not stain yellow with KOH ; their taxonomic status has not been investigated in detail .
= = = Microscopic features = = =
The spore print of A. bisporigera , like most Amanita , is white . The spores are roughly spherical , thin @-@ walled , hyaline ( translucent ) , amyloid , and measure 7 @.@ 8 – 9 @.@ 6 by 7 @.@ 0 – 9 @.@ 0 μm . The cap cuticle is made of partially gelatinized , filamentous interwoven hyphae , 2 – 6 μm in diameter . The tissue of the gill is bilateral , meaning it diverges from the center of the gill to its outer edge . The subhymenium is ramose — composed of relatively thin branching , unclamped hyphae . The spore @-@ bearing cells , the basidia , are club @-@ shaped , thin @-@ walled , without clamps , with dimensions of 34 – 45 by 4 – 11 μm . They are typically two @-@ spored , although rarely three- or four @-@ spored forms have been found . Although the two @-@ spored basidia are a defining characteristic of the species , there is evidence of a tendency to shift towards producing four @-@ spored basidia as the fruiting season progresses . The volva is composed almost exclusively of densely interwoven filamentous hyphae , 2 – 10 μm in diameter , that are sparsely to moderately branched . There are few small inflated cells , which are mostly spherical to broadly elliptic . The tissue of the stipe is made of abundant , sparsely branched , filamentous hyphae , without clamps , measuring 2 – 5 μm in diameter . The inflated cells are club @-@ shaped , longitudinally oriented , and up to 2 – 3 by 15 @.@ 7 μm . The annulus is made of abundant moderately branched filamentous hyphae , measuring 2 – 6 μm in diameter . The inflated cells are sparse , broadly elliptic to pear @-@ shaped , and are rarely larger than 31 by 22 μm . Pleurocystidia and cheilocystidia ( cystidia found on the gill faces and edges , respectively ) are absent , but there may be cylindrical to sac @-@ like cells of the partial veil on the gill edges ; these cells are hyaline and measure 24 – 34 by 7 – 16 μm .
In 1906 Charles E. Lewis studied and illustrated the development of the basidia in order to compare the nuclear behavior of the two @-@ spored with that of the four @-@ spored forms . Initially ( 1 ) , the young basidium , appearing as a club @-@ shaped branch from the subhymenium , is filled with cytoplasm and contains two primary nuclei , which have distinct nucleoli . As the basidium grows larger , the membranes of the two nuclei contact ( 2 ) , and then the membrane disappears at the point of contact ( 3 ) . The two primary nuclei remain distinct for a short time , but eventually the two nuclei fuse completely to form a larger secondary nucleus with a single secondary nucleolus ( 4 , 5 ) . The basidium increases in size after the primary nuclei fuse , and the nucleus migrates towards the end of the basidia ( 6 , 7 ) . During this time , the nucleus develops vacuoles " filled by the nuclear sap in the living cell " . Chromosomes are produced from the nucleolar threads , and align transversely near the apex of the basidium , connected by spindles ( 8 – 10 ) . The chromosomes then move to the poles , forming the daughter nuclei that occupy different positions in the basidium ; the daughters now have a structure similar to that of the parent nuclei ( 11 ) . The two nuclei then divide to form four nuclei , similar to fungi with four @-@ spored basidia ( 12 , 13 ) . The four nuclei crowd together at some distance from the end of the basidium to form an irregular mass ( 14 ) . Shortly thereafter , the sterigmata ( slender projections of the basidia that attach the spores ) begin to form ( 15 ) , and cytoplasm begins to pass through the sterigmata to form the spores ( 16 ) . Although Lewis was not able to clearly determine from observation alone whether the contents of two or four nuclei passed through the sterigmata , he deduced , by examining older basidia with mature spores , that only two nuclei enter the spores ( 16 , 17 ) .
= = Toxicity = =
Amanita bisporigera is considered the most toxic North American Amanita mushroom , with little variation in toxin content between different fruit bodies . Three subtypes of amatoxin have been described : α- , β , and γ @-@ amanitin . The principal amatoxin , α @-@ amanitin , is readily absorbed across the intestine , and 60 % of the absorbed toxin is excreted into bile and undergoes enterohepatic circulation ; the kidneys clear the remaining 40 % . The toxin inhibits the enzyme RNA polymerase II , thereby interfering with DNA transcription , which suppresses RNA production and protein synthesis . This causes cellular necrosis , especially in cells which are initially exposed and have rapid rates of protein synthesis . This process results in severe acute liver dysfunction and , ultimately , liver failure . Amatoxins are not broken down by boiling , freezing , or drying . Roughly 0 @.@ 2 to 0 @.@ 4 milligrams of α @-@ amanitin is present in 1 gram of A. bisporigera ; the lethal dose in humans is less than 0 @.@ 1 mg / kg body weight . One mature fruit body can contain 10 – 12 mg of α @-@ amanitin , enough for a lethal dose . The α @-@ amanitin concentration in the spores is about 17 % that of the fruit body tissues . A. bisporigera also contains the phallotoxin phallacidin , structurally related to the amatoxins but considered less poisonous because of poor absorption . Poisonings ( from similar white amanitas ) have also been reported in domestic animals , including dogs , cats , and cows .
The first reported poisonings resulting in death from the consumption of A. bisporigera were from near San Antonio , Mexico , in 1957 , where a rancher , his wife , and three children consumed the fungus ; only the man survived . Amanita poisoning is characterized by the following distinct stages : the incubation stage is an asymptomatic period which ranges from 6 to 12 hours after ingestion . In the gastrointestinal stage , about 6 to 16 hours after ingestion , there is onset of abdominal pain , explosive vomiting , and diarrhea for up to 24 hours , which may lead to dehydration , severe electrolyte imbalances , and shock . These early symptoms may be related to other toxins such as phalloidin . In the cytotoxic stage , 24 to 48 hours after ingestion , clinical and biochemical signs of liver damage are observed , but the patient is typically free of gastrointestinal symptoms . The signs of liver dysfunction such as jaundice , hypoglycemia , acidosis , and hemorrhage appear . Later , there is an increase in the levels of prothrombin and blood levels of ammonia , and the signs of hepatic encephalopathy and / or kidney failure appear . The risk factors for mortality that have been reported are age younger than 10 years , short latency period between ingestion and onset of symptoms , severe coagulopathy ( blood clotting disorder ) , severe hyperbilirubinemia ( jaundice ) , and rising serum creatinine levels .
= = Similar species = =
The color and general appearance of A. bisporigera are similar to those of A. verna and A. virosa . A. bisporigera is at times smaller and more slender than either A. verna or A. virosa , but it varies considerably in size ; therefore size is not a reliable diagnostic characteristic . A. vi
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the pethidine . The case had an impact on graduate medical education and residency work hours . Limits were set on working hours for medical postgraduates , commonly referred to as interns or residents , in hospital training programs , and they also now require closer senior physician supervision .
= George IV of the United Kingdom =
George IV ( George Augustus Frederick ; 12 August 1762 – 26 June 1830 ) was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and of Hanover following the death of his father , George III , on 29 January 1820 , until his own death ten years later . From 1811 until his accession , he served as Prince Regent during his father 's final mental illness .
George IV led an extravagant lifestyle that contributed to the fashions of the Regency era . He was a patron of new forms of leisure , style and taste . He commissioned John Nash to build the Royal Pavilion in Brighton and remodel Buckingham Palace , and Sir Jeffry Wyattville to rebuild Windsor Castle . He was instrumental in the foundation of the National Gallery and King 's College London .
His charm and culture earned him the title " the first gentleman of England " , but his poor relationship with both his father and his wife , Caroline of Brunswick , and his dissolute way of life , earned him the contempt of the people and dimmed the prestige of the monarchy . He even forbade Caroline to attend his coronation and asked the government to introduce the unpopular Pains and Penalties Bill in a desperate , unsuccessful attempt to divorce her .
For most of George 's regency and reign , Lord Liverpool controlled the government as Prime Minister , with little help from George . His ministers found his behaviour selfish , unreliable and irresponsible . At all times he was much under the influence of favourites . Taxpayers were angry at his wasteful spending at a time when Britons were fighting in the Napoleonic Wars . He did not provide national leadership in time of crisis , nor act as a role model for his people . Liverpool 's government presided over Britain 's ultimate victory , negotiated the peace settlement , and attempted to deal with the social and economic malaise that followed . After Liverpool 's retirement , George was forced to accept Catholic emancipation despite opposing it . His only child , Princess Charlotte , died before him in 1817 and so he was succeeded by his younger brother , William .
= = Early life = =
George was born at St James 's Palace , London , on 12 August 1762 , the first child of King George III of the United Kingdom and Queen Charlotte . As the eldest son of a British sovereign , he automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay at birth ; he was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester a few days later . On 18 September of the same year , he was baptised by Thomas Secker , Archbishop of Canterbury . His godparents were the Duke of Mecklenburg @-@ Strelitz ( his maternal uncle , for whom the Duke of Devonshire , Lord Chamberlain , stood proxy ) , the Duke of Cumberland ( his twice @-@ paternal great @-@ uncle ) and the Dowager Princess of Wales ( his paternal grandmother ) . George was a talented student , and quickly learned to speak French , German and Italian , in addition to his native English .
At the age of 18 he was given a separate establishment , and in dramatic contrast with his prosaic , scandal @-@ free father , threw himself with zest into a life of dissipation and wild extravagance involving heavy drinking and numerous mistresses and escapades . He was a witty conversationalist , drunk or sober , and showed good , but grossly expensive , taste in decorating his palace . The Prince turned 21 in 1783 , and obtained a grant of £ 60 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 6 @,@ 514 @,@ 000 today ) from Parliament and an annual income of £ 50 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 5 @,@ 429 @,@ 000 today ) from his father . It was far too little for his needs – the stables alone cost £ 31 @,@ 000 a year . He then established his residence in Carlton House , where he lived a profligate life . Animosity developed between the Prince and his father , who desired more frugal behaviour on the part of the heir apparent . The King , a political conservative , was also alienated by the Prince 's adherence to Charles James Fox and other radically inclined politicians .
Soon after he reached the age of 21 , the Prince became infatuated with Maria Fitzherbert . She was a commoner , six years his elder , twice widowed , and a Roman Catholic . Despite her complete unsuitability , the Prince was determined to marry her . This was in spite of the Act of Settlement 1701 , which barred the spouse of a Catholic from succeeding to the throne , and the Royal Marriages Act 1772 , which prohibited his marriage without the King 's consent , which would never have been granted .
Nevertheless , the couple went through a marriage ceremony on 15 December 1785 at her house in Park Street , Mayfair . Legally the union was void , as the King 's consent was not granted ( and never even requested ) . However , Fitzherbert believed that she was the Prince 's canonical and true wife , holding the law of the Church to be superior to the law of the State . For political reasons , the union remained secret and Fitzherbert promised not to reveal it .
The Prince was plunged into debt by his exorbitant lifestyle . His father refused to assist him , forcing him to quit Carlton House and live at Fitzherbert 's residence . In 1787 , the Prince 's political allies proposed to relieve his debts with a parliamentary grant . The Prince 's relationship with Fitzherbert was suspected , and revelation of the illegal marriage would have scandalised the nation and doomed any parliamentary proposal to aid him . Acting on the Prince 's authority , the Whig leader Charles James Fox declared that the story was a calumny . Fitzherbert was not pleased with the public denial of the marriage in such vehement terms and contemplated severing her ties to the Prince . He appeased her by asking another Whig , Richard Brinsley Sheridan , to restate Fox 's forceful declaration in more careful words . Parliament , meanwhile , granted the Prince £ 161 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 18 @,@ 450 @,@ 000 today ) to pay his debts and £ 60 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 6 @,@ 876 @,@ 000 today ) for improvements to Carlton House .
= = Regency crisis of 1788 = =
In the summer of 1788 the King 's mental health deteriorated , possibly as the result of the hereditary disease porphyria . He was nonetheless able to discharge some of his duties and to declare Parliament prorogued from 25 September to 20 November . During the prorogation he became deranged , posing a threat to his own life , and when Parliament reconvened in November the King could not deliver the customary speech from the throne during the State Opening of Parliament . Parliament found itself in an untenable position : according to long @-@ established law it could not proceed to any business until the delivery of the King 's Speech at a State Opening .
Although arguably barred from doing so , Parliament began debating a Regency . In the House of Commons , Charles James Fox declared his opinion that the Prince of Wales was automatically entitled to exercise sovereignty during the King 's incapacity . A contrasting opinion was held by the Prime Minister , William Pitt the Younger , who argued that , in the absence of a statute to the contrary , the right to choose a Regent belonged to Parliament alone . He even stated that , without parliamentary authority " the Prince of Wales had no more right ... to assume the government , than any other individual subject of the country . " Though disagreeing on the principle underlying a Regency , Pitt agreed with Fox that the Prince of Wales would be the most convenient choice for a Regent .
The Prince of Wales — though offended by Pitt 's boldness — did not lend his full support to Fox 's approach . The Prince of Wales 's brother , Prince Frederick , Duke of York , declared that George would not attempt to exercise any power without previously obtaining the consent of Parliament . Following the passage of preliminary resolutions Pitt outlined a formal plan for the Regency , suggesting that the powers of the Prince of Wales be greatly limited . Among other things , the Prince of Wales would not be able either to sell the King 's property or to grant a peerage to anyone other than a child of the King . The Prince of Wales denounced Pitt 's scheme , declaring it a " project for producing weakness , disorder , and insecurity in every branch of the administration of affairs . " In the interests of the nation , both factions agreed to compromise .
A significant technical impediment to any Regency Bill involved the lack of a speech from the throne , which was necessary before Parliament could proceed to any debates or votes . The speech was normally delivered by the King , but could also be delivered by royal representatives known as Lords Commissioners ; but no document could empower the Lords Commissioners to act unless the Great Seal of the Realm was affixed to it . The Seal could not be legally affixed without the prior authorisation of the Sovereign . Pitt and his fellow ministers ignored the last requirement and instructed the Lord Chancellor to affix the Great Seal without the King 's consent , as the act of affixing the Great Seal in itself gave legal force to the Bill . This legal fiction was denounced by Edmund Burke as a " glaring falsehood " , as a " palpable absurdity " , and even as a " forgery , fraud " . The Duke of York , described the plan as " unconstitutional and illegal . " Nevertheless , others in Parliament felt that such a scheme was necessary to preserve an effective government . Consequently , on 3 February 1789 , more than two months after it had convened , Parliament was formally opened by an " illegal " group of Lords Commissioners . The Regency Bill was introduced , but before it could be passed the King recovered . The King declared retroactively that the instrument authorising the Lords Commissioners to act was valid .
= = Marriage and mistresses = =
The Prince of Wales 's debts continued to climb , and his father refused to aid him unless he married his cousin Princess Caroline of Brunswick . In 1795 , the Prince acquiesced ; and they were married on 8 April 1795 at the Chapel Royal , St James 's Palace . The marriage , however , was disastrous ; each party was unsuited to the other . The two were formally separated after the birth of their only child , Princess Charlotte , in 1796 , and remained separated thereafter . The Prince remained attached to Maria Fitzherbert for the rest of his life , despite several periods of estrangement .
George 's mistresses included Mary Robinson , an actress who was bought off with a generous pension when she threatened to sell his letters to the newspapers ; Grace Elliott , the divorced wife of a physician ; and Frances Villiers , Countess of Jersey , who dominated his life for some years . In later life , his mistresses were the Marchioness of Hertford and the Marchioness Conyngham , who were both married to aristocrats .
George was rumoured to have fathered several illegitimate children . James Ord ( born 1786 ) — who moved to the United States and became a Jesuit priest — was reportedly his son by Fitzherbert . The King , late in life , told a friend that he had a son who was a naval officer in the West Indies , whose identity has been tentatively established as Captain Henry A. F. Hervey ( 1786 – 1824 ) , reportedly George 's child by the songwriter Lady Anne Lindsay ( later Barnard ) , a daughter of the 5th Earl of Balcarres . Other reported offspring include Major George Seymour Crole , the son of theatre manager 's daughter Eliza Crole or Fox ; William Hampshire , the son of publican 's daughter Sarah Brown ; and Charles " Beau " Candy , the son of a Frenchwoman with that surname . Anthony Camp , Director of Research at the Society of Genealogists , has dismissed the claims that George IV was the father of Ord , Hervey , Hampshire and Candy as fictitious .
The problem of the Prince of Wales 's debts , which amounted to the extraordinary sum of £ 630 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 58 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 today ) in 1795 , was solved ( at least temporarily ) by Parliament . Being unwilling to make an outright grant to relieve these debts , it provided him an additional sum of £ 65 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 6 @,@ 056 @,@ 000 today per annum ) . In 1803 , a further £ 60 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 4 @,@ 941 @,@ 000 today ) was added , and George 's debts of 1795 were finally cleared in 1806 , although the debts he had incurred since 1795 remained .
In 1804 , a dispute arose over the custody of Princess Charlotte , which led to her being placed in the care of the King , George III . It also led to a Parliamentary Commission of Enquiry into Princess Caroline 's conduct after the Prince of Wales accused her of having an illegitimate son . The investigation cleared Caroline of the charge but still revealed her behaviour to have been extraordinarily indiscreet .
= = Regency = =
In late 1810 , George III was once again overcome by his malady following the death of his youngest daughter , Princess Amelia . Parliament agreed to follow the precedent of 1788 ; without the King 's consent , the Lord Chancellor affixed the Great Seal of the Realm to letters patent naming Lords Commissioners . The letters patent lacked the Royal Sign Manual , but were sealed by request of resolutions passed by both Houses of Parliament . The Lords Commissioners appointed by the letters patent , in the name of the King , then signified the granting of Royal Assent to a bill that became the Regency Act of 1811 . Parliament restricted some of the powers of the Prince Regent ( as the Prince of Wales became known ) . The constraints expired one year after the passage of the Act . The Prince of Wales became Prince Regent on 5 February 1811 .
The Regent let his ministers take full charge of government affairs , playing a far lesser role than his father . The principle that the prime minister was the person supported by a majority in the House of Commons , whether the king personally favoured him or not , became established . His governments , with little help from the Regent , presided over British policy . One of the most important political conflicts facing the country concerned Catholic emancipation , the movement to relieve Roman Catholics of various political disabilities . The Tories , led by the Prime Minister , Spencer Perceval , were opposed to Catholic emancipation , while the Whigs supported it . At the beginning of the Regency , the Prince of Wales was expected to support the Whig leader , William Grenville , 1st Baron Grenville . He did not , however , immediately put Lord Grenville and the Whigs into office . Influenced by his mother , he claimed that a sudden dismissal of the Tory government would exact too great a toll on the health of the King ( a steadfast supporter of the Tories ) , thereby eliminating any chance of a recovery .
In 1812 , when it appeared highly unlikely that the King would recover , the Prince of Wales again failed to appoint a new Whig administration . Instead , he asked the Whigs to join the existing ministry under Perceval . The Whigs , however , refused to co @-@ operate because of disagreements over Catholic emancipation . Grudgingly , the Prince of Wales allowed Perceval to continue as Prime Minister .
On 10 May 1812 , Perceval was assassinated by John Bellingham . The Prince Regent was prepared to reappoint all the members of the Perceval ministry under a new leader . The House of Commons formally declared its desire for a " strong and efficient administration " , so the Prince Regent then offered leadership of the government to Richard Wellesley , 1st Marquess Wellesley , and afterwards to Francis Rawdon @-@ Hastings , 2nd Earl of Moira . He doomed the attempts of both to failure , however , by forcing each to construct an all party ministry at a time when neither party wished to share power with the other . Possibly using the failure of the two peers as a pretext , the Prince Regent immediately reappointed the Perceval administration , with Robert Jenkinson , 2nd Earl of Liverpool , as Prime Minister .
The Tories , unlike Whigs such as Earl Grey , sought to continue the vigorous prosecution of the war in Continental Europe against the powerful and aggressive Emperor of the French , Napoleon I. An anti @-@ French alliance , which included Russia , Prussia , Austria , Britain and several smaller countries , defeated Napoleon in 1814 . In the subsequent Congress of Vienna , it was decided that the Electorate of Hanover , a state that had shared a monarch with Britain since 1714 , would be raised to a kingdom , known as the Kingdom of Hanover . On 30 December 1814 , the Prince Regent signed and ratified the Treaty of Ghent which ended the War of 1812 with the United States . Napoleon returned from exile in 1815 , but was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo by Arthur Wellesley , 1st Duke of Wellington , brother of Marquess Wellesley .
During this period George took an active interest in matters of style and taste , and his associates such as the dandy Beau Brummell and the architect John Nash created the Regency style . In London Nash designed the Regency terraces of Regent 's Park and Regent Street . George took up the new idea of the seaside spa and had the Brighton Pavilion developed as a fantastical seaside palace , adapted by Nash in the " Indian Gothic " style inspired loosely by the Taj Mahal , with extravagant " Indian " and " Chinese " interiors .
= = Reign = =
When George III died in 1820 , the Prince Regent , then aged 57 , ascended the throne as George IV , with no real change in his powers . By the time of his accession , he was obese and possibly addicted to laudanum .
George IV 's relationship with his wife Caroline had deteriorated by the time of his accession . They had lived separately since 1796 , and both were having affairs . In 1814 , Caroline left the United Kingdom for continental Europe , but she chose to return for her husband 's coronation , and to publicly assert her rights as queen consort . However , George IV refused to recognise Caroline as Queen , and commanded British ambassadors to ensure that monarchs in foreign courts did the same . By royal command , Caroline 's name was omitted from the Book of Common Prayer , the liturgy of the Church of England .
The King sought a divorce , but his advisors suggested that any divorce proceedings might involve the publication of details relating to the King 's own adulterous relationships . Therefore , he requested and ensured the introduction of the Pains and Penalties Bill , under which Parliament could have imposed legal penalties without a trial in a court of law . The bill would have annulled the marriage and stripped Caroline of the title of Queen . The bill proved extremely unpopular with the public , and was withdrawn from Parliament . George IV decided , nonetheless , to exclude his wife from his coronation at Westminster Abbey , on 19 July 1821 . Caroline fell ill that day and died on 7 August ; during her final illness she often stated that she thought she had been poisoned .
George 's coronation was a magnificent and expensive affair , costing about £ 243 @,@ 000 ( approximately £ 19 @,@ 970 @,@ 000 in 2016 ; for comparison , his father 's coronation had only cost about £ 10 @,@ 000 , less than a twentieth of George IV 's ) . Despite the enormous cost , it was a popular event . In 1821 the King became the first monarch to pay a state visit to Ireland since Richard II of England . The following year he visited Edinburgh for " one and twenty daft days " . His visit to Scotland , organised by Sir Walter Scott , was the first by a reigning British monarch since the mid @-@ 17th century .
George IV spent most of his later reign in seclusion at Windsor Castle , but he continued to intervene in politics . At first it was believed that he would support Catholic emancipation , as he had proposed a Catholic Emancipation Bill for Ireland in 1797 , but his anti @-@ Catholic views became clear in 1813 when he privately canvassed against the ultimately defeated Catholic Relief Bill of 1813 . By 1824 he was denouncing Catholic emancipation in public . Having taken the coronation oath on his accession , George now argued that he had sworn to uphold the Protestant faith , and could not support any pro @-@ Catholic measures . The influence of the Crown was so great , and the will of the Tories under Prime Minister Lord Liverpool so strong , that Catholic emancipation seemed hopeless . In 1827 , however , Lord Liverpool retired , to be replaced by the pro @-@ emancipation Tory George Canning . When Canning entered office , the King , hitherto content with privately instructing his ministers on the Catholic Question , thought it fit to make a public declaration to the effect that his sentiments on the question were those of his revered father , George III .
Canning 's views on the Catholic Question were not well received by the most conservative Tories , including the Duke of Wellington . As a result , the ministry was forced to include Whigs . Canning died later in that year , leaving Frederick Robinson , 1st Viscount Goderich , to lead the tenuous Tory @-@ Whig coalition . Lord Goderich left office in 1828 , to be succeeded by the Duke of Wellington , who had by that time accepted that the denial of some measure of relief to Roman Catholics was politically untenable . George was never as friendly with Wellington as he had been with Canning and chose to annoy the Duke by pretending to have fought at Waterloo disguised as a German general . With great difficulty Wellington obtained the King 's consent to the introduction of a Catholic Relief Bill on 29 January 1829 . Under pressure from his fanatically anti @-@ Catholic brother , the Duke of Cumberland , the King withdrew his approval and in protest the Cabinet resigned en masse on 4 March . The next day the King , now under intense political pressure , reluctantly agreed to the Bill and the ministry remained in power . Royal Assent was finally granted to the Catholic Relief Act on 13 April .
= = Decline and death = =
George 's heavy drinking and indulgent lifestyle had taken their toll on his health by the late 1820s . Through huge banquets and copious amounts of alcohol , he had become obese , making him the target of ridicule on the rare occasions that he appeared in public . By 1797 his weight had reached 17 stone 7 pounds ( 111 kg ; 245 lb ) , and by 1824 his corset was made for a waist of 50 inches ( 130 cm ) . He suffered from gout , arteriosclerosis , peripheral edema ( " dropsy " ) , and possibly porphyria . In his last years , he spent whole days in bed and suffered spasms of breathlessness that would leave him half @-@ asphyxiated .
By December 1828 , like his father , he was almost completely blind from cataracts , and was suffering from such severe gout in his right hand and arm that he could no longer sign documents . In mid @-@ 1829 , Sir David Wilkie reported the King " was wasting away frightfully day after day " , and had become so obese that he looked " like a great sausage stuffed into the covering " . The King took laudanum to counteract severe bladder pains , which left him in a drugged and mentally handicapped state for days on end . In 1830 his weight was recorded to be 20 stone ( 130 kg ; 280 lb ) .
By the spring of 1830 , George 's imminent end was apparent . Attacks of breathlessness due to dropsy forced him to sleep upright in a chair , and doctors frequently tapped his abdomen to drain excess fluid . He was admired for clinging doggedly to life despite his obvious decline . He dictated his will in May and became very devout in his final months , confessing to an archdeacon that he repented of his early dissolute life , but hoped mercy would be shown to him as he had always tried to do the best for his subjects . At about half @-@ past three in the morning of 26 June 1830 at Windsor Castle , he reportedly called out " Good God , what is this ? " , clasped his page 's hand , said " my boy , this is death " , and died . An autopsy conducted by his physicians revealed he had died from upper gastrointestinal bleeding resulting from the rupture of a blood vessel in his stomach . A large tumour " the size of an orange " was found attached to his bladder , and he had an enlarged heart surrounded by a large fat deposit and heavily calcified heart valves . He was buried in St George 's Chapel , Windsor Castle , on 15 July .
His only legitimate child , Princess Charlotte of Wales , had died from post @-@ partum complications in 1817 , after delivering a stillborn son . The second son of George III , Prince Frederick , Duke of York and Albany , had died childless in 1827 , so the succession passed to the third son of George III , Prince William , Duke of Clarence , who reigned as William IV .
= = Legacy = =
George 's last years were marked by increasing physical and mental decay and withdrawal from public affairs . Privately a senior aide to the King confided to his diary : " A more contemptible , cowardly , selfish , unfeeling dog does not exist ... There have been good and wise kings but not many of them ... and this I believe to be one of the worst . " On his death The Times captured elite opinion succinctly : " There never was an individual less regretted by his fellow @-@ creatures than this deceased king . What eye has wept for him ? What heart has heaved one throb of unmercenary sorrow ? ... If he ever had a friend – a devoted friend in any rank of life – we protest that the name of him or her never reached us . " George IV was described as the " First Gentleman of England " on account of his style and manners . He possessed many good qualities ; he was bright , clever , and knowledgeable . However , his laziness and gluttony led him to squander much of his talent . The Times wrote , he would always prefer " a girl and a bottle to politics and a sermon " .
The Regency period saw a shift in fashion that was largely determined by George . After political opponents put a tax on wig powder , he abandoned wearing a powdered wig in favour of natural hair . He wore darker colours than had been previously fashionable as they helped to disguise his size , favoured pantaloons and trousers over knee breeches because they were looser , and popularised a high collar with neck cloth because it hid his double chin . His visit to Scotland in 1822 led to the revival , if not the creation , of Scottish tartan dress as it is known today .
During the political crisis caused by Catholic emancipation , the Duke of Wellington said that George was " the worst man he ever fell in with his whole life , the most selfish , the most false , the most ill @-@ natured , the most entirely without one redeeming quality " , but his eulogy delivered in the House of Lords called George " the most accomplished man of his age " and praised his knowledge and talent . Wellington 's true feelings probably lie somewhere between these two extremes ; as he said later , George was " a magnificent patron of the arts ... the most extraordinary compound of talent , wit , buffoonery , obstinacy , and good feeling — in short a medley of the most opposite qualities , with a great preponderence of good — that I ever saw in any character in my life . "
There are many statues of George IV , a large number of which were erected during his reign . In the United Kingdom , they include a bronze statue of him on horseback by Sir Francis Chantrey in Trafalgar Square and another outside the Royal Pavilion in Brighton .
In Edinburgh , " George IV Bridge " is a main street linking the Old Town High Street to the north over the ravine of the Cowgate , designed by the architect Thomas Hamilton in 1829 and completed in 1835 . King 's Cross , now a major transport hub sitting on the border of Camden and Islington in north London , takes its name from a short @-@ lived monument erected to George IV in the early 1830s . A square and a neighbouring park in St Luke 's , Islington , are also named after George IV .
= = Titles , styles , honours and arms = =
= = = Titles and styles = = =
12 August 1762 – 29 January 1820 : His Royal Highness The Duke of Cornwall
19 August 1762 – 29 January 1820 : His Royal Highness The Prince of Wales
5 February 1811 – 29 January 1820 : His Royal Highness The Prince Regent
1 October 1814 – 29 January 1820 : His Royal Highness The Crown Prince of Hanover
29 January 1820 – 26 June 1830 : His Majesty The King
At birth , he was also entitled to the dignities Prince of Great Britain , Electoral Prince of Brunswick @-@ Lüneburg and Duke of Rothesay . Under the Act of Parliament that instituted the Regency , the Prince 's formal title as Regent was " Regent of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland " .
= = = Honours = = =
= = = = British honours = = = =
26 December 1765 : Knight of the Garter
21 November 1783 : Privy Counsellor
26 January 1789 : Fellow of the Royal Society
2 May 1810 : Doctor of Civil Law , University of Oxford
= = = = Foreign honours = = = =
25 November 1813 : Knight of St Andrew ( Russia )
20 April 1814 : Knight of St Alexander Nevski ( Russia )
20 April 1814 : Knight of the Holy Spirit ( France )
4 July 1815 : Knight of the Elephant ( Denmark )
July 1815 : Knight of the Golden Fleece ( Austria )
27 November 1818 : Grand Cross of the Military William Order ( Netherlands )
= = = = Military appointments = = = =
1782 : Colonel , British Army
1796 – 1820 : Colonel of the 10th Light Dragoons
= = = Arms = = =
As Prince of Wales , George Augustus bore the royal arms ( with an inescutcheon of Gules plain in the Hanoverian quarter ) , differenced by a label of three points Argent . The arms included the royal crest and supporters but with the single arched coronet of his rank , all charged on the shoulder with a similar label . His arms followed the change in the royal arms in 1801 , when the Hanoverian quarter became an inescutcheon and the French quarter was dropped altogether . The 1816 alteration did not affect him as it only applied to the arms of the King .
As king his arms were those of his two kingdoms , the United Kingdom and Hanover , superimposed : Quarterly , I and IV Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or ( for England ) ; II Or a lion rampant within a double tressure flory @-@ counter @-@ flory Gules ( for Scotland ) ; III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent ( for Ireland ) ; overall an escutcheon tierced in pall reversed ( for Hanover ) , I Gules two lions passant guardant Or ( for Brunswick ) , II Or a semy of hearts Gules a lion rampant Azure ( for Lüneburg ) , III Gules a horse courant Argent ( for Westphalia ) , overall an inescutcheon Gules charged with the crown of Charlemagne Or , the whole escutcheon surmounted by a crown .
= = Ancestry = =
= Renault Agriculture =
Renault Agriculture S.A.S. ( French pronunciation : [ ʁəno aɡʁikyltyʁ ( ə ) ] ) was the agricultural machinery division of the French car manufacturer Renault established in 1918 from its armored military vehicles division . While in operation , Renault Agriculture had various partnerships with major manufacturers and focussed production on tractors . The company was sold between 2003 and 2008 to German rival Claas . Renault Agriculture was dissolved in 2008 and its facilities became part of Claas ' tractor division . Claas ' tractor division and Renault 's Auto Châssis International are Renault Agriculture successors .
= = History = =
After the end of World War I , the Renault company used its experience in armored tanks to devise agricultural vehicles . The Renault 's Department 14 ( responsible for the FT tank ) developed the first tractor of the company , the Type GP , which was powered by an engine similar to that of the FT ( a four @-@ cylinder ) and had tracks . The most distinguishable differences of the new tractor with the FT were the front @-@ engine design and the reduced weight . The tractors were assembled in Renault 's Billancourt factory since 11 November 1918 on the same production lines that the tanks and tested at Louis Renault 's farm in Herqueville . The Type HO introduced in 1921 replaced the tracks by more conventional wheels . In 1926 , Renault introduced the Type PE which was extensively revised compared to its predecessors , incorporating a new engine with reduced consumes and a vertical radiator . In 1931 , with the PE1 , the radiator was moved from the middle position used in the previous models to the front and , in 1933 , the model became the first France @-@ produced rubber @-@ wheeled tractor . The company also started to develop versions for specific markets , as vineyards . With the aim of reducing the fuel costs , it introduced its first diesel @-@ engined model , the Type VI , in 1932 . By 1938 , Renault was producing about 40 tractors per month and was the largest French manufacturer .
In 1920 , Renault founded the Le Mans engineering centre . Shortly after , plans to move the agricultural machinery production to the new site were revealed . However , the new factory was inaugurated in 1940 and the production was stopped because of World War II . Following the war and nationalisation , the Le Mans plant resumed production . The location was divided into a foundry section , a mechanical parts section ( supplying the factories of Flins and Billancourt ) , a painting section and a tractor manufacturing section . At the time , Le Mans was the third largest Renault 's operation in France after Billancourt and Cléon . The following years saw the arrival of the D , N , E and Super model series . In 1956 , Renault Agriculture standardised the orange colour for its models . In 1950 , Renault was the largest tractor manufacturer within France , producing 8 @,@ 549 units , the 58 % of the country 's total production . In 1961 , Renault introduced the 385 model , with a 12 @-@ gear transmission . Apart from its own engines , Renault used MWM and Perkins units . In the 1960s , it produced the One @-@ Sixty Diesel for Allis @-@ Chalmers . In 1968 , the company introduced its first four @-@ wheel drive model . In 1972 , Renault partnered with Carraro and sold some models of that company with the Renault badge . During the 1970s and 1980s , it also sold models from Mitsubishi . At the 1981 SIMA exhibition Renault Agriculture unveiled the TX range , with comfort elements designed in collaboration with the Renault 's car division . The last Renault tractors had ancient gods ' names .
From late 1993 to 1998 , Renault Agriculture and John Deere had a partnership agreement by which the former received John Deere engines manufactured at the Saran factory and in return it supplied John Deere with tractors marketed as the 3000 series . In 1994 , Renault Agriculture and Massey Ferguson formed a strategic partnership , as part of which they set up an equally owned joint venture called Groupement International de Mécanique Agricole ( GIMA ) at a facility located next to Massey 's Beauvais factory with the aim of manufacturing transaxles and related components . In 1995 , Renault Agriculture agreed to market products from the British agricultural machinery manufacturer JCB through its dealership network in France . In 1997 , the company took a 16 @.@ 6 % stake of Rovigo @-@ based Agritalia , a manufacturer of orchard tractors for various clients . In 2000 , it purchased a stake in the Indian manufacturer International Tractors ( the owner of the Sonalika marque ) , forming a Sonalika @-@ Renault joint venture . In 2003 , as part of a plan to shed non @-@ core assets , Renault sold a 51 % majority stake in Renault Agriculture 's tractor manufacturing plant to Claas . In 2006 , Claas increased its ownership to 80 % and in 2008 took full control and renamed it Claas Tractor . By 2005 , the Renault marque was phased out and all the tractor models produced at Le Mans were badged as Claas .
= = Renault Agriculture 's successors = =
= = = Claas Tractor = = =
Claas Tractor S.A.S. is a subsidiary of the Claas group and its main tractor manufacturing operation since 2003 . Most of the company 's models are manufactured within the facility .
= = = ACI Renault = = =
In 1999 , Renault created the subsidiary Auto Châssis International SNC to manage the foundry and parts area of Le Mans . ACI has worldwide operations and supplies the Renault @-@ Nissan Alliance . Production is organised in three departments . The site also has an engineering centre .
= William L. Uanna =
William Lewis " Bud " Uanna ( May 13 , 1909 – December 22 , 1961 ) was a United States security expert , who gained prominence as a security officer with the Manhattan Project , which built the first atomic bomb during World War II .
Uanna was in charge of security at the project 's facility at Oak Ridge , Tennessee , and later at the 509th Composite Group , which dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki .
After the war , he headed the Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) program to provide security clearances to its personnel , and developed the top @-@ secret Q clearance . He later served as chief of physical security at the State Departmen1 .
= = Education and military career = =
William Lewis Uanna was born in Medford , Massachusetts , on May 13 , 1909 , the son of Italian immigrants Anthony Uanna and Theresa née Ferullo . He attended Medford High School , and then Tufts College on an athletic scholarship , where he was a halfback on the college football team , and an intercollegiate wrestling champion , earning a degree in engineering . He soon returned to Tufts and got a M.A. in education .
Uanna worked for private companies as well as the US Army Corps of Engineers . As a civilian with the Corps of Engineers he was involved in the construction of Grenier Army Air Field in New Hampshire and Fort Devens in Massachusetts , where he later served as an Army Counter Intelligence agent during Word War II . Between 1938 and 1942 he attended Suffolk University , graduating with an L.L.B. He then passed the Massachusetts Bar examination and was admitted to practice before the Federal Bar . Between 1949 and 1954 he attended the American University in Washington , D.C.
Enlisting in the U.S. Army on May 28 , 1941 , Uanna was assigned to the Corps of Intelligence Police ( CIP ) , later renamed the Counter Intelligence Corps ( CIC ) . He attended the Officer Candidate School at Fort Belvoir , and in 1942 and was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Army Corps of Engineers . He was assigned to the CIC as Director of Operations of I Service Command , responsible for five field offices and between 300 and 400 Special Agents , who dealt with subversion , espionage , plant security , sabotage , water front security and personnel investigations .
In February 1943 , Uanna was posted to X Corps , then based at Sherman , Texas , where hewas responsible for setting up the first intelligence units assigned to combat formations in the United States . With 112 officers and 35 agents he conducted investigations and evaluated the loyalty of individuals within X Corps and trained its troops in security procedures . In August 1943 , Uanna became an instructor at the CIC school in Chicago .
= = Manhattan Project security = =
Joining the Manhattan Project in late 1943 , Uanna was initially assigned to the New England area , where he looked after security at 150 organizations , including key contractors Stone & Webster , General Electric , Westinghouse and American Cyanamid , and universities such as Harvard , Brown , Yale and MIT . He was promoted to first lieutenant on July 25 , 1943 , captain on March 25 , 1944 , and ultimately major on June 25 , 1945 . In August 1944 , he was appointed Security Officer for the large town and industrial installation built by the US Government at Oak Ridge , Tennessee , to enrich uranium for an atomic bomb . As such , he oversaw the physical security of the site , and was responsible for the security clearance of over 50 @,@ 000 personnel . He supervised the activities of the town 's police , detectives and welfare bureau and provided security for the transport of fissile materials from Oak Ridge to the weapons laboratory at Los Alamos , New Mexico .
In February 1945 , Uanna assumed command of the 1st Technical Service Detachment , which was attached to the 509th Composite Group , the Army Air Force unit created to deliver the first atomic bomb . He became responsible for the security clearance of its personnel . Uanna arrived with orders from Lieutenant Colonel John Lansdale Jr . , the Manhattan Project 's head of security , and a briefcase containing dossiers on members of the 393d Bomb Squadron , the combat element of the 509th Composite Group . Uanna had particular concerns about Captain Claude Eatherly . The dossier indicated that Eatherly was a gambler , with an " emotional problem " . The commander of the 509th Composite Group , Lieutenant Colonel Paul W. Tibbets Jr . , opted to keep Eatherly , based on his piloting skills . Background checks on the 1st Ordnance Squadron revealed that it had several escaped convicts in its ranks . Uanna surmised that enlisting in the Army under false names was an easy way of escaping detection in wartime . Since skilled technicians were hard to find , Tibbets elected to keep them , threatening to send them to back to prison for any dereliction of duty or security breaches .
Uanna oversaw the movement of the 509th from its training base in Wendover Army Air Field , Utah to Tinian Island in the Western Pacific , travelling by air with the Project Alberta advance party of 34 in a Douglas C @-@ 54 Skymaster " Green Hornet " of the 320th Troop Carrier Squadron . In his book Project Alberta , Harlow Russ , a civilian scientist with Project Alberta who was part of the Fat man bomb assembly team , recounts that during the flight he asked Uanna why all the military people on the plane were armed , and Uanna informed him that while the islands that they were stopping at were held by US forces , they would be flying over or close to other islands that were still occupied by the Japanese . Because of the remote chance that they might be engaged by Japanese aircraft or anti @-@ aircraft guns , they flew over these islands at night .
On Tinian , Uanna was in charge of the physical security of its installations , and supervised the unloading and installation of its stores and equipment . At one point Russ left his shirt on the line over night , and it disappeared . He mentioned this to Uanna " who seemed to know everything " , and he told him that it had most likely been taken by one of the Japanese soldiers holding out in caves and tunnels on Tinian , who made periodic raids in search of food . Uanna thought that one was responsible for an outbreak of diarrhea in the 509th Composite Group . Security around the cookhouse was increased , and the outbreak did not recur .
Uanna also looked after security at other bases that might be used by the 509th in an emergency , such as Iwo Jima . He supervised the loading the loading of the Little Boy bomb into the Enola Gay , and during the bombing of Hiroshima on August 6 , 1945 , he was in charge of a communications center on Iwo Jima that relayed messages back to Tinian . He was thereforefore one of the first people to know that Hiroshima was the target , and that it had been attacked . After the subsequent unconditional surrender of Japan , he accompanied the Manhattan Project team sent to survey the damage , spending four weeks in Nagasaki .
= = Postwar career = =
Uanna returned to the United States in October 1945 , and was discharged from the Army in April 1946 . He returned to Boston , where he was admitted to the bar in 1946 , and practiced law and engineering , but was recalled to active duty in October 1946 to conduct an investigation into reports that servicemen had tried to sell pictures of the atomic bomb to The Baltimore Sun . These turned out to be pictures of the dummy bombs
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used for drop tests . In 1947 , he was chosen by the newly created Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) in Washington , D.C. to head its program to provide security clearances to its personnel , a requirement of the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 . At this time he developed the criteria for the AEC 's Q clearance . He married Bonnie Louise Leonard on August 29 , 1947 . They had a son , Stephen Lee .
In 1948 Uanna became second @-@ in @-@ command of an Armed Forces Special Weapons Project ( AFSWP ) construction program to build storage bases for atomic weapons . As the highest ranking civilian on the project he was responsible for over $ 100 million of works . The Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) sought to continue the relationship they had developed at the Atomic Energy Commission where internal FBI memos described Uanna as the " main source of confidential information within the AEC . "
From 1949 to 1951 , Uanna worked as an Intelligence Specialist at the newly established Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) , where he wrote the Office of Policy Coordination 's ( OPC ) briefing manual . The OPC was the covert action branch of the US intelligence community and at this time was overseen jointly by the State Department and the Department of Defense , rather than by the Director of Central Intelligence .
From 1951 to 1953 , Uanna was the special assistant to the Secretary of Commerce as Chief of the Facilities Protection Board , and was a staff member of the Industrial Evaluations Board . These boards were overseen by the Interdepartmental Committee on Internal Security ( ICIS ) and the National Security Resources Board ( NSRB ) . The NSRB was charged with developing security programs for industry and several were developed jointly with representatives from the power , transportation , explosives , petroleum , and communications industries . Since he was directly responsible to the Secretary of Commerce , after the Republican Administration took office in 1953 , Uanna found himself without a job .
After this , Uanna accepted a temporary assignment at the Department of State as Otto Otepka 's assistant . Otepka was in charge of State 's Evaluations Division . Amidst allegations from Senator Joseph McCarthy about the presence of Communist sympathizers in the Army and State Department , Uanna 's expertise in countering subversion won him the position . Using procedures he had developed at the AEC , Uanna wrote the Evaluators Handbook that would be used by State Department investigators to review the loyalty and " suitability " of employees in accordance with Executive Order 10450 and Executive Order 10501 .
In 1953 the State Department 's physical security was split between foreign and domestic branches . Uanna reorganized these into one group called the Division of Physical Security , consisting of four branches , and took over as its new chief . He then published the Protection of Dignitaries Manual and developed the handbook used at the training school for Marine Security Guards assigned to U. S. embassies , legations and consulates overseas . As Chief of the Division , Uanna was responsible for the security of all State 's personnel and facilities in the United States and abroad . He was responsible for the security for Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Phillip 's visit to the United States in 1957 .
Dulles became ill in late 1958 and was replaced by Christian Herter , after which Uanna was posted overseas to Addis Ababa , Ethiopia , as an administrative officer at the U.S. Embassy . He was also the State Department liaison with the U.S. Department of Defense . He returned to the United States briefly to handle Nikita Khrushchev 's state visit in 1959 .
While on assignment , Uanna died of a heart attack in the office of the Air Attache at the U.S. Embassy in Addis Ababa on December 22 , 1961 . He was buried in Arlington National Cemetery . He was survived by his wife Bonnie née Leonard , who died on October 25 , 1992 , and his son Steven Lee .
= = Film portrayals = =
Uanna was portrayed by James Whitmore in the 1952 motion picture Above and Beyond . Lawrence H. Suid noted that Whitmore 's Uanna " seems to be a fictional character , a cinematic creation who always seems to know the right answers , to do the right thing " . Whitmore wanted to meet Uanna , but was unable to do so . Uanna has also been portrayed by Stephen Macht in the 1980 TV movie Enola Gay : The Men , the Mission , the Atomic Bomb , and Minor Mustain in the 1995 Japanese / Canadian film Hiroshima .
= 1998 Gator Bowl =
The 1998 Gator Bowl was a post @-@ season American college football bowl game between the Virginia Tech Hokies and the Tar Heels from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill at Alltel Stadium in Jacksonville , Florida on January 1 , 1998 . The game was the final contest of the 1997 NCAA Division I @-@ A football season for both teams , the 53rd edition of the annual Gator Bowl game , and ended in a 42 @-@ 3 victory for North Carolina .
Virginia Tech was selected to play in the 1998 Gator Bowl as a reward for a 7 – 4 regular season . Facing the unranked Hokies were the No. 7 @-@ ranked North Carolina Tar Heels . The Heels had gone 10 – 1 during the regular season and were ranked seventh in the Associated Press poll heading into the game . North Carolina narrowly missed an at @-@ large selection to a higher @-@ prestige Bowl Alliance postseason game and was playing under new head coach Carl Torbush for the first time . Torbush had taken over for former head coach Mack Brown on December 8 after Brown announced that he was departing to take the position of head coach at Texas .
The game kicked off on January 1 , 1998 at Alltel Stadium in Jacksonville , Florida . From the opening kickoff , North Carolina dominated every aspect of the game . In the first quarter , the Tar Heels scored 16 unanswered points , including a defensive touchdown . North Carolina added six points in the second and third quarters before Tech scored its first points of the game — a 40 @-@ yard field goal by kicker Shayne Graham . The Tar Heels rounded out the game by scoring 14 points in the fourth quarter . The Tar Heels set school records for largest bowl game margin of victory , most points scored in a bowl game , and most touchdown passes in a bowl game . The eventual 42 – 3 loss was Virginia Tech 's largest bowl loss in school history .
Quarterbacks Chris Keldorf and Nick Sorensen were named the most valuable players of their respective teams , and each team saw multiple players selected in the 1998 NFL Draft , which followed the game .
= = Team selection = =
During the 1997 college football season , the Gator Bowl selection committee held contracts with both the Big East and Atlantic Coast Conferences . In exchange for guaranteeing to pay a total of $ 3 @.@ 2 million to the participating teams , the committee held the right to the second pick of bowl @-@ eligible teams from each conference . Each conference 's champion was awarded an automatic spot in a Bowl Alliance game , and it was expected that the Gator Bowl would select each conference 's second @-@ place team unless other circumstances arose .
Prior to the final week of the regular season , it appeared that circumstances might indeed throw that plan into confusion . North Carolina , the ACC 's second @-@ place team , had risen to No. 5 in the USA Today Coaches Poll and No. 7 in the Associated Press college football poll , and was considered to be a candidate for an at @-@ large Bowl Alliance selection . If North Carolina was selected for a higher @-@ tier bowl game , the door would be opened for Notre Dame to play in the 1998 Gator Bowl — a circumstance provided for if neither the first nor second @-@ place ACC team was available to play . In the end , however , ACC runner @-@ up North Carolina was bypassed by Bowl Alliance officials , leaving the team available for the Gator Bowl . Facing the Tar Heels were the Virginia Tech Hokies , second @-@ place finishers in the Big East Conference . Gator Bowl officials considered inviting Big East third @-@ place West Virginia due to its reputation for bringing large numbers of fans to bowl games , but decided against inviting the Mountaineers out of recognition that North Carolina and West Virginia played each other in the 1997 Gator Bowl .
= = = North Carolina = = =
The North Carolina Tar Heels began the 1997 college football season having gone 10 – 2 in 1996 , a year that ended with a 20 – 13 win over West Virginia in the 1997 Gator Bowl . Hopes were high for the Tar Heels heading into the 1997 season , with some writers and fans picking North Carolina to have a chance to compete for the national championship . The Tar Heels bore out those hopes in the first game of the season , beating Big Ten opponent Indiana , 23 – 6 .
North Carolina rose to No. 7 in the national college football polls , and the victory over Indiana was followed the next week by a 28 – 17 win over No. 17 Stanford University . The two season @-@ opening wins were followed by six more in succession . The Tar Heels beat Maryland , 40 – 14 , on September 20 , and Virginia on September 27 by a score of 48 – 20 . Prior to the win against Virginia , North Carolina rose from No. 7 to No. 5 in the polls , and remained at that level after the win . Texas Christian University fell 31 – 10 to the Tar Heels on October 4 , and Wake Forest lost to North Carolina , 30 – 12 , on October 11 . After a week of inactivity , in which the Tar Heels rose to No. 4 , North Carolina defeated in @-@ state rival NC State by a score of 20 – 7 , and after another week and a half , the Tar Heels beat Georgia Tech narrowly , 16 – 13 , in a Thursday night game .
In their ninth game of the season , the Tar Heels lost to No. 2 Florida State , 20 – 3 . The loss was the sole losing effort for the Tar Heels in the 1997 season , and came at the hands of the eventual Atlantic Coast champion Seminoles . During the game , the Tar Heels also lost their then @-@ starting quarterback , Oscar Davenport , to a broken ankle . North Carolina recovered from the loss to win its final two games : 17 – 10 against Clemson , and 50 – 14 over Duke . Despite having only one loss , the Tar Heels were denied a chance to participate in a Bowl Alliance game and instead accepted a bid to the 1998 Gator Bowl .
= = = Virginia Tech = = =
The Virginia Tech Hokies began the 1997 college football season having gone 10 – 2 the previous season , ending with a 41 – 21 loss to Nebraska in the 1996 Orange Bowl . The Hokies began the new season with hopes of repeating the success that saw the team reach consecutive Bowl Alliance games in the previous two seasons , but the loss of much of the starting lineup that led the Hokies in those years left some people 's skeptical about Tech 's chance to reach a third Bowl Alliance game .
In the Hokies ' first three games of the season , however , they answered their critics with wins . A season @-@ opening 59 – 19 win against Rutgers was followed by a 31 – 3 win over Syracuse and a 23 – 13 triumph against Temple . A 50 – 0 shutout win against Arkansas State University saw the Hokies elevated to the No. 14 position in the national college football polls . This , however , was followed by a 24 – 17 loss to Miami ( Ohio ) that dropped the Hokies to No. 23 . Tech rose again to No. 19 with a victory against Boston College . At No. 21 West Virginia , however , the Hokies lost , 30 – 17 .
The loss returned Tech to No. 23 in the polls . A recovery to No. 19 followed victories over the University of Alabama @-@ Birmingham and the University of Miami . In the final two games of the season , however , The Hokies lost to Pittsburgh , 30 – 23 , and Virginia , 34 – 20 . The dual losses dropped Tech out of the polls for the first time since the opening week of the season , and the Hokies prepared for the Gator Bowl after recording a 7 – 4 regular @-@ season record .
= = Pregame buildup = =
Pregame media coverage of the contest focused on North Carolina 's rejection by the Bowl Alliance , the Tar Heels ' new coach , and questions about whether a lightly regarded and unranked Virginia Tech team could compete with a top @-@ five North Carolina squad . This latter fact was reflected in the game 's point spread . On December 9 , shortly after the matchup was announced , spread bettors favored North Carolina to win by 12 points . Several sports commentators , including Lou Holtz and Craig James , said North Carolina deserved a more prestigious bowl game due to its high ranking . " The Alliance has not served its purpose , " Holtz said in an interview . " It 's politics as usual . " The game was the 27th meeting between the two teams , continuing a matchup that first started in 1895 . Despite that early beginning , the two teams hadn 't played each other since 1946 .
Tickets to the game sold quickly at first , but trailed off as the game approached . Virginia Tech sold 5 @,@ 000 tickets in the first three days after the Hokies were selected , but one week later , Tech managed to increase that total to just 8 @,@ 300 . In an effort to spur sales at the school , Virginia Tech athletic director Jim Weaver asked fans to buy tickets even if they did not plan on attending the game . The tickets could then be donated to charity . As an incentive for Gator Bowl officials to select Virginia Tech , the school agreed to sell 18 @,@ 000 tickets — more than the minimum 11 @,@ 500 North Carolina agreed to sell . When a shortfall resulted in Tech selling just 11 @,@ 000 tickets , the school was forced to purchase the remaining 7 @,@ 000 , costing Virginia Tech $ 245 @,@ 000 . At North Carolina , tickets sales were even slower , with about 6 @,@ 000 having been sold through the school two weeks after the matchup was announced . The Gator Bowl ticket office sold approximately 22 @,@ 000 tickets directly to fans in the same timeframe , and Gator Bowl officials predicted a crowd of between 50 @,@ 000 and 55 @,@ 000 people at the game .
Reduced ticket sales were a concern for Gator Bowl officials , who eyed an expiring television contract with NBC following the game . If attendance and viewership of the game 's broadcast were low , it could have a negative effect on negotiations for future contracts with NBC or its rival , CBS .
= = = Brown and Torbush = = =
Following the conclusion of the regular season and prior to North Carolina 's acceptance of the invitation to play in the Gator Bowl , Tar Heels head coach Mack Brown received an offer from the Texas Longhorns to become that school 's head coach . A day and a half after Texas extended the offer , Brown resigned his position as North Carolina 's head coach and accepted the Texas job . He replaced John Mackovic , who was fired three days earlier after finishing the season with a 4 – 7 record .
Immediately after Brown 's resignation , the question of his replacement and who would coach the team during the Gator Bowl arose . Brown offered to stay on to coach the team through the bowl game , but the proposal was met with hostility from some North Carolina players who felt betrayed by the coach 's resignation . School administrators ' first choice to replace Brown was then @-@ Georgia head coach Jim Donnan , who previously characterized the North Carolina head coaching position as his " dream job . " Donnan rejected the administrators ' offer , however , saying that he had a commitment to his then @-@ current players .
Following Donnan 's rejection of the North Carolina offer , several Tar Heel players approached North Carolina athletics director Dick Baddour , demanding that he hire Brown 's defensive coordinator , Carl Torbush , as the team 's new head coach . Torbush and UNC offensive coordinator Greg Davis were considered the two likeliest remaining candidates , but after Davis indicated his intention to follow Brown to Texas , UNC administrators acquiesced to the players ' demand and named Torbush as North Carolina 's new head football coach .
= = = Players ' brawl = = =
On the same day Mack Brown announced his acceptance of the Texas head coaching position , seven North Carolina football players allegedly assaulted a North Carolina student , severely injuring him . All seven were charged with offenses ranging from misdemeanor assault to simple assault . Among the players charged were defensive leader and All @-@ American linebacker Kivuusama Mays and two other starters on North Carolina 's defense . At the time , UNC policy dictated the immediate suspension of any player charged with a felony , and punishment for lesser charges to be decided on a case @-@ by @-@ case basis . After investigating the incident , North Carolina school officials cleared six of the seven accused players to participate in the Gator Bowl with judicial charges still pending . The seventh accused player , backup defensive tackle Ricco McCain , was suspended indefinitely from the team while legal action proceeded .
The North Carolina coaching staff and administration was criticized for allowing the accused players to participate in the game , with at least one critic saying the school only did so in order to better its chances to win the game . Following the game , three of the players — Varian Ballard , Greg Harris and Ricco McCain — were found guilty of simple assault . Two others were found not guilty and charges were dismissed against another . The seventh player , Kivuusama Mays , pleaded no contest to the charge .
= = = North Carolina offense = = =
On the field , North Carolina 's offense was led by quarterback Chris Keldorf . Keldorf was plagued by injuries during his college career , but still managed to set a North Carolina single @-@ game passing record when he threw for 415 yards against Texas Christian University . He replaced original starting quarterback Oscar Davenport , who broke his ankle midway through the regular season . Keldorf finished the season having completed 104 of 181 passes for 1 @,@ 448 yards , 12 touchdowns , and nine interceptions . With Keldorf and Davenport splitting command during the regular season , North Carolina averaged 27 @.@ 8 points and 379 yards per game .
The favorite passing target for Keldorf and Davenport was wide receiver Na Brown , who set a school record by catching 55 passes during the regular season . Overall , North Carolina 's offense averaged 262 passing yards per game during the season .
On the ground , North Carolina 's rushing game was led by running back Johnathan Linton , who finished the season with 1 @,@ 004 yards and 11 touchdowns . He was the 24th player in North Carolina history to rush for more than 1 @,@ 000 yards in a season and against Georgia Tech became the first Tar Heel in school history to rush for more than 100 yards and have more than 100 yards receiving in the same game . In a practice just before the game , however , Linton strained a ligament in his right knee , putting his presence at the game in doubt . Linton 's backup was Mike Geter , who played in 11 games this year and had 55 rushes for 245 yds and 5 receptions for 20yds . Geter was the team 's 2nd Leading Rusher behind Linton North Carolina fullback Deon Dyer , who rushed 25 times for 90 yards during the regular season , was not expected to play in the Gator Bowl due to a fractured fibula suffered in the Tar Heels ' 10th game of the season .
= = = Virginia Tech offense = = =
During the regular season , the Hokies averaged 29 @.@ 3 points per game and scored at least 21 points in 22 consecutive games — a streak dating to the 1995 season . Virginia Tech 's offense was led on the field by quarterback Al Clark , who passed for 1 @,@ 476 yards and 10 touchdowns . He also ran for 344 yards during the regular season . At the beginning of December , however , Clark underwent arthroscopic surgery on his left knee in order to repair damaged cartilage in the joint . Due to the long recovery time involved with the surgery , it was questioned if he would play in the Gator Bowl or if he would be able to play at full strength . Four days prior to the game , Clark 's presence at the game was put even more in doubt when he caught the flu and developed a 102 @-@ degree fever . Clark 's backup , redshirt freshman quarterback Nick Sorensen , completed 11 of his 21 pass attempts during the season for 140 yards and two touchdowns .
Also injured was Virginia Tech wide receiver Ricky Scales . Scales didn 't play for 10 weeks during the regular season because of surgery to an injured tendon . Despite playing in only four games during the season , he finished the regular season as the Hokies ' No. 5 receiver , catching 13 passes for 298 yards . Scales ' injury caused the Hokies to be ranked among the worst in the Big East in receiving yardage , averaging less than 180 yards per game through the air . As the game moved closer , however , Scales recovered from his injury and appeared near full strength .
Virginia Tech 's rushing offense , led by running back Ken Oxendine , led the Big East in rushing yards , averaging 215 @.@ 3 yards per game . Oxendine entered the Gator Bowl as the No. 5 rusher in Virginia Tech history to that point , and accumulated 904 rushing yards and 13 receptions during his final season as a Hokie . Oxendine was supported by fullback Marcus Parker , who ran for 363 yards and four touchdowns during the regular season . Parker also found success in the passing game , becoming Tech 's leading receiver for the season by catching 20 passes for 212 yards . He was the first Virginia Tech runner since 1969 to lead the team in receptions . Backing up Oxendine was running back Lamont Pegues , a transfer student from Clemson who accumulated 85 carries for 391 yards and five touchdowns . All three players were assisted by Virginia Tech 's offensive line , which was led by Gennaro DiNapoli . DiNapoli was named to the All @-@ ACC team , but was predicted to face a tough task in stopping North Carolina 's top @-@ ranked defense .
= = = North Carolina defense = = =
North Carolina 's defense was among the best in the country during the regular season , finishing the year ranked second in total defense ( 209 @.@ 3 yards per game ) and fifth in scoring defense ( 13 points per game ) . The Tar Heels also were ranked second in the country in terms of rushing yards , allowing an average of 77 @.@ 9 rushing yards per game during the regular season . Those statistics were due to the performance of three consensus first @-@ team All @-@ America defenders : defensive end Greg Ellis , linebacker Brian Simmons and cornerback Dré Bly . Ellis had 87 tackles during the season ( 18 for loss ) to lead the team in both categories . Another defender , linebacker Kivuusama Mays , was a third @-@ team All @-@ American . Simmons in particular felt confident enough to guarantee prior to the game that the Tar Heels would win if they held Virginia Tech to 20 points or less . No team had scored more than that total since the 1995 season .
Other North Carolina defensive players also performed well during the season . Defensive tackle Vonnie Holliday was named a first @-@ team All @-@ ACC selection after earning 64 tackles — 13 for loss . Fellow defensive tackle Russell Davis finished just behind Holliday in total tackles with 60 .
The Tar Heels faced a setback on defense when first @-@ team All @-@ ACC defensive back Robert Williams was involved in a car accident that injured his face , neck , and shoulder . Despite requiring more than 20 stitches , however , Williams recovered from his injuries to play in the game .
= = = Virginia Tech defense = = =
The Hokies ' defense , which appeared strong in the first games of the season , faltered in later games , allowing 129 points in its final five games . During the entire season , the Hokies allowed only 185 points . One of the stars of the Virginia Tech defense was defensive tackle Nat Williams , who had a team @-@ best 8 @.@ 5 tackles for loss amid 52 total tackles . Linebacker Steve Tate was the team 's leader in tackles , recording 104 . Former walk @-@ on defensive tackle Kerwin Hairston was fifth on the team in tackles ( 69 ) and tied for third in sacks ( 3 @.@ 5 ) and quarterback hurries ( eight ) . Starting linebacker Cory Bird was predicted to miss the game due to a knee injury .
Virginia Tech 's special teams squad was more highly regarded than its defense . Overall , Virginia Tech was 14th nationally in net punting and 37th in kickoff returns . Punter Jimmy Kibble was the No. 10 player in the country at his position , averaging 45 @.@ 1 yards per kick during the regular season . Because of Virginia Tech 's success at blocking kicks — the Hokies blocked seven during the season — North Carolina made a special effort to prepare for Virginia Tech 's kick blockers on special teams . Virginia Tech placekicker Shayne Graham set Big East single @-@ season records for field goals made ( 19 ) and points scored by kicking ( 92 ) during the season . He was 35 of 36 on extra points and 19 for 23 on field goals , but caught the flu prior to the Gator Bowl .
= = Game summary = =
The 53rd edition of the annual Gator Bowl game kicked off on January 1 , 1998 . An estimated 54 @,@ 116 fans were in attendance at the game , which was held in Jacksonville 's Alltel Stadium , since renamed Jacksonville Municipal Stadium . The game was televised on NBC , and an estimated 5 @.@ 1 million Americans watched the broadcast , giving the game a television rating of 3 @.@ 7 , 12th highest of the 21 bowl games that season . Charlie Jones , Bob Trumpy , John Dockery were the sportscasters of the broadcast . During the week prior to the game , the weather had been cold and rainy , with temperatures in the mid @-@ 40s and more than two inches of rain . At kickoff , the weather was clear , with temperatures near 55 degrees . North Carolina won the ceremonial pre @-@ game coin toss to determine first possession and elected to play defense to begin the game .
= = = First quarter = = =
The game 's opening kickoff was returned to the Virginia Tech 22 @-@ yard line , and the Hokies ran the first play of the game — a pass from quarterback Al Clark to fullback Marcus Parker . The play went for nine yards , but the Hokies needed two runs by running back Ken Oxendine to pick up the remaining yard and the first down . From the Tech 32 @-@ yard line , the Hokies earned one yard on two plays before Clark completed a seven @-@ yard pass to wide receiver Angelo Harrison . Still short of the first down , the Hokies were forced to punt . The ball rolled out of bounds at the North Carolina 19 @-@ yard line , and with 12 : 16 remaining in the first quarter , North Carolina prepared for its first possession of the game .
On the Tar Heels ' first play of the game , running back Jonathan Linton ran up the middle for a three @-@ yard gain . After the gain , Carolina quarterback Chris Keldorf completed a 31 @-@ yard pass to tight end Alge Crumpler for a first down at the Virginia Tech 47 @-@ yard line . Now inside Virginia Tech territory , Linton ran for a five @-@ yard gain , which was followed by a pass from Keldorf to Linton , who gained 26 yards on the play . Following the catch , North Carolina had a first down at the Virginia Tech 16 @-@ yard line . Linton left the field limping slightly , and backup running Mike Geter replaced him , then ran for four yards up the middle . Geter was stopped for no gain on the next play , and a third down pass by Keldorf fell incomplete . North Carolina kicker Josh McGee entered the game to attempt a 29 @-@ yard field goal , which was good . With 9 : 15 remaining in the quarter , North Carolina took a 3 – 0 lead .
North Carolina 's post @-@ score kickoff was returned to the Virginia Tech 25 @-@ yard line , and the Hokies prepared for their second possession of the game . Parker was stopped for no gain on a run attempt , and another attempt on the next play was stopped for a loss of a yard . Facing third down , Clark attempted to scramble for the first down , but was stopped after a gain of six yards . Having gone three and out , the Hokies punted again . The kick was downed at the 36 @-@ yard line , and North Carolina 's offense returned for its second possession of the game . On the first play of the drive , Linton gained two yards on a run up the middle of the field . On the next play , Keldorf completed a 62 @-@ yard pass to Octavus Barnes , who had broken free of the Virginia Tech defense . Barnes sprinted into the end zone for a touchdown , and after the extra point kick , North Carolina led 10 – 0 with 6 : 07 remaining in the quarter .
Following the kickoff by North Carolina and a short return , Virginia Tech took over at its 26 @-@ yard line . On Tech 's first play , Clark completed a seven @-@ yard pass to Williams . Running back Lamont Pegues then was stopped for a one @-@ yard loss , and Clark 's third @-@ down pass attempt fell incomplete . After again going three and out , Tech punted . The kick was returned to the North Carolina 14 @-@ yard line , and the Tar Heels began their third possession of the game . The first play of the drive was a pass from Keldorf to Crumpler , who gained 10 yards and a first down . From the Tar Heels ' 24 @-@ yard line , Linton gained one yard on a short run , then Keldorf threw a 30 @-@ yard pass to wide receiver Na Brown . The play gave the Tar Heels a first down at the Tech 44 @-@ yard line , and Linton gained four yards with a running play on first down . Two incomplete passes later , North Carolina punted for the first time in the game . The ball rolled into the end zone for a touchback , and the Hokies ' offense started at the 20 @-@ yard line with 2 : 49 left in the quarter .
A one @-@ yard rush was followed by a pass to running back Ken Oxendine that lost three yards . Following the negative @-@ yardage play , North Carolina committed a five @-@ yard penalty that gave the Hokies a third down and seven . Despite the extra yardage provided by the penalty , Clark 's pass attempt on third down was incomplete and the Hokies again prepared to punt . During the kick , however , North Carolina defender Quinton Savage broke through the Virginia Tech offensive line and blocked the punt by Jimmy Kibble . Tar Heels ' defender Dre Bly picked up the loose ball and ran into the end zone for North Carolina 's second touchdown of the game . Following the play , North Carolina was penalized 15 yards for excessive celebration and the resulting 35 @-@ yard extra point kick was no good . Despite the missed kick , North Carolina extended its lead to 16 – 0 with 1 : 03 remaining in the first quarter .
Virginia Tech 's kick returner slipped during the subsequent kickoff , and the Hokies ' offense started at its 13 @-@ yard line . Oxendine gained three yards on the first play of the drive , then Clark was sacked for a nine @-@ yard loss . The sack was the final play of the first quarter , and North Carolina had a 16 – 0 lead with three quarters still to be played .
= = = Second quarter = = =
The second quarter began with Virginia Tech in possession of the ball and facing a long third down after a quarterback sack on the final play of the first quarter . On the first play of the quarter , Tech quarterback Al Clark was sacked by Brian Simmons , and this time he fumbled the ball . The loose ball was picked up in the end zone by Carolina defender Greg Ellis for the Tar Heels ' third touchdown of the game . Because North Carolina missed its extra @-@ point kick following its previous touchdown , Tar Heels ' head coach Carl Torbush ordered the team to attempt a two @-@ point conversion in order to gain the missed extra point from the previous play . A pass attempt by Keldorf fell incomplete , but with just seven seconds elapsed in the second quarter , North Carolina led 22 – 0 .
The Tar Heels ' kickoff was returned to the Hokies ' 24 @-@ yard line . Clark scrambled for one yard , then completed a five @-@ yard pass . Facing third down and four , Clark scrambled for a first down at the Tech 38 @-@ yard line . Following the first down , Parker gained two yards on a running play . Clark then completed a 10 @-@ yard pass to Parker , and the Hokies were aided by a 15 @-@ yard personal foul facemask penalty against North Carolina during the play . Following the pass and penalty , Tech entered North Carolina territory for the first time and had a first down at the Tar Heels ' 35 @-@ yard line . On the first play inside Carolina territory , Clark completed a 35 @-@ yard pass to Parker for an apparent touchdown , but the play was negated by a 15 @-@ yard penalty against Virginia Tech . From the 50 @-@ yard line , Pegues ran for four yards and Clark threw two incomplete passes , forcing a punt . The kick was downed at the Carolina 10 @-@ yard line , and the Tar Heels ' offense took over with 10 : 40 remaining before halftime .
Linton ran for nine yards , then picked up a first down with a five @-@ yard gain on second down . Keldorf completed a 12 @-@ yard pass to Barnes for a first down , Linton ran seven yards to the Carolina 43 @-@ yard line , then gained another first down with a run to the 50 @-@ yard line . From midfield , Keldorf attempted a deep pass on first down , but the ball fell incomplete . On second down , Keldorf completed a four @-@ yard pass to Linton but was sacked on third down by the Virginia Tech defense . The sack forced Carolina to punt for the second time in the game , and the ball rolled out of bounds at the Virginia Tech 11 @-@ yard line .
From that point , Pegues rushed for 13 yards on the first play of the drive , giving the Hokies a first down at their 24 @-@ yard line . Two more rushes by Pegues gained seven yards , then North Carolina committed a five @-@ yard offsides penalty , giving the Hokies a first down at the 36 @-@ yard line . Clark threw an incomplete pass , Pegues was tackled for no gain on a running play , then Tech committed a five @-@ yard delay of game penalty . On third down , Clark was sacked for a loss , and Tech punted . The kick was partially blocked , allowing North Carolina to return the ball to the 45 @-@ yard line of Virginia Tech . The Tar Heels thus began a drive inside Virginia Tech territory with 3 : 33 remaining in the first half .
The first play of the drive was a six @-@ yard run by Linton , and it was followed by an incomplete pass from Keldorf to Crumpler . Crumpler made up for the missed pass on the next play , when he caught a short pass for a first down from Keldorf . Now at the Hokies ' 31 , Linton ran straight ahead for a two @-@ yard gain . Linton 's run was followed by two incomplete passes by Keldorf , but rather than punt , the Tar Heels attempted to try to convert the fourth down . The fourth @-@ down pass fell incomplete , and the Tar Heels turned the ball over on downs at the Tech 30 @-@ yard line . Clark completed a six @-@ yard pass to Parker , then threw an incomplete pass downfield with less than a minute remaining on the clock . On third down , Clark completed a nine @-@ yard pass to Michael Stuewe for a first down . A first @-@ down pass attempt was batted down by the North Carolina defense , but on second down , Clark completed a pass to Stuewe for a first down at the Tar Heels 40 @-@ yard line . After a deep pass went incomplete , Clark was sacked and fumbled the ball for the second time in the first half . The loose ball was picked up by Vonnie Holliday with 13 seconds remaining , and the Tar Heels ' offense returned to the field . North Carolina tried a deep pass in an attempt to get into scoring position before the end of the half , but Keldorf was sacked and the Tar Heels kneeled on the football to end the half with a 22 – 0 lead .
= = = Third quarter = = =
Because Virginia Tech began the first half in possession of the football , North Carolina received the ball to begin the second half . The Hokies ' kickoff was returned to the 39 @-@ yard line , Virginia Tech committed a 15 @-@ yard personal foul penalty , and North Carolina began the first possession of the second half at the Virginia Tech 46 @-@ yard line . The first play of the half was a short run by Linton , and after two incomplete passes by Keldorf , the Tar Heels prepared to punt . Rather than kick , however , North Carolina faked a punt and had punter Brian Schmitz pass the ball to linebacker Brian Simmons , who normally played defense . Simmons gained 28 yards and a first down on the play , which allowed the Tar Heels to continue their drive . Now at the Hokies ' 13 @-@ yard line , North Carolina committed a five @-@ yard delay of game penalty . On the next play , Linton made up the lost yardage , gaining six yards and advancing the ball to the Tech 12 @-@ yard line . The running play was followed by a pass from Keldorf to Linton for an eight @-@ yard gain . Needing one yard to gain a first down , North Carolina was stopped on third down then attempted to convert the fourth down rather than kick a field goal . Keldorf ran the ball straight ahead and gained the needed yardage , gaining a first down at the three @-@ yard line . Two plays later , Linton ran across the goal line and into the end zone for the Tar Heels ' first touchdown of the second half . The extra point kick was partially blocked by the Virginia Tech defense and was no good , but the Tar Heels still extended their lead to 28 – 0 with 9 : 43 remaining in the quarter .
Virginia Tech returned North Carolina 's kickoff to their 22 @-@ yard line , and the Hokies began their first drive of the second half . Quarterbacking the Hokies was backup quarterback Nick Sorensen , who replaced starter Al Clark . On the drive 's first play , running back Ken Oxendine broke free of the North Carolina defense for a 36 @-@ yard gain and a first down at the North Carolina 42 @-@ yard line . Sorensen scrambled for a two @-@ yard gain , then completed a pass to wide receiver Shawn Scales at the 27 @-@ yard line for another first down . A run by Marcus Parker gained one yard , Sorensen was tackled for a two @-@ yard loss , then threw an incomplete pass . Facing fourth down and needing 11 yards , Tech coach Frank Beamer attempted to convert the fourth down rather than punt , and Sorensen scrambled for a first down at the 16 @-@ yard line . From there , Oxendine was stopped for a loss of five yards , Sorensen was sacked for a seven @-@ yard loss , and Sorensen completed a short pass to Parker . Beamer elected not to attempt to convert another fourth down and instead sent kicker Shayne Graham into the game to attempt a 40 @-@ yard field goal . The kick was good , and with 4 : 37 remaining in the quarter , Tech cut North Carolina 's lead to 28 – 3 .
The Hokie kickoff rolled into the end zone for a touchback , and North Carolina started its second drive of the half from its 20 @-@ yard line . The first play of the drive was a three @-@ yard run , and it was followed by a six @-@ yard pass from Keldorf to Linton . Needing a single yard for a first down , the Tar Heels rushed straight ahead and gained two yards and the first down at the 31 @-@ yard line . North Carolina continued to move the ball efficiently : Linton gained two yards on a rushing play , then Keldorf threw a short pass to Linton that gained 37 yards after Linton broke free of the Virginia Tech defense . The play resulted in a first down at the Virginia Tech 31 @-@ yard line . There , however , Keldorf was sacked for a three @-@ yard loss . After the sack , Keldorf completed a 21 @-@ yard pass to Crumpler for a first down at the 13 @-@ yard line . Keldorf then attempted to scramble for a gain , but was stopped for no gain . That play was the final one of the quarter , which ended with North Carolina still in possession of a firm lead , 28 – 3 .
= = = Fourth quarter = = =
The fourth quarter began with North Carolina in possession of the ball and facing a second down and 11 on the Tech 14 @-@ yard line . On the first play of the quarter , Keldorf completed a 14 @-@ yard pass to Barnes for a touchdown . The extra point was good , and the Tar Heels extended their lead to 35 – 3 with 14 : 55 remaining in the game . North Carolina 's kickoff was returned to the Tech 34 @-@ yard line , and the Hokies ' offense began the first full drive of the fourth quarter . Tech 's first play of the drive was a trick reverse to Scales , who gained 29 yards and a first down on the trick play . After an incomplete pass by Sorensen from the Carolina 37 @-@ yard line , Pegues rushed for four yards , then the Hokies were stopped for no gain on third down . Tech attempted to convert the fourth down , but Sorensen 's pass fell incomplete and Virginia Tech turned the ball over on downs with 12 : 39 remaining .
Following the turnover , the Tar Heels had a first down at their 32 @-@ yard line . Linton was stopped for no gain on a rushing play , passed for no gain , then completed a nine @-@ yard pass to Brown . Failing to gain the first down , the Tar Heels punted and the ball was returned to the 30 @-@ yard line . Oxendine gained two yards on a rush up the right side , then Sorensen ran for one yard on the left side of the field . On third down , Sorensen scrambled for a first down before fumbling the football . The loose ball was picked up by Tech lineman Derek Smith , and the Hokies ' drive continued . After a rush for no gain , another running play resulted in a Tech fumble , their second of the drive . Unlike the previous fumble , however , this one was recovered by North Carolina 's Russell Davis , and the Tar Heels offense was put into position for another scoring attempt .
After the turnover , North Carolina had a first down at the Tech 34 @-@ yard line . Keldorf threw an eight @-@ yard pass to Crumpler , North Carolina was stopped for a one @-@ yard loss on a running play , then the Tar Heels earned a first down with a four @-@ yard run by Geter . On first down , Keldorf threw an incomplete pass . Second down resulted in a 15 @-@ yard gain and a first down on a run by Geter along the left side of the field . Now at the Tech eight @-@ yard line , Geter ran straight ahead for a five @-@ yard gain . Geter was stopped for a two @-@ yard loss on the next play , but North Carolina recovered from the loss with a five @-@ yard pass from Keldorf to Carrick for a touchdown . The extra point kick was blocked , but a penalty against Virginia Tech allowed Carolina kicker Josh McGee another chance at the extra point . The second attempt was successful , and the kick gave the Tar Heels a 42 – 3 lead with 5 : 01 remaining in the game .
The Hokies returned North Carolina 's kickoff to the Tech 35 @-@ yard line , and the Hokies began their final possession of the game . Sorensen completed a four @-@ yard pass , then ran for 19 yards and a first down at the North Carolina 42 @-@ yard line . A shovel pass by Sorensen gained three yards , but he lost three yards on the next play and was sacked for a six @-@ yard loss on third down . A fourth @-@ down pass was batted down by the Carolina defense , and the Tar Heels ' offense returned to the field with 2 : 41 remaining in the game .
Backup quarterback Kevin Carty came onto the field for the Tar Heels , and handed the ball to Dominique Williams , who ran the ball twice for one yard . On third down , he broke free of the Virginia Tech defense and gained 20 yards and a first down at the Tech 33 @-@ yard line . Two more rushes gained three yards and ran the remaining time off the game clock . Time expired , and North Carolina won the 1998 Gator Bowl , 42 – 3 .
= = Statistical summary = =
In recognition of their performances during the game , North Carolina quarterback Chris Keldorf was named the most valuable player of the winning team , and Virginia Tech backup quarterback Nick Sorensen was named the most valuable player of the losing team . Keldorf finished the game having completed 12 of his 28 pass attempts for 290 yards . On the opposite side of the ball , Sorensen completed four of eight passes for 24 yards and carried the ball 10 times on the ground for a total of 19 yards . Al Clark , the quarterback whom Sorensen replaced , finished the game having completed nine of 17 pass attempts for 66 yards .
North Carolina 's receivers benefited from Keldorf 's passing proficiency . Octavus Barnes caught three passes for 89 yards and two touchdowns , while Alge Crumpler caught five passes for 77 yards . Virginia Tech 's leading receiver was Parker , who caught four passes for just 32 yards . On the ground , North Carolina 's Linton carried the ball 20 times for 68 yards and a touchdown . He also was the game 's second @-@ leading receiver in terms of yardage , catching six passes for 81 yards . The Tar Heels ' Geter was second on the team in rushing , accumulating 25 yards on seven carries . For Virginia Tech , running back Ken Oxendine led all Hokie rushers with 39 yards on 10 carries .
Barnes ' 62 @-@ yard touchdown reception from Keldorf was the sixth @-@ longest scoring play in Gator Bowl history at the time of the game .
= = Postgame effects = =
Virginia Tech 's loss dropped it to a final 1997 record of 7 – 5 , while North Carolina 's win raised it to a final record of 11 – 1 . The Tar Heels also rose in the final college football polls of the season , finishing in fourth place in the Coaches ' Poll and sixth in the Associated Press media poll . Virginia Tech 's defeat was its worst loss since a 45 – 0 shutout by Tulane in 1983 . Jacksonville businesses and hotels benefited from the influx of out @-@ of @-@ town guests . At least 25 @,@ 000 fans arrived from outside of the Jacksonville area , injecting an estimated $ 30 million extra into the city 's economy . Many fans praised the stadium , facilities , and attractions available for visitors . NBC 's television coverage of the game was not given as high marks , however , and at least one commentator called the broadcast " sloppy " and " routine " .
Though they were concerned by low attendance at the game , Gator Bowl officials were able to renegotiate a sponsorship agreement with Toyota Motor Company after the game 's previous contract expired following the game .
= = = Coaching changes = = =
Though North Carolina head coach Carl Torbush was confirmed in his position prior to the Gator Bowl , several assistant coaching positions were not filled at the school until after the game . On January 11 , Torbush hired then @-@ Texas A & M running backs coach Ken Rucker to fill the new position of special @-@ teams coach . To fill Torbush 's former job as offensive coordinator , he hired Texas A & M offensive coordinator Steve Marshall , who filled the position until 1999 .
= = = NFL Draft = = =
In the weeks following the game , several players from each team announced their intentions to enter the 1998 NFL Draft . North Carolina defender Dre Bly was among a handful of eligible players ( the National Football League requires a player to be at least three years out of high school ) who declined to enter the draft , instead choosing to return to school for another year . North Carolina had seven players taken in the draft , three of whom were selected in the first round : Greg Ellis was taken with the eighth pick , Brian Simmons with the 17th pick , and Vonnie Holliday with the 19th pick . The four remaining selections were Omar Brown ( 103rd overall ) , Kivuusama Mays ( 110th ) , Robert Williams ( 128th ) , and Jonathan Linton ( 131st ) . Virginia Tech had no players taken in the first round during the 1998 draft , but four players were taken in later rounds : Todd Washington ( 104th overall ) , Gennaro DiNapoli ( 109th ) , Ken Oxendine ( 201st ) , and Marcus Parker ( 202nd ) .
= Don Bradman =
Sir Donald George " Don " Bradman , AC ( 27 August 1908 – 25 February 2001 ) , often referred to as " The Don " , was an Australian cricketer , widely acknowledged as the greatest batsman of all time . Bradman 's career Test batting average of 99 @.@ 94 is often cited as the greatest achievement by any sportsman in any major sport .
The story that the young Bradman practised alone with a cricket stump and a golf ball is part of Australian folklore . Bradman 's meteoric rise from bush cricket to the Australian Test team took just over two years . Before his 22nd birthday , he had set many records for top scoring , some of which still stand , and became Australia 's sporting idol at the height of the Great Depression .
During a 20 @-@ year playing career , Bradman consistently scored at a level that made him , in the words of former Australia captain Bill Woodfull , " worth three batsmen to Australia " . A controversial set of tactics , known as Bodyline , was specifically devised by the England team to curb his scoring . As a captain and administrator , Bradman was committed to attacking , entertaining cricket ; he drew spectators in record numbers . He hated the constant adulation , however , and it affected how he dealt with others . The focus of attention on his individual performances strained relationships with some team @-@ mates , administrators and journalists , who thought him aloof and wary . Following an enforced hiatus due to the Second World War , he made a dramatic comeback , captaining an Australian team known as " The Invincibles " on a record @-@ breaking unbeaten tour of England .
A complex , highly driven man , not given to close personal relationships , Bradman retained a pre @-@ eminent position in the game by acting as an administrator , selector and writer for three decades following his retirement . Even after he became reclusive in his declining years his opinion was highly sought , and his status as a national icon was still recognised — more than 50 years after his retirement as a Test player , in 2001 , Prime Minister John Howard of Australia called him the " greatest living Australian " . Bradman 's image has appeared on postage stamps and coins , and a museum dedicated to his life was opened while he was still living . On the centenary of his birth , 27 August 2008 , the Royal Australian Mint issued a $ 5 commemorative gold coin with Bradman 's image , and on 19 November 2009 , he was inducted into the ICC Cricket Hall of Fame .
= = Early years = =
Donald George Bradman was the youngest son of George and Emily ( née Whatman ) Bradman , and was born on 27 August 1908 at Cootamundra , New South Wales ( NSW ) . He had a brother , Victor , and three sisters — Islet , Lilian and Elizabeth May . One of his great @-@ grandfathers was one of the first Italians to migrate to Australia in 1826 . Bradman 's parents lived in the hamlet of Yeo Yeo , near Stockinbingal . His mother Emily gave birth to him at the Cootamundra home of Granny Scholz , a midwife . That house is now the Bradman Birthplace Museum . Emily had hailed from Mittagong in the NSW Southern Highlands , and in 1911 , when Don Bradman was about two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years old , his parents decided to relocate to Bowral , close to Mittagong , to be closer to Emily 's family and friends , as life at Yeo Yeo was proving difficult .
Bradman practised batting incessantly during his youth . He invented his own solo cricket game , using a cricket stump for a bat , and a golf ball . A water tank , mounted on a curved brick stand , stood on a paved area behind the family home . When hit into the curved brick facing of the stand , the ball rebounded at high speed and varying angles — and Bradman would attempt to hit it again . This form of practice developed his timing and reactions to a high degree . In more formal cricket , he hit his first century at the age of 12 , with an undefeated 115 playing for Bowral Public School against Mittagong High School .
= = = Bush cricketer = = =
In 1920 – 21 , Bradman acted as scorer for the local Bowral team , captained by his uncle George Whatman . In October 1920 , he filled in when the team was one man short , scoring 37 not out and 29 not out on debut . During the season , Bradman 's father took him to the Sydney Cricket Ground ( SCG ) to watch the fifth Ashes Test match . On that day , Bradman formed an ambition . " I shall never be satisfied " , he told his father , " until I play on this ground " . Bradman left school in 1922 and went to work for a local real estate agent who encouraged his sporting pursuits by giving him time off when necessary . He gave up cricket in favour of tennis for two years , but resumed playing cricket in 1925 – 26 .
Bradman became a regular selection for the Bowral team ; several outstanding performances earned him the attention of the Sydney daily press . Competing on matting @-@ over @-@ concrete pitches , Bowral played other rural towns in the Berrima District competition . Against Wingello , a team that included the future Test bowler Bill O 'Reilly , Bradman made 234 . In the competition final against Moss Vale , which extended over five consecutive Saturdays , Bradman scored 320 not out . During the following Australian winter ( 1926 ) , an ageing Australian team lost The Ashes in England , and a number of Test players retired . The New South Wales Cricket Association began a hunt for new talent . Mindful of Bradman 's big scores for Bowral , the association wrote to him , requesting his attendance at a practice session in Sydney . He was subsequently chosen for the " Country Week " tournaments at both cricket and tennis , to be played during separate weeks . His boss presented him with an ultimatum : he could have only one week away from work , and therefore had to choose between the two sports . He chose cricket . Bradman 's performances during Country Week resulted in an invitation to play grade cricket in Sydney for St George in the 1926 – 27 season . He scored 110 on his debut , making his first century on a turf wicket . On 1 January 1927 , he turned out for the NSW second team . For the remainder of the season , Bradman travelled the 130 kilometres ( 81 mi ) from Bowral to Sydney every Saturday to play for St George .
= = = First @-@ class debut = = =
The next season continued the rapid rise of the " Boy from Bowral " . Selected to replace the unfit Archie Jackson in the NSW team , Bradman made his first @-@ class debut at the Adelaide Oval , aged 19 . He secured the achievement of a hundred on debut , with an innings of 118 featuring what soon became his trademarks — fast footwork , calm confidence and rapid scoring . In the final match of the season , he made his first century at the SCG , against the Sheffield Shield champions Victoria . Despite his potential , Bradman was not chosen for the Australian second team to tour New Zealand .
Bradman decided that his chances for Test selection would be improved by moving to Sydney for the 1928 – 29 season , when England were to tour in defence of the Ashes . Initially , he continued working in real estate , but later took a promotions job with the sporting goods retailer Mick Simmons Ltd . In the first match of the Sheffield Shield season , he scored a century in each innings against Queensland . He followed this with scores of 87 and 132 not out against the England touring team , and was rewarded with selection for the first Test , to be played at Brisbane .
= = Test career = =
Playing in only his tenth first @-@ class match , Bradman , nicknamed " Braddles " by his teammates , found his initial Test a harsh learning experience . Caught on a sticky wicket , Australia were all out for 66 in the second innings and lost by 675 runs ( still a Test record ) . Following scores of 18 and 1 , the selectors dropped Bradman to twelfth man for the Second Test . An injury to Bill Ponsford early in the match required Bradman to field as substitute while England amassed 636 , following their 863 runs in the First Test . RS Whitington wrote , " ... he had scored only nineteen himself and these experiences appear to have provided him with food for thought " . Recalled for the Third Test at the Melbourne Cricket Ground , Bradman scored 79 and 112 to become the youngest player to make a Test century , although the match was still lost . Another loss followed in the Fourth Test . Bradman reached 58 in the second innings and appeared set to guide the team to victory when he was run out . It was to be the only run out of his Test career . The losing margin was just 12 runs .
The improving Australians did manage to win the Fifth and final Test . Bradman top @-@ scored with 123 in the first innings , and was at the wicket in the second innings when his captain Jack Ryder hit the winning runs . Bradman completed the season with 1 @,@ 690 first @-@ class runs , averaging 93 @.@ 88 , and his first multiple century in a Sheffield Shield match , 340 not out against Victoria , set a new ground record for the SCG . Bradman averaged 113 @.@ 28 in 1929 – 30 . In a trial match to select the team that would tour England , he was last man out in the first innings for 124 . As his team followed on , the skipper Bill Woodfull asked Bradman to keep the pads on and open the second innings . By the end of play , he was 205 not out , on his way to 225 . Against Queensland at the SCG , Bradman set a then world record for first @-@ class cricket by scoring 452 not out ; he made his runs in only 415 minutes . Not long after the feat , he recalled :
On 434 ... I had a curious intuition ... I seemed to sense that the ball would be a short @-@ pitched one on the leg @-@ stump , and I could almost feel myself getting ready to make my shot before the ball was delivered . Sure enough , it pitched exactly where I had anticipated , and , hooking it to the square @-@ leg boundary , I established the only record upon which I had set my heart .
Although he was an obvious selection to tour England , Bradman 's unorthodox style raised doubts that he could succeed on the slower English pitches . Percy Fender wrote :
... he will always be in the category of the brilliant , if unsound , ones . Promise there is in Bradman in plenty , though watching him does not inspire one with any confidence that he desires to take the only course which will lead him to a fulfilment of that promise . He makes a mistake , then makes it again and again ; he does not correct it , or look as if he were trying to do so . He seems to live for the exuberance of the moment .
The encomiums were not confined to his batting gifts ; nor did the criticism extend to his character . " Australia has unearthed a champion , " raved former Australian Test great Clem Hill , " self @-@ taught , with natural ability . But most important of all , with his heart in the right place . " Selector Dick Jones weighed in with the observation that it was " good to watch him talking to an old player , listening attentively to everything that is said and then replying with a modest ' thank you ' . "
= = = 1930 tour of England = = =
England were favourites to win the 1930 Ashes series , and if the Australians were to exceed expectations , their young batsmen , Bradman and Jackson , needed to prosper . With his elegant batting technique , Jackson appeared the brighter prospect of the pair . However , Bradman began the tour with 236 at Worcester and went on to score 1 @,@ 000 first @-@ class runs by the end of May , the fifth player ( and first Australian ) to achieve this rare feat . In his first Test appearance in England , Bradman hit 131 in the second innings but England won the match . His batting reached a new level in the Second Test at Lord 's where he scored 254 as Australia won and levelled the series . Later in life , Bradman rated this the best innings of his career as , " practically without exception every ball went where it was intended to go " . Wisden noted his fast footwork and how he hit the ball " all round the wicket with power and accuracy " , as well as faultless concentration in keeping the ball on the ground .
In terms of runs scored , this performance was soon surpassed . In the Third Test , at Leeds , Bradman scored a century before lunch on 11 July , the first day of the Test match to equal the performances of Victor Trumper and Charlie Macartney . In the afternoon , Bradman added another century between lunch and tea , before finishing the day on 309 not out . He remains the only Test player to pass 300 in one day 's play . His eventual score of 334 was a world @-@ record , exceeding the previous mark of 325 by Andy Sandham . Bradman dominated the Australian innings ; the second @-@ highest tally was 77 by Alan Kippax . Businessman Arthur Whitelaw later presented Bradman with a cheque for £ 1 @,@ 000 in appreciation of his achievement . The match ended in anti @-@ climax as poor weather prevented a result , as it also did in the Fourth Test .
In the deciding Test at The Oval , England made 405 . During an innings stretching over three days due to intermittent rain , Bradman made yet another multiple century , this time 232 , which helped give Australia a big lead of 290 runs . In a crucial partnership with Archie Jackson , Bradman battled through a difficult session when England fast bowler Harold Larwood bowled short on a pitch enlivened by the rain . Wisden gave this period of play only a passing mention :
On the Wednesday morning the ball flew about a good deal , both batsmen frequently being hit on the body ... on more than one occasion each player cocked the ball up dangerously but always , as it happened , just wide of the fieldsmen .
A number of English players and commentators noted Bradman 's discomfort in playing the short , rising delivery . The revelation came too late for this particular match , but was to have immense significance in the next Ashes series . Australia won the match by an innings and regained the Ashes . The victory made an impact in Australia . With the economy sliding toward depression and unemployment rapidly rising , the country found solace in sporting triumph . The story of a self @-@ taught 22 @-@ year @-@ old from the bush who set a series of records against the old rival made Bradman a national hero . The statistics Bradman achieved on the tour , and in the Test matches in particular , broke records for the day and some have stood the test of time . In all , Bradman scored 974 runs at an average of 139 @.@ 14 during the Test series , with four centuries , including two double hundreds and a triple . As of 2012 , no @-@ one has matched or exceeded 974 runs or three double centuries in one Test series ; the record of 974 runs exceeds the second @-@ best performance by 69 runs and was achieved in two fewer innings . Bradman 's first @-@ class tally , 2 @,@ 960 runs ( at an average of 98 @.@ 66 with 10 centuries ) , was another enduring record : the most by any overseas batsman on a tour of England .
On the tour , the dynamic nature of Bradman 's batting contrasted sharply with his quiet , solitary off @-@ field demeanour . He was described as aloof from his teammates and he did not offer to buy them a round of drinks , let alone share the money given to him by Whitelaw . Bradman spent a lot of his free time alone , writing , as he had sold the rights to a book . On his return to Australia , Bradman was surprised by the intensity of his reception ; he became a " reluctant hero " . Mick Simmons wanted to cash in on their employee 's newly won fame . They asked Bradman to leave his teammates and attend official receptions they organised in Adelaide , Melbourne , Goulburn , his hometown Bowral and Sydney , where he received a brand new custom @-@ built Chevrolet . At each stop , Bradman received a level of adulation that " embarrassed " him . This focus on individual accomplishment , in a team game , " ... permanently damaged relationships with his contemporaries " . Commenting on Australia 's victory , the team 's vice @-@ captain Vic Richardson said , " ... we could have played any team without Bradman , but we could not have played the blind school without Clarrie Grimmett " . A modest Bradman can be heard in a 1930 recording saying " I have always endeavoured to do my best for the side , and the few centuries that have come my way have been achieved in the hope of winning matches . My one idea when going into bat was to make runs for Australia . "
= = = Reluctant hero = = =
In 1930 – 31 , against the first West Indian side to visit Australia , Bradman 's scoring was more sedate than in England — although he did make 223 in 297 minutes in the Third Test at Brisbane and 152 in 154 minutes in the following Test at Melbourne . However , he scored quickly in a very successful sequence of innings against the South Africans in the Australian summer of 1931 – 32 . For NSW against the tourists , he made 30 , 135 and 219 . In the Test matches , he scored 226 ( 277 minutes ) , 112 ( 155 minutes ) , 2 and 167 ( 183 minutes ) ; his 299 not out in the Fourth Test , at Adelaide , set a new record for the highest score in a Test in Australia . Australia won nine of the ten Tests played over the two series .
At this point , Bradman had played 15 Test matches since the beginning of 1930 , scoring 2 @,@ 227 runs at an average of 131 . He had played 18 innings , scoring 10 centuries , six of which had extended beyond 200 . His overall scoring rate was 42 runs per hour , with 856 ( or 38 @.@ 5 % of his tally ) scored in boundaries . Significantly , he had not hit a six , which typified Bradman 's attitude : if he hit the ball along the ground , then it could not be caught . During this phase of his career , his youth and natural fitness allowed him to adopt a " machine @-@ like " approach to batting . The South African fast bowler Sandy Bell described bowling to him as , " heart @-@ breaking ... with his sort of cynical grin , which rather reminds one of the Sphinx ... he never seems to perspire " .
Between these two seasons , Bradman seriously contemplated playing professional cricket in England with the Lancashire League club Accrington , a move that , according to the rules of the day , would have ended his Test career . A consortium of three Sydney businesses offered an alternative . They devised a two @-@ year contract whereby Bradman wrote for Associated Newspapers , broadcast on Radio 2UE and promoted the menswear retailing chain FJ Palmer and Son . However , the contract increased Bradman 's dependence on his public profile , making it more difficult to maintain the privacy that he ardently desired .
Bradman 's chaotic wedding to Jessie Menzies in April 1932 epitomised these new and unwelcome intrusions into his private life . The church " was under siege all throughout the day ... uninvited guests stood on chairs and pews to get a better view " ; police erected barriers that were broken down and many of those invited could not get a seat . Just weeks later , Bradman joined a private team organised by Arthur Mailey to tour the United States and Canada . He travelled with his wife , and the couple treated the trip as a honeymoon . Playing 51 games in 75 days , Bradman scored 3 @,@ 779 runs at 102 @.@ 1 , with 18 centuries . Although the standard of play was not high , the effects of the amount of cricket Bradman had played in the three previous years , together with the strains of his celebrity status , began to show on his return home .
= = = Bodyline = = =
Within the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) , which administered English cricket at the time , few voices were more influential than " Plum " Warner 's , who , when considering England 's response to Bradman , wrote that it " must evolve a new type of bowler and develop fresh ideas and strange tactics to curb his
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Retiro to Rosario , nearing the river at San Pedro and San Nicolás . He was following the Spanish ships and moved at night to avoid detection . San Martín had one hundred and twenty men for this action , reinforced at Rosario by a militia of seventy men under the command of Celedonio Escalada . Those reinforcements included twenty two rifleman , thirty cavalry , a small cannon and men armed with knives . Escalada had made other actions against the royalists before this battle . San Martín discovered that the royalists intended to pillage the San Carlos Convent and pressed the march to arrive there first . A hundred royalists landed on San Lorenzo , but the only food available to them was some chickens and watermelons . Aware of the risk of pillage , the population had removed the cattle from the area before the royalists arrived . Escalada arrived in San Lorenzo before the bulk of the patriot army , but the dust trail from the path to Rosario revealed their presence . Escalada attacked them but their ship had a longer range than his cannon , keeping him at bay . He was forced to retire when he found a Paraguayan prisoner who had escaped from the ship . The Paraguayan disclosed the size of the royalist army and their plan of attacking the convent with a larger force , suspecting that the local money was kept in it . They did not attack the convent right away , requiring time to prepare the two field cannons . Escalada returned with San Martin and relayed the news . The march from Retiro to the convent took only five days , thanks to the cadet Ángel Pacheco . Pacheco moved ahead of the regiment and prepared horses in advance at the relay positions . The whole army arrived on scene during the night of 2 February and hid inside the convent . They entered through the rear door and were not allowed to light fires or speak during the night . San Martín studied the enemy and the battlefield from the convent 's tower , using a monocular .
= = Battlefield = =
The battle was fought at the location of the modern city of San Lorenzo , Santa Fe which is next to the Paraná River , at the point of its widest flow . The west bank of the river was tall and steep , forming a natural obstacle , and ships could only land troops and materials on that side of the river using man @-@ made paths cut into the side . The battlefield was near one of these paths , shaped like a ladder , after which the terrain was a big plain with scattered bushes . The San Carlos Convent , the main nearby building , was a short distance away from the river .
The location was not an easy place to defend without artillery , as the plains made surprise attacks difficult . Except for the convent itself , the terrain did not offer any natural barriers that the patriots could exploit . Nevertheless , the flat terrain was ideal for cavalry manoeuvres , and the distance between the church and the west gully gave enough room for a cavalry charge . The royalists , on the other hand , could support their troops with their ships from the river . Without a supporting navy , or local batteries , San Martín had no means to attack the ships . Although the small path allowed them passage to the ships , it could force the royalist forces to bottleneck during a retreat while the long range guns of the ships protected them . San Martín studied the battlefield and readied the plan for the operation during the night , when the grenadiers were hidden inside the convent .
= = Battle = =
The grenadiers left the convent at dawn , preparing their formations behind the convent . San Martín returned to the tower to watch the enemy who disembarked at sunrise , 5 : 30 in the morning . He mounted his horse , gave a short harangue to the troops , and headed to battle . His strategy was to divide his cavalry forces into two columns , of nearly sixty horsemen each , and make a surprise pincer movement to trap the enemy forces . The cavalry would not use their guns , relying instead on saber and spear attacks . The right @-@ hand column was headed by Justo German Bermúdez , and the left @-@ hand one by San Martín . The royalists marched in two columns with the two cannons , a deployed flag and military drummers . The clarion of the regiment of mounted grenadiers sounded for the first time , marking the beginning of the battle .
San Martín 's column was the first one to reach the enemy . The two cannons and the cannon fire from the ships defended the royalists , but they were quickly outmanoeuvred by the saber attacks and , unable to form a square , had to retreat . The advantage of surprise and the speed of the cavalry charge allowed the regiment to defeat the larger royalist army who had almost double the amount of soldiers . When Bermúdez and his column joined the battle the royalists were not able to stand their ground and were routed , retreating in disarray under covering fire from the ships . Bermudez led the attack at this point as San Martín had fallen from his horse .
San Martín did not mention Escalada in his first battle report , leading initial historians to infer that they stayed within the convent during the battle . However it is currently considered that they took part in the battle , as suggested by the royalist battle report and a later report from San Martin which clarifies that only twelve grenadiers stayed in the convent .
The combat took around fifteen minutes and left forty royalists dead and many injured , including Zabala . Fourteen patriot grenadiers died in the combat and two more would die afterwards due to combat injuries . Manuel Díaz Vélez fell from his horse in the gully , was mortally injured and captured by the royalists . Bermúdez was shot in the patella and died a few days later . Hipólito Bouchard captured the Spanish flag after killing the standard bearer .
= = = Cabral 's intervention = = =
Despite the victory , the remaining royalist forces could not be pursued as the column led by Justo Bermúdez had moved further than calculated for . This delayed the meeting with San Martín 's column whose horse was killed by enemy fire , leaving with his leg trapped under the corpse of the animal . These factors led to the columns not meeting up and allowed many royalists to escape . A royalist , probably Zabala himself , attempted to kill San Martín while he was trapped under his dead horse where he suffered a saber injury to his face , and a bullet wound to his arm . Juan Bautista Cabral and Juan Bautista Baigorria intervened and saved San Martín 's life . Cabral was mortally wounded during the rescue and San Martín reported that after Cabral was hit he said " I die happy , we have defeated the enemy " . The exact moment this was said is unclear as the word " after " could have meant immediately after ; during the ongoing battle ; or some hours later during Cabral 's agonising decline . San Martín wrote the battle report under a nearby tree . Fray Herminio Gaitán considers that Cabral 's last words would have been in the Guaraní language , his first language , and that as San Martín also spoke Guaraní he would have translated them for the battle report .
Juan Bautista Cabral is commonly known as " Sergeant Cabral " , but he was a private at the time of the battle . San Martín 's report mentions him as " the grenadier Juan B. Cabral " , and historians like Bartolomé Mitre , Herminio Gaitán , Gerardo Bra or Norberto Galasso support the idea . Mitre considers that Cabral was promoted posthumously , but there are no documents confirming that .
= = Aftermath = =
Even though the battle of San Lorenzo is acknowledged in Argentine historiography as an important battle for Argentine independence , it had little military influence in the conflict . Much of the recognition the battle generated is because San Martín fought in it , as the size of the forces involved and the length of the clash would normally mean it was considered a military engagement rather than a real battle and it did not influence the development of the Argentine War of Independence . This victory did nothing to prevent further raids from royalist ships as there were new raids at Tigre on August 18 , 1813 and yet another one at San Fernando on August 22 . William Brown ended the royalist naval supremacy the following year .
San Martín did not take hostages or ask for ransoms , but rather he instructed his people to avoid further conflicts and to try to restore peaceful relations with the royalists . Zabala requested assistance for his wounded soldiers , which San Martín provided and he invited Zabala to share a large breakfast , which he accepted . San Martín was aware that the new enlightened ideas at stake in the Napoleonic Wars influenced many of the Spanish military , and expected to convince Zabala that absolutism was a bad cause to defend . He succeeded , as Zabala joined the patriot forces under San Martín 's command during his administration in Mendoza .
José Gervasio Artigas , leader of the popular resistance at the Banda Oriental , sent an agent to San Lorenzo to congratulate San Martín for his victory . San Martín also met with John Parish Robertson , who informed Britain about the battle .
= = Legacy = =
There are many Argentine memorials and places named after the battle , including three cities in Greater Rosario : Puerto General San Martín , Capitán Bermúdez and Granadero Baigorria are named after José de San Martín , Justo Germán Bermúdez and Juan Bautista Baigorria respectively , all of whom were involved in the battle . The Sargento Cabral Department at the Chaco Province is named after Juan Bautista Cabral , even though he was not a sergeant as described . The most popular homage to the battle is the name of the football club San Lorenzo de Almagro , named after both the battle and Saint Lawrence .
The city of San Lorenzo preserves the site of the battle and a dedicated historic complex . The San Carlos Convent is still a working convent , but has turned part of its buildings into a museum . It has retained San Martín 's cell , the room used for medical treatment of the injured soldiers , urns of the dead soldiers and other related items to the " March of San Lorenzo " as well as the history of the convent . The mayor of San Lorenzo , made an agreement with the Argentine Armed Forces in 2008 that the Regiment of Mounted Grenadiers would have a permanent presence at the site .
The battlefield is known as the " Field of Glory " , and it was turned into a park on May 20 , 1913 , by president Roque Sáenz Peña . There is a monument with two symbolic wings of victory , an eternal flame and nine memorials for the 16 patriot soldiers who died in the battle . The memorials are for the nine origins of those soldiers : the Argentine provinces of Corrientes , Santiago del Estero , La Rioja , Córdoba , San Luis and Buenos Aires , as well as Chile , France and Uruguay . Although Uruguay did not exist at the time of the battle , the Banda Oriental province is considered a predecessor of modern Uruguay .
The pine tree ( Pinus pinea ) where San Martin wrote the battle report is known as the " Historic Pine " , and has an estimated age of more than two hundred years . The convent , the battlefield and the Historic Pine were declared National Historic Monuments of Argentina on October 2 , 1940 by law 12 @.@ 648 . The Historic Pine was declared a " Historic Tree " in 1946 by decree 3 @.@ 038 .
= = = Songs = = =
The battle of San Lorenzo is the theme of the San Lorenzo march . The military march was composed in February 1901 by Cayetano Alberto Silva following a proposal from Representative Celestino Pera . It was first officially played on October 30 , 1902 at the inauguration of the monument to General San Martín in Rosario . The lyrics were written by professor Carlos Benielli in 1908 . The march became famous in other countries and , according to the Argentine British Community Council , it has been considered in Europe to be one of the five best military marches ever written . The military bands of Uruguay , Brazil and Poland , amongst others , include it in their musical repertory .
The battle of San Lorenzo was also mentioned as an Argentine victory in the first Argentine National Anthem , along with the battles of San José , Suipacha , Las Piedras , Salta and Tucumán . There is also a brief reference to the battle in the march Mi bandera ( " My flag " ) , which is about the flag of Argentina . However , this march includes a historic inaccuracy . It says " Here is the flag that one day triumphantly rose in the middle of the battle and , full of pride and gallantry , went immortally to San Lorenzo " . This is incorrect as the current flag of Argentina was not widely used until 1814 or 1815 . The Battle of Salta was the only conflict of the Argentine War of Independence fought in current Argentine territory under the modern flag of Argentina . The San Martín National Institute states , by oral tradition , that the grenadiers of San Lorenzo did not use any flag for the operation .
= Ronnie Lee Gardner =
Ronnie Lee Gardner ( January 16 , 1961 – June 18 , 2010 ) was an American criminal who received the death penalty for murder in 1985 , and was executed by a firing squad by the state of Utah in 2010 . Gardner 's case spent nearly 25 years in the court system , prompting the Utah House of Representatives to introduce legislation to limit the number of appeals in capital cases .
In October 1984 , Gardner killed Melvyn John Otterstrom during a robbery in Salt Lake City . While being moved in April 1985 to a court hearing for the homicide , he fatally shot attorney Michael Burdell in an unsuccessful escape attempt . Convicted of two counts of murder , Gardner was sentenced to life imprisonment for the first count and received the death penalty for the second . The state adopted more stringent security measures as a result of the incident at the courthouse . While held at Utah State Prison , Gardner was charged with another capital crime for stabbing an inmate in 1994 . However , that charge was thrown out by the Utah Supreme Court because the victim survived .
In a series of appeals , defense attorneys presented mitigating evidence of the troubled upbringing of Gardner , who had spent nearly his entire adult life in incarceration . His request for commutation of his death sentence was denied in 2010 after the families of his victims testified against him . Gardner 's legal team took the case all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court , which declined to intervene .
The execution of Gardner at Utah State Prison became the focus of media attention in June 2010 , because it was the first to be carried out by firing squad in the United States in 14 years . Gardner stated that he sought this method of execution because of his Mormon background . On the day before his execution , The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints released a statement clarifying its position on the issue of blood atonement of individuals . The case also attracted debate over capital punishment and whether Gardner had been destined for a life of violence since his difficult childhood .
= = Personal background = =
Ronnie Lee Gardner was born in Salt Lake City , Utah , and was the youngest of Dan and Ruth Gardner 's seven children . Dan was a heavy drinker who left the household to start another family while Ronnie was a toddler ; Dan and Ruth divorced when Ronnie was 18 months old . Six months later , Ronnie was found malnourished and wandering the streets alone in a diaper . Child welfare workers filed a " failure to care " petition and took him into custody , though later returned him to his mother . Gardner 's relationship with his father was tumultuous ; Dan did not believe he was Gardner 's biological father and frequently told his son of his belief . According to Gardner , he was raised by an older sister , and was sexually abused by his siblings . Sometimes he and his sister Bonnie would run away and seek refuge in a " hobo camp . " By the age of 10 , Gardner was addicted to drugs and permitted access to alcohol . He and his brother Randy were arrested for stealing cowboy boots and taken into juvenile detention . Gardner recalled with distress that his father Dan came to take his brother Randy home and left him behind .
= = = Early institutionalization = = =
Gardner 's mother married Bill Lucas , who had been incarcerated in Wyoming in 1968 . The Gardner @-@ Lucas family eventually had nine children . Gardner admired Lucas , who used his stepsons as lookouts while burglarizing homes . By his early teens , Gardner had been held in detention at a series of institutions , including an involuntary commitment at Utah State Hospital in Provo . Gardner was small as a boy , and described that he had to fight to defend himself and earn respect . As Gardner admitted , " I was a nasty little bugger . "
While held at Utah State Industrial School in Ogden , Gardner was visited by Jack Statt , a man who was living with his brother Randy . According to Gardner , Statt met Randy at a bus stop and paid him $ 25 for oral sex . When released from the school in 1975 , Gardner stayed with Statt . Although social workers noted the men in the household were dressed like women , Statt officially became a foster parent to Gardner and his brother . Gardner said that Statt performed sex acts on them and explained , " I thought life like that was normal . " Gardner stated in a psychological evaluation that he worked as a prostitute while living with Statt , who psychologists say fit the pedophile profile . Gardner said his time in foster care was the most stable period of his life — " Jack was a good man , and he tried to help us out . "
While Gardner intermittently continued to go to the industrial school , he met Debra Bischoff at a Salt Lake City apartment complex where his mother lived . Bischoff described him as : " Very caring . He never put me in the rough situations he was in throughout his life . He sheltered me from that stuff . " Gardner had a daughter in May 1977 and a son in February 1980 with Bischoff , but was convicted of robbery and sent to Utah State Prison in the same month his son was born . Gardner successfully escaped the prison 's maximum security unit on April 19 , 1981 , and was shot in the neck while attempting to kill a man who he believed had raped Bischoff . In February 1983 , he was identified as a ringleader in a disturbance in which inmates barricaded a cell block and started fires .
On August 6 , 1984 , Gardner escaped from custody at the University of Utah Hospital after faking an illness by vomiting . He attacked transportation officer Don Leavitt and forced him to unlock his shackles by telling him : " I guess you know if that doctor comes back , I 'll have to kill you both . " In the course of the escape , Gardner struck Leavitt so hard that he needed wires to reconstruct his face . Gardner forced a medical student named Mike Lynch to take him from the premises on a motorcycle while pointing a gun into his back . On August 11 , a letter carrier found Leavitt 's firearm in a mailbox with a note from Gardner that said , " Here 's the gun and wallet taken from the guard at the hospital . I don 't want to hurt no one else . I just want to be free . "
= = Murders = =
During the night of October 9 , 1984 , Gardner robbed the Cheers Tavern in Salt Lake City . While under the influence of cocaine , he shot bartender Melvyn John Otterstrom in the face , killing him . Otterstrom 's cousin Craig Watson stated that the robbery " gained less than $ 100 . " Family members said Gardner attended Otterstrom 's funeral and pretended to be a childhood friend . Following a tip , police apprehended Gardner three weeks later at the home of his cousin . Gardner said that the shooting occurred because Otterstrom put up a fight , but investigators did not find any evidence to support this claim . Gardner was held in custody in lieu of $ 1 @.@ 5 million bail . His getaway driver was identified as Darcy Perry McCoy , who testified against him .
During trial proceedings for the Otterstrom murder on April 2 , 1985 , Gardner attempted to escape from custody with a revolver smuggled into the Metropolitan Hall of Justice at Salt Lake City . Jim Kleine of the Salt Lake City Fire Department believed that the gun was passed to Gardner as he was being escorted into the courthouse from the underground parking lot . Gardner was immediately shot in the chest by guard Luther Hensley . Gardner then wounded unarmed bailiff George " Nick " Kirk in the abdomen . After running to the courtroom archives , Gardner confronted attorneys Robert Macri and Michael Burdell . According to Macri , after Gardner pointed the gun at him , he changed aim to Burdell , who had been doing pro bono work for his church . Burdell yelled , " Oh , my God , " when Gardner shot him in the eye . Gardner made his way outside the building , where he was surrounded by dozens of police officers . Gardner threw the gun away , dropped and yelled : " Don ’ t shoot , I don ’ t have a gun . "
Gardner was taken to the University of Utah Health Services Center where he was listed in serious condition , but recovered . Burdell died about 45 minutes later while in surgery at Holy Cross Hospital . Kirk survived surgery and was listed in critical condition at LDS Hospital . During a search of the courthouse , a bag of men 's clothing was found in the basement under a women 's restroom sink . Prosecutor Bob Stott believed Gardner 's gun had been taped to a water fountain on the first floor . Darcy Perry McCoy was found unarmed and was arrested about a mile away . Her sister , Carma Jolley Hainsworth , was sentenced to eight years in prison for delivering the clothes and messages in preparation for the escape attempt , but the identity of the person who provided Gardner with the firearm was not known at the time . State corrections director William Vickrey cleared the actions of the prison guards who escorted Gardner , but Salt Lake County Sheriff N.D. " Pete " Hayward said that the guard who shot Gardner should have kept shooting until Gardner was dead . A review found that the guards were inhibited from shooting because Gardner had been using a hostage as a human shield . Sheriff Hayward said the escape attempt " appeared to be well @-@ planned " and blamed the security breach on the layout of the Metropolitan Hall of Justice , which allowed unrestricted access to areas where prisoners were transported .
Otterstrom , a mountain climber and veteran of the 19th Special Forces Group of the Utah National Guard , was survived by his wife Kathy and his five @-@ year @-@ old son , Jason . Burdell – a Vietnam veteran , former engineer , and member of the Summum Church – was survived by his girlfriend , Donna Nu , who would go on to advocate against Gardner 's execution .
= = Sentencing and incarceration = =
Gardner was diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder . In June 1985 , Gardner pleaded guilty to the murder of Otterstrom and received a sentence of life imprisonment without the possibility of parole . At one point , Gardner threatened to disrupt subsequent court hearings because he was upset over being required to wear a leg brace that would lock if he attempted to escape again . He was advised by guards that it would be to his benefit to behave in front of prospective jurors . District Judge Jay E. Banks instructed the jury , on October 22 , 1985 , that they had the option of a verdict for the lesser offense of manslaughter if they found Gardner to be under mental or emotional duress when he shot Burdell . The jurors deliberated less than three hours and found Gardner guilty of capital murder . Ultimately sentenced to death , Gardner selected execution by firing squad over lethal injection . Legislators in Utah had eliminated the firing squad as a method of execution in 2004 , but convicts who were sentenced before that date , such as Gardner , could still select that option . Since 1976 , only two other people have been executed by firing squad in the United States , both in Utah : Gary Gilmore and John Albert Taylor . In contrast to Taylor , who said he chose the firing squad to embarrass the state , Gardner 's attorney said that his client did not want to attract attention and simply preferred to die this way .
I 'd prefer to die of old age , your honor , but if that ain 't possible , I 'll take the firing squad .
Gardner 's incarceration as Utah 's then @-@ youngest inmate on death row was not uneventful . A hearing was held on February 19 , 1987 , in which Gardner and other inmates claimed " unconstitutional confinement " in unsanitary conditions with poor food . On October 28 , 1987 , Gardner broke a glass partition in a prison visiting area and had sex with a woman who was meeting him , while other inmates cheered and barricaded the doors . According to state prison spokesperson Juan Benavidez , though Gardner had " knocked out the lights " , an officer who was in the control room " could still see what was going on . " Gardner claimed breaking the glass was an accident . In 1993 , Utah state representative Dan Tuttle introduced what he called " the Ronnie Lee Gardner bill " in which he proposed that law enforcement officers be permitted to shoot inmates attempting to escape , whether they are " armed or not . "
On September 25 , 1994 , Gardner got drunk from consuming alcohol , which he fermented in his own prison cell sink , and stabbed inmate Richard " Fats " Thomas with a shiv fashioned from a pair of sunglasses . Thomas suffered nine puncture wounds to his face , mouth , arm and chest that were life @-@ threatening , but made a full recovery . Though Thomas had survived the stabbing , Gardner was charged with another capital crime under a 1974 Utah law reserved for prison attacks by first @-@ degree felony inmates . There was no precedent in the United States for a death penalty that was carried out for such a crime . The constitutionality of the law was challenged , with defense lawyers calling it " stale and anachronistic , " and the charge against Gardner was thrown out by the Utah Supreme Court because the victim did not die .
In February 1996 , Gardner threatened to sue to force the state of Utah to execute him by firing squad . He had told a judge in a 1991 hearing that he was motivated by his children to seek lethal injection , but later changed his mind as they became older . He said that he preferred the firing squad because of his " Mormon heritage . " Gardner also felt that lawmakers were trying to eliminate the firing squad , in opposition to popular opinion in Utah , because of concern over the state 's image in the upcoming 2002 Winter Olympics .
I like the firing squad . It 's so much easier ... and there 's no mistakes .
In 1998 , the old Metropolitan Hall of Justice was vacated and replaced by the multimillion @-@ dollar Scott M. Matheson Courthouse . Gardner 's deadly escape attempt in 1985 was blamed on the open access and light security of the previous building and greatly influenced the tighter security measures adopted by Salt Lake City 's new courthouse . Former prosecutor Kent Morgan stated , " Absolutely Gardner changed that . " On March 3 , 2001 , the Metropolitan Hall of Justice was demolished .
= = = Defense motions = = =
In 2007 , U.S. federal judge Tena Campbell rejected Gardner 's appeal that his attorneys were inadequate because they were unable to prove that he did not mean to kill his victim . The United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit rejected motions for appeal by his defense on March 8 , 2010 . Gardner attempted to give up the process at least three times , but his attorneys convinced him to continue appealing each time . State court Judge Robin Reese signed an execution warrant on April 23 ordering the state to carry out the death sentence .
At Gardner 's commutation hearing on June 10 , 2010 , lawyers and medical experts in his defense argued whether meningitis contracted at the age of 4 had damaged his brain . Gardner had also huffed gas and glue with his siblings , and played with mercury stolen from gas meters by his stepfather to sell . Three of the jurors that sentenced Gardner to death signed an affidavit that they would have recommended life without parole , an option that was not available in Utah until 1992 . Gardner claimed that he was a changed man who counseled other inmates and was interested in starting an organic farm project for youths on 160 acres ( 65 ha ) in Box Elder County , Utah . Gardner 's attorney presented a letter his client wrote to Oprah Winfrey requesting funds for the project . Gardner also argued that it was not justifiable to execute him after so much time had passed since the crime .
I can do a lot of good . First of all , I 'm a good example . There 's no better example in this state of what not to do .
Assistant state attorney general Tom Brunker argued against clemency , stating : " Mr. Gardner was sentenced to death and earned that death penalty because of his unflagging history of violent crime . " The family of the late George " Nick " Kirk recounted how his being shot by Gardner affected their lives and ultimately shortened Kirk 's life . Kirk 's daughter Barb Webb said , " He 's done a lot of horrific things in his past and I think , given the chance , he would do them all again . " Jason Otterstrom , whose father Melvyn was murdered by Gardner , struggled to describe the impact upon his family . After listening to the testimony from the families of the victims , the Utah Board of Pardons and Parole declined Gardner 's commutation request , stating that the jury 's verdict and sentence were " not inappropriate . " The board members cited his violent record during incarceration and questioned his effort to reform as being " too little , too late . " Gardner revealed at the hearing that it was Darcy Perry McCoy who provided him the gun with which he murdered Michael Burdell . Deputy Salt Lake County attorney Bob Stott said that McCoy would not be prosecuted because Gardner , the only witness , was going to be executed .
I feel really sorry for him ; I do feel sorry . But he made that choice .
The Utah Supreme Court upheld lower court rulings on June 14 , 2010 , exhausting Gardner 's appeals within the state . The U.S. Supreme Court turned down final appeals on June 17 , though a court order indicated that dissenting Justices Stephen Breyer and John Paul Stevens would have granted a stay of execution . Utah governor Gary Herbert also declined to intervene because Gardner had " a full and fair opportunity " in court . State attorney general Mark Shurtleff announced on Twitter that he signed off on the execution : " I just gave the go ahead to Corrections Director to proceed with Gardner 's execution . "
= = = Death penalty debate = = =
Opponents of capital punishment gathered at the Utah State Capitol to hold a rally during the final appeals . The protest was attended by Gardner 's family , and was organized by Utahans for Alternatives to the Death Penalty . The protest also included the support of Brian King of the Utah House of Representatives , who pledged to urge the legislature to reconsider the use of the capital punishment . The family of murder victim Michael Burdell had also appealed on Gardner 's behalf , stating that Burdell was a pacifist who would have opposed the death penalty .
News media arrived from around the world and raised the issue of blood atonement because of Gardner 's citation of his Mormon roots in selecting the firing squad . Some followers of Mormonism were taught that murder is so heinous that the blood of the offender must be spilled to pay for their sins . On the day before Gardner 's execution , The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints released the following statement :
In the mid @-@ 19th century , when rhetorical , emotional oratory was common , some church members and leaders used strong language that included notions of people making restitution for their sins by giving up their own lives .
However , so @-@ called " blood atonement , " by which individuals would be required to shed their own blood to pay for their sins , is not a doctrine of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints . We believe in and teach the infinite and all @-@ encompassing atonement of Jesus Christ , which makes forgiveness of sin and salvation possible for all people .
Other denominations voiced their opposition to the use of capital punishment . Reverend David Henry of the First Baptist Church of Salt Lake City said , " Violence breeds violence ... . It doesn 't work . It 's ineffective , and it 's brutalizing all of us . " Cardinal Keith O 'Brien of the Roman Catholic Church later used Gardner 's cases to describe the " culture of vengeance " in the United States .
According to polls , support for capital punishment had been steadily declining since the 1990s , but the majority of people in Utah still supported the death penalty in the period leading up to Gardner 's scheduled execution . In 2010 , Kay McIff of the Utah House of Representatives sponsored legislation to require condemned inmates to raise all appeal arguments in their first post @-@ conviction petition , noting that Gardner 's multiple appeals kept his case lingering on death row for nearly 25 years . The bill , HB202 , passed the Utah House by a margin of 67 @-@ to @-@ 5 on February 1 , 2011 , and unanimously passed the Utah State Senate on February 17 . If the legislation is signed into law by the governor , subsequent appeals would require the introduction of new evidence to first be submitted before a judge to determine whether it would affect the case .
= = Execution = =
The Utah Department of Corrections provided Gardner 's attorney , Andrew Parnes , with documentation about executions by firing squad and lethal injection . The records included the Utah execution team 's training and expertise . Parnes relayed the information to Gardner after agreeing not to disclose it to anyone else .
On June 15 , 2010 , Gardner ate a last meal of steak , lobster tail , apple pie , vanilla ice cream and 7 @-@ Up , before beginning a 48 @-@ hour fast while watching The Lord of the Rings film trilogy and reading Divine Justice . According to his lawyers , the fast was motivated by " spiritual reasons . " Gardner was visited by an LDS bishop and his family before his execution . Gardner walked voluntarily to his place of execution . When asked if he had any last words , he responded , " I do not , no . "
Gardner was executed on June 18 , 2010 , at 12 : 15 am Mountain Daylight Time by a firing squad at Utah State Prison in Draper . He was placed in restraints on a black metal chair with a hood covering his head . Sandbags were arranged around him to absorb ricochets . The firing squad was made up of five anonymous volunteers who were certified police officers . The officers stood about 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) from Gardner , aiming at a white target positioned over his heart . One of their .30 @-@ caliber Winchester rifles was selected at random and loaded with a non @-@ lethal wax bullet so that they would not know with certainty who fired the fatal shots . According to the Utah Department of Corrections , the squad used a countdown cadence beginning with five and simultaneously firing right before two . His dark blue jumpsuit made it difficult to see the blood from his wounds . A medical examiner removed Gardner 's hood to reveal his lifeless face . After verifying Gardner 's lack of pulse at the neck and pupillary light reflex , the medical examiner pronounced him dead at 12 : 17 am . He was the first person to be executed by firing squad in the United States since the execution of John Albert Taylor 14 years earlier . A commemorative coin was commissioned for prison staff who participated in the execution . Gardner 's friends and family gathered outside the prison at a candlelight vigil while playing " Free Bird " by Lynyrd Skynyrd . They did not witness his execution , per his request . Some wore shirts with his prisoner number 14873 . His body was cremated and released to his daughter to be taken back to Idaho with family members .
Ultimately , his children and grandchildren got their chance to express their love for him . I 'm not sure Ronnie had a lot of love in his life . At least in the end there , he got that .
= Ringo Starr =
Richard Starkey , MBE ( born 7 July 1940 ) , known professionally as Ringo Starr , is an English musician , singer , songwriter and actor who gained worldwide fame as the drummer for the Beatles . He occasionally sang lead vocals , usually for one song on an album , including " With a Little Help from My Friends " , " Yellow Submarine " and their cover of " Act Naturally " . He also wrote the Beatles ' songs " Don 't Pass Me By " and " Octopus 's Garden " , and is credited as a co @-@ writer of others , including " What Goes On " and " Flying " .
Starr was twice afflicted by life @-@ threatening illnesses during childhood , and as a result of prolonged hospitalisations fell behind in school . In 1955 , he entered the workforce and briefly held a position with British Rail before securing an apprenticeship at a Liverpool equipment manufacturer . Soon afterwards , he became interested in the UK skiffle craze , developing a fervent admiration for the genre . In 1957 , he cofounded his first band , the Eddie Clayton Skiffle Group , which earned several prestigious local bookings before the fad succumbed to American rock and roll by early 1958 .
When the Beatles formed in 1960 , Starr was a member of another Liverpool group , Rory Storm and the Hurricanes . After achieving moderate success with that band in the UK and Hamburg , he quit the Hurricanes and joined the Beatles in August 1962 , replacing Pete Best . Starr played key roles in the Beatles ' films and appeared in numerous others . After the band 's break @-@ up in 1970 , he released several successful singles including the US number four hit " It Don 't Come Easy " , and number ones " Photograph " and " You 're Sixteen " . In 1972 , he released his most successful UK single , " Back Off Boogaloo " , which peaked at number two . He achieved commercial and critical success with his 1973 album Ringo , which was a top ten release in both the UK and the US . He has been featured in a number of documentaries and hosted television shows . He also narrated the first two series of the children 's television programme Thomas & Friends and portrayed " Mr Conductor " during the first season of the PBS children 's television series Shining Time Station . Since 1989 , he has toured with twelve variations of Ringo Starr & His All @-@ Starr Band .
Starr 's creative contribution to music has received praise from drummers such as Phil Collins , who described him as " a great musician " , and Steve Smith , who commented : " Before Ringo , drum stars were measured by their soloing ability and virtuosity . Ringo 's popularity brought forth a new paradigm ... we started to see the drummer as an equal participant in the compositional aspect ... His parts are so signature to the songs that you can listen to a Ringo drum part without the rest of the music and still identify the song . " He was inducted into the Modern Drummer Hall of Fame in 1998 . In 2011 , Rolling Stone readers named Starr the fifth @-@ greatest drummer of all time . Starr , who was previously inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a Beatle in 1988 , was inducted for his solo career in 2015 , making him one of 21 performers inducted more than once .
= = 1940 – 56 : Early life = =
Richard Starkey was born on 7 July 1940 , at 9 Madryn Street , in Dingle , Liverpool . He is the only child of confectioners Elsie ( née Gleave ) and Richard Starkey . Elsie enjoyed singing and dancing , a hobby that she shared with her husband , an avid fan of swing . Prior to the birth of their son , whom they nicknamed " Ritchie " , the couple had spent much of their free time on the local ballroom circuit , but soon after his birth their regular outings ended . Elsie adopted an overprotective approach to raising her son that bordered on fixation . Subsequently , " Big Ritchie " , as Starkey 's father became known , lost interest in his family , choosing instead to spend long hours drinking and dancing in pubs , sometimes for several consecutive days .
In 1944 , in an effort to reduce their housing costs , his family moved to another neighbourhood in the Dingle , 10 Admiral Grove ; soon afterwards , his parents separated , and they divorced within the year . Starkey later stated that he has " no real memories " of his father , who made little effort to bond with him , visiting as few as three times thereafter . Elsie found it difficult to survive on her ex @-@ husband 's support payments of thirty shillings a week , so she took on several menial jobs cleaning houses before securing a position as a local barmaid , an occupation that she held for twelve years .
At age six Starkey developed appendicitis . Following a routine appendectomy he contracted peritonitis , causing him to fall into a coma that lasted for days . His recovery spanned twelve months , which he spent away from his family at Liverpool 's Myrtle Street children 's hospital . Upon his discharge in May 1948 , his mother allowed him to stay home , causing him to miss school . At age eight , he remained illiterate , with a poor grasp of mathematics . His lack of education contributed to a feeling of alienation at school , which resulted in him regularly playing truant at Sefton Park . After several years of twice @-@ weekly tutoring from his surrogate sister and neighbour , Marie Maguire Crawford , Starkey had nearly caught up to his peers academically , but in 1953 , he contracted tuberculosis and was admitted to a sanatorium , where he remained for two years . During his stay the medical staff made an effort to stimulate motor activity and relieve boredom by encouraging their patients to join the hospital band , leading to his first exposure to a percussion instrument : a makeshift mallet made from a cotton bobbin that he used to strike the cabinets next to his bed . Soon afterwards
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Post Office , which moved to a newly constructed headquarters and sorting office on the site . Units currently based at RAF Northolt are No. 32 ( The Royal ) Squadron , the Queen 's Colour Squadron , 600 ( City of London ) Squadron , No 1 Aeronautical Information Documents Unit , the Air Historical Branch and the Central Band of the RAF . The station has also been used as a filming location for productions made at Pinewood Studios .
= = History = =
= = = Construction = = =
Following Louis Blériot 's first flight across the English Channel in 1909 , the British Army considered the necessity of defending the United Kingdom from a future air attack . By May 1910 , Claude Grahame @-@ White and other aviation pioneers were flying from the flat areas around Ruislip , although they soon sought an aerodrome for London , which was eventually built at Hendon . A proposal was made in 1912 for the area around where RAF Northolt now stands to be developed as " Harrow Aerodrome " . The company established to develop the site was listed on the London Stock Exchange but the idea did not progress any further .
The outbreak of the First World War necessitated a new aerodrome for the Royal Flying Corps . The Corps had received the Royal Warrant on 13 April 1912 , whereupon Major Sefton Brancker of the War Office conducted aerial surveys in 1914 of Glebe Farm in Ickenham , and Hundred Acres Farm and Down Barnes Farm in Ruislip , looking for the most effective operating base for new squadrons . He settled on a site near Northolt Junction railway station but it was not until January 1915 that the British government officially requisitioned the land . It is rumoured that the government official tasked with acquiring the land arrived at the site with his map upside down , leading to the government requisitioning and developing land on the wrong side of the railway line , including the old Hill Farm .
Construction of the new aerodrome , to be named " RFC Military School , Ruislip " , began in January 1915 . It opened on 3 May 1915 , becoming known as Northolt and home to No. 4 Reserve Aeroplane Squadron which relocated from Farnborough . The airfield became " Northolt " despite being in neighbouring South Ruislip . Most early RAF airfields were named after the nearest railway station , in this case South Ruislip station , known at that time as Northolt Junction and later Northolt Halt . In the same year the airfield was extended westwards and aircraft began flying sorties in defence of London against Zeppelin raids . No. 18 Squadron was formed in the same month as Northolt and equipped with Bleriot Experimental biplanes , whose slow speed led to heavy losses in combat with the German Fliegertruppe .
In 1916 , No. 43 Squadron was formed under the command of Major Sholto Douglas . Aircraft equipping the squadron included the Sopwith 1 ½ Strutter , built by the Fairey Aviation company , then in Hayes . The Strutter made its first test flight from Northolt in 1916 with Harry Hawker at the controls . Fairey conducted test flights at Northolt from 1917 until 1928 when the Air Ministry gave the company notice to vacate the aerodrome . Flights later resumed from the Great West Aerodrome owned by Fairey in Harmondsworth , which was eventually developed as Heathrow Airport . No. 43 Squadron went on to fly sorties over France from 17 January 1917 , taking part in the Battle of Vimy Ridge between 4 and 8 April 1917 .
No. 600 Squadron and No. 601 Squadron of the fledgling Royal Auxiliary Air Force were formed at Northolt in 1925 under the command of Squadron Leader Lord Edward Grosvenor . Both squadrons were deployed to RAF Hendon in 1927 , although 600 Squadron would return in 1939 . The Prince of Wales , later King Edward VIII and subsequently the Duke of Windsor , made his first flight in a Bristol F.2 Fighter from Northolt on 27 April 1929 .
= = = Battle of Britain and the Second World War = = =
Northolt became an active base during the Second World War for Royal Air Force and Polish Air Force squadrons in their defence of the United Kingdom . It was the first RAF station to operate the Hawker Hurricane , with No. 111 Squadron receiving the first four aircraft in December 1937 , and reaching its full complement by February 1938 . In the lead @-@ up to war , the RAF implemented a policy of adding concrete runways to important airfields . As a result , by 1939 Northolt had a new 800 @-@ by @-@ 50 @-@ yard ( 732 by 46 m ) concrete runway . Later in 1939 RAF Hendon became one of its satellite airfields . Polish pilots were taught English at RAF Uxbridge , where they also practised formation flying using tricycles with radios , compasses and speed indicators .
On 15 September 1940 during the Battle of Britain , No. 1 Squadron RCAF , No. 229 Squadron , No. 303 Polish Fighter Squadron , No. 504 Squadron , and part of No. 264 Squadron were based at the station , all under the control of No. 11 Group RAF , headquartered at RAF Uxbridge . All flew Hawker Hurricanes except No. 264 Squadron 's contingent , which operated the Boulton Paul Defiant . During the Battle of Britain , the Polish Squadron downed the highest number of enemy aircraft with its Czech pilot Sergeant Josef Frantisek scoring the most " kills " . The Luftwaffe bombed the airfield in August 1940 as well as other sector airfields in the area , including Biggin Hill , Hornchurch and North Weald , as part of a concentrated effort against the airfields and sector stations of No. 11 Group RAF . A total of 4 @,@ 000 bombs were recorded as falling within two miles ( 3 km ) of the airfield over a fifteen @-@ month period , although only two were recorded as hitting the airfield itself . Under the leadership of the station commander , Group Captain Stanley Vincent , the airfield was camouflaged to resemble civil housing . Vincent had been concerned that camouflaging the airfield as open land would look too suspicious from the air ; Northolt was surrounded by housing and so a large open area would draw attention . A fake stream was painted across the main runway while the hangars were decorated to look like houses and gardens . The result was so effective that pilots flying to Northolt from other airfields often struggled to find the airfield .
Thirty Allied airmen including servicemen from Belgium , Canada , Czechoslovakia , New Zealand , Poland and the United Kingdom were killed flying from RAF Northolt during the Battle of Britain , of whom ten were Polish . The Polish War Memorial dedicated to all Polish airmen who lost their lives during the Second World War stands near the southeastern corner of the airfield . Its name is also commemorated at the adjacent eponymous junction on Western Avenue .
Squadrons based at RAF Northolt during the battle shot down a total of 148 Luftwaffe aircraft and damaged 52 . A further 25 were claimed by pilots and recorded as " probables " . Group Captain Vincent became one of the few RAF airmen to shoot down an enemy aircraft in both World Wars . Vincent was a long @-@ serving RAF man who had claimed an aerial victory over the Western Front in the First World War . By the time of the Battle of Britain he was too old for operational flying . Nevertheless , he took to the skies during one raid and succeeded in bringing down a German aircraft .
After the Battle of Britain , the station remained a base for daytime fighter operations , with No. 302 Polish Fighter Squadron , No. 229 Squadron and No. 615 Squadron all arriving before 3 November 1940 . No. 308 Polish Fighter Squadron and No. 306 Polish Fighter Squadron later joined No. 303 during 1941 to form the No. 1 Polish Fighter Wing . Polish Fighter Squadrons based at Northolt in 1942 took part in Operation Jubilee ( the raid on Dieppe ) on 19 August alongside Nos. 302 and 308 from nearby RAF Heston . Reconnaissance squadrons No. 16 Squadron and No. 140 Squadron operating Supermarine Spitfires and de Havilland Mosquitos moved to Northolt in 1944 . No. 69 Squadron with their Vickers Wellingtons modified for photographic reconnaissance arrived later . All three reconnaissance squadrons were combined to form No. 34 ( PR ) Wing .
In 1943 , the station became the first to fly sorties using Supermarine Spitfire Mk IXs in German airspace in support of bomber operations . On 25 March , RAF Ferry Command became RAF Transport Command and thereafter used Northolt as a London base for the transfer of new aircraft from factories to airfields . Runway 26 / 08 was extended in February that year to accommodate the larger transport aircraft required by the Command . Northolt continued as a Sector Fighter Station until February 1944 . As a result of this and the new larger runway , the smaller 02 / 20 runway closed in April 1944 .
RAF Northolt became home to Prime Minister Winston Churchill 's personal aircraft , a modified Douglas C @-@ 54 Skymaster , in June 1944 . The aircraft was used to fly him to meetings with other Allied leaders . Between 20 and 21 July 1944 , a converted Consolidated B @-@ 24 Liberator bomber named " Marco Polo " made the first non @-@ stop intercontinental flight , flying from London to Washington , DC , then returning to Northolt from La Guardia Airport within 18 hours . In November of the same year , an Avro York flew non @-@ stop from Northolt to Cairo in 10 hours and 25 minutes . A new runway , 31 / 13 , was surveyed the following month and built in March 1946 .
= = = Post @-@ war civil and military use = = =
Starting in 1946 the airfield was used by civil aviation during the construction of nearby Heathrow Airport . During this period , Northolt became a major base for British European Airways , which used the nearby Bourne School as its headquarters . Other airlines including Aer Lingus , Alitalia , Scandinavian Airlines System and Swissair used the airfield for scheduled services across Europe .
In December 1946 , after taking off during a heavy snowstorm , a Douglas DC @-@ 3 operated by British European Airways , flying from Northolt to Glasgow , crashed onto the roof of a house in South Ruislip . All the crew and passengers escaped unharmed by climbing through the loft of the house and leaving via the front door . No residents were injured , even though the owner of the house next door was standing at her front gate when the aircraft came down . The owners of the house had not moved in at the time of the crash as they were due to be married a few days later . The house was later named " Dakota Rest " after the Douglas DC @-@ 3 's wartime operational name , and still stands today .
During 1952 a total of 50 @,@ 000 air movements were recorded , making the airfield the busiest in Europe . By then the only scheduled airlines were BEA and Aer Lingus . The RAF maintained a presence throughout its use by civil airlines , making it the longest continually used airfield in the history of the Royal Air Force . En route from Northolt to Dublin , on 10 January 1952 , a civil Douglas C @-@ 47 Skytrain operated by Aer Lingus and named " St. Kevin " flew into an area of extreme turbulence caused by a mountain wave generated by Snowdon . As a result , the plane crashed into a peat bog near Llyn Gwynant in Snowdonia , killing all 20 passengers and three crew in the company 's first fatal accident .
Civil flights ceased when the central area at Heathrow opened in 1954 with Northolt reverting to sole military use in May that year . Northolt 's operations became constrained by its proximity to the new much larger civil airport at Heathrow . No. 1 Aeronautical Information Documents Unit ( AIDU ) moved to the station in 1956 from the neighbouring RAF West Ruislip station . The unit had been established in 1953 to provide information on airfields , communications and navigational aids for the benefit of aircraft safety . AIDU was originally under the command of RAF Transport Command but this was moved to Home Command in March 1957 .
On 1 June 1960 , an Avro Anson aircraft suffered engine failure soon after take @-@ off from Northolt and crash @-@ landed on top of the nearby Express Dairies plant in South Ruislip . There were no fatalities . Later that year , on 25 October , a Pan Am Boeing 707 , heading for Heathrow , mistakenly landed at Northolt with forty @-@ one passengers on board . A Lufthansa Boeing 707 also attempted to land at the station on 28 April 1964 but was dissuaded by a red signal flare fired by personnel from Air Traffic Control . In the days before navigational aids such as instrument landing systems ( ILS ) and the global positioning system ( GPS ) were available , the letters NO ( for Northolt ) and LH ( for Heathrow ) were painted on two gasometers on the approach to each airfield , one at Southall for the approach to Heathrow 's diagonal runway ( coded 23L ) and one at South Harrow for the approach to Northolt 's runway ( then coded 26 ) , in an effort to prevent a recurrence of such errors . By the 1980s movements of privately owned aircraft , mainly corporate jets , outnumbered military aircraft . Civil flights were limited to 28 per day , with a maximum of 7 @,@ 000 a year . This limit remains to this day .
Northolt received its first gate guardian , a Spitfire F.Mk 22 , in September 1963 . Purchased from the RAF in 1969 for use in the film Battle of Britain , it was replaced by a Spitfire Mk XVI on 2 June 1970 . This aircraft remained at the station until its removal on 8 September 1989 for restoration to full flying condition . The Kermit Weeks ' Fantasy of Flight Museum in Polk City , Florida , purchased the aircraft whereupon the station received a fibreglass replica of a Spitfire Mk IX as a replacement .
Servicing of No. 32 Squadron passed from the RAF to the private company Fields Aviation Services in April 1985 , then to Lovaux Aircraft Servicing in 1990 . In 1991 , the Station Flight was established , taking delivery of two Britten @-@ Norman Islanders in December which entered service in January 1992 . No. 32 Squadron celebrated its Diamond Jubilee in 1991 , at a time when personnel became involved in operations during the Gulf War . No. 38 Group RAF assumed control of RAF Northolt on 2 November 1992 following a wider restructuring of the RAF . On 16 December 1994 , the new southside Operations Building opened , replacing the old Northolt Airport Terminal building . With the reorganisation of RAF Strike Command on 1 April 2000 , No. 38 Group was disbanded and Northolt came under the control of No. 2 Group RAF .
= = = Modern use = = =
In August 1996 , a Spanish Learjet operated by Mar Aviation overshot runway 25 and collided with a van heading eastward on the A40 Western Avenue ; the aircraft was carrying an actress bound for Pinewood Studios in Buckinghamshire . The two pilots , the actress and van driver all suffered minor injuries . The ensuing investigation by the Civil Aviation Authority 's Air Accidents Investigation Branch found that both the crew 's lack of understanding English and military air traffic control procedures had contributed significantly to the crash . Subsequently , after some thirty years of protracted consideration , an ILS was eventually fitted to Northolt 's redefined Runway 25 . In addition , aggregate @-@ filled safety pits were installed at each end of the runway by 21 January 1998 to protect road users in the event of another business jet or military transport failing to stop or ascend before the end of the runway . The House of Commons Transport Select Committee considered the conversion of RAF Northolt to a possible offshoot of Heathrow Airport in the 1990s . While the existing runways would cause aircraft to cross the flightpaths of those using Heathrow , new parallel runways were suggested . These suggestions were opposed by then MP for Ruislip @-@ Northwood , John Wilkinson , and eventually progressed no further .
Much media attention focused on the airfield when the body of Diana , Princess of Wales , arrived there from Villacoublay airfield , in Paris , France , after her death in a car crash in the city on 31 August 1997 . The Queen 's Colour Squadron , then based at neighbouring RAF Uxbridge , acted as the bearer party , while the flight was met by the Prime Minister , the Lord Chamberlain , Lord Lieutenant of Greater London , Secretary of State for Defence , the RAF Northolt station commander and the RAF Chaplain @-@ in @-@ Chief .
Attention was high again in 2001 when Ronnie Biggs , the seriously ill , fugitive Great Train Robber , was flown from Brazil to the airfield to be arrested by waiting police officers . Biggs had escaped from custody in 1965 ; upon his return he was taken to Belmarsh Prison to complete the remainder of his sentence .
Since 1 June 1998 , station commanders have served as aides @-@ de @-@ camp to Her Majesty the Queen . The station received the Freedom of Entry to the London Borough of Hillingdon on 11 May 2000 . This allowed military personnel to march through the borough in full uniform , an honour granted by the council in light of 2000 being the 60th anniversary of the Battle of Britain and the 85th anniversary of the opening of RAF Northolt . The neighbouring RAF Uxbridge station had received the same honour in 1960 .
The remains of a Hawker Hurricane flown by Flying Officer Ludwik Witold Paszkiewicz , the first pilot in No. 303 Squadron to shoot down an enemy aircraft , were donated to the station in June 2008 . During the Battle of Britain , Paszkiewicz became a flying ace and received the Distinguished Flying Cross after shooting down six aircraft . He was killed in action over Borough Green in Kent on 27 September 1940 . No. 303 Squadron recorded its 100th kill less than a month after commencing operations . Polish pilot Squadron Leader Franciszek Kornicki , who saw wartime service at RAF Northolt , was reunited with the Supermarine Spitfire he had flown at a special ceremony in September 2010 .
An additional memorial to British , Polish , Australian and New Zealand aircrew killed during the Battle of Britain was unveiled in September 2010 . In October that year , the hangar which had housed Churchill 's personal aircraft , the former Squadron Watch office and the Operations Block were given Grade II listed building status . The Operations Block was a prototype of the " Dowding System " , which facilitated the chain of command 's issuance of orders for the interception of enemy aircraft and a scheme used for the first time during the Battle of Britain . Prior to the listing , the block was renamed the Sir Keith Park Building on 20 September in honour of the former No. 11 Group RAF commander who had also served as station commander at Northolt between 1931 and 1932 . RAF Northolt itself is the only airfield used in the Battle of Britain still operated by the RAF .
Group Captain Tom Barrett , appointed station commander in September 2009 and the final station commander of neighbouring RAF Uxbridge , died on 10 March 2011 following a road traffic accident on the A40 .
In January 2012 , it was reported that the future of station was under review by the Ministry of Defence as part of efforts to reduce defence spending . A proposed use has been as a satellite of Heathrow Airport , although a Ministry of Defence spokesman described that as unlikely . Stephen Pound , Member of Parliament for Ealing North , described such a move as " disastrous " for his constituency , and said it was unlikely that the site could be sold for construction of housing .
Four Eurofighter Typhoon aircraft arrived at the station from RAF Coningsby on 2 May 2012 to take part in a security exercise as part of preparations for the 2012 Summer Olympics . During the Games , the aircraft were deployed to the station to provide air superiority protection for London , in conjunction with other security measures by the British Armed Forces . Westland Sea King helicopters of the Royal Navy were also deployed to the station . The presence of the aircraft during the Olympics became the first time fighter aircraft had been stationed at RAF Northolt since the Second World War . The Typhoons and Sea Kings left Northolt on 16 August following the conclusion of the Olympics .
The overnight base of the London Air Ambulance moved to RAF Northolt from Denham Aerodrome in February 2013 . The flying time from the station to its daytime base at the Royal London Hospital in Whitechapel is three minutes shorter than from Denham , which also provides savings for the charity .
In April 2013 , the Ministry of Defence announced a proposal to increase the number of private flights from 7 @,@ 000 to 12 @,@ 000 per year as part of plans to increase the income generated by the airfield . The number of flights would be limited to 40 per day , and the increase would be phased in over three years to 2016 .
= = = Project MoDEL redevelopment = = =
The Ministry of Defence launched Project MoDEL ( Ministry of Defence Estates London ) in 2006 to consolidate many of its London @-@ based operations at RAF Northolt . Under the project , RAF Bentley Priory , RAF Uxbridge , RAF West Ruislip , RAF Eastcote and the Inglis Barracks in Mill Hill were all closed between 2006 and 2010 with any remaining units transferring to Northolt . The Air Historical Branch , originally established in 1919 to provide a record of air activity during the First World War , was also relocated to RAF Northolt from RAF Bentley Priory in 2008 as part of this project . As a result , the station has been extensively redeveloped with new facilities to support these operations .
The statue , Letter from Home , of a First World War soldier reading a letter was moved from outside Inglis Barracks in Mill Hill to RAF Northolt in June 2007 . It is a replica of the statue at Paddington Station and was first unveiled in 1982 . Following the relocation of the British Forces Post Office and Defence Courier Service from Mill Hill , a new headquarters and main sorting facility were built for their use which opened in November 2007 . New hangar facilities for the use of No. 32 Squadron were also constructed , along with new personnel accommodation .
The original 1920s Officers ' Mess was refurbished as part of the work , which also saw the relocation of the Supermarine Spitfire ( full @-@ scale replica ) gate guardian to the passenger terminal , and the unveiling of a new Hawker Hurricane ( full @-@ scale replica ) gate guardian near the eastern station entrance in September 2010 , commemorating the aircrew based at Northolt who had fought in the Battle of Britain .
Upon the closure of RAF Uxbridge , control of the Battle of Britain Bunker passed to RAF Northolt to allow for continued public visits . In December 2010 it was agreed that the South Hillingdon branch of the St. John Ambulance service would move from its existing base in RAF Uxbridge to new premises at Northolt .
The station 's new police dog section , featuring kennels and a quarantine building , opened in February 2012 , marking the completion of building work .
= = Operations = =
The station is organised into two wings , with a number of lodger units . Within the Operations Wing , the station houses No. 32 ( The Royal ) Squadron RAF , and the Comms Fleet Force Headquarters . 32 Squadron flies six BAe 125 CC.3 executive jets , two BAe 146 CC.2 four @-@ engine VIP short range transport aircraft and two BAe 146 QC versions , with one Agusta Westland A109E Power helicopter . RAF Northolt also houses the Station Flight , operating two Britten @-@ Norman Islander CC.2s in electronic intelligence gathering – described by the RAF as performing " photographic mapping and light communications roles " .
The Support Wing of the station incorporates the Personnel Management Squadron , the Estates Management Squadron , the Station Management Squadron , the Force Development Squadron , Media and Communications , the Finance Department and Safety , Health and Environmental Protection . Its Operations Squadron , the Air Movements Squadron and the Airfield Support Squadron make up the station 's Operations Wing .
Lodger Units at Northolt include No. 600 Squadron Royal Auxiliary Air Force , 621 EOD Squadron Royal Logistics Corps ( part of 11 Explosive Ordnance Disposal Regiment RLC ) , No. 1 AIDU ( Aeronautical Information Documents Unit ) , the Central Band of the Royal Air Force , the Service Prosecuting Authority , Naval Aeronautical Information Centre , the British Forces Post Office ( BFPO ) , the Air Historical Branch and the Polish Records Office .
= = Squadrons and aircraft = =
Sources : Battle of Britain Airfields ( 1st Edition ) and A History of Royal Air Force Northolt
= = In popular culture = =
As it is near several film studios including those at Pinewood , the airfield has been used to represent outside locations in a number of feature films . Scenes of the James Bond films Goldfinger , Thunderball and Octopussy were filmed at Northolt , and station personnel served as extras in the Octopussy hangar fly @-@ through stunt scene . The mini @-@ series The Winds of War and The Bill and the BBC shows Waking the Dead , Doctor Who and Red Dwarf have all used Northolt to represent various fictional airfields . In early 2010 the station was used for the filming action scenes of the final episode of the BBC 's final series of Ashes to Ashes .
= Margaret McKenna =
Sister Margaret McKenna , M.M.S. , ( born 1940 ) is an American Medical Mission Sister and anti @-@ militarist activist . Raised in Hackensack , New Jersey , she earned her PhD in the origins and religious thought of Christianity from the University of Pennsylvania . In the 1970s , McKenna began participating in non @-@ violent civil disobedience with the Plowshares Movement , sometimes being arrested or imprisoned for her actions . Her activism has continued through recent years .
In 1989 , McKenna helped to found New Jerusalem Laura , a North Philadelphia addiction treatment center that strives to help people recover from substance abuse without the use of medication , by substituting community service , discussion , and Bible study as routes to recovery .
= = Early life and education = =
McKenna grew up in Hackensack , New Jersey and upon graduating from high school entered the Medical Mission Sisters , a Roman Catholic organization of women dedicated to improving world access to health care . She earned a bachelor 's degree in English from Chestnut Hill College , then a small Catholic women 's college , and a master 's degree in liturgy from Notre Dame University before moving on to the University of Pennsylvania and earning a doctorate in Christian origins and religious thought . For her doctorate thesis , she traveled to Israel for the clarity and solitude .
= = Activism = =
McKenna has been arrested for several acts of civil disobedience since becoming an activist in the 1970s . In 1987 , she participated in a protest over the Iran – Contra affair during the bicentennial celebration of the signing of the constitution in Philadelphia . In 1988 on Easter Sunday , McKenna and three other Plowshares activists accessed the third deck of the USS Iowa and symbolically hammered on empty Tomahawk missile housings before pouring their own blood on them . At the same time , a banner that read " Follow the nonviolent Christ " was placed on the side of the ship . The group was charged with trespassing , and McKenna was sentenced to four months in prison . In 2007 , McKenna , as well as musician Aaron Weiss , was arrested for participating in a " die @-@ in " to protest the civilian casualties of the Iraq War on the grounds of The Pentagon in Arlington County , Virginia . This event was referenced in the song " Timothy Hay " by Weiss 's band , mewithoutYou , on their album It 's All Crazy ! It 's All False ! It 's All a Dream ! It 's Alright .
= = New Jerusalem Laura = =
McKenna and modern @-@ day hermit Richard Withers , who were both passionate about Desert Fathers then , asked themselves , " Where is the desert today ? " After concluding that " the desert " was the inner cites , in 1989 , they moved to the Fox Chase neighborhood in Northeast Philadelphia . There , they witnessed the impact of drug addiction on the lives of the residents . In reaction , McKenna and Withers founded New Jerusalem Laura in an attempt to treat drug and alcohol addiction . In addition to New Jerusalem , McKenna helped set up the Peacemakers Reflection Center and the Alternate to Violence Project in her community .
New Jerusalem Laura 's addict counseling methods were influenced by those of One Day at a Time , founded by the Rev. Henry Wells . For the first 60 days of their stay , recovering addicts are prohibited from contacting the outside world , must surrender their cigarettes , and must be escorted if they leave the building . During this time , residents occupy their time with chores , community service , meetings , and Bible studies . Less than half of all people who enter the program remain after the first 60 days . After the first 60 days , residents ' actions are less tightly restricted ; however , they are still required to participate in the chores , Bible studies , and meetings . Residents graduate from the program after six months .
McKenna believes that the reason for the New Jerusalem Laura 's success is the community . " In a recovery community , you can 't get away with [ lying ] , because it shows , " she said . " It forces you to be honest . " Nearly 400 residents have graduated from the program since its inception . Of those , close to seventy percent are reported to remain drug @-@ free , well above the results of traditional recovery methods .
= Khandoba =
Khandoba , ( Marathi : खंडोबा Kannada : ಖಂಡೋಬಾ , Telugu : ఖండోబా , Khaṇḍobā ) also known as Martanda Bhairava and Malhari , is a Hindu god , worshipped as a form of Shiva , mainly in the Deccan plateau of India , especially in the states of Maharashtra and Karnataka . He is the most popular Kuladaivat in Maharashtra . He is also the patron deity of warrior , farming , herding as well as some Brahmin ( priest ) castes , the hunters and gatherers of the hills and forests . The cult of Khandoba has linkages with Vaishnava and Jain traditions , and also assimilates all communities irrespective of caste , including Muslims . Khandoba is sometimes identified with Mallanna of Andhra Pradesh and Mailara of Karnataka . The worship of Khandoba developed during the 9th and 10th centuries from a folk deity into a composite god possessing the attributes of Shiva , Bhairava , Surya and Karttikeya ( Skanda ) . He is depicted either in the form of a Lingam , or as an image of a warrior riding on a bull or a horse . The foremost centre of Khandoba worship is Jejuri in Maharashtra . The legends of Khandoba , found in the text Malhari Mahatmya and also narrated in folk songs , revolve around his victory over demons Mani @-@ malla and his marriages .
= = Etymology and other names = =
The name " Khandoba " comes from the words " khadga " ( sword ) , the weapon used by Khandoba to kill the demons , and " ba " ( father ) . " Khanderaya " means " king Khandoba " . Another variant is " Khanderao " , where the suffix " rao " ( king ) is used .
In Sanskrit texts , Khandoba is known as Martanda Bhairava or Surya , a combination of the solar deity Martanda and Shiva 's fierce form Bhairava . The name " Mallari " or " Malhari " is split as " Malla " and " ari " ( enemy ) , thus meaning " enemy of the demon Malla " . Malhari Mahatmya records Martanda Bhairava , pleased with the bravery of Malla , takes the name " Mallari " ( the enemy of Malla ) . Other variants include Malanna ( Mallanna ) and Mailara ( Mailar ) .
Other names include Khandu Gavda , Mhalsa @-@ kant ( " husband of Mhalsa " ) and Jejurica Vani .
= = Iconography = =
In a popular oleograph representation of Khandoba , Mhalsa is seated in front of Khandoba on his white horse . Mhalsa is piercing a demon 's chest with a spear , while a dog is biting his thigh and the horse is hitting his head . The other demon is grabbing the reins of the horse and attacking Khandoba with a club as Khandoba is dismounting the horse and attacking the demon with his sword . In other representations , Khandoba is seen seated on a horse with the heads of demons trod under the horse 's hooves or their heads under Khandoba 's knees .
In murtis ( idols ) , Khandoba or Malhara is depicted as having four arms , carrying a damaru ( drum ) , Trishula ( trident ) , Bhandara @-@ patra ( turmeric powder @-@ filled bowl ) and khadga ( sword ) . Khandoba 's images are often dressed as a Maratha Sardar , or a Muslim pathan . Often , Khandoba is depicted as a warrior seated on horseback with one or both of his wives and accompanied with one or more dogs . He is also worshipped as the aniconic Lingam , the symbol of Shiva . Often in Khandoba temples , both representations of Khandoba — the aniconic lingam and the anthropomorphic horseback form .
= = Legends = =
Legends of Khandoba generally tell about the battle between the deity and demons Malla and Mani . The principle written source of the legend is Malhari Mahatmya ( Mallari Mahatmya ) , which claims to be from the chapter Kshetra @-@ kanda of the Sanskrit text Brahmanda Purana , but is not included in standard editions of the Purana . R.C. Dhere and Sontheimer suggests that the Sanskrit Mahatmya was composed around 1460 @-@ 1510 AD , mostly by a Deshastha Brahmin , to whom Khandoba is the family deity . A version is also available in Marathi by Siddhapal Kesasri ( 1585 ) . Other sources include the later texts of Jayadri Mahatmya and Martanda Vijaya by Gangadhara ( 1821 ) and the oral stories of the Vaghyas , bards of the god .
The legend tell of the demon Malla and his younger brother Mani , who had gained the boon of invincibility from Brahma , creating chaos on the earth and harassing the sages . When the seven sages approached Shiva for protection after Indra and Vishnu confessed their incapability , Shiva assumed the form ( Avatar ) of Martanda Bhairava , as the Mahatmya calls Khandoba , riding the Nandi bull , leading an army of the gods . Martanda Bhairava is described as shining like the gold and sun , covered in turmeric also known as Haridra , three @-@ eyed , with a crescent moon on his forehead . The demon army was slaughtered by the gods and finally Khandoba killed Malla and Mani . While dying , Mani offers his white horse to Khandoba as an act of repentance and asks for a boon . The boon is that he be present in every shrine of Khandoba , that human @-@ kind is bettered and that he be given an offering of goat flesh . The boon was granted , and thus he was transformed into a demigod . Malla , when asked by the deity if he asked for a boon , asks for the destruction of the world and human @-@ flesh . Angered by the demon 's request , Khandoba decapitates him , and his head falls at the temple stairs where it will trampled by devotees ' feet . The legend further describes how two Lingas appeared at Prempuri , the place where the demons were killed .
Oral stories continue the process of Sanskritization of Khandoba — his elevation from a folk deity to Shiva , a deity of the classical Hindu pantheon — that was initiated by the texts . Khandoba 's wives Mhalsa and Banai are also identified with Shiva 's classical Hindu wives Parvati and Ganga . Hegadi Pradhan , the minister and brother @-@ in @-@ law of Khandoba and brother of Lingavat Vani Mhalsa , the faithful dog that helps Khandoba kill the demons , the horse given by Mani and the demon brothers are considered avatars of Vishnu , Krishna , Nandi and the demons Madhu @-@ Kaitabha respectively . Other myth variants narrate that Khandoba defeats a single demon named Manimalla , who offers his white horse , sometimes called Mani , to the god . Other legends depict Mhalsa ( or Parvati ) and Banai or Banu ( or Ganga ) as futilely helping Khandoba in the battle to collect the blood of Mani , every drop of which was creating a new demon . Finally , the dog of Khandoba swallows all the blood . Sometimes , Mhalsa , or rarely Banai , is described as seated behind Khandoba on the horse and fighting with a sword or spear .
The legends portray Khandoba as a king who rules from his fortress of Jejuri and holds court where he distributes gold . Also , king Khandoba goes on hunting expeditions , which often turn into " erotic adventures " , and subsequent marriages .
= = Wives = =
Khandoba has many wives who are women from many communities , who serve as cultural links between the god and the communities . He has five wives , Mhalsa and Banai / Banu / Banubai being the most important . While Khandoba 's first wife Mhalsa is from the high caste Lingayat merchant ( Vani ) community , his second wife Banai is a Dhangar ( shepherd caste ) . Mhalsa has had a regular ritualistic marriage with Khandoba . Banai , on the other hand , has a love marriage by capture with the god . Mhalsa is described as jealous and a good cook ; Banai is erotic , resolute , but does not even know to cook . Often folk songs tell of their quarrels . Mhalsa represents " culture " and Banai " nature " . The god king Khandoba stands between them .
Mhalsa is believed to be a combined avatara of Mohini and Parvati . Mhalsa was born as the daughter of a rich merchant in Newase called Tirmarsheth . On the divine orders of Khandoba in a dream to Tirmarsheth , she was married to Khandoba on Pausha Pournima ( the full moon day of Hindu calendar month of Paush ) in Pali ( Pembar ) . Two shivlingas appeared on this occasion . An annual festival marking this event is celebrated in Pali every Paush Pournima .
Banai is believed to the daughter of Indra , the king of the gods . Banai was found by Dhangar shepherd , when she was abandoned on earth by an angry Indra . When Banai grew up , it was predicted that she would get her match at Jejuri . There , she felt in love with God Khandoba . Khandoba also fell in her love . Khandoba accepted a self @-@ exile for 12 years by intentionally losing a game of chess ( Saripat ) to his wife Mhalsa . He took disguise of shepherd and started serving Banai 's father . One day , Khandoba killed all the sheep and goats of Banai ' father and promised to make them alive again if he was married to Banai . The reluctant Banai was married to Khandoba , the shepherd in disguise at Naldurg . Khandoba revealed his real form to Banai on their way back to Jejuri .
On reaching Jejuri , Khandoba was greeted by Mhalsa 's fury and her strong protest of his second marriage . To avoid the quarrels of his wives , Khandoba gave the upper half of the hill to Mhalsa and the lower half to Banai . The idol of Mhalsa is placed with Khandoba in the main shrine at top of the hill at Jejuri . A separate shrine to Banai is situated halfway down the hill .
Khandoba 's third wife , Rambhai Shimpin , is a tailor woman who was a heavenly nymph or devangana and is sometimes identified with Banai . She is a prototype of the Muralis — the girls " married " to Khandoba . Rambhai is worshipped as a goddess whom Khandoba visits after his hunt . She is also localised , being said to come from the village from Belsare , near Jejuri . The fourth wife Phulai Malin , from the gardener or Mali caste , She was a particular Murali and is thus a deified devotee of Khandoba . She is visited by him at " Davna Mal " ( field of southernwood , a herb said to be dear to Khandoba ) . The fifth wife , Candai Bhagavin , is a Telin , a member of the oilpresser caste . She is recognised as a Muslim by the Muslims . Apart from these , Muralis — girls offered to Khandoba — are considered as wives or concubines of the god .
= = Other associations and identifications = =
Mallana ( Mallikaarjuna ) of Andhra Pradesh and Mailara of Karnataka are sometimes identified with Khandoba ( Mallari , Malhari , Mairaj ) . Khandoba is also associated with Bhairava , who is connected with Brāhmanahatya ( murder of a Brahmin ) . Devotees emphasize that Khandoba is a full avatar of Shiva , and not a partial avatar like Bhairava or Virabhadra . He accepts the attributes of the demon king — his horse , weapons and royal insignia .
Sontheimer stresses the association of Khandoba with clay and termite mounds . Oral legends tell of Khandoba 's murtis being found in termite mounds or " made of earth " . According to Sontheimer , Martanda Bhairava ( Khandoba ) is a combination of the sun god Surya and Shiva , who is associated with the moon . Martanda ( " blazing orb " ) is a name of Surya , while Bhairava is a form of Shiva . Sundays , gold and turmeric , which are culturally associated with the sun , form an important part of the rituals of Khandoba . Sontheimer associates the worship of the Sun as termite mounds for fertility and his role as a healer to Khandoba 's role as granter of fertility in marriages and to the healing powers of turmeric , which the latter holds .
Another theory identifies Kartikeya ( Skanda ) with Khandoba . The hypotheses of the theory rests upon the similarities between Skanda and Khandoba , namely their association with mountains and war , similarity of their names and weapons ( the lance of Skanda and the sword of Khandoba ) and both having two principal wives . Other symbols associated with Khandoba are the dog and horse . Also the festivals for both deities , Champa Sashthi and Skanda Sashthi respectively for Khandoba and Skanda fall on the same day .
= = Worship = =
Though Shiva is worshipped across Maharashtra in his original form , some Maharashtrian communities prefer to worship him in form of his avatars , Khandoba being the most popular . He is the most popular Kuldevta ( family deity ) in Maharashtra . One of the most widely worshipped gods of the Deccan plateau , Khandoba is considered as " the premier god of Sakama bhakti ( wish @-@ granting devotion ) and one of the most powerful deities responsive to vows ( navas ) " . He is worshipped by the vast majority of Marathi Hindu people from all strata of that society . He is the patron deity of warrior , farming , herding as well as some Brahmin ( priest ) castes , the hunters and gatherers of the hills and forests , merchants and kings . The cult of Khandoba in the Deccan principally consists of peasant classes Marathas and Kunabis , shepherd Dhangars , village guards and watchmen Ramoshis — a " Denotified tribe " , the former " untouchable " Mahars and Mangs , fisher @-@ folk Kolis , balutedar castes like gardeners ( Mali ) and tailors ( Shimpi ) , though it also includes of a few Brahmins and even some Muslims . Although Brahmin presence is nominal in his cult , Deshastha Brahmins , as well as the Kokanastha Brahmins - in Nashik and Satara - do worship Khandoba , some imitating the Deshastha Brahmins . The Deshastha Brahmins , Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhus , as well as the royal families like Gaikwads and Holkars worship Khandoba as their Kuldevta . He is also worshipped by Jains and Lingayats . He is viewed as a " king " of his followers .
= = = Rituals and modes of worship = = =
Khandoba is believed to be a kadak ( fierce ) deity , who causes troubles if not propitiated properly as per the family duties . Khandoba is worshipped with Turmeric ( Bhandār ) , Bel fruit @-@ leaves , onions and other vegetables . The deity is offered puran poli - a sweet or a simpler dish called bharit rodga of onion and brinjal . Mostly a vegetarian naivedya ( offering of food ) is offered to Khandoba in the temples , though most devotees consider him a non @-@ vegetarian and a goat flesh is offered to the deity outside the temple .
An important part of the Khandoba @-@ cult is navas , a vow to perform service to the god in return for a boon of good harvest , male child , financial success etc . On fulfilment of the navas , Khandoba was offered children or some devotees would afflict pain by hook @-@ swinging or fire @-@ walking . This type of worship using navas is called Sakama Bhakti - worship done with an expectation of return and is considered " to be of a lower esteem " . But the most faithful bhaktas ( devotees ) are considered to be greedy only for the company of their Lord , Khandoba is also called bhukela - hungry for such true bhaktas in Martanda Vijaya .
Boys called Vāghyā ( or Waghya , literally " tigers " ) and girls called Muraḹi were formerly dedicated to Khandoba , but now the practice of marrying girls to Khandoba is illegal . The Vaghyas act as the bards of Khandoba and identify themselves with the dogs of Khandoba , while Muralis act as his courtesans ( devanganas — nymphs or devadasis ) . The Vaghyas and their female counterparts Muralis sing and dance in honour of Khandoba and narrate his stories on jagarans — all night song @-@ festivals , which are sometimes held after navas fulfilment . Another custom was ritual @-@ suicide by Viras ( heroes ) in the cult . According to legend , an " untouchable " Mang ( Matanga ) sacrificed himself for the foundation of the temple at Jejuri to persuade Khandoba to stay at Jejuri forever . Other practices in the cult include the belief that Khandoba possesses the body of a Vaghya or devrsi ( shaman ) . Another ritual in the cult is an act of chain @-@ breaking in fulfilment of a vow or an annual family rite ; the chain is identified with the snake around Shiva 's neck , which was cut by the demons in the fight . Another rite associated with the family duties to please Khandoba is the tali bharne , which is to be performed every full moon day . A tali ( dish ) is filled with coconuts , fruits , betel nuts , saffron , turmeric ( Bhandar ) and Bel leaves . Then , a coconut is placed on a pot filled with water and the pot is worshipped as an embodiment of Khandoba . Then , five persons lift the tali , place it repeatedly on the pot thrice , saying " Elkot " or " Khande rayaca Elkot " . Then the coconut in the tali is broken and mixed with sugar or jaggery and given to friends and relatives . A gondhal is performed along with the tali bharne . A gondhal is a ritualistic folk art in which the performer Gondhalis invoke the deities .
Khandoba is considered as the giver of fertility . Maharashtrian Hindu couples are expected to visit a Khandoba temple to obtain Khandoba 's blessing on consummation of marriage . Traditional Maharashtrian families also organize a jagaran as part of the marriage ceremony , inviting the god to the marriage . Copper figurines of Khandoba riding on a horse ( sometimes with Mhalsa ) are worshipped by devotees on a daily basis in the household shrine .
The Sanskrit Malhari Mahatmya suggests offerings of incense , lights , betel and animals to Khandoba . The Marathi version mentions offerings of meat and the worship by chedapatadi - " causing themselves to be cut " , hook @-@ swinging and self @-@ mortification by viras . Marathi version calls this form of bhakti ( devotion ) as ugra ( violent , demonic ) bhakti . Martanda vijaya narrates about Rakshashi bhakti ( demonic worship ) by animal sacrifice and self — torture . Possession by Khandoba , in form of a wind , is lower demonic worship ( pishachi worship ) . Sattvic worship , the purest form of worship , is believed to be feeding Khandoba in form of a Brahmin .
= = = Muslim veneration = = =
Khandoba is also a figure of respect and worship to Muslims , and this affiliation is visible in the style of his temples . He is called Mallu or Ajmat Khan ( Rautray ) by Muslim devotees , and many times portrayed as being a Muslim himself in this context . The latter is believed to conferred upon by the Mughal invader king Aurangzeb , who was forced to flee from Jejuri by Khandoba 's power . Some of these distinguishing Muslim features include his usual appearance as that of a Paṭhān on horseback , one of his wives being a Muslim , and that his horse @-@ keeper is a Muslim in Jejuri . The Mārtaṇḍa Vijaya expressly states that his devotees are mainly Muslims . The worship of Khandoba had received royal patronage by Ibrahim II , which consisted of the reinstatement of the annual jatra and the right of pilgrims to perform rituals at the Naldurg temple . Malhari Mahatmya even records Muslims ( mleccha ) as the god 's bhaktas ( devotees ) , who call him as Malluka Pathan or Mallu Khan . In Jejuri , a Muslim family traditionally looks after the horses of the god .
= = = Temples = = =
There are over 600 temples dedicated to Khandoba in the Deccan . His temples stretch from Nasik , Maharashtra in the north to Davangere , Karnataka in the south , Konkan , Maharashtra in the west to western Andhra Pradesh in the east . The eleven principal centres of worship of Khandoba or jagrut kshetras , where the deity is to be called awake or " jagrut " , are recognized ; six of them in Maharashtra and the rest in northern Karnataka . Khandoba 's temples resemble forts , the capital of his kingdom being Jejuri . The priests here are Guravs , not Brahmins . His most important temples are :
Jejuri : The foremost center of worship of Khandoba . It is situated 48 km from Pune , Maharashtra . There are two temples : the first is an ancient temple known as Kadepathar . Kadepathar is difficult to climb . The second one is the newer and more famous Gad @-@ kot temple , which is easy to climb . This temple has about 450 steps , 18 Kamani ( arches ) and 350 Dipmalas ( lamp @-@ pillars ) . Both temples are fort @-@ like structures .
Pali ( Rajapur ) or Pali @-@ Pember , Satara district , Maharashtra .
Adi @-@ mailar or Khanapur ( Pember or Mailkarpur ) near Bidar , Karnataka
Naldurg , Osmanabad district , Maharashtra .
Mailara Linga , Dharwad district , Karnataka .
Mangasuli , Belgaum district , Karnataka .
Maltesh or Mailara temple at Devaragudda , Ranebennur Taluk , Haveri district , Karnataka .
Mannamailar or Mailar , Bellary , Karnataka .
Nimgaon Dawadi , Pune district , Maharashtra .
Shegud , Ahmednagar district , Maharashtra .
Komarvali , Warangal district , Telangana .
Satare , Aurangabad district , Maharashtra .
= = = Festivals = = =
A six @-@ day festival , from the first to sixth lunar day of the bright fortnight of the Hindu month of Margashirsha , in honour of Khandoba is celebrated at Jejuri , to commemorate the fight with demons Mani @-@ Malla . On the sixth day ( Champa @-@ Shashthi ) , Khandoba is believed to have slew the demons . A jatra ( temple festival and fair ) is held in Pember on Champa @-@ shasthi , and the festival continues until the day of the new moon . Another festival Somvati Amavasya , which is a new @-@ moon day that falls on a Monday , is celebrated in Jejuri . A palakhi ( palanquin ) procession of Khandoba and Mhalsa 's images is carried from the Gad @-@ kot temple to the Karha river , where the images are ritually bathed .
Deshasth Brahmans and Marathas observe the Champasashthi festival every year in honour of Khandoba . The festival begins on the bright half of the Hindu month of Margshirsha . The images of Khandoba and Malla are cleaned and worshipped . For six days a fast is observed . On the seventh day the worshippers break their fast by a feast known as the Champasashtliiche parne . An invitation to this feast is regarded as an invitation from the god Khandoba himself and is harder to refuse .
In Pali @-@ Pember , the ritual of the marriage of Khandoba with Mhalsa is annually performed . Turmeric is offered to the deities . Two festivals are celebrated in honour of Mailara , as Khandoba is known in Karnataka . These are the Dasara festival at Devaragudda , and an eleven @-@ day festival in Magha month ( February – March ) in Mailar , Bellary district . Both festivals have enactments of the battle between Mailar and the demons Mani @-@ Malla . Chaitra Purnima ( full @-@ moon day ) is also considered auspicious . In general , Sundays , associated with the sun @-@ god , are considered as considered auspicious for Khandoba worship .
= = Development of the cult = =
The cult of Khandoba , a folk religion , reflects the effect of Vedic Rudra , the Puranic Shiva worshipped as Linga in Brahmanical religion and Nath and Lingayat sects . Khandoba may be a product of the Vedic Rudra , who like Khandoba was associated with robbers , horses and dogs . Sayana traces the name Malhari to Taittiriya Samhita , Malhari is explained as enemy ( ari ) of Malha ( Prajapati ) - an epithet of Rudra , who is considered a rival to deity Prajapati . According to Stanley , Khandoba originated as a mountain @-@ top god , solar deity and a regional guardian and then assimilated into himself gods of various regions and communities . According to Stanley , Khandoba inherits traits from both the sun @-@ god Surya as well as Shiva , who is identified with the moon . Stanley describes Khandoba as " a moon god , who has become a sun god " , emphasizing on how the moon imagery of Shiva transforms into the solar iconography of Khandoba in the Malhari Mahatmya .
As per R. C. Dhere , two stone inscriptions in 1063 C.E. and 1148 C.E mentioning the folk deities Mailara and his consort Malavva which suggests that Mailara gained popularity in Karnataka in this period . Soon , royals of this region started erecting temples to this folk deity , upsetting the elite class of established religion who vilified Mailara . Initially exaulted by an incarnation of Shiva , Mailara was denouned by Basava , the founder of the Shiva @-@ worshipping Lingayat sect - who would later promote the deity . Chakradhar Swami ( c.1270 , founder of Mahanubhava sect ) , Vidyaranyaswami , Sheikh Muhammad also criticized the god . The Varkari poet @-@ saint Eknath also wrote " disparagingly " about Khandoba 's cult worship , but after him , the " open " criticism of Khandoba stopped , but the " barbaric " practices of his cult were still targeted .
Sontheimer suggests that the cult of Khandoba is at least older than 12th century , which can be determined by references in Jain and Lingayat texts and inscriptions . A 12th @-@ century Jain author Brahmashiva claims that a Jain , who died in battle after a display of his val
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our , was later named as Mailara . By the 13th century , wide worship of Malhari or Mailara is observed by kings , Brahmins , simple folk and warriors . With the rise of Muslim empire , classical Hindu temples fell into ruin , giving rise to the folk religion such as of Khandoba . Chakradhara remarks , ' by the end of the Kali Yuga , temples of Vishnu and Shiva will be destroyed , but those of Mailara will stay ' . A 1369 AD inscription at Ailoni near Warangal tells an account of Mallari different from Malhari Mahatmya — Shiva helped the epic hero Arjuna kill the demon Malla , thus acquiring the title of Mallari . Mailara was the family deity of Kakatiya dynasty ( 1083 – 1323 AD ) ; a text from their rule records the self @-@ torture rituals of Mailara @-@ devotees and describes the deity . Throughout his development , Mailara is looked upon as a lower manifestation of Ishvara ( God ) by Lingayat and Maharashtrian bhakti saints .
Malhari Mahatmya states that Khandoba first appeared on Champashasti , which was a Sunday , at Premapur , which identified as Pember ( Adimailar , Mailarapur ) near Bidar . Marathi traditions tell that Khandoba came originally from Premapuri , now Pember in Karnataka , then went to Naldurg , Pali and finally to Jejuri . Sontheimer suggests that the cult of Mailara may have originated in Pember and then spread to Maharashtra , merging with the cult of Khandaka — the patron yaksha ( demi @-@ god ) of Paithan giving it its distinct Maharashtrain characteristics . Maharashtrains call the god - Kanadya Khanderaya , the god from Karnataka . The cult possibly was spread by Lingayat , Jain and other merchants , associated with Mailara @-@ Khandoba , to other parts of the Deccan . Besides Mailara , Khandoba is identified with other deities of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh , and is called as Mallanna , Mairala , and Mallu Khan . Other traditions like Shakta cults of folk goddesses were assimilated into the Khandoba cult , identifying the goddesses with Khandoba 's wives Mhalsa or Banai .
Marathi literature has a mixed reaction to the cult of Khandoba . Naranjanamadhva ( 1790 ) in stotra ( hymn ) dedicated to Khandoba calls him " an illustrious king with rich clothes and a horse with a saddle studded with jewels " , who was once " an ascetic beggar who ride an old bull and carried an ant @-@ bitten club ( khatvanga ) " - a humorous take on the Puranic Shiva . In another instance ( 1855 ) , he is called a ghost by a Christian missionary and Konastha Brahmin in a debate against Deshastha Brahmin . Another Brahmin remarks with scorn about the impurity of the Khandoba temple , visited by Sudras and whose priests are non @-@ Brahmin Guravs . The Marathi term " khel @-@ khandoba " , which is taken to mean " devastation " in general usage , refers to the possession of devotee by the god in his cult .
= 2009 Alabama Crimson Tide football team =
The 2009 Alabama Crimson Tide football team ( variously " Alabama " , " UA " , " Bama " or " The Tide " ) represented the University of Alabama in the 2009 NCAA Division I FBS football season . It was the Crimson Tide 's 115th overall season , 76th season as a member of the Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) and its 18th within the SEC Western Division . The team was led by head coach Nick Saban , in his third year , and played their home games at Bryant – Denny Stadium in Tuscaloosa , Alabama . They finished the season undefeated with a record of 14 – 0 ( 8 – 0 in the SEC ) and as national champions .
Looking to build on the successes of the 2008 campaign , Alabama entered the 2009 season as the favorite to win the Western Division and meet the Florida Gators in the 2009 SEC Championship Game . Alabama closed the regular season with a 12 – 0 record including four wins against Top 25 @-@ ranked teams — and met the Gators for the SEC Championship in a rematch of the 2008 contest . Alabama was victorious by a final score of 32 – 13 . The following day , final Bowl Championship Series ( BCS ) standings were unveiled . No. 1 ranked Alabama would meet No. 2 ranked Texas for the BCS National Championship . In the BCS National Championship Game , the Crimson Tide defeated the Longhorns 37 – 21 to capture their first @-@ ever BCS Championship .
Alabama earned their third SEC championship since the inception of the SEC Championship Game in 1992 , and their 22nd SEC title . The victory over Texas gave Alabama their 13th national championship in football ( their eighth wire service title since the AP Poll began in 1936 ) and their ninth perfect season since 1925 . The season included victories over the previous three national champions : Florida , Louisiana State University ( LSU ) , and Texas .
The season marked the first time a player for Alabama won the Heisman Trophy : Mark Ingram won the award over Stanford running back Toby Gerhart . Other award winners included Rolando McClain , who won the Butkus Award and the Jack Lambert Award , and defensive coordinator Kirby Smart , who won the Broyles Award as the nation 's top assistant coach . Also , six players were named to various All @-@ America Teams with Terrence Cody , Mike Johnson , and Javier Arenas being consensus selections and Ingram and McClain each being unanimous selections .
= = Before the season = =
During the 2008 – 2009 campaign , the Crimson Tide completed a perfect 12 – 0 regular season record with wins over No. 9 Clemson , No. 3 Georgia , longtime rival Tennessee , No. 16 LSU , and in @-@ state rival Auburn to end a six game losing streak in the Iron Bowl . The Tide went on to lose their final two games in the postseason to end the season 12 – 2 . They lost to the Florida Gators ( 31 – 20 ) in the SEC Championship Game , and to the Utah Utes ( 31 – 17 ) in the Sugar Bowl . Alabama reached No. 1 in the AP and Coaches ' Polls for the first time since the final polls in 1992 and during the regular season for the first time since 1980 between weeks ten and fourteen . The Tide reached No. 1 in the BCS rankings for the first time in school history between weeks ten and fourteen . The team finished the 2008 season with a final ranking of No. 6 in both the AP and Coaches ' Polls .
In February 2009 , Alabama signed the No. 1 recruiting class according to Rivals and the No. 2 recruiting class according to Scout . Spring practice began on March 13 and concluded with the annual A @-@ Day game on April 18 . Televised live by ESPN , the Crimson team defeated the White team by a score of 14 – 7 before 84 @,@ 050 fans in Bryant – Denny Stadium . Greg McElroy and Marquis Maze were named co @-@ MVPs of the game .
On June 11 , 2009 , the NCAA Committee on Infractions sanctioned Alabama for " major violations " of NCAA policies as a result of athletes who received improper benefits in 16 of 19 NCAA sports , including football . As a penalty , the football program was forced to vacate 21 victories from the 2005 , 2006 , and 2007 seasons in addition to being placed on three years probation , ending in June 2012 . The university stated that none of the textbooks or materials identified in the investigation were used for profit , and that the athletes involved who still had eligibility remaining were to pay restitution for the additional materials identified as part of the inquiry . Alabama appealed the ruling to the NCAA Infractions Appeals Committee in late June , but was unsuccessful ; the Committee upheld the sanctions in March 2010 .
During SEC Media Days in July , voters selected Alabama and Florida to again win their divisions , with 63 of 64 ballots choosing Florida to win the SEC Championship Game . Voters selected Julio Jones , Mike Johnson , Terrence Cody , Rolando McClain , Javier Arenas ( as a defensive back ) , and Leigh Tiffin to the Preseason All @-@ SEC First Team and selected Mark Ingram and Arenas ( as a return specialist ) to the Preseason All @-@ SEC Second Team .
By August , Alabama had 19 players on 11 different preseason award watch lists . These included Cody and McClain for the Chuck Bednarik Award ; Jones for the Fred Biletnikoff Award ; Dont ’ a Hightower and McClain for the Butkus Award ; Leigh Tiffin for the Lou Groza Award ; Cody , Hightower , Mike Johnson , and McClain for the Lombardi Award ; Cody and McClain for the Lott Trophy ; Jones for the Maxwell Award ; Javier Arenas , Cody , and McClain for the Bronko Nagurski Trophy ; Cody and Johnson for the Outland Trophy ; Arenas for the Jim Thorpe Award ; and Mark Ingram for the Doak Walker Award .
= = = Returning starters = = =
Alabama had 16 returning starters from the previous season , including eight on defense , four on offense , and all of the special teams . The most notable departures from the previous year were Andre Smith , Antoine Caldwell , and Marlon Davis on the offensive line ; John Parker Wilson at quarterback ; Glen Coffee at running back ; and Rashad Johnson at safety .
= = = Recruiting class = = =
Alabama 's recruiting class was highlighted by seven players from the " ESPN 150 " : No. 4 Dre Kirkpatrick ( CB ) ; No. 6 Trent Richardson ( RB ) ; No. 12 D.J. Fluker ( OT ) ; No. 20 Nico Johnson ( ILB ) ; No. 36 A. J. McCarron ( QB ) ; No. 65 Kendall Kelly ( WR ) ; No. 110 Tana Patrick ( OLB ) ; No. 142 Petey Smith ( ILB ) ; and No. 143 Eddie Lacy ( RB ) . Alabama signed the No. 1 recruiting class according to Rivals and the No. 2 recruiting class according to Scout . The football program received 29 letters of intent on National Signing Day , February 4 , 2009 .
= = Schedule = =
The Sagarin computer ratings calculated Alabama 's strength of schedule to be the most difficult out of the 245 Division I teams . The Congrove Computer Rankings also calculated it as the most difficult out of the 120 Division I FBS teams in its rankings . Alabama 's 2009 schedule was officially released on December 19 , 2008 . In accordance with conference rules , Alabama faced all five Western Division opponents : Arkansas , Auburn , LSU , Mississippi State , and Ole Miss . They also faced three Eastern Division opponents : official SEC rival Tennessee , Kentucky , and South Carolina . Alabama did not play SEC opponents Georgia and Vanderbilt . Although not on the regular season schedule , Bama met Florida in the SEC Championship Game .
Alabama also played five non @-@ conference games . For the season opener , the Tide played in the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Kickoff Game against Virginia Tech at the Georgia Dome in Atlanta . The non @-@ conference schedule also included games against Florida International and North Texas of the Sun Belt Conference and UT @-@ Chattanooga of the Football Championship Subdivision ( FCS ) . For the 2010 BCS National Championship Game , Alabama played Texas for the first time since the 1982 Cotton Bowl Classic .
Source : Rolltide.com All @-@ time Football Results : 2009 Season
= = Depth chart = =
Starters and backups .
= = Coaching staff = =
Prior to the 2009 season , Alabama made several changes to its coaching staff . Alabama lost their defensive head coach , Kevin Steele , on January 10 , 2009 , when he was hired as defensive coordinator for Clemson , and their linebacker coach Lance Thompson on January 16 , when he was hired as linebacker coach by Tennessee . The following week , Saban named Sal Sunseri from the NFL 's Carolina Panthers as his team 's new assistant head and linebacker coach , and James Willis from Auburn as the new associate head and linebacker coach .
= = Game notes = =
= = = Virginia Tech = = =
After defeating Clemson in the inaugural Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Kickoff Game , Alabama announced in December 2008 they would return for the 2009 edition against the Virginia Tech Hokies . The Tide dominated play for most of the game , outgaining Tech in total offense by 498 yards to 155 , but mistakes , penalties , and poor play by the special teams allowed the Hokies to hang on until 18 fourth @-@ quarter points sealed the 34 – 24 Alabama victory .
Bama scored first with field goals of 49 and 34 yards from Leigh Tiffin to take an early 6 – 0 lead . The Hokies responded with a 98 @-@ yard Dyrell Roberts kickoff return for a touchdown to give Tech a 7 – 6 lead . Following the recovery of a Ryan Williams fumble by Brian Selman deep in Hokie territory , the Tide retook the lead 9 – 7 on a 32 @-@ yard Tiffin field goal . Early in the second quarter , Antoine Hopkins intercepted a Greg McElroy pass . On the ensuing possession , Tech led 10 – 9 after a successful 28 @-@ yard Matt Waldron field goal . Alabama responded by driving 76 yards for a touchdown and a 16 – 10 lead , with the big plays coming on a 14 @-@ yard run by Mark Ingram , passes of 16 and 10 yards from McElroy to Julio Jones and the score coming on a 19 @-@ yard Roy Upchurch run . On the next Virginia Tech possession , three personal fouls and a pass interference penalty carried the Hokies downfield with Williams scoring on an one @-@ yard touchdown run . The score remained 17 – 16 at the half after Tiffin missed a 36 @-@ yard field goal at the end of the second quarter .
In the third quarter Roy Upchurch fumbled the ball at the Tech nine after a long run , negating the lone scoring opportunity for either team in the third quarter . Still down by a point in the fourth quarter , McElroy hit Marquis Maze for a 48 @-@ yard completion to the Virginia Tech six @-@ yard line , and Ingram scored a touchdown on the next play . A successful two @-@ point conversion pass from McElroy to Colin Peek gave Alabama a 24 – 17 lead . On the ensuing kickoff , Davon Morgan fumbled and Chris Rogers recovered for the Tide at the Tech 21 . The following Alabama drive stalled at the 3 , but Tiffin 's fourth field goal made the score 27 – 17 . Poor kickoff coverage and penalties set up a 32 @-@ yard Williams that run cut the lead to 27 – 24 late in the fourth quarter . Alabama quickly struck back as Ingram rushed for 39 yards , McElroy completed a 19 @-@ yard pass to Peek , and then threw to Ingram for an 18 @-@ yard touchdown and a 34 – 24 lead . The Hokies never threatened to score again and Alabama won its opener , 34 – 24 . Ingram led the Tide with 150 yards rushing on 26 carries and a pair of touchdowns , and he was named the SEC Offensive Player of the Week . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Hokies to 11 – 1 .
= = = Florida International = = =
The Golden Panthers of Florida International proved a tougher opponent than Alabama expected in the first half . However , the Tide pulled away with a 40 – 14 victory in the 2009 home opener . Alabama opened the scoring with a 23 @-@ yard Leigh Tiffin field goal followed by a 24 @-@ yard Greg McElroy touchdown pass to Mike McCoy , which gave Bama a 10 – 0 lead . FIU followed the McElroy touchdown with T.Y. Hilton returning the ensuing kickoff 96 yards , bringing the score to 10 – 7 . Bama responded with a 29 @-@ yard Tiffin field goal to extend the lead to 13 – 7 early in the second quarter ; the following kickoff was booted out of bounds , which set up the Golden Panthers at the 40 . The ensuing 60 @-@ yard drive resulted in a 9 @-@ yard Paul McCall touchdown pass to Greg Ellingson that gave FIU a 14 – 13 lead . Bama responded with a 64 @-@ yard drive culminating with a two @-@ yard Mark Ingram touchdown run to put Bama up 20 – 14 at the half .
Trent Richardson continued the Alabama scoring in the third quarter with a nine @-@ yard touchdown run to extend the lead to 26 – 14 . A 46 @-@ yard punt return by Javier Arenas set up Richardson 's second score on a 35 @-@ yard touchdown run on the first play of the fourth quarter . Alabama led 33 – 14 . Terry Grant scored the Tide 's final points with a 42 @-@ yard touchdown run to bring the final score to 40 – 14 . Alabama outgained FIU 516 – 214 in total offense and 275 – 1 in rushing offense . Greg McElroy set an all @-@ time Alabama record by completing 14 consecutive pass attempts and was 18 – 24 for 241 yards and a touchdown . For his 113 @-@ yard , two @-@ touchdown rushing performance , Richardson was named the SEC Freshman of the Week . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Golden Panthers to 2 – 0 .
= = = North Texas = = =
Alabama 's second consecutive matchup with a Sun Belt opponent on the season resulted in its second consecutive victory , as the Tide defeated the North Texas Mean Green 53 – 7 . Greg McElroy opened the scoring with a two @-@ yard touchdown run followed by a 34 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Marquis Maze to take a 14 – 0 first quarter lead . The Tide continued the scoring in the second quarter , with touchdowns on a one @-@ yard Trent Richardson run and a 29 @-@ yard McElroy pass to Mark Ingram followed with a 35 @-@ yard Leigh Tiffin field goal . This gave Alabama a 30 – 0 lead at the half . In the third quarter , Bama extended their lead to 44 – 0 following touchdown runs of five and one yard respectively from Ingram and Terry Grant . After North Texas reached the end zone on a 34 @-@ yard Nathan Tune touchdown pass to Lance Dunbar , Alabama closed the game with ten fourth @-@ quarter points on a 20 @-@ yard Tiffin field goal and 9 @-@ yard Grant touchdown run .
Alabama outgained the Mean Green 523 – 187 in yards of total offense . It was the most points for Alabama in a game since beating Texas @-@ El Paso 56 – 7 in 2001 and the most scored at Bryant – Denny since defeating Tulane 62 – 0 in 1991 . By completing of 13 of 15 passes , McElroy tied a school record with an overall completion percentage of 86 @.@ 7 . The game was notable for McElroy as the North Texas head coach , Todd Dodge , was his high school head coach when McElroy led Southlake Carroll to the 2005 Texas Class 5A high school football championship . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Mean Green to 3 – 0 .
= = = Arkansas = = =
In Bobby Petrino 's first visit to Tuscaloosa as a head coach , Alabama opened conference play by defeating the Arkansas Razorbacks 35 – 7 . After a scoreless first quarter , two big touchdown plays , a 52 @-@ yard run by Trent Richardson and a 50 @-@ yard pass from Greg McElroy to Julio Jones , had the Tide up 14 – 0 at the half . Arkansas responded early in the third quarter and cut the lead to 14 – 7 after Ryan Mallett hit Greg Childs for an 18 @-@ yard touchdown reception ; the Hogs would not reach the end zone again as the Tide responded with three unanswered touchdowns . Bama scored first on an 80 @-@ yard touchdown pass from McElroy to Marquis Maze followed with two touchdowns by Mark Ingram , one on a 14 @-@ yard pass from McElroy and one on a 2 @-@ yard run , bringing the final score to 35 – 7 .
Alabama outgained the Razorbacks 425 – 254 in yards of total offense . McElroy threw for career highs of 291 yards and three touchdowns . For his 65 @-@ yard , nine @-@ carry , one @-@ touchdown performance , Richardson was named the SEC Freshman of the Week . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Razorbacks to 10 – 8 ( 13 – 7 without NCAA vacations and forfeits ) .
= = = Kentucky = = =
In Alabama 's first trip to Lexington since 2004 , and their first road game of the 2009 season , the Tide defeated the Kentucky Wildcats 38 – 20 . Alabama scored on their opening drive after Javier Arenas returned the opening kickoff 60 yards , which set up an 11 @-@ yard Mark Ingram touchdown for an early 7 – 0 lead . Kentucky responded with a pair of 49 @-@ yard Lones Seiber field goals . The score was 7 – 6 at the end of the first quarter . The Tide extended their lead late in the second quarter following a nearly seven @-@ minute , 13 @-@ play , 97 @-@ yard touchdown drive . Greg McElroy passes of 27 and 21 yards and a 13 @-@ yard run by Ingram moved Bama down the field , culminating with a three @-@ yard touchdown pass from McElroy to Colin Peek to put the Tide up 14 – 6 . With only 40 seconds remaining in the half , Kentucky tailback Derrick Locke fumbled the ball after catching a short pass . Courtney Upshaw returned 45 yards for an Alabama touchdown that put the Tide ahead 21 – 6 at halftime .
On the second play of the third quarter , Rolando McClain intercepted a Mike Hartline pass , giving Alabama possession at the Wildcat 38 . Two plays later Ingram scored on a 32 @-@ yard run , making the score 28 – 6 . Following an Eryk Anders interception that set up a 36 @-@ yard Leigh Tiffin field goal , the Wildcats reached the end zone for the first time on the ensuing drive . Hartline connected with Randall Cobb for a 45 @-@ yard touchdown reception in bringing the score to 31 – 13 . The Tide responded with a 7 @-@ yard Darius Hanks touchdown reception to complete a 13 @-@ play , 76 @-@ yard drive . Kentucky scored the afternoon 's final points in the fourth quarter on a two @-@ yard Alfonso Smith touchdown run . The final score was 38 – 20 . Kentucky 's four turnovers sabotaged an effort that was better than any other of Alabama 's previous opponents , as the Wildcats gained 301 yards in total offense and held Alabama to 352 . McElroy threw for two touchdowns , giving him nine on the season against only one interception , and Ingram rushed for 140 yards on 22 carries . For his 12 tackles ( 8 solo ) , one interception , one forced fumble and one pass break @-@ up , McClain was named both the SEC Defensive Player of the Week and the Bronko Nagurski Award National Defensive Player of the Week . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Wildcats to 35 – 2 – 1 .
= = = Ole Miss = = =
Before the largest crowd to ever witness a game in Vaught – Hemingway Stadium , Alabama defeated their long @-@ time rival , the Ole Miss Rebels , 22 – 3 . Alabama struggled to put the ball in the end zone all afternoon with drives stalled at the Mississippi 8 , 4 , 4 , 4 , and 13 . Each of those drives resulted in a field goal by Leigh Tiffin , who was 5 for 5 on the day . Other special teams contributions included a blocked punt in the second quarter and a recovered Dexter McCluster fumble on a punt return in the third quarter , both by Cory Reamer . McElroy struggled , completing only 15 of 34 passes for 147 yards , but Mark Ingram ran for a then career @-@ high 172 yards and accounted for Alabama 's only touchdown on a 36 @-@ yard run in the second quarter .
The Alabama defense had an excellent day , with Javier Arenas , Kareem Jackson , Rolando McClain , and Cory Reamer each intercepting a Jevan Snead pass . Overall , the Tide held the Rebels to 212 yards of total offense and a single Joshua Shene field goal in the third quarter. center William Vlachos was named the SEC Offensive Lineman of the Week and Tiffin was named the Lou Groza Award " Star of Stars " for his five field goal performance . The victory was the team 's sixth in a row over the Rebels and improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against Ole Miss to 43 – 9 – 2 ( 47 – 8 – 2 without NCAA vacations and forfeits ) .
= = = South Carolina = = =
In South Carolina 's first trip to Bryant – Denny since 2004 , the Tide defeated the South Carolina Gamecocks 20 – 6 on homecoming in Tuscaloosa . On the second play from the start of the game , Mark Barron intercepted a Stephen Garcia pass and returned it 77 yards for a touchdown and a 7 – 0 Alabama lead . Greg McElroy struggled ; he threw a pair of first @-@ quarter interceptions on Bama 's first two offensive possessions . South Carolina 's C.C. Whitlock fumbled the ball on the return of the second interception and possession was recovered by Darius Hanks . The Tide continued its drive to the Gamecock 8 , and Leigh Tiffin kicked a field goal to put Alabama ahead 10 – 0 .
Following a failed 49 @-@ yard Leigh Tiffin field goal attempt in the second quarter , South Carolina answered by driving to the Alabama five @-@ yard line . However , the Bama defense held the Gamecock offense to three consecutive incompletions ; the result was a 22 @-@ yard Spencer Lanning field goal to make the score 10 – 3 . On the following possession , Mark Ingram ran 54 yards to the South Carolina 28 . The drive stalled at the 17 and Tiffin 's field goal made it 13 – 3 . South Carolina responded with a quick drive that ended with a 31 @-@ yard Lanning field goal as time expired in the first half with the score 13 – 6 .
After a scoreless third quarter , with 8 : 08 to go , Alabama took possession at its own 32 following a Gamecock punt . Taking direct snaps out of the wildcat formation , Ingram rushed for 64 yards on five carries , then took a pitch from Greg McElroy for the last four yards and the touchdown , sealing Alabama 's 20 – 6 victory . The Alabama offense turned the ball over four times in this game after committing only two turnovers in the first six games . Mark Ingram 's 246 yards rushing marked his third consecutive career @-@ high effort and the third highest single game total in Alabama history . For their performances , Ingram was named the SEC Offensive Player of the Week and Rolando McClain was named the Lott Trophy IMPACT Player of the Week . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Gamecocks to 10 – 3 ( 12 – 2 before NCAA vacations and forfeits ) .
= = = Tennessee = = =
This edition of the Third Saturday in October was a defensive struggle with a surprise finish as the Crimson Tide defeated the Tennessee Volunteers 12 – 10 . In a defensive struggle for both teams , Leigh Tiffin was 4 for 4 on field goals and accounted for all of Alabama 's scoring .
With the Tennessee defense stopping the Tide on consecutive drives , Alabama 's defense responded with Mark Barron intercepting a Jonathan Crompton pass at the Bama 19 in the first quarter . The ensuing drive resulted in a 38 @-@ yard Leigh Tiffin field goal and a 3 – 0 lead . The Vols responded with a 24 @-@ yard Daniel Lincoln field goal that tied the game 3 – 3 . Tiffin hit field goals of 50 and 22 yards before Lincoln missed a 47 @-@ yard attempt at the end of the first half , leaving the score 9 – 3 at halftime . After a scoreless third , in the fourth Tennessee drove to the Alabama 27 , but Terrence Cody blocked Lincoln 's field goal . On the ensuing possession , Tiffin hit a 49 @-@ yard field goal to bring the score to 12 – 3 .
Late in the fourth , Mark Ingram lost a fumble for the first time in his collegiate career , giving Tennessee possession at the Alabama 43 with 3 : 29 remaining in the game . The Vols drove the ball 43 yards in 2 : 10 , culminating with an 11 @-@ yard Crompton touchdown pass to Gerald Jones to cut the gap to 12 – 10 . The Vols followed with a successful onside kick attempt and regained possession of the ball at their own 41 @-@ yard line . After Tennessee was penalized five yards for a false start , Crompton completed a pass to Luke Stocker for 23 yards , to the Bama 27 @-@ yard line . With the clock ticking off the final seconds and Tennessee out of time outs , Crompton spiked the ball to stop the clock with four seconds left . This set up Lincoln for a 45 @-@ yard field goal attempt to win the game . However , Terrence Cody knocked his blocker over and broke through the line . He blocked Lincoln 's field goal as time expired , preserving Alabama 's 12 – 10 victory and perfect season . For their performances , Cody was named the SEC Defensive Lineman of the Week and Tiffin was named the SEC Special Teams Player of the Week .
= = = LSU = = =
With the SEC West divisional championship on the line , Alabama defeated their long @-@ time rival the LSU Tigers 24 – 15 to secure a spot in the SEC Championship Game . Following a scoreless first quarter , LSU took possession on its own 9 on the last play of the first quarter and embarked on a 13 @-@ play , 91 @-@ yard drive that ended in a 12 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Jordan Jefferson to Deangelo Peterson and a 7 – 0 lead . Javier Arenas returned the ensuing punt 40 yards to the Alabama 49 , and the Tide drove to the LSU 11 before settling for a 28 @-@ yard Leigh Tiffin field goal that made the score 7 – 3 . Neither team could mount a sustained drive for the rest of the half .
At the start of the second half Alabama received the kickoff , took possession at its own 19 , and started getting the ball to Mark Ingram . On the drive , Ingram was responsible for a 12 @-@ yard reception from Greg McElroy and rushes of 4 , 12 , 12 , and 18 yards that advanced the ball to the Tiger 23 . Two plays later , McElroy hit Darius Hanks for his first touchdown pass since the Kentucky game , and Alabama was up 10 – 7 . The ensuing LSU drive stalled at the Tide 46 . The LSU punt was downed at the Alabama 1 @-@ yard line . Two plays later McElroy was sacked for a safety , making the score 10 – 9 . LSU returned the free kick to its own 41 and drove 59 yards for the touchdown , the big play coming on a 34 @-@ yard run by Charles Scott . The two @-@ point conversion attempt failed , leaving the score 15 – 10 in favor of LSU .
Alabama received the kickoff and again relied on Ingram : seven Ingram rushes for 48 yards accounted for most of the offense on a drive that ended with a 20 @-@ yard Tiffin field goal , making the score 15 – 13 . Following a LSU three and out , Alabama took possession on its own 27 @-@ yard line . On first down , McElroy completed a screen pass to Julio Jones which Jones turned into a 73 @-@ yard touchdown . After a successful two @-@ point conversion , Alabama led 21 – 15 . LSU went three and out again . A methodical 11 @-@ play , 31 @-@ yard Alabama drive consumed 6 : 14 of game time and ended in a 40 @-@ yard Tiffin field goal with 3 : 04 left to seal a 24 – 15 Alabama victory . Alabama won the SEC Western Division championship and clinched a berth in the SEC Championship Game against Florida , which clinched the East that same day with a 27 – 3 victory over Vanderbilt . Ingram rushed for 144 yards and Jones had 102 receiving yards . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Tigers to 45 – 23 – 5 .
= = = Mississippi State = = =
Playing in front of the largest crowd to ever witness a game in Davis Wade Stadium , and with the Bulldogs wearing black jerseys for the first time in their history , Alabama cruised to a 31 – 3 victory over long @-@ time rival Mississippi State . After a scoreless first quarter , Alabama scored a pair of touchdowns in the second to take a 14 – 0 lead . The first touchdown came on a 45 @-@ yard Darius Hanks reception from Greg McElroy and the second on a 1 @-@ yard Mark Ingram run .
After a 39 @-@ yard field goal by Leigh Tiffin extended the lead to 17 – 0 in the third , the Bulldogs scored their only points of the night on a 34 @-@ yard Derek DePasquale field goal . On the ensuing kickoff , Javier Arenas returned the ball 46 yards and on the next play , McElroy hit Julio Jones for a 48 @-@ yard touchdown reception . The score was 24 – 3 . Mark Barron intercepted a Tyson Lee pass at the Alabama 30 on the next Bulldog offensive series . On the following play , Ingram scored a touchdown on a 70 @-@ yard run to bring the final score to 31 – 3 .
For the game , McElroy threw for 192 yards and two touchdowns on 13 of 18 passing , and Mark Ingram rushed for 149 yards two touchdowns . Mississippi State was held to 213 total yards , with Barron intercepting two Tyson Lee and Marquis Johnson intercepting one Chris Relf pass . For his performance , left guard Mike Johnson was named the SEC Offensive Lineman of the Week . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Bulldogs to 73 – 18 – 3 ( 72 – 19 – 3 without NCAA vacations and forfeits ) .
= = = Chattanooga = = =
On senior day in Tuscaloosa , Alabama dipped down to college football 's Football Championship Subdivision and defeated the Mocs of UT @-@ Chattanooga 45 – 0 . After being stopped on their first possession , Alabama reached the end zone on the next five consecutive possessions in running up a 35 – 0 lead in the first half . First @-@ quarter touchdowns included a 2 @-@ yard Trent Richardson run , a 25 @-@ yard Mark Ingram run , and a 19 @-@ yard Julio Jones reception from Greg McElroy . In the second quarter , touchdowns were scored by Javier Arenas on a 66 @-@ yard punt return and on a 40 @-@ yard Ingram run . With the only third quarter points coming on a 41 @-@ yard Leigh Tiffin field goal , Bama 's final points of the afternoon came on a 21 @-@ yard Roy Upchurch touchdown run in the fourth .
Javier Arenas set the all @-@ time SEC record with his seventh punt return for a touchdown and was named the SEC Special Teams Player of the Week . Mark Ingram led the offense with 102 yards and two touchdowns before being pulled early in the second quarter . Alabama outgained Chattanooga in total offense 422 – 84 and recorded their first defensive shutout since defeating Auburn 36 – 0 in 2008 . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Mocs to 11 – 0 .
= = = Auburn = = =
One year after Alabama 's 36 – 0 victory in Tuscaloosa , the 2009 Iron Bowl contest against the Auburn Tigers ended with a 26 – 21 Tide victory and a 12 – 0 regular season . The Tigers , who entered the game 7 – 4 and unranked , took the ball after Alabama 's initial three and out and struck quickly . On Auburn 's fourth play from scrimmage , Terrell Zachery raced 67 yards on a reverse for a touchdown and a 7 – 0 Auburn lead . The run was the longest allowed by the Tide since a 70 @-@ yard run by Arkansas ' Darren McFadden in 2005 . Auburn then successfully executed an onside kick and retained possession of the ball . After the onside kick , Auburn drove 58 yards in 12 plays , scoring on a 1 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Chris Todd to Eric Smith . The Crimson Tide , which had never trailed in a game by more than seven points all season , found itself down 14 – 0 before the first quarter was over .
Early in the second quarter Alabama completed a 10 @-@ play , 58 @-@ yard drive by scoring on a two @-@ yard run by backup tailback Trent Richardson . The key plays were a 15 @-@ yard pass from McElroy to Darius Hanks and a 13 @-@ yard pass from McElroy to Richardson . After an exchange of punts gave Alabama good starting position at the Auburn 45 , the Tide quickly struck again with McElroy hitting tight end Colin Peek on a 33 @-@ yard touchdown pass that left the game tied 14 – 14 at halftime .
In the third quarter , Auburn scored on another quick strike . The Tigers took possession on their 24 after a Bama punt ; Kodi Burns rushed for four yards , and then Todd hit Darvin Adams on a 72 @-@ yard completion that put Auburn back in front 21 – 14 . The completion marked the longest play from scrimmage allowed by the Bama defense all season and the longest pass play since 1999 . Javier Arenas gave Alabama an opportunity by returning the ensuing kickoff 46 yards to the Auburn 45 , but Mark Ingram , who struggled the entire game , rushed for 7 yards and 2 yards and then was held for no gain on both third and one and fourth and one , and Alabama turned the ball over on downs . Auburn went three and out and punted , and Arenas set the Tide up again , returning the punt 56 yards to the Auburn 33 @-@ yard line . Alabama drove to the Auburn 10 before settling for a Leigh Tiffin field goal that cut the deficit to 21 – 17 . Alabama kicked off and two plays later , Auburn quarterback Todd threw an interception that gave Alabama possession at the Auburn 43 . The Tide drove to the Tigers ' 13 before this drive also stalled , forcing another Leigh Tiffin field goal that made the score 21 – 20 . As the third quarter ended , Auburn continued to hang on to a one @-@ point lead .
Neither team could make progress with possessions early in the fourth quarter , and after an exchange of punts , Alabama got the ball on its own 21 with 8 : 27 to go , and began what would soon be known as " The Drive " . Richardson opened with a 7 @-@ yard rush , and on third and three , McElroy completed a nine @-@ yard pass to Julio Jones for a first down . Three plays later , on third and five , McElroy completed a six @-@ yard pass to Jones for another first down and advancing the ball to the Tide 48 . Two plays later , on second and eight , a third pass from McElroy to Jones for 11 yards led to a third first down . Two plays after that , a fourth pass from McElroy to Jones and a fourth first down at the Auburn 28 @-@ yard line . On second and nine at the Auburn 27 , McElroy chose a different target , hitting Richardson for a first down to the Auburn 11 @-@ yard line . After a four @-@ yard run by Richardson to the Auburn 7 , the Tigers called time out with 1 : 34 left . Richardson took the ball three more yards to the Auburn 4 , leaving the Tide at third and three . Each team called a time out in succession with 1 : 29 left . Alabama 's offensive coaches called for a running play , but head coach Nick Saban , unwilling to settle for a field goal , overruled this decision and demanded a pass . McElroy completed a 4 @-@ yard touchdown pass to third @-@ string tailback Roy Upchurch , giving Alabama a 26 – 21 lead with 1 : 24 to go . McElroy had completed seven consecutive passes on The Drive after missing his first .
A two @-@ point conversion attempt failed and the lead was five points . Auburn took possession at the 25 following the kickoff and took 1 : 14 to run four plays and advance the ball to its own 46 with ten seconds to go . Todd completed a 17 @-@ yard pass to Darvin Adams at the Alabama 37 , and after spiking the ball , Todd 's last pass fell incomplete and the game was over . Alabama had survived , beating Auburn 26 – 21 despite being outgained 332 yards to 291 and being held to only 73 yards rushing .
= = = Florida = = =
Alabama faced Florida in the SEC Championship Game in a rematch of the 2008 contest , with the Tide capturing their 22nd conference championship following their 32 – 13 victory over the Gators . The Tide struck first , driving 47 yards with the opening possession before Leigh Tiffin kicked a 48 @-@ yard field goal and a 3 – 0 lead . Following a Florida three and out on their first possession , Alabama responded with an 8 @-@ play , 76 @-@ yard touchdown drive . On the drive , Greg McElroy completed key passes to Colin Peek and Marquis Maze and Mark Ingram rushed for 37 yards and the touchdown in taking a 9 – 0 lead following a missed extra point . On the ensuing possession , Caleb Sturgis hit a 48 @-@ yard field goal that made the score 9 – 3 at the end of the first quarter .
Alabama scored first in the second quarter on a 34 @-@ yard Tiffin field goal to complete a 68 @-@ yard drive and extend the Bama lead to 12 – 3 . Florida followed with what turned out to be its only touchdown drive of the game . Rushes of 23 yards and 15 yards from quarterback and former Heisman Trophy winner Tim Tebow were followed by a 23 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Tebow to David Nelson , and Florida had cut the lead to two , 12 – 10 . On the next offensive play , Ingram took a short pass from McElroy and raced 69 yards to the Gator 3 @-@ yard line , and ran it in for a touchdown from three yards out on the next play . The Gators ended the first half with a 32 @-@ yard Sturgis field goal to make the halftime score 19 – 13 .
Florida opened the third quarter with a three and out . On the Tide 's first offensive series of the second half , McElroy completed a 28 @-@ yard pass to Maze and was followed with a 15 @-@ yard personal foul penalty in bringing the ball into the red zone . On the next play McElroy completed the drive with a 17 @-@ yard touchdown pass to tight end Colin Peek . Alabama took a 26 – 13 lead . Florida got one first down on its next possession before punting the ball to Alabama . Taking the ball at its own 12 @-@ yard line with 7 : 36 to go in the third quarter , Alabama held the ball for the rest of the quarter and into the fourth , using up 8 : 47 of game time on a 12 @-@ play , 88 @-@ yard drive . Ingram , who rushed for 37 yards on the drive , scored on a 1 @-@ yard touchdown run early in the fourth quarter to increase Bama 's lead to 32 – 13 . Florida mounted a late drive that reached the Alabama 6 before Tebow threw an interception to Javier Arenas in the end zone . On Florida 's next possession , the Gators turned the ball over on downs at the Alabama 13 , and the Tide was able to run out the clock to secure the 32 – 13 victory .
For his 239 yard , one touchdown passing performance , Greg McElroy was named the game 's MVP . Ingram rushed for 113 and Trent Richardson rushed for 80 yards . The victory gave Alabama its 22nd SEC title , their third since the inception of the Championship Game and their first in ten years — the longest time the Crimson Tide program has ever gone without an SEC championship . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Gators to 20 – 14 ( 21 – 14 without the NCAA vacation of the 2005 victory ) . Alabama earned their third SEC championship since the inception of the SEC Championship Game in 1992 , and their 22nd SEC title .
= = = Texas = = =
Following victories in their respective conference championship games , on December 6 the final Bowl Championship Series ( BCS ) standings were unveiled , pitting the No. 1 ranked Crimson Tide against the No. 2 ranked Texas Longhorns for the 2010 BCS National Championship . The game was held in the Rose Bowl , although it was not the actual Rose Bowl Game , in which Ohio State beat Oregon six days earlier . Alabama came into the game having never beaten Texas , compiling an all @-@ time 0 – 7 – 1 record against the Longhorns .
Alabama won the toss and elected to receive the opening kickoff . After losing thirteen yards on a sack and a penalty , Nick Saban called for a fake punt , which resulted in a Texas interception by Blake Gideon at the Alabama 37 @-@ yard line . On the initial possession , Texas quarterback Colt McCoy suffered a hit from Marcell Dareus which forced him to leave the game . Suffering from a pinched nerve in his throwing shoulder , McCoy did not return . With McCoy out , freshman Garrett Gilbert replaced him at quarterback , and the Longhorns settled for a field goal and a 3 – 0 lead . The ensuing kickoff was an onside kick , and Texas retained possession of the ball when Alabama failed to field the kick . The Longhorns only advanced the ball five yards and Hunter Lawrence kicked another field goal to go ahead 6 – 0 .
The Tide went ahead in the second quarter . Greg McElroy threw for only 58 yards on 6 of 11 passing for Alabama , but 23 of those yards came on a completion to Julio Jones that advanced the ball to the Texas 12 . Three plays later Mark Ingram ran it in from two yards out , and Alabama went ahead 7 – 6 . After an exchange of punts , Bama took possession on the Texas 49 @-@ yard line , and on the second play Trent Richardson burst through a hole in the middle and raced 49 yards untouched for the touchdown , extending the lead to 14 – 6 . Texas continued to struggle for offense in McCoy 's absence , and on the next possession a Texas drive ended when Javier Arenas intercepted a Gilbert pass at the Alabama 25 . Following a short punt late in the quarter , Bama drove to the Texas 9 , and increased their lead to 17 – 6 following a successful 26 @-@ yard Leigh Tiffin field goal . It appeared that the Crimson Tide would go into the locker room leading 17 – 6 . However , after gaining nine yards on a rush up the middle , Texas called time out with 15 seconds left . With the ball at the Texas 37 , Gilbert threw a shovel pass to D.J. Monroe , who bobbled the ball and batted it into the arms of Alabama defensive lineman Marcell Dareus , who lumbered 28 yards for a touchdown that made the halftime score 24 – 6 .
Having been sacked 4 times in the first half but had considerable success rushing the ball , Alabama came out rushing after halftime , attempting only two passes in the 3rd quarter . Meanwhile Gilbert , who had struggled early in the game , started to find his rhythm , mostly due to the efforts of Jordan Shipley , one of only two Texas receivers to catch a pass thrown beyond the line of scrimmage in the game . A 44 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Gilbert to Shipley cut the lead to 24 – 13 . Early in the fourth , Leigh Tiffin missed a 52 @-@ yard field goal . On the ensuing possession , the Longhorns drove 65 yards and scored another touchdown on a 28 @-@ yard Shipley reception . A successful two @-@ point conversion pulled the score to within three points , 24 – 21 . Following an Alabama punt , Texas gained possession on their own 7 @-@ yard line with 3 : 14 to go . On the second play of the drive , Eryk Anders laid a hit on Gilbert that forced a fumble , and Alabama recovered at the Texas 3 . Three plays later Ingram , who rushed for 116 yards in the game , ran it in for the score that gave Alabama a 31 – 21 lead . On the following drive , Gilbert threw a second interception to Arenas , and a Trent Richardson touchdown with 47 seconds left made the final score 37 – 21 .
For their performances , Mark Ingram was named the game 's offensive MVP and Marcell Dareus was named defensive MVP . Alabama beat Texas for the first time in their history , won its first ever BCS championship game , and won its first national championship since 1992 . It was Alabama 's thirteenth claimed and eighth national championship by vote of the AP poll or coaches ' poll , the others coming in 1961 ,
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, Great Eastern Highway interchanges with Tonkin Highway , which connects to Perth 's north @-@ eastern and south @-@ eastern suburbs , and Brearley Avenue , which provides access to Perth Airport 's domestic terminals .
The road travels for another 2 @.@ 1 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 3 mi ) along the border between Ascot and Redcliffe , before reaching a traffic light controlled fork with Great Eastern Highway Bypass . The main traffic flow continues east on the bypass to Roe Highway , while the Great Eastern Highway runs north @-@ east through South Guildford for 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) , separating a narrow residential area along the Swan River from industrial development in the rest of the suburb . The highway crosses the Helena River via a two @-@ lane bridge , and continues north into the historic townsite of Guildford , named as Johnson Street . After 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) , Johnson Street terminates at a T junction , just south of the Midland railway line . The highway turns east onto James Street , which after 1 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 75 mi ) has a sharp 90 degree turn to the north , continuing as East Street for 450 metres ( 1 @,@ 480 ft ) . Following a level crossing of the railway , and an adjacent set of traffic lights at Terrace Road , the name Great Eastern Highway is resumed .
The highway continues north @-@ east for 1 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 1 mi ) to Midland . Throughout Midland and the adjacent suburb of Midvale , it is at the centre of a commercial area , with two shopping centres located alongside the highway , and retail businesses fronting both sides of the road . As Great Eastern Highway enters Midland , traffic splits into a pair of one @-@ way roads . Eastbound traffic continues on Great Eastern Highway , while westbound traffic travels along Victoria Street . The split ends after 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) , and a further 1 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 1 mi ) takes the highway to an interchange with Roe Highway , meeting up with traffic that bypassed the Guildford and Midland areas .
= = = Greenmount to The Lakes = = =
Great Eastern Highway is notorious for Greenmount Hill , where the highway encounters a steep three @-@ kilometre @-@ long ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) slope with a 7 % gradient on Perth 's eastern outskirts . The highway rises from the Swan Coastal Plain to the Darling Scarp to the north of Greenmount Hill , though it is commonly described as travelling " up Greenmount " . The historic hill , with significant Aboriginal and European heritage sites , has been a well @-@ known landmark since the 1830s , and featured on an 1846 survey of the York Road . Part of this original eastern route remains as a separate road , now known as Old York Road . The highway diverges from this original route at a point 2 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 7 mi ) east of Roe Highway , bypassing residential properties that line the old road . The two routes meet again at the top of the main climb of the hill , after 1 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 1 mi ) .
From the sudden rise of Greenmount Hill through to Sawyers Valley , Great Eastern Highway has a series of rising and falling sections over rolling terrain . Along the way , the route follows the southern edge of John Forrest National Park for 3 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 1 mi ) , passing to the north of the suburb of Glen Forrest . Beyond the national park , the highway continues to be lined by native trees and patches of remaining forest . It continues east for six kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) between the low @-@ density , rural residential areas of Hovea , Mahogany Creek , and Parkerville , before entering the Mundaring town centre . Continuing its journey east , the route leaves Mundaring and travels briefly through the north @-@ eastern corner of Beelu National Park before coming to the rural community of Sawyers Valley , three and a half kilometres ( 2 @.@ 2 mi ) east of Mundaring .
Beyond Sawyers Valley , Great Eastern Highway travels in a north @-@ easterly direction , alongside and later within the northernmost part of the Jarrahdale State Forest . After 6 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 1 mi ) , the highway reaches the Old Northam Road turnoff , which offers an alternative route through Chidlow . The highway route bypasses the development by continuing east for 5 @.@ 9 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) to The Lakes , where it curves around to the north to meet Great Southern Highway , at the edge of the Perth Metropolitan Region .
= = = East to Kalgoorlie = = =
Great Eastern Highway continues past The Lakes in a northerly direction , reduced to a single carriageway with one lane in each direction . Five kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) later , the highway encounters the north @-@ eastern end of Old Northam Road , and subsequently winds its way through a reverse curve . It travels in between Acacia Prison and Wooroloo Prison Farm and then alongside Wooroloo Brook , for 3 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 3 mi ) , before crossing the waterway . The highway then heads in a north @-@ easterly direction , passing to the south of Wundowie , through Bakers Hill , and reaching Clackline after 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) . Another 12 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 7 mi ) takes Great Eastern Highway to Mitchell Avenue , the turnoff for Northam , and part of the highway 's former route through the town . The highway takes an 11 @.@ 7 @-@ kilometre ( 7 @.@ 3 mi ) curve around the northern edge of Northam , meeting up with the eastern section of the former alignment , known as Yilgarn Avenue . This section of highway , also known as the Northam Bypass , intersects three other roads at grade separated interchanges : Northam – Toodyay Road , Irishtown Road , and Northam – Pithara Road . Each interchange consists of a flyover bridge for the highway , and a single two @-@ way ramp that connects to each road at a T junction .
The highway heads east through the Wheatbelt as the region 's main east @-@ west route . The road passes by agricultural land and remnant native vegetation , intermittently encountering small settlements and towns such as Meckering , Cunderdin , Kellerberrin , and Merredin . Great Eastern Highway enters Southern Cross 265 kilometres ( 165 mi ) out from Northam , near the edge of the Wheatbelt . The landscape changes to low shrubland , with few signs of human activity other than the highway itself , and the mostly parallel water pipeline and power line . The road continues eastwards in this fashion over a vast distance of 285 kilometres ( 177 mi ) before reaching the town of Coolgardie . Three hundred metres ( 980 ft ) beyond the townsite , traffic bound for South Australia turns south onto Coolgardie – Esperance Highway , following the National Highway 94 route . Great Eastern Highway , now signposted as Alternate National Route 94 , turns north @-@ east , travelling through another 32 kilometres ( 20 mi ) of scrubland to the outskirts of Kalgoorlie . The road continues its journey eastward within the grid of Kalgoorlie 's road system , initially passing by the industrial district of West Kalgoorlie . After 1 @.@ 9 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) , the highway once more becomes a dual carriageway , and travels past residential neighbourhoods . Following 1 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 75 mi ) , the highway takes on the name Hannan Street , and continues for 3 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 2 mi ) through to downtown Kalgoorlie , terminating at Goldfields Highway on Kalgoorlie 's eastern edge . Alternate Route 94 turns south , back towards the National Highway route .
= = History = =
= = = Convict @-@ era road = = =
A road along what is now Great Eastern Highway has existed since the convict era of Western Australia . The original road is thought to have been constructed in 1867 , using convict labour , with a road base made of jarrah tree trunks cut into disc shapes . The use of wooden discs as a road base had been proposed by Western Australian Governor John Hampton , leading them to be known as " Hampton 's Cheeses " . The discs were approximately 30 centimetres ( 1 ft ) thick and as large as 90 centimetres ( 3 ft ) in diameter , and the gaps between pieces would have been filled with soil or lime . The same type of road is known to have existed along Stirling Highway , Guildford Road , Albany Highway and Wanneroo Road in the 1860s , and would have prevented horses and carts from getting bogged in wet weather . Evidence of this original road was found in Belmont in 1948 when widening works uncovered jarrah discs . During upgrade works in 2012 , more discs were discovered beneath the existing asphalt , over a twenty @-@ metre ( 66 ft ) stretch .
= = = Highway origins = = =
The name Great Eastern Highway was coined by the Perth Road Board in December 1933 . It was suggested for the Perth to Guildford road on the north side of the Swan River ( now known as Guildford Road ) , as an alternative to the Bassendean Road Board 's proposal , Perth Road . In February 1934 , the Bassendean Road Board agreed to the name , as Perth Road would be too general , and the road was considered the main artery serving eastern districts , all the way through to Kalgoorlie . Other local governments in the area considered the issue over the next few months . The Bayswater Road Board and Greenmount Road Board were in favour of the idea , but Guildford Road Board was opposed , as several local road names would be lost . Greenmount , and public advertising , thereafter referred to the road as Great Eastern Highway , and the council wrote to the Main Roads Department , requesting the name change be gazetted . This prompted Main Roads to write to other local governments , advising of the request and soliciting their views . The Mundaring Road Board and Kellerberrin Road Board were supportive , while the Kalgoorlie Road Board suggested Great Eastern Goldfields Highway . The Kalgoorlie Municipal Council agreed that the road should be known as a highway , but thought the name was inadequate for a road that only connected Midland Junction with Coolgardie . The Midland Junction Municipal Council opposed the renaming , citing " sentimental and practical reasons for the continuance of the use of the old name " .
In August 1934 , the Bassendean Road Board applied to the Lands Department to change the portion of the Perth – Guildford road within its district to Great Eastern Highway . The department refused the request , reasoning that most traffic bound for Midland used The Causeway and travelled on the south side of the Swan River , and that therefore the Perth – Guildford road should not be part of the main highway . Despite this setback , the Perth Road Board organised a local government conference to consider renaming the road from Perth to Guildford . The issue was considered important , as losing the name to the south side of the river would divert traffic away from the old established centres to the north . The straightening of dangerous bends and the replacement of an old bridge between Bassendean and Guildford were also to be considered . The conference , held on 7 September 1934 , was attended by representatives of the Perth , Bayswater , Bassendean , and Guildford road boards , and the Midland Junction Council . Guildford and Midland Junction were still opposed to the renaming , but the others were supportive . Motions that passed included submitting a rename proposal to the state government , urging the government to construct a new bridge at Bassendean , and approaching the government to have the road declared a main road .
In November 1934 , the state government Land Council contacted the local governments on the south side of the Swan River , asking them to rename the roads that make up the Causeway – Midland route as Great Eastern Highway . Both the Perth City Council and Belmont Park Road Board agreed to the request . This created a " peculiar situation " , as described by the RAC , with roads both north and south of the Swan River proposed to be renamed as Great Eastern Highway . Despite the name change not being official , some residents along the road through Belmont started describing their properties as located on Great Eastern Highway .
Another conference of the local governments north of the river was held in December 1934 . They decided to continue to pursue renaming the Perth – Guildford road to Great Eastern Highway , and having it gazetted as a main road . A letter from the Commissioner of Main Roads had stated that the road through Belmont was considered the principal highway to the eastern states . He therefore recommended that if the name Great Eastern Highway were to be applied west of Midland Junction , it should be to that road , as the road through Bassendean was not considered a main road . Traffic counts collected by the Bassendean Road Board , however , showed that the north of river route , through Bassendean , carried more traffic in both directions than the southern route , through Belmont – 54 % compared to 46 % . The northern route was also shorter by about two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) , and considered by the local governments to be the " natural entrance to the city " , only crossing the Swan River once and not again at the Causeway .
On 8 January 1935 , representatives from the local governments north of the river urged Minister for Lands , Michael Troy , to rename the Perth – Guildford road through those areas as Great Eastern Highway . Despite the route being shorter and carrying more traffic , he refused . He said that it was not gazetted as main road , and a previous decision to rename the road through Belmont as Great Eastern Highway was made after considering the facts , and at the request of the Main Roads Board . There was resentment and an objection over the name being " pinched " from the Perth Road Board . The minister disregarded the objection . He advised the representatives to see the Minister for Works to get the road declared a main road , and then approach him with a new name . This resolved Great Eastern Highway 's route , with the local governments north of the river pursuing other names such as Main Highway .
On 14 April 1938 , the name Great Eastern Highway was gazetted , in accordance with section 10 of the Land Act , 1933 – 1937 . It replaced the names previously used along the route : Ascot Road , Guildford Road , York Road , Guildford – Northam Road , Toodyay – Northam Road , Mitchell Avenue , Throsell Road , Sermon Road , Dreyer Road , Goldfields Road , Kalgoorlie Road , Woodward Street , and Coolgardie Road .
= = = Upgrades and improvements = = =
By 1950 , the highway had been sealed from Perth to Southern Cross , and from a few miles west of Coolgardie to Kalgoorlie . Traffic in the Goldfields was light , with an average daily traffic of 44 vehicles between Southern Cross and Coolgardie , and 33 from Coolgardie to Kalgoorlie . The road was completely sealed by 1953 . Between 1954 and 1956 , sections of the highway between Perth and Southern Cross were improved . The works included increasing the seal width along 38 miles ( 61 km ) of the road , reconstructing 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) of road , and resealing 23 @.@ 5 miles ( 37 @.@ 8 km ) . Precast concrete structures were used to replace two old , narrow wooden bridges .
In the 1950s , roundabouts were constructed at each end of The Causeway , to improve the flow of traffic on the bridges and the distribution of traffic back into the road network . The roundabout at the eastern end , connecting with Great Eastern Highway , opened in 1952 . In 1973 construction began on upgrading that intersection to a grade @-@ separated partial cloverleaf interchange . The interchange opened on 8 March 1974 , having cost AUS $ 1 @.@ 3 million .
A major accident occurred at the intersection with Roe Highway on 30 December 1993 . A truck lost control coming down Greenmount Hill and rolled over at the intersection , after crashing into six vehicles on the hill and another 14 at the intersection . One woman was killed , and another 12 people were injured , including four with serious injuries . It was Western Australia 's worst accident that year , according to police , with the aftermath described by a witness as " like a battlefield " . This accident led to the construction of a truck arrester bed near the bottom of the hill . It has been used in emergencies several times since .
In 1994 , the federal government approved a $ 43 @.@ 9 million project to upgrade substandard sections of Great Eastern Highway between Northam and Southern Cross . That portion of the highway was one of the oldest sections of the National Highway within Western Australia . The road was susceptible to failure due to poor drainage and frequent flooding . Further works in the 1990s saw a second carriageway constructed from Mundaring to Sawyers Valley , and then extended to The Lakes at the edge of Perth . A dual carriageway was also constructed in Kalgoorlie , and a long overtaking lane was built near Clackline .
More recent works have improved sections of the highway in Perth . Great Eastern Highway 's intersection with Roe Highway was upgraded to a grade separated interchange . The design is a diamond interchange , with free @-@ flowing traffic on Roe Highway , and an additional looped ramp for northbound to eastbound traffic movements . Construction of the $ 101 @.@ 5 million project began in late 2010 , and the interchange was officially opened to traffic on 9 June 2012 . Another project undertaken was the widening of the highway through the suburbs of Rivervale , Belmont and Redcliffe – between Kooyong Road , just north @-@ east of the Graham Farmer Freeway interchange , and Tonkin Highway . Work commenced in June 2011 , and was completed in February 2013 , nine months earlier than scheduled . Prime Minister Julia Gillard opened the upgraded highway on 28 March 2013 , participating in a ribbon @-@ cutting ceremony . The $ 280 million upgrade included construction of a median strip , widening the road to three lanes in each direction , bus priority lanes at several traffic light controlled intersections , and bicycle lanes . The upgrade was expected to reduce congestion along the highway , which had been one of Perth 's worst accident spots in 2011 / 12 . However , the accidents were usually not serious , and roadworks were considered a " major contributing factor " . In October 2013 , the project was recognised with the Civil Contractors Federation National Earth Award for Excellence .
= = = Bypasses = = =
Great Eastern Highway Bypass , together with Roe Highway , provides a limited @-@ access bypass of Guildford and Midland town sites . The 5 @.@ 6 @-@ kilometre ( 3 @.@ 5 mi ) bypass branches off the original highway alignment at South Guildford , proceeds around the northern edge of Perth Airport , and then heads east through Hazelmere . At the eastern end of Great Eastern Highway Bypass , traffic returns to the main highway by heading north on Roe Highway for three kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) . Plans for a major highway along a similar alignment date back to Gordon Stephenson and Alistair Hepburn 's 1955 " Plan for the Metropolitan Region " , which was the precursor of Perth 's Metropolitan Region Scheme . The road was constructed in the late 1980s , and was known as the Redcliffe – Bushmead Highway during construction . Great Eastern Highway Bypass was opened on 14 May 1988 , after 21 months of construction , and at a cost of $ 10 million .
Planning for a bypass around Northam began in the 1960s . The original route through the town centre functioned as both a local access road and primary traffic route , including for heavy vehicles . There were particular concerns with the amount of traffic congestion , frequency of crashes , and the noise and visual pollution of the highway 's traffic . Twelve different alignments were considered for the bypass , which were narrowed down to three options by the 1990s . In 1993 the Environmental Protection Authority assessed the proposal , and found that only the route that deviated furthest away from the townsite would be environmentally acceptable . The closer routes were not acceptable due to the potential impact on the Avon River . The project gained the Minister for the Environment 's conditional approval on 24 June 1994 . Construction of the Northam bypass began in January 2001 , with the new road opened on 17 May 2002 .
A bypass of Clackline was also constructed , realigning 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) of Great Eastern Highway 100 metres ( 330 ft ) north of the town . Works began in January 2007 , and were completed in February 2008 . The project also involved constructing overtaking lanes between Clackline and Bakers Hill , upgrading intersections in Clackline , and constructing a pedestrian underpass for a heritage trail . Clackline Brook was realigned through a large box culvert , allowing a safer crossing than the narrow Clackline Bridge on the original alignment . The bypass was originally allocated $ 2 @.@ 4 million of funding in 2006 , but by January 2007 it was expected to cost almost $ 11 million . The final project value was $ 9 @.@ 2 million . Issues and challenges in the project 's design and construction included extensive rock protection requirements for the Clackline Brook culvert , drilling and blasting close to the existing highway , and protecting heritage and environmentally sensitive areas . The Clackline community welcomed the bypass , but there were concerns that the historic Clackline Bridge would be lost . The bridge has since received a permanent entry on the Heritage Council of Western Australia 's Register of Heritage Places , in November 2008 .
= = Future = =
There are long @-@ term plans to bypass Great Eastern Highway 's current ascent of the Darling Scarp . Planning for a new major road network in Perth 's eastern corridor began in the 1970s . Early planning efforts between 1978 and 1981 for a new highway reservation from Mundaring to Wooroloo encountered community opposition , and the Environmental Protection Authority ( EPA ) requested a more detailed environmental assessment . In 1985 , a study into the primary east @-@ west traffic routes in the area was commissioned by the Main Roads Department , Metropolitan Region Planning Authority , Shire of Mundaring , and Shire of Swan . It recommended a new alignment , known as the " Orange Route " , be selected for the Perth to Adelaide National Highway . Alternative routes were identified using other colours as codenames . The new national highway would travel north @-@ east along Toodyay Road from Roe Highway to beyond Gidgegannup , and then deviate east via the proposed Orange Route to meet Great Eastern Highway near Wundowie . The ultimate design of the highway included grade @-@ separated interchanges for all of the roads that it intersects . The Orange Route received environmental approval on 22 November 1989 . Detailed planning for the Clackline to Wooroloo section of the Orange Route was to begin in 1998 . As of 2012 , construction of the Orange Route is not a priority for Main Roads . The project was not in the forward works program , there was no indication of the expected starting date , and a cost – benefit analysis had not been performed recently . Plans are still in development , but the federal government is responsible for financing the project .
= = Major intersections = =
= Battle of Maysalun =
The Battle of Maysalun ( Arabic : معركة ميسلون ) , also called the Battle of Maysalun Pass or the Battle of Khan Maysalun , was a battle fought between the forces of the Arab Kingdom of Syria and the French Army of the Levant on 24 July 1920 near Khan Maysalun in the Anti @-@ Lebanon Mountains , about 25 kilometers ( 16 mi ) west of Damascus
As part of the British @-@ backed Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire , the Arab forces of the Sharifian army under Emir Faisal captured Damascus in October 1918 . An Arab government under Faisal was subsequently formed in Syria , but it was not recognized internationally . Instead , France and Great Britain had agreed to divide the Arab territories of the Ottoman Empire among themselves , despite earlier British promises to the Sharifian leadership that the Arab territories would form part of a Sharifian @-@ ruled state in return for Arab participation in the British war effort . French attempts to establish control over Syria were challenged by its inhabitants and government , and in March 1920 , the Arab Kingdom of Syria was proclaimed with Faisal as king . A month later , Syria was allocated to France as a mandate by the League of Nations . The battle of Maysalun occurred as France sought to assert its claim over Damascus and topple Faisal 's government .
Prior to the engagement at Maysalun , General Henri Gouraud of France issued an ultimatum to Faisal , demanding that he disband his rudimentary Arab Army , a demand to which Faisal ultimately acceded . However , by the time Faisal communicated his agreement , French forces had launched an offensive towards Damascus from Lebanon , and Faisal 's war minister , General Yusuf al- ' Azma , set out to confront them with the remnants of the Arab Army and Damascene volunteers . During the battle , the better @-@ equipped French forces under the command of General Mariano Goybet defeated the Syrian forces of al- ' Azma , who was killed in action . French troops entered Damascus the following day , encountering little resistance . Soon after , Faisal was expelled from Syria . Despite the Arab Army 's decisive defeat , the Battle of Maysalun became a symbol in Syria and the Arab world of desperate courage against a stronger imperial power .
= = Background = =
On 30 October 1918 , towards the end of World War I , the Sharifian Army led by Emir Faisal , backed by the British Army , captured Damascus from the Ottomans as part of the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire . The war ended less than a month after the Sharifian – British conquest of Damascus . In correspondences between the Sharifian leadership in Mecca and Henry McMahon , the British high commissioner in Cairo , the latter promised to support the establishment of a Sharifian kingdom in the Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire in return for launching a revolt against the Ottomans . However , the British and French governments made previous arrangements regarding the division of the Ottomans ' Arab provinces between themselves in the 1916 Sykes @-@ Picot Agreement .
To allay his fears regarding his throne in Syria , Faisal attended the January 1919 Paris Conference , where he was not recognized by the French government as the sovereign ruler of Syria ; Faisal called for Syrian sovereignty under his rule , but the European powers attending the conference called for European mandates to be established over the former Arab territories of the Ottoman Empire . In the US @-@ led June 1919 King – Crane Commission , which published its conclusions in 1922 , the commission determined that the people of Syria overwhelmingly rejected French rule . Furthermore , Emir Faisal stated to the commission that " French rule would mean certain death to Syrians as a distinguished people " .
French forces commanded by General Henri Gouraud landed in Beirut on 18 November 1919 , with the ultimate goal of bringing all of Syria under French control . Shortly thereafter , French forces deployed to the Beqaa Valley , a wide area between Beirut and Damascus . Against King Faisal 's wishes , his delegate to General Gouraud , Nuri al @-@ Said , agreed to the French deployment and the disbandment of Arab troops from al @-@ Mu 'allaqa , near Zahle . The agreement between al @-@ Said and Gouraud was contrary to an earlier agreement Faisal had made with French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau , which held that French troops would not deploy in the Beqaa Valley until the League of Nations ruled on the matter . Faisal condemned al @-@ Said and accused of him of treachery . Following the Arab Army withdrawal from al @-@ Mu 'allaqa , Christian militiamen from Zahle raided the town , prompting attacks from local Muslim militiamen , which forced several Christian families to the coast . Amid these developments , armed groups of rebels and bandits emerged throughout the Beqaa Valley . When a French officer in Baalbek was assaulted by Shia Muslim rebels opposed to the French presence , Gouraud believed the Arab government was responsible for the act and demanded that it apologize , which it did not . In response , Gouraud violated his agreement with al @-@ Said and occupied Baalbek . The French deployment along the Syrian coast and the Beqaa Valley provoked unrest throughout Syria and sharpened political divisions between the political camp that called for confronting the French and the camp that sought compromise .
On 8 March 1920 , the Syrian National Congress proclaimed the establishment of the Kingdom of Syria , with Faisal as king . This unilateral action was immediately rejected by the British and French . In the San Remo Conference , which was called by the Allied Powers in April 1920 , the allocation of mandates in the Arab territories was finalized , with France given a mandate over Syria . France 's allocation of Syria was , in turn , repudiated by Faisal and the Syrian National Congress . After months of instability and failure to make good on the promises Faisal had made to the French , General Gouraud gave an ultimatum to Faisal on 14 July 1920 demanding that he disband the Arab Army and submit to French authority by 20 July or face a French military invasion . On 18 July , Faisal and the entire cabinet , with the exception of War Minister Yusuf al- ' Azma , agreed to the ultimatum and issued disbandment orders for the Arab Army units at Anjar , the Beirut – Damascus road and the hills of the Anti @-@ Lebanon Mountains overlooking the Beqaa Valley . Two days later , Faisal informed the French liaison in Damascus of his acceptance of the ultimatum , but for unclear reasons , Faisal 's notification did not reach Gouraud until 21 July . Sources suspicious of French intentions accused the French of intentionally delaying delivery of the notice to give Gouraud an official excuse for advancing on Damascus . However , there has been no evidence or indication of French sabotage . News of the disbandment and Faisal 's submission led to riots in Damascus on 20 July and their suppression by Emir Zeid , which led to around 200 deaths . Al- ' Azma , who was staunchly opposed to surrender , implored Faisal to give him and the remnants of his army the opportunity to confront the French .
= = = Prelude = = =
On 22 July , Faisal dispatched Education Minister Sati al @-@ Husri and the Arab government 's former Beirut representative , Jamil al @-@ Ulshi , to meet Gouraud at his headquarters in Aley and persuade him to end his army 's advance to Damascus . Gouraud responded by extending the ultimatum by one day and with new , more stringent conditions , namely that France be allowed to establish a mission in Damascus to supervise the implementation of the original ultimatum and the establishment of the French mandate . Al @-@ Husri returned to Damascus the same day to communicate Gouraud 's message to Faisal , who called for a meeting of the cabinet on 23 July to consider the new ultimatum . Colonel Cousse , a French liaison officer to Damascus , interrupted the meeting with a demand from Gouraud that the French army be allowed to advance toward Maysalun , where water wells were abundant . Gouraud had originally planned to launch the offensive against Damascus from Ayn al @-@ Judaydah , a spring in the Anti @-@ Lebanon Range , but the lack of water sources there amid the steep , barren mountains led to a change of plans . Accordingly , Gouraud sought to occupy Khan Maysalun , an isolated caravanserai on the Beirut – Damascus road situated at the crest of the Wadi al @-@ Qarn mountain pass in the Anti @-@ Lebanon , located 25 kilometers ( 16 mi ) west of Damascus . Gouraud was also motivated to occupy Khan Maysalun because of its proximity to the Hejaz Railway .
Cousse 's message confirmed the fears of Faisal 's cabinet that Gouraud was intent on taking over Syria by force . The cabinet subsequently rejected Gouraud 's ultimatum and issued a largely symbolic appeal to the international community to end the French advance . On 23 July , Al- ' Azma set out from Damascus with his motley force of army regulars and volunteers , which was divided into northern , central and southern columns each headed by camel cavalry units . French forces launched their offensive towards Khan Maysalun and Wadi al @-@ Qarn shortly after dawn on 24 July , at 5 : 00 , while Syrian forces were waiting at their positions overlooking the low end of Wadi al @-@ Qarn .
= = Battle = =
The first clashes took place at 6 : 30 when French tank divisions stormed the central position of the Syrian defensive line while French cavalry and infantry units assaulted the Syrians ' northern and southern positions . The camel cavalry were the first Syrian units to engage the French . Syrian forces initially put up stiff resistance along the front , but lacked coordination between their different units . Early in the clashes , Syrian artillery fire inflicted casualties on a battery of French soldiers . French tanks faced heavy fire as they attempted to gain ground against the Syrians . However , French artillery took a toll on Syrian forces and by 8 : 30 the French had broken the Syrians ' central trench . At one point in the first few hours of the clashes , Syrian forces managed to briefly pin down two Senegalese companies that were relatively isolated on the French right flank . The losses inflicted on the two Senegalese units represented roughly half of the French army 's total casualties . Nonetheless , by 10 : 00 , the battle was effectively over , having turned decisively in favor of the French .
At 10 : 30 , French forces reached al- ' Azma 's headquarters , unhindered by the mines laid en route by the Syrians . Little information is known about the battle from the Syrian side . According to one version , when French forces were about 100 meters in the distance , al- ' Azma rushed to a Syrian artilleryman stationed near him and demanded him to open fire . However , before any shells could be fired , a French tank unit spotted al- ' Azma and gunned him down with machine gun fire . In another account of events , al- ' Azma had attempted to mine the trenches as the French forces approached his position , but was shot down by the French before he could set off the charges . Al- ' Azma 's death marked the end of the battle , although intermittent clashes continued until 13 : 30 . Surviving Syrian fighters were bombed from the air and harried by the French as they retreated toward Damascus .
After the battle , General Gouraud addressed General Goybet as follows :
GENERAL ORDER No. 22
Aley , 24 July 1920
" The General is deeply happy to address his congratulations to General Goybet and his valiant troops : 415th of line , 2nd Algerian sharpshooters , 11th and 10th Senegalese sharpshooters , light @-@ infantry @-@ men of Africa , Moroccan trooper regiment , batteries of African groups , batteries of 155 , 314 , company of tanks , bombardment groups and squadrons who in the hard fight of 24 of July , have broken the resistance of the enemy who defied us for 8 months ... They have engraved a glorious page in the history of our country . " – General Gouraud
= = Aftermath = =
Initial estimates of the casualties which claimed 2 @,@ 000 Syrian dead and 800 French casualties turned out to be exaggerated . The French Army claimed 42 of its soldiers were killed , 152 wounded and 14 missing in action , while around 150 Syrian fighters were killed and 1 @,@ 500 wounded . King Faisal observed the battle unfold from the village of al @-@ Hamah , and as it became apparent that the Syrians had been routed , he and his cabinet , with the exception of Interior Minister ' Ala al @-@ Din al @-@ Durubi , who had quietly secured a deal with the French , departed for al @-@ Kiswah , a town located at the southern approaches of Damascus .
French forces had captured Aleppo on 23 July without a fight , and after their victory at Maysalun , French troops besieged and captured Damascus on 25 July . Within a short time , the majority of Faisal 's forces fled or surrendered to the French , although parties of Arab groups opposed to French rule continued to resist before being quickly defeated . King Faisal returned to Damascus on 25 July and asked al @-@ Durubi to form a government , although al @-@ Durubi had already decided on the composition of his cabinet , which was confirmed by the French . General Gouraud condemned Faisal 's rule in Syria , accusing him of having " dragged the country to within an inch of destruction " , and stating that because of this , it was " utterly impossible for him to remain in the country " . Faisal denounced Gouraud 's statement and insisted that he remained the sovereign head of Syria whose authority he was " granted by the Syrian people " .
Although he verbally dismissed the French order expelling him and his family from Syria , Faisal departed Damascus on 27 July with only one of his cabinet members , al @-@ Husri . He initially traveled south to Daraa in the Hauran region where he gained the allegiance of local tribal leaders . However , a French ultimatum to the tribal leaders to expel Faisal or face the bombardment of their encampments compelled Faisal to head west to Haifa in British @-@ held Palestine on 1 August and avoid further bloodshed . Faisal 's departure from Syria marked an end to his goal of establishing and leading an Arab state in Syria .
= = Combatants and arms = =
= = = French forces = = =
Estimates of the combined size of the French Army of the Levant divisions that participated in the battle ranged from 9 @,@ 000 to 12 @,@ 000 troops . The troops were mostly made up of Senegalese and Algerian units , and consisted of ten infantry battalions and a number of cavalry and artillery units . Among the participating units were the 415th Infantry Regiment , the 2nd Algerian Riflemen Regiment , the Senegalese Division , the African Riflemen Regiment and the Moroccan Sipahi Battalion . A number of Maronite volunteers from Mount Lebanon reportedly joined the French forces as well . The Army of the Levant was equipped with plain and mountain artillery batteries and 155mm guns , and backed by tanks and fighter bombers . The commander of the French forces was General Mariano Goybet .
= = = Syrian forces = = =
The Syrian forces that fought in the battle consisted of the remnants of General Hassan al @-@ Hindi 's disbanded Arab Army unit based in Anjar , a force of Arab Army regulars from disbanded units in Damascus , Bedouin camel @-@ mounted soldiers assembled by General al- ' Azma , and numerous civilian volunteers and militiamen . Estimates put the number of Arab Army soldiers and local irregulars at around 4 @,@ 000 . Most Arab Army units had already been disbanded days prior to the battle by order of King Faisal as part of his acceptance of the terms set out in General Gouraud 's 14 July ultimatum . According to historian Eliezer Tauber , al- ' Azma recruited 3 @,@ 000 soldiers and volunteers , and of them only 1 @,@ 400 participated in the battle .
Part of the civilian militia units were assembled and led by Yasin Kiwan , a Damascene merchant , Abd al @-@ Qadir Kiwan , the former imam of the Umayyad Mosque , and Shaykh Hamdi al @-@ Juwajani , a Muslim scholar . Yasin and Abd al @-@ Qadir were killed during the battle . Shaykh Muhammad al @-@ Ashmar also participated in the battle with 40 – 50 of his men from the Midan quarter of Damascus . Other Muslim preachers and scholars from Damascus , including Tawfiq al @-@ Darra ( ex @-@ mufti of the Ottoman Fifth Army ) , Sa 'id al @-@ Barhani ( preacher at the Tuba Mosque ) , Muhammad al @-@ Fahl ( scholar from the Qalbaqjiyya Madrasa ) and Ali Daqqar ( preacher at the Sinan Pasha Mosque ) also participated in the battle .
The Syrians were equipped with rifles discarded by retreating Ottoman soldiers during World War I and those used by the Sharifian Army 's Bedouin cavalry during the 1916 Arab Revolt . The Syrians also possessed a number of machine guns and about 15 artillery batteries . According to various versions , ammunition was low , with 120 – 250 bullets per rifle , 45 bullets per machine gun , and 50 – 80 shells per cannon . Part of this ammunition was also unusable because many bullet and rifle types did not correspond to each other .
= = Legacy = =
The French took control of the territory that became the French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon . France divided Syria into smaller statelets centered on certain regions and sects , including Greater Lebanon for the Maronites , Jabal al @-@ Druze State for the Druze in Hauran , the Alawite State for the Alawites in the Syrian coastal mountains and the states of Damascus and Aleppo . Gouraud reportedly went to the tomb of Saladin , kicked it , and said : " Awake , Saladin . We have returned . My presence here consecrates victory of the Cross over the Crescent . "
Although the Syrians were decisively defeated , the Battle of Maysalun " has gone down in Arab history as a synonym for heroism and hopeless courage against huge odds , as well as for treachery and betrayal " , according to Iraqi historian Ali al @-@ Allawi . According to British journalist Robert Fisk , the Battle of Maysalun was " a struggle which every Syrian learns at school but about which almost every Westerner is ignorant " . Historian Tareq Y. Ismael wrote that following the battle , the " Syrian resistance at Khan Maysalun soon took on epic proportions . It was viewed as an Arab attempt to stop the imperial avalanche . " He also states that the Syrians ' defeat caused popular attitudes in the Arab world that exist until the present day which hold that the Western world dishonors the commitments it makes to the Arab people and " oppresses anyone who stands in the way of its imperial designs . " Sati ' al @-@ Husri , a major pan @-@ Arabist thinker , asserted that the battle was " one of the most important events in the modern history of the Arab nation . " The event was annually commemorated by Syrians , during which thousands would visit the grave of al- ' Azma in Maysalun .
= Goliath ( Six Flags Fiesta Texas ) =
Goliath is a steel inverted roller coaster manufactured by Bolliger & Mabillard currently operating at Six Flags Fiesta Texas in San Antonio , Texas since April 18 , 2008 . In the roller coaster 's lifetime , it has operated at two other amusement parks : Thrill Valley from 1995 to May 6 , 2002 , and Six Flags New Orleans from April 12 , 2003 to August 21 , 2005 when Hurricane Katrina hit New Orleans . Goliath 's highest point is 105 feet ( 32 m ) , the trains can reach a top speed of 50 miles per hour ( 80 km / h ) , and the length of the track is approximately 2 @,@ 693 feet ( 821 m ) .
= = History = =
= = = Thrill Valley ( 1995 — 2002 ) = = =
Goliath originally opened at Thrill Valley in Japan as Gambit in 1995 . The ride operated at the park for about 7 years before closing on May 6 , 2002 . The ride was dismantled and transported to Six Flags New Orleans .
= = = Six Flags New Orleans ( 2003 — 2007 ) = = =
In 2002 , Six Flags took over the lease of Jazzland and renamed the park to Six Flags New Orleans . After the take over , Six Flags announced major changes coming to the park included the arrival of Gambit , but now named Batman : The Ride . The roller coaster was built in one of the new area 's Six Flags had constructed for the 2003 season after the acquisition , DC Comics Super Hero Adventures . The ride re @-@ opened at Six Flags New Orleans on April 12 , 2003 .
On August 21 , 2005 before Hurricane Katrina hit New Orleans , Six Flags closed the park as a safety precaution . Due to substantial flooding , many of the park 's rides were damaged beyond repair causing the park to remain standing but not operating . In 2007 , Six Flags moved Batman : The Ride to Six Flags Fiesta Texas , considering it to be the only salvageable ride due to its elevated station platform and corrosion @-@ resistant support structure , which caused it to make it through Hurricane Katrina relatively unscathed .
= = = Six Flags Fiesta Texas ( 2008 — present ) = = =
In 2007 , Batman : The Ride was dismantled and moved to Six Flags Fiesta Texas . Before reconstructing the ride , the track was repainted and the roller coaster was renamed Goliath . It opened on April 18 , 2008 .
The roller coaster is also currently sponsored by Snickers .
= = Ride experience = =
After departing from the station , the train immediately begins to climb the 105 @-@ foot ( 32 m ) chain lift hill . Once at the top , the train makes a sharp 80 @-@ foot ( 24 m ) downward right turn into the roller coasters first element , a vertical loop , reaching a top speed of approximately 50 miles per hour ( 80 km / h ) . After exiting the loop , the train then goes through a zero @-@ g roll before entering a second loop . The train then goes up a rightward helix before backing a downward left turn into a corkscrew . After a sharp left turn , the train enters another corkscrew . Upon exiting the corkscrew , the train makes a right turn into the brake run which leads directly back to the station where the current riders unload and the next load . One cycle of the ride lasts about 2 minutes .
= = = Track = = =
Goliath has a track length of about 2 @,@ 693 feet ( 821 m ) and reaches a top height of 105 @-@ foot ( 32 m ) . The track colours of the roller coaster when it was known as Gambit at Thrill Valley are not known . When it was known as Batman : The Ride at Six Flags News Orleans the track featured black and orange track with grey supports . Today , at Six Flags Fiesta Texas , the ride has blue track and yellow supports . Friction brakes are used to control the speed of the train at the end of the ride . The track was manufactured by Clermont Steel Fabricators located in Batavia , Ohio .
Also , Goliath is a clone of several other Bolliger & Mabillard roller coasters ( over half at Six Flags parks ) with the only difference being that the track is " mirrored " from the other clones . Coincidentally , one of those clones is The Great White at the SeaWorld San Antonio amusement park which is also located in San Antonio , Texas .
= = = Trains = = =
Goliath operates with two generic steel and fiberglass trains with seven cars each . Each car seats four riders in a single row for a total of 28 riders per train . The supports for the seats are orange , the actual seats are black with a yellow over @-@ the @-@ shoulder restraint connected to each one , and the coverings for the wheels are orange , blue , and yellow .
= Peak oil =
Peak oil , an event based on M. King Hubbert 's theory , is the point in time when the maximum rate of extraction of petroleum is reached , after which it is expected to enter terminal decline . Peak oil theory is based on the observed rise , peak , fall , and depletion of aggregate production rate in oil fields over time . It is often confused with oil depletion ; however , peak oil is the point of maximum production , while depletion refers to a period of falling reserves and supply .
Some observers , such as petroleum industry experts Kenneth S. Deffeyes and Matthew Simmons , predict negative global economy implications following a post @-@ peak production decline and subsequent oil price increase because of the high dependence of most modern industrial transport , agricultural , and industrial systems on the low cost and high availability of oil . Predictions vary greatly as to what exactly these negative effects would be .
Oil production forecasts on which predictions of peak oil are based are often made within a range which includes optimistic ( higher production ) and pessimistic ( lower production ) scenarios . Optimistic estimations of peak production forecast the global decline will begin after 2020 , and assume major investments in alternatives will occur before a crisis , without requiring major changes in the lifestyle of heavily oil @-@ consuming nations . Pessimistic predictions of future oil production made after 2007 stated either that the peak had already occurred , that oil production was on the cusp of the peak , or that it would occur shortly .
Hubbert 's original prediction that US peak oil would be in about 1970 seemed accurate for a time , as US average annual production peaked in 1970 at 9 @.@ 6 million barrels per day . However , the successful application of massive hydraulic fracturing to additional tight reservoirs caused US production to rebound , challenging the inevitability of post @-@ peak decline for the US oil production . In addition , Hubbert 's original predictions for world peak oil production proved premature .
= = Modeling global oil production = =
The idea that the rate of oil production would peak and irreversibly decline is an old one . In 1919 , David White , chief geologist of the United States Geological Survey , wrote of US petroleum : " ... the peak of production will soon be passed , possibly within 3 years . " In 1953 , Eugene Ayers , a researcher for Gulf Oil , projected that if US ultimate recoverable oil reserves were 100 billion barrels , then production in the US would peak no later than 1960 . If ultimate recoverable were to be as high as 200 billion barrels , which he warned was wishful thinking , US peak production would come no later than 1970 . Likewise for the world , he projected a peak somewhere between 1985 ( one trillion barrels ultimate recoverable ) and 2000 ( two trillion barrels recoverable ) . Ayers made his projections without a mathematical model . He wrote : " But if the curve is made to look reasonable , it is quite possible to adapt mathematical expressions to it and to determine , in this way , the peak dates corresponding to various ultimate recoverable reserve numbers "
By observing past discoveries and production levels , and predicting future discovery trends , the geoscientist M. King Hubbert used statistical modelling in 1956 to accurately predict that United States oil production would peak between 1965 and 1971 . Hubbert used a semi @-@ logistical curved model ( sometimes incorrectly compared to a normal distribution ) . He assumed the production rate of a limited resource would follow a roughly symmetrical distribution . Depending on the limits of exploitability and market pressures , the rise or decline of resource production over time might be sharper or more stable , appear more linear or curved . That model and its variants are now called Hubbert peak theory ; they have been used to describe and predict the peak and decline of production from regions , countries , and multinational areas . The same theory has also been applied to other limited @-@ resource production .
In a 2006 analysis of Hubbert theory , it was noted that uncertainty in real world oil production amounts and confusion in definitions increases the uncertainty in general of production predictions . By comparing the fit of various other models , it was found that Hubbert 's methods yielded the closest fit over all , but that none of the models were very accurate . In 1956 Hubbert himself recommended using " a family of possible production curves " when predicting a production peak and decline curve .
More recently , the term " peak oil " was popularized by Colin Campbell and Kjell Aleklett in 2002 when they helped form the Association for the Study of Peak Oil and Gas ( ASPO ) . In his publications , Hubbert used the term " peak production rate " and " peak in the rate of discoveries " .
= = Demand = =
The demand side of peak oil over time is concerned with the total quantity of oil that the global market would choose to consume at various possible market prices and how this entire listing of quantities at various prices would evolve over time . Global demand for crude oil grew an average of 1 @.@ 76 % per year from 1994 to 2006 , with a high growth of 3 @.@ 4 % in 2003 – 2004 . After reaching a high of 85 @.@ 6 million barrels ( 13 @,@ 610 @,@ 000 m3 ) per day in 2007 , world consumption decreased in both 2008 and 2009 by a total of 1 @.@ 8 % , despite fuel costs plummeting in 2008 . Despite this lull , world quantity @-@ demanded for oil is projected to increase 21 % over 2007 levels by 2030 ( 104 million barrels per day ( 16 @.@ 5 × 10 ^ 6 m3 / d ) from 86 million barrels ( 13 @.@ 7 × 10 ^ 6 m3 ) ) , or about 0 @.@ 8 % average annual growth , due in large part to increases in demand from the transportation sector . According to projections by the International Energy Agency ( IEA ) in 2013 , growth in global oil demand will be significantly outpaced by growth in production capacity over the next 5 years . Developments in late 2014 – 2015 have seen an oversupply of global markets leading to a significant drop in the price of oil .
Energy demand is distributed amongst four broad sectors : transportation , residential , commercial , and industrial . In terms of oil use , transportation is the largest sector and the one that has seen the largest growth in demand in recent decades . This growth has largely come from new demand for personal @-@ use vehicles powered by internal combustion engines . This sector also has the highest consumption rates , accounting for approximately 71 % of the oil used in the United States in 2013 @.@ and 55 % of oil use worldwide as documented in the Hirsch report . Transportation is therefore of particular interest to those seeking to mitigate the effects of peak oil .
Although demand growth is highest in the developing world , the United States is the world 's largest consumer of petroleum . Between 1995 and 2005 , US consumption grew from 17 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 barrels per day ( 2 @,@ 810 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) to 20 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 barrels per day ( 3 @,@ 290 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) , a 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 barrels per day ( 480 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) increase . China , by comparison , increased consumption from 3 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 barrels per day ( 540 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) to 7 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 barrels per day ( 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) , an increase of 3 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 barrels per day ( 570 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) , in the same time frame . The Energy Information Administration ( EIA ) stated that gasoline usage in the United States may have peaked in 2007 , in part because of increasing interest in and mandates for use of biofuels and energy efficiency .
As countries develop , industry and higher living standards drive up energy use , oil usage being a major component . Thriving economies , such as China and India , are quickly becoming large oil consumers . For example , China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest crude oil importer in 2015 . Oil consumption growth is expected to continue ; however , not at previous rates , as China 's economic growth is predicted to decrease from the high rates of the early part of the 21st century . India 's oil imports are expected to more than triple from 2005 levels by 2020 , rising to 5 million barrels per day ( 790 × 103 m3 / d ) .
= = = Population = = =
Another significant factor affecting petroleum demand has been human population growth . The United States Census Bureau predicts that world population in 2030 will be almost double that of 1980 . Oil production per capita peaked in 1979 at 5 @.@ 5 barrels / year but then declined to fluctuate around 4 @.@ 5 barrels / year since . In this regard , the decreasing population growth rate since the 1970s has somewhat ameliorated the per capita decline .
= = = Economic growth = = =
Some analysts argue that the cost of oil has a profound effect on economic growth due to its pivotal role in the extraction of resources and the processing , manufacturing , and transportation of goods . As the industrial effort to extract new unconventional oil sources increases , this has a compounding negative effect on all sectors of the economy , leading to economic stagnation or even eventual contraction . Such a scenario would result in an inability for national economies to pay high oil prices , leading to declining demand and a price collapse .
= = Supply = =
Our analysis suggests there are ample physical oil and liquid fuel resources for the foreseeable future . However , the rate at which new supplies can be developed and the break @-@ even prices for those new supplies are changing .
= = = Defining sources of oil = = =
Oil may come from conventional or unconventional sources . The terms are not strictly defined , and vary within the literature as definitions based on new technologies tend to change over time . As a result , different oil forecasting studies have included different classes of liquid fuels . Some use the terms " conventional " oil for what is included in the model , and " unconventional " oil for classes excluded .
In 1956 , Hubbert confined his peak oil prediction to that crude oil " producible by methods now in use . " By 1962 , however , his analyses included future improvements in exploration and production . All of Hubbert 's analyses of peak oil specifically excluded oil manufactured from oil shale or mined from oil sands . A 2013 study predicting an early peak excluded deepwater oil , tight oil , oil with API gravity less than 17 @.@ 5 , and oil close to the poles , such as that on the North Slope of Alaska , all of which it defined as non @-@ conventional . Some commonly used definitions for conventional and unconventional oil are detailed below .
= = = Conventional sources = = =
Conventional oil is extracted on land and offshore using standard techniques , and can be categorized as light , medium , heavy , or extra heavy in grade . The exact definitions of these grades vary depending on the region from which the oil came . Light oil flows naturally to the surface or can be extracted by simply pumping it out of the ground . Heavy refers to oil that has higher density and therefore lower API gravity . It does not flow easily , and its consistency is similar to that of molasses . While some of it can be produced using conventional techniques , recovery rates are better using unconventional methods .
= = = Unconventional sources = = =
Oil currently considered unconventional is derived from multiple sources .
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second house of Lancaster was descended from John of Gaunt , who married the heiress of the first house . Edward III married all his sons to wealthy English heiresses rather than following his predecessors ' practice of finding continental political marriages for royal princes . Henry of Grosmont , 1st Duke of Lancaster , had no male heir so Edward married his son John to Henry 's heiress daughter and John 's third cousin Blanche of Lancaster . This gave John the vast wealth of the House of Lancaster . Their son Henry usurped the throne in 1399 , creating one of the factions in the Wars of the Roses . There was an intermittent dynastic struggle between the descendants of Edward III . In these wars , the term Lancastrian became a reference to members of the family and their supporters . The family provided England with three kings : Henry IV , who ruled from 1399 to 1413 , Henry V ( 1413 – 1422 ) , and Henry VI ( 1422 – 1461 and 1470 – 1471 ) .
The House became extinct in the male line upon the murder in the Tower of London of Henry VI , following the battlefield execution of his son Edward of Westminster , Prince of Wales , by supporters of the House of York in 1471 . Lancastrian cognatic descent — from John of Gaunt and Blanche of Lancaster 's daughter Phillipa — continued in the royal houses of Spain and Portugal while the Lancastrian political cause was maintained by Henry Tudor — a relatively unknown scion of the Beauforts — eventually leading to the establishment of the House of Tudor . The Lancastrians left a legacy through the patronage of the arts — most notably in founding Eton College and King 's College , Cambridge — but to historians ’ chagrin their propaganda , and that of their Tudor successors , means that it is Shakespeare ’ s partly fictionalized history plays rather than medievalist scholarly research that has the greater influence on modern perceptions of the dynasty .
= = Origin of the Earls of Lancaster = =
After the supporters of Henry III of England suppressed opposition from the English nobility in the Second Barons ' War , Henry granted to his second son Edmund Crouchback the titles and possessions forfeited by attainder of the barons ' leader , Simon de Montfort , 6th Earl of Leicester , including the Earldom of Leicester , on 26 October 1265 . Later grants included the first Earldom of Lancaster on 30 June 1267 and that of Earl Ferrers in 1301 . Edmund was also Count of Champagne and Brie from 1276 by right of his wife . Henry IV of England would later use his descent from Edmund to legitimise his claim to the throne , even making the spurious claim that Edmund was the elder son of Henry but had been passed over as king because of his deformity .
Edmund 's second marriage to Blanche of Artois , the widow of the King of Navarre , placed him at the centre of the European aristocracy . Blanche 's daughter Joan I of Navarre was queen regnant of Navarre and through her marriage to Philip IV of France was queen consort of France . Edmund 's son Thomas became the most powerful nobleman in England , gaining the Earldoms of Lincoln and Salisbury through marriage to the heiress of Henry de Lacy , 3rd Earl of Lincoln . His income was £ 11 @,@ 000 per annum — double that of the next wealthiest earl .
Thomas and his younger brother Henry served in the coronation of their cousin King Edward II of England on 25 February 1308 ; Thomas carried Curtana , the Sword of Mercy , and Henry carried the royal sceptre . After initially supporting Edward , Thomas became one of the Lords Ordainers , who demanded the banishment of Piers Gaveston and the governance of the realm by a baronial council . After Gaveston was captured , Thomas took the lead in his trial and execution at Warwick in 1312 . Edward 's authority was weakened by poor governance and defeat by the Scots at the Battle of Bannockburn . This allowed Thomas to restrain Edward 's power by republishing the Ordinances of 1311 . Following this achievement Thomas took little part in the governance of the realm and instead retreated to Pontefract Castle . This allowed Edward to regroup and re @-@ arm , leading to a fragile peace in August 1318 with the Treaty of Leake . In 1321 Edward 's rule again collapsed into civil war . Thomas raised a northern army but was defeated and captured at the Battle of Boroughbridge . He was sentenced to be hanged , drawn and quartered but because he was Edward 's cousin he was given a quicker death by beheading .
Henry joined the revolt of Edward 's wife Isabella of France and her lover Mortimer in 1326 , pursuing and capturing Edward at Neath in South Wales . Following Edward 's deposition at the Parliament of Kenilworth in 1326 and reputed murder at Berkeley Castle , Thomas 's conviction was posthumously reversed and Henry regained possession of the Earldoms of Lancaster , Derby , Salisbury and Lincoln that had been forfeit for Thomas 's treason . His restored prestige led to him knighting the young King Edward III of England before his coronation . Mortimer lost support over the Treaty of Edinburgh – Northampton that formalised Scotland 's independence , and his developing power in the Welsh Marches provoked jealousy from the barons . When Mortimer called a parliament to make his new powers and estates permanent with the title of Earl of March in 1328 , Henry led the opposition and held a counter @-@ meeting . In response , Mortimer ravaged the lands of Lancaster and checked the revolt . Edward III was able to assume control in 1330 but Henry 's further influence was restricted by poor health and blindness for the last fifteen years of his life .
= = Duchy and Palatinate of Lancaster = =
Henry 's son , also called Henry , was born at the castle of Grosmont in Monmouthshire between 1299 and 1314 . According to the younger Henry 's memoirs , he was better at martial arts than academic subjects and did not learn to read until later in life . Henry was coeval with Edward III and was pivotal to his reign , becoming his best friend and most trusted commander . Henry was knighted in 1330 , represented his father in parliament and fought in Edward 's Scottish campaign . After the outbreak of the Hundred Years ' War , Henry took part in several diplomatic missions and minor campaigns and was present at the great English victory in the naval Battle of Sluys in 1340 . Later , he was required to commit himself as hostage in the Low Countries for Edward ’ s considerable debts . He remained hostage for a year and had to pay a large ransom for his own release .
In 1345 , Edward III launched a major , three @-@ pronged attack on France . The Earl of Northampton attacked from Brittany , Edward from Flanders , and Henry from Aquitaine in the south . Moving rapidly through the country , Henry confronted the Comte d 'Isle at the Battle of Auberoche and achieved a victory described as " the greatest single achievement of Lancaster 's entire military career " . The ransom from the prisoners has been estimated at £ 50 @,@ 000 . Edward rewarded Henry by including him as a founding knight of the Order of the Garter . An even greater honour was bestowed on Lancaster when Edward created him Duke of Lancaster . The title of duke was relatively new in England , with only Cornwall being a previous ducal title . Lancaster was also given palatinate status for the county of Lancashire , which entailed a separate administration independent of the crown . There were two other counties palatine ; Durham was an ancient ecclesiastical palatinate and Chester was crown property .
In 1350 , Henry was present at the naval victory at Winchelsea , where he saved the life of the Black Prince . He spent 1351 @-@ 2 on crusade in Prussia where a quarrel with Otto , Duke of Brunswick , almost led to a duel between the two men , which was only averted by the intervention of John II of France . As campaigning in France resumed , Henry participated in the last great offensive of the Rheims campaign of 1359 – 60 — the first phase of the Hundred Years ' War — before returning to England where he fell ill and died , most likely of the plague , at Leicester Castle .
Edward III of England married John of Gaunt , his third surviving son , to Henry 's heiress Blanche of Lancaster . On Henry 's death , Edward conferred on Gaunt the second creation of the title of Duke of Lancaster , which made Gaunt , after Edward , the wealthiest landowner in England . Gaunt enjoyed great political influence during his lifetime , but upon his death in 1399 his lands were confiscated by Richard II . Gaunt 's exiled son and heir Henry of Bolingbroke returned home and gathered military support in clear contravention of Richard 's treason act of 1397 , which included a definition of treason of " or [ to ] ... raiseth People and rideth against the King to make War within his Realm ... " . Although he claimed his aim was restoration of his Lancaster inheritance , this Act and Henry 's knowledge of Richard 's character — suspicious and vindictive — probably meant Henry knew that only by removing Richard from power could he be secure . Henry unified popular opposition to Richard II , took control of the kingdom and Richard — recognising that he had insufficient support to resist — surrendered to Henry ’ s forces at Conwy Castle . Henry instigated a commission to decide who should be king . Richard was forced to abdicate and although Henry was not next in line , he was chosen by an unlawfully constituted parliament dominated by his supporters . After the first unrest of his reign and a revolt by the Earls of Salisbury , Gloucester , Exeter and Surrey , Richard reputedly starved to death . There is some debate as to whether this was self @-@ inflicted or ordered by Henry to end the risk of restoration without leaving incriminating marks on the body .
= = Reign of Henry IV = =
There is much debate amongst historians about Henry 's accession , in part because some see it as a cause of the Wars of the Roses . For many historians , the accession by force of the throne broke principles the Plantagenets had established successfully over two and a half centuries and allowed any magnate with sufficient power and Plantagenet blood to have ambitions to assume the throne . Richard had attempted to disinherit Henry and remove him from the succession . In response Henry ’ s legal advisors , led by William Thirning , dissuaded Henry from claiming the throne by right of conquest and instead look for legal justification . Although Henry established a committee to investigate his assertion that his mother had legitimate rights through descent from Edmund Crouchback , whom he said was the elder son of Henry III of England but was set aside because of deformity , no evidence was found . The eight @-@ year @-@ old Edmund Mortimer , Earl of March , was the heir general to Richard II by being the grandson of Edward III 's second son , Lionel of Antwerp , 1st Duke of Clarence , and also the son of Richard 's last nominated heir . In desperation , Henry 's advisors made the case that Henry was heir male to Henry III and this was supported by thirteenth @-@ century entails . Mortimer 's sister Anne de Mortimer married Richard of Conisburgh , 3rd Earl of Cambridge , son of Edward III 's fourth son Edmund of Langley , consolidating Anne 's place in the succession with that of the more junior House of York . As a child Mortimer was not considered a serious contender and as an adult he showed no interest in the throne , instead loyally serving the House of Lancaster . Mortimer informed Henry V when Conisburgh , in what was later called the Southampton Plot , attempted to place him on the throne instead of Henry 's newly crowned son — their mutual cousin — leading to the execution of Conisburgh and the other plotters .
Henry IV was plagued with financial problems , the political need to reward his supporters , frequent rebellions and declining health — including leprosy and epilepsy . The Percy family had been some of Henry 's leading supporters , defending the North from Scotland largely at their own expense , but revolted in the face of lack of reward and suspicion from Henry . Henry Percy ( Hotspur ) was defeated and killed at the Battle of Shrewsbury . In 1405 , Hotspur 's father Henry Percy , 1st Earl of Northumberland , supported the Archbishop of York , Richard le Scrope , in another rebellion , after which the elder Percy fled to Scotland and his estates were confiscated . Henry had Scrope executed in an act comparable to the murder of another Archbishop — Thomas Beckett by men loyal to Henry II . This would probably have led to Henry 's excommunication but the church was in the midst of the Western Schism , with competing popes keen on Henry 's support ; it protested but took no action . In 1408 , Percy invaded England once more and was killed at the Battle of Bramham Moor . In Wales , Owain Glyndŵr 's widespread rebellion was only suppressed with the recapture of Harlech Castle in 1409 , although sporadic fighting continued until 1421 .
Henry IV was succeeded by his son Henry V , and eventually by his grandson Henry VI in 1422 .
= = Henry V and the Hundred Years ' War = =
Henry V of England was a successful and ruthless monarch . He was quick to re @-@ assert the claim to the French throne he inherited from Edward III , continuing what was later called the Hundred Years ' War . The war was not a formal , continuous conflict but a series of English raids and military expeditions from 1337 until 1453 . There were six major royal expeditions ; Henry himself led the fifth and sixth , but these were unlike the smaller , frequent , provincial campaigns . In Henry 's first major campaign — and the fifth major royal campaign of the war — he invaded France , captured Harfleur , made a chevauchée to Calais and won a near @-@ total victory over the French at the Battle of Agincourt despite being outnumbered , outmanoeuvred and low on supplies . In his second campaign , he recaptured much of Normandy and in a treaty secured a marriage to Catherine of Valois . The terms of the Treaty of Troyes were that Henry 's and Catherine 's heirs would succeed to the throne of France . This condition was contested by the Dauphin and the momentum of the war changed . In 1421 , Henry 's brother Thomas , Duke of Clarence , was killed at the Battle of Baugé , and Henry V died of dysentery at Vincennes in 1422 .
Henry VI of England was less than a year old but his uncles — led by Henry V 's brother John of Lancaster , 1st Duke of Bedford — continued the war . There were more victories , including the Battle of Verneuil , but it was impossible to maintain campaigning at this level . Joan of Arc 's involvement helped the French remove the siege of Orleans and win the Battle of Patay before Joan was captured by the Burgundians , sold to the English , tried as a witch and burned at the stake . The Dauphin was crowned and continued the successful Fabian tactics of avoiding full frontal assault and exploiting logistical advantage .
= = Henry VI and the fall of the House of Lancaster = =
The Hundred Years ' War caused political division between the Lancastrians and the other Plantagenets during the minority of Henry VI : Bedford wanted to maintain the majority of the Lancastrian ’ s French possessions ; Humphrey of Lancaster , 1st Duke of Gloucester wanted to hold only Calais ; and Cardinal Beaufort desired a negotiated peace . Gloucester 's attacks on Beaufort forced the latter from public life but brought him little advantage as the earl of Suffolk ’ s influence over the king enabled him to direct policy for the rest of the decade . Gloucester remained heir presumptive but in 1441 his ambitious wife , Eleanor Cobham , consulted astrologers on the likelihood of the king 's death and was arrested for treasonable necromancy — although Gloucester was not implicated he was discredited forced into retirement . In 1447 Suffolk had him arrested and within days he died in prison .
England 's ally Philip III , Duke of Burgundy defected to Charles , when the English ambassadors ' refusal to renounce the claim to the French crown stalled negotiations , signing the Treaty of Arras ( 1435 ) . The French reorganised the superior numbers of their feudal levies into a modern professional army and retook Paris , Rouen , Bordeaux and Normandy . Victories at the Battle of Formigny in 1450 and the Battle of Castillon in 1453 brought the war to an end with the House of Lancaster losing forever all its French holdings , except Calais and the Channel Islands .
Henry VI proved to be a weak king and vulnerable to the over @-@ mighty subjects who developed private armies of retainers . Rivalries often spilled over from the courtroom into armed confrontations , such as the Percy – Neville feud . Without the common purpose of the war in France , Henry 's cousin Richard of York , 3rd Duke of York , and Richard Neville , 16th Earl of Warwick , used their networks to defy the crown . Henry became the focus of discontent as the population , agricultural production , prices , the wool trade and credit declined in the Great Slump . This led to radical demands from the lower classes . In 1450 , Jack Cade raised a rebellion to force Henry to address the economic problems or abdicate his throne . The uprising was suppressed but conflict remained between villagers , gentry and aristocracy . Society remained deeply unsettled and radical demands continued to be suppressed such as those from the yeoman brothers John and William Merfold .
Henry 's marriage to Margaret of Anjou prompted criticism from Richard Plantagenet , Duke of York , because it included the surrender of Maine and an extended truce with France . York was Henry 's cousin through his descent from Edward III sons Lionel of Antwerp , 1st Duke of Clarence , and Edmund , Duke of York . This gave York political influence but he was removed from English and French politics through his appointment as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland . On returning to England , York was conscious of the fate of Henry 's uncle Humphrey at the hands of the Beauforts and suspicious that Henry intended to nominate Edmund Beaufort , 2nd Duke of Somerset , as heir presumptive , and recruited military forces . Armed conflict was avoided because York lacked aristocratic support and was forced to swear allegiance to Henry . However , when Henry later underwent a mental breakdown , York was named regent . Henry was trusting and not a man of war , but Margaret was more assertive and showed open enmity towards York — particularly after the birth of a male heir that resolved the succession question and assured her position .
According to historian Robin Storey , " If Henry 's insanity was a tragedy ; his recovery was a national disaster " . When Henry 's sanity returned , the court party reasserted its authority but York and his relatives , the Nevilles , defeated them at the First Battle of St Albans . Historian Anthony Goodman suggests that around 50 men were killed ; among them were Somerset and two Percy lords , Henry Percy , 2nd Earl of Northumberland , and Thomas Clifford , 8th Baron de Clifford , creating feuds that would confound reconciliation attempts despite the shock to the ruling class caused by the armed conflict . Threatened with treason charges and lacking support , York , Richard Neville , 5th Earl of Salisbury , and Richard Neville , 16th Earl of Warwick , fled abroad . Henry was captured by the opposition when the Nevilles returned and won the Battle of Northampton . York joined them , surprising parliament by claiming the throne and then forcing through the Act of Accord stating that Henry would remain as monarch for his lifetime and that York would succeed him . The disinheriting of Henry 's son Edward was unacceptable to Margaret so the conflict continued . York was killed at the Battle of Wakefield and his head was displayed at Micklegate Bar , York , along with those of Edmund , Earl of Rutland , and Richard Neville , Earl of Salisbury — both of whom were captured and beheaded .
Margaret gained the support of the Scottish queen Mary of Guelders , and with a Scottish army she pillaged into southern England . The citizens of London feared the city being plundered and enthusiastically welcomed York 's son Edward , Earl of March . Margaret 's defeat at the Battle of Towton confirmed Edward 's position and he was crowned . Disaffected with Edward 's marriage to Elizabeth Woodville and preferment of her formerly Lancastrian @-@ supporting family , Warwick and Clarence defected to the Lancastrians . The alliance was sealed with the marriage of Henry 's son Edward to Anne , Warwick 's daughter . Edward and Richard , Duke of Gloucester , fled England . When they returned , Clarence switched sides at the Battle of Barnet and Warwick and his brother were killed . Henry , Margaret and Edward of Lancaster were caught at the Battle of Tewkesbury before they could escape back to France . Edward of Westminster , Prince of Wales , was executed on the battlefield and John Beaufort , Marquess of Dorset , was killed in the fighting — meaning that when his brother Edmund Beaufort , 4th Duke of Somerset , was executed two days later , the Beaufort family became extinct in the legitimate male line . The captive Henry was murdered on 21 May 1471 in the Tower of London and buried in Chertsey Abbey , extinguishing the House of Lancaster .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Shakespeare ’ s history plays = = =
It is a source of irritation to historians that Shakespeare ’ s influence on the perception of the later medieval period exceeds that of academic research . While the chronology of Shakespeare 's history plays runs from King John to Henry VIII , they are dominated by eight plays in which members of the House of Lancaster play a significant part , voicing speeches on a par with those in Hamlet and King Lear . These plays are :
Richard II
Henry IV , Part 1
Henry IV , Part 2
Henry V
Henry VI , Part 1
Henry VI , Part 2
Henry VI , Part 3
Richard III .
According to the historian Norman Davies , the plays were constrained by the political and religious requirements of Tudor England . While they are factually inaccurate , they demonstrate how the past and the House of Lancaster are remembered in terms of myth , legend , ideas and popular misconceptions . Shakespeare avoided contentious political and religious issues to dubiously illustrate Tudor England as having rejected medieval conflict and entered an era of harmony and prosperity . The famous patriotic " sceptr 'd isle " speech is voiced by John of Gaunt , a man who spent the majority of his life in Aquitaine , and is a piece of poetic licence that illustrates English prejudices . Henry V is one @-@ sided with little sympathy for the French . Many of these historical lines illustrate historical myth rather than realism .
= = = Succession = = =
Lancastrian cognatic descent from John of Gaunt and Blanche 's daughter Phillipa continued in the royal houses of Spain and Portugal . The remnants of the Lancastrian court party coalesced support around Henry Tudor — a relatively unknown scion of the Beauforts . They had been amongst the most ardent supporters of the House of Lancaster and were descended illegitimately from John of Gaunt by his mistress Katherine Swynford . Although later legitimised by Richard II , Henry IV had formally and permanently debarred them from the succession to avoid competition with the House of Lancaster ’ s claims to the throne . By some calculations of primogeniture , there were as many as 18 people — including both his mother and future wife — with more right to the throne . By 1510 , this figure had increased with the birth of an additional 16 possible Yorkist claimants .
With the House of Lancaster extinct , Henry claimed to be the Lancastrian heir through his mother Lady Margaret Beaufort . His father was Henry VI 's maternal half @-@ brother . In 1485 , Henry Tudor united increasing opposition within England to the reign of Richard III with the Lancastrian cause to take the throne . To legitimise his questionable claim , Henry married Elizabeth of York — Edward IV of England 's daughter — and promoted the House of Tudor as a dynasty of dual Lancastrian and Yorkist descent .
= = = Religion , education and the arts = = =
The Lancastrians were both pious and well read . Henry IV was the first English king known to have possessed a vernacular Bible , supported the canonization of John Twenge , gave a pension to the anchoress Margaret Pensax and maintained close relations with several Westminster recluses . His household accounts as king record conventional payments to large numbers of paupers ( 12 @,@ 000 on Easter day 1406 ) and the intercession for him of twenty @-@ four oratores domini regis at 2d each per day . However , his reliance on the church was both personal and political . Archbishop Arundel gave the Lancastrians vital support and carried other bishops with him . In return the church required support for religious orthodoxy against heresy . Lollards were suppressed and heresy was made a capital offence in England under the statute of De haeretico comburendo even though Henry could not afford to overly antagonize his supporters with Lollard sympathies , including those among his Lancastrian retainers .
According to the author of the Gesta Henrici quinti , Henry V aimed ‘ to promote the honour of God , the extension of the Church , the deliverance of his country and the peace and tranquillity of kingdoms ’ . He was deeply religious , engaged with ecclesiastical issues and saw that his role as king was to honour God , extend the church , fight heresy and defend the established social order . All his victories , especially Agincourt , were attributed to divine intervention . Henry V founded Syon Abbey in 1415 , as penance for his father ’ s execution of Archbishop Scrope , and three monasteries in London : for Carthusian , Bridgettine and Celestine orders . The equally devout Henry VI continued the architectural patronage begun by his father , founding Eton College and King 's College , Cambridge and leaving a lasting educational and architectural legacy in buildings including King 's College Chapel and Eton College Chapel .
The Lancastrian regime was founded and legitimised by formal lying that was both public and official . This has been described as " a series of unconstitutional actions " based " upon three major acts of perjury " . The historian K.B. McFarlane found it hard " to think of another moment of comparable importance in medieval English political history when the supply of information was so effectively manipulated as it was by Henry IV on this occasion " . The Lancastrians patronised poets for panegyric purposes for years before Henry IV ascended the throne , including Geoffrey Chaucer who dedicated The Book of the Duchess to Blanche of Lancaster around 1368 . In 1400 , poets in the pay of Henry IV were directed to propaganda purposes . John Gower based his Cronica Tripertita on the official Lancastrian accounts of the usurpation : " The Record and Process of the Deposition of Richard II " from 1399 . Gower also produced a number of further favourable works including " In praise of peace " which was dedicated to Henry IV .
= = Earls and Dukes of Lancaster ( first creation ) = =
= = Dukes of Lancaster ( second creation ) = =
= = Lancastrian Kings of England = =
= = Family tree = =
= Symphony No. 8 ( Sibelius ) =
Jean Sibelius 's Symphony No. 8 was his final major compositional project , occupying him intermittently from the mid @-@ 1920s until around 1938 , though he never published it . During this time Sibelius was at the peak of his fame , a national figure in his native Finland and a composer of international stature . How much of the Eighth Symphony was completed is unknown ; Sibelius repeatedly refused to release it for performance , though he continued to assert that he was working on it even after he had , according to later reports from his family , burned the score and associated material in 1945 .
Much of Sibelius 's reputation , during his lifetime and subsequently , derived from his work as a symphonist . His Seventh Symphony of 1924 has been widely recognised as a landmark in the development of symphonic form , and at the time there was no reason to suppose that the flow of innovative orchestral works would not continue . However , after the symphonic poem Tapiola , completed in 1926 , his output was confined to relatively minor pieces and revisions to earlier works . The Eighth Symphony 's premiere was promised to Serge Koussevitzky and the Boston Symphony Orchestra on several occasions , but as each scheduled date approached Sibelius demurred , claiming that the work was not ready for performance . Similar promises made to the British conductor Basil Cameron and to the Finnish Georg Schnéevoigt likewise proved illusory .
After Sibelius 's death in 1957 , news of the Eighth Symphony 's destruction was made public , and it was assumed that the work had disappeared forever . In the 1990s , when the composer 's many notebooks and sketches were being catalogued , scholars first raised the possibility that some of the music for the lost symphony might have survived . Since then , several short manuscript sketches have been tentatively identified with the Eighth , three of which ( comprising less than three minutes of music ) were recorded by the Helsinki Philharmonic Orchestra in 2011 . While a few musicologists have speculated that , if further fragments can be identified , it may be possible to reconstruct the entire work , others have suggested that this is unlikely given the ambiguity of the extant material . The propriety of publicly performing music that Sibelius himself had rejected has also been questioned .
= = Background = =
Jean Sibelius was born in 1865 in Finland , since 1809 an autonomous grand duchy within the Russian Empire having earlier been under Swedish control for many centuries . The country remained divided between a culturally dominant Swedish @-@ speaking minority , to which the Sibelius family belonged , and a more nationalistically @-@ minded Finnish @-@ speaking , or " Fennoman " majority . In about 1889 Sibelius met his future wife , Aino Järnefelt , who came from a staunch Fennoman family . Sibelius 's association with the Järnefelts helped to awaken and develop his own nationalism ; in 1892 , the year of his marriage to Aino , he completed his first overtly nationalistic work , the symphonic suite Kullervo . Through the 1890s , as Russian control over the duchy grew increasingly oppressive , Sibelius produced a series of works reflecting Finnish resistance to foreign rule , culminating in the tone poem Finlandia .
Sibelius 's national stature was recognised in 1897 when he was awarded a state pension to enable him to spend more time composing . In 1904 he and Aino settled in Ainola , a country residence he built on the shores of Lake Tuusula in Järvenpää , where they lived for the remainder of their lives . Although life at Ainola was not always calm and carefree — Sibelius was often in debt and prone to bouts of heavy drinking — he managed over the following 20 years to produce a large output of orchestral works , chamber music , piano pieces and songs , as well as lighter music . His popularity spread across Europe to the United States where , during a triumphant tour in 1914 , he was awarded an honorary doctorate by Yale University . At home his status was such that his 50th birthday celebrations in 1915 were a national event , the centrepiece of which was the Helsinki premiere of his Fifth Symphony .
By the mid @-@ 1920s Sibelius had acquired the status of a living national monument and was the principal cultural ambassador of his country , independent since 1917 . According to his biographer Guy Rickards , he invested " his most crucial inspiration " into the seven symphonies he composed between 1898 and 1924 . The Sibelius scholar James Hepokoski considers the compact , single @-@ movement Seventh Symphony , which Sibelius completed in 1924 , to be the composer 's most remarkable symphonic achievement , " the consummate realization of his late @-@ style rethinking of form " . It was followed in 1926 by Tapiola , a tone poem in which , says Rickards , Sibelius " pushed orchestral resources into quite new regions ... Tapiola was thirty or forty years ahead of its time " .
= = Composition = =
= = = Beginnings = = =
The first reference to the Eighth Symphony in Sibelius 's diary is dated 12 September 1926 : " working on the new one " . However , some of the initial ideas for the new symphony were almost certainly set down earlier , since it was Sibelius 's compositional habit to set aside themes and motifs for use in later projects . Thus , one of the extant sketches for his Seventh Symphony , on which he was engaged in 1923 – 24 , contains a ringed motif marked " VIII " . By the autumn of 1927 Sibelius was able to inform the New York Times music critic Olin Downes — one of his greatest admirers — that he had set down two movements of the Eighth on paper and had composed the rest in his head .
Early in 1928 Sibelius made one of his regular visits to Berlin , to imbibe the city 's musical life and to compose . He sent positive work @-@ in @-@ progress reports to Aino : the symphony , he said , will be " wonderful " . Back home in Ainola in September , he told his sister that he was " writing a new work , which will be sent to America . It will still need time . But it will turn out well . " In December 1928 , however , when his Danish publisher Wilhelm Hansen asked him how the work was developing , Sibelius was less forthcoming ; the symphony existed , he said , only in his head . Thereafter Sibelius 's reports of the symphony 's progress became equivocal , sometimes contradictory , and difficult to follow .
= = = Progress and prevarication = = =
Probably at the instigation of Downes , Sibelius had promised the world premiere of his new symphony to Serge Koussevitzky and the Boston Symphony Orchestra . For several years , in a protracted correspondence with the conductor and Downes , Sibelius hesitated and prevaricated . In January 1930 he said the symphony was " not nearly ready and I cannot say when it will be ready " , but in August that year he told Koussevitzky that a performance in the spring of 1931 was possible . Nothing resulted from this . In the summer of 1931 Sibelius told Downes that not only was the Eighth Symphony almost ready for the printers , he also had several other new works pending . Thus encouraged , in December 1931 Koussevitzky used the Boston Evening Transcript to announce the work for the orchestra 's 1931 – 32 season . This brought a swift telegram from Sibelius , to the effect that the symphony would not , after all , be ready for that season .
Koussevitzky then decided to perform all of Sibelius 's symphonies in the Boston Symphony 's 1932 – 33 season , with the world premiere of the Eighth as the culmination . In June 1932 Sibelius wrote to Koussevitzky suggesting that the Eighth be scheduled for the end of October . A week later he retracted : " I am very disturbed about it . Please do not announce the performance . " Further promises , for December 1932 and January 1933 , brought forth no scores . Koussevitzky was by now losing hope , yet he inquired once more , in the summer of 1933 . Sibelius was evasive ; he made no promise of delivery but would " return to the matter at a later date " . So far as Koussevitzky and the Boston Symphony were concerned , the matter ended there . Sibelius had made agreements with other conductors ; he had promised the European premiere to Basil Cameron and the Royal Philharmonic Society , and the first Finnish performance to Georg Schnéevoigt , who had recently taken over direction of the Helsinki Philharmonic Orchestra . These arrangements were , however , subject to the illusory Boston premiere , and thus were stillborn . Later in the decade , Eugene Ormandy , a fervent admirer of Sibelius who directed the Philadelphia Orchestra from 1936 , is thought to have lobbied strongly for the right to perform the premiere , should the symphony in due course emerge .
During his procrastinations with Koussevitzky , Sibelius continued to work on the symphony . In 1931 he again spent time in Berlin , writing to Aino in May 1931 that " the symphony is advancing with rapid strides " . Progress was interrupted by illness , but towards the end of the year Sibelius was confidently asserting that " I am writing my eighth symphony and I am full of youth . How can this be explained ? " In May 1933 , as he continued to deny Koussevitzky , Sibelius wrote in his diary that he was deeply immersed in composition : " It is as if I had come home ... I 'm taking everything in another way , more deeply . A gypsy within me . Romantic . " Later that summer he informed a journalist that his new symphony was nearly complete : " It will be the reckoning of my whole existence – sixty @-@ eight years . It will probably be my last . Eight symphonies and a hundred songs . It has to be enough . "
At some stage in that summer the formal copying of the symphony began . On 4 September 1933 Paul Voigt , Sibelius 's long @-@ time copyist , sent a bill for making a fair copy of the first movement — 23 pages of music . Sibelius informed him — the note survives — that the complete manuscript would be about eight times as long as this excerpt , indicating that the symphony might be on a larger scale than any of its seven predecessors . Aino Sibelius later recalled other visits to Voigt that autumn at which Sibelius , whose mood she described as gloomy and taciturn , delivered further piles of music manuscript to the copyist .
= = = Limbo = = =
Various reports appeared to confirm that the symphony 's release was imminent . The Finnish composer Leevi Madetoja mentioned in 1934 that the work was virtually complete ; an article by the Swedish journalist Kurt Nordfors indicated that two movements were complete and the rest sketched out . As pressure to produce the symphony increased , Sibelius became increasingly withdrawn and unwilling to discuss his progress . In December 1935 , during an interview in connection with his 70th birthday celebrations , he indicated that he had discarded a whole year 's work ; this pointed to a full @-@ scale revision of the Eighth . However , when The Times 's correspondent asked for details of the work 's progress Sibelius became irritated . He was furious when Downes continued to pester him for information , on one occasion shouting " Ich kann nicht ! " ( " I cannot ! " ) .
A receipt found among Sibelius 's papers refers to a " Symphonie " being bound by the firm of Weilin & Göös in August 1938 . While it is not established that this transaction related to the Eighth , the Sibelius scholar Kari Kilpeläinen points out that none of the earlier symphony scores carry the unnumbered heading " Symphonie " , and asks : " Could he have omitted the number to prevent news of the now completed Eighth from spreading ? Or did he not give the work a number at all , because he was not satisfied with it ? " The composer 's daughter Katarina spoke of the self @-@ doubt that afflicted her father at this time , aggravated by the continuing expectations and fuss that surrounded the Eighth Symphony . " He wanted it to be better than the other symphonies . Finally it became a burden , even though so much of it had already been written down . In the end I don 't know whether he would have accepted what he had written . "
Sibelius remained in Finland during the Winter War of 1939 – 40 , despite offers of asylum in the United States . After the war ended in March 1940 he moved with his family to an apartment on Kammiokatu ( later renamed Sibeliuksenkatu or ' Sibelius Street ' in his honour ) in the Töölö district of Helsinki , where they remained for a year . During that time they were visited by the pianist Martti Paavola , who was able to examine the contents of Sibelius 's safe . Paavola later reported to his pupil Einar Englund that among the music kept there was a symphony , " most likely the Eighth " .
= = Destruction = =
Back in Ainola , Sibelius busied himself by making new arrangements of old songs . However , his mind returned frequently to the now apparently moribund symphony . In February 1943 he told his secretary that he hoped to complete a " great work " before he died , but blamed the war for his inability to make progress : " I cannot sleep at nights when I think about it . " In June he discussed the symphony with his future son @-@ in @-@ law Jussi Jalas and provided another reason for its non @-@ completion : " For each of my symphonies I have developed a special technique . It can 't be something superficial , it has to be something that has been lived though . In my new work I am struggling with precisely these issues . " Sibelius also told Jalas that all rough sketches and drafts were to be burned after his death ; he did not want anyone labelling these rejected scraps as " Sibelius letzten [ sic ] Gedanken " ( Sibelius 's last thoughts ) .
At some time in the mid @-@ 1940s , probably in 1945 , Sibelius and Aino together burned a large number of the composer 's manuscripts on the stove in the dining room at Ainola . There is no record of what was burned ; while most commentators assume that the Eighth Symphony was among the works destroyed , Kilpeläinen observes that there had been at least two manuscripts of the work — the original and Voigt 's copy — as well as sketches and fragments of earlier versions . It is possible , says Kilpeläinen , that Sibelius may not have burned them all . Aino , who found the process very painful , recalled later that the burning appeared to ease Sibelius 's mind : " After this , my husband appeared calmer and his attitude was more optimistic . It was a happy time " . The most optimistic interpretation of his action , according to The Philadelphia Inquirer 's music critic David Patrick Stearns , is that he got rid of old drafts of the symphony to clear his mind for a fresh start . In 1947 , after visiting Ainola , the conductor Nils @-@ Eric Fougstedt claimed to have seen a copy of the Eighth on the shelf , with separate choral parts . The musicologist Erkki Salmenhaara posits the idea of two burnings : that of 1945 which destroyed early material , and another after Sibelius finally recognised that he could never complete the work to his satisfaction .
Although Sibelius informed his secretary that the symphony had been burned , the matter remained a secret confined to the composer 's private circle . During the remaining years of his life , Sibelius from time to time hinted that the Eighth Symphony project was still alive . In August 1945 he wrote to Basil Cameron : " I have finished my eighth symphony several times , but I am still not satisfied with it . I will be delighted to hand it over to you when the time comes . " In fact , after the burning he had altogether abandoned creative composing ; in 1951 , when the Royal Philharmonic Society requested a work to mark the 1951 Festival of Britain , Sibelius declined . As late as 1953 he told his secretary , Santeri Levas , that he was working on the symphony " in his mind " ; only in 1954 did he admit , in a letter to the widow of his friend Adolf Paul , that it would never be completed . Sibelius died on 20 September 1957 ; the next day his daughter Eva Paloheimo announced publicly that the Eighth Symphony did not exist . The burning of the manuscript became generally known later , when Aino revealed the fact to the composer 's biographer Erik W. Tawaststjerna .
Critics and commentators have pondered the reasons why Sibelius finally abandoned the symphony . Throughout his life he was prone to depression and often suffered crises of self @-@ confidence . Alex Ross , in The New Yorker , quotes an entry from the composer 's 1927 diary , when the Eighth Symphony was allegedly under way : " Isolation and loneliness are driving me to despair ... Am abused , alone , and all my real friends are dead . My prestige here at present is rock @-@ bottom . Impossible to work . If only there were a way out . " Writers have pointed to the hand tremor that made writing difficult and to the alcoholism that afflicted him at numerous stages of his life . Others have argued that Sibelius 's exalted status as a national hero effectively silenced him ; he became afraid that any further major work would not live up to the expectations of the adoring nation . Andrew Barnett , another of the composer 's many biographers , points to Sibelius 's intense self @-@ criticism ; he would withhold or suppress anything that failed to meet his self @-@ imposed standards : " It was this attitude that brought about the destruction of the Eighth Symphony , but the very same trait forced him to keep on revising the Fifth until it was perfect . " The historian Mark McKenna agrees that Sibelius became stifled by a combination of perfectionism and increasing self @-@ doubt . The myth , sustained for more than 15 years , that Sibelius was still working on the symphony was , according to McKenna , a deliberate fiction : " To admit that he had stopped completely would be to admit the unthinkable — that he was no longer a composer " .
= = Discoveries = =
After his death Sibelius , though remaining popular with the general public , was frequently denigrated by critics who found his music dated and tedious . René Leibowitz , a proponent of the music of Arnold Schoenberg , published a pamphlet describing Sibelius as " the worst composer in the world " ; others dismissed him as irrelevant in what was perceived for a time as an irresistible movement towards atonality . This climate diminished curiosity about the existence of material from a possible Sibelius Eighth , until late in the 20th century , when critical interest in the composer revived . In 1995 Kilpeläinen , who had published a survey of the Sibelius manuscripts held in the Helsinki University Library , wrote that all that could definitely be connected to the Eighth Symphony were a single page from a draft score and the ringed melody fragment marked " VIII " within the Seventh Symphony sketches . He added , however , that the library contained further Sibelius sketches from the late 1920s and early 1930s , some of which are akin to the ringed fragment and which could conceivably have been intended for the Eighth Symphony . Kilpeläinen also revealed that " [ j ] ust recently various documents have come to light which no one dreamt even existed . Maybe there are still some clues to the 8th Symphony hidden away and just waiting for some scholar to discover them . "
In 2004 , in an article entitled " On Some Apparent Sketches for Sibelius 's Eighth Symphony " , the musical theorist Nors Josephson identifies around 20 manuscripts or fragments held in the Helsinki University Library as being relevant to the symphony and concludes that : " Given the abundance of preserved material for this work , one looks forward with great anticipation to a thoughtful , meticulous completion of the entire composition " . Another Sibelius scholar , Timo Virtanen , has examined the same material and is more restrained , concluding that although some of the sketches may relate to the Eighth Symphony , it is not possible to determine exactly which , if any , these are . Even the fragment marked " VIII " , he maintains , cannot with certainty be said to relate to the symphony , since Sibelius often used both Roman and Arabic numerals to refer to themes , motifs or passages within a composition . Virtanen provides a further note of caution : " We should be aware that [ the fragments ] are , after all , drafts : unfinished as music , and representing only a certain stage in planning a new composition " .
Despite his reservations , in October 2011 Virtanen cooperated with another scholar , Vesa Sirén , to prepare three of the more developed fragments for performance . The sketches were copied and tidied , but nothing not written by Sibelius was added to the material . Permission from the Sibelius Rights Holders was secured , and John Storgårds , chief conductor of the Helsinki Philharmonic , agreed to play and record these excerpts at the orchestra 's rehearsal session on 30 October 2011 . The pieces comprise an opening segment of about a minute 's duration , an eight @-@ second fragment that might be part of a scherzo ,
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such that he began to sign his work — the first of the book illustrators to do so . He was a prolific illustrator who worked in a wide variety of genres , and developed an influential style of portraying female beauties . Most significantly , he began to produce illustrations , not just for books , but as single @-@ sheet images , which could stand alone or be used as part of a series . The Hishikawa school attracted a large number of followers , as well as imitators such as Sugimura Jihei , and signalled the beginning of the popularization of a new artform .
Torii Kiyonobu I and Kaigetsudō Ando became prominent emulators of Moronobu 's style following the master 's death , though neither was a member of the Hishikawa school . Both discarded background detail in favour of focus on the human figure — kabuki actors in the yakusha @-@ e of Kiyonobu and the Torii school that followed him , and courtesans in the bijin @-@ ga of Ando and his Kaigetsudō school . Ando and his followers produced a stereotyped female image whose design and pose lent itself to effective mass production , and its popularity created a demand for paintings that other artists and schools took advantage of . The Kaigetsudō school and its popular " Kaigetsudō beauty " ended after Ando 's exile over his role in the Ejima @-@ Ikushima scandal of 1714 .
Kyoto native Nishikawa Sukenobu ( 1671 – 1750 ) painted technically refined pictures of courtesans . Considered a master of erotic portraits , he was the subject of a government ban in 1722 , though it is believed he continued to create works that circulated under different names . Sukenobu spent most of his career in Edo , and his influence was considerable in both the Kantō and Kansai regions . The paintings of Miyagawa Chōshun ( 1683 – 1752 ) portrayed early 18th @-@ century life in delicate colours . Chōshun made no prints . The Miyagawa school he founded in the early @-@ 18th century specialized in romantic paintings in a style more refined in line and colour than the Kaigetsudō school . Chōshun allowed greater expressive freedom in his adherents , a group that later included Hokusai .
Early ukiyo @-@ e masters
= = = Colour prints ( mid @-@ 18th century ) = = =
Even in the earliest monochromatic prints and books , colour was added by hand for special commissions . Demand for colour in the early @-@ 18th century was met with tan @-@ e prints hand @-@ tinted with orange and sometimes green or yellow . These were followed in the 1720s with a vogue for pink @-@ tinted beni @-@ e and later the lacquer @-@ like ink of the urushi @-@ e . In 1744 , the benizuri @-@ e were the first successes in colour printing , using multiple woodblocks — one for each colour , the earliest beni pink and vegetable green .
A great self @-@ promoter , Okumura Masanobu ( 1686 – 1764 ) played a major role during the period of rapid technical development in printing from the late 17th to mid @-@ 18th centuries . He established a shop in 1707 and combined elements of the leading contemporary schools in a wide array of genres , though Masanobu himself belonged to no school . Among the innovations in his romantic , lyrical images were the introduction of geometrical perspective in the uki @-@ e genre ; in the 1740s ; the long , narrow hashira @-@ e prints ; and the combination of graphics and literature in prints that included self @-@ penned haiku poetry .
Ukiyo @-@ e reached a peak in the late 17th century with the advent of full @-@ colour prints , developed after Edo returned to prosperity under Tanuma Okitsugu following a long depression . These popular colour prints came to be called nishiki @-@ e , or " brocade pictures " , as their brilliant colours seemed to bear resemblance to imported Chinese Shuchiang brocades , known in Japanese as Shokkō nishiki . The first to emerge were expensive calendar prints , printed with multiple blocks on very fine paper with heavy , opaque inks . These prints had the number of days for each month hidden in the design , and were sent at the New Year as personalized greetings , bearing the name of the patron rather than the artist . The blocks for these prints were later re @-@ used for commercial production , obliterating the patron 's name and replacing it with that of the artist .
The delicate , romantic prints of Suzuki Harunobu ( 1725 – 1770 ) were amongst the first to realize expressive and complex colour designs , printed with up to a dozen separate blocks to handle the different colours and half @-@ tones . His restrained , graceful prints invoked the classicism of waka poetry and Yamato @-@ e painting . The prolific Harunobu was the dominant ukiyo @-@ e artist of his time . The success of Harunobu 's colourful nishiki @-@ e from 1765 on led to a steep decline in demand for the limited palettes of benizuri @-@ e and urushi @-@ e , as well as hand @-@ coloured prints .
A trend against the idealism of the prints of Harunobu and the Torii school grew following Harunobu 's death in 1770 . Katsukawa Shunshō ( 1726 – 1793 ) and his school produced portraits of kabuki actors with greater fidelity to the actors ' actual features than had been the trend . Sometime @-@ collaborators Koryūsai ( 1735 – c . 1790 ) and Kitao Shigemasa ( 1739 – 1820 ) were prominent depictors of women who also moved ukiyo @-@ e away from the dominance of Harunobu 's idealism by focusing on contemporary urban fashions and celebrated real @-@ world courtesans and geisha . Koryūsai was perhaps the most prolific ukiyo @-@ e artist of the 17th century , and produced a larger number of paintings and print series than any predecessor . The Kitao school that Shigemasa founded was one of the dominant schools of the closing decades of the 18th century .
In the 1770s , Utagawa Toyoharu produced a number of uki @-@ e perspective prints that demonstrated a mastery of Western perspective techniques that had eluded his predecessors in the genre . Toyoharu 's works helped pioneer the landscape as an ukiyo @-@ e subject , rather than merely a background for human figures In 19th century , Western @-@ style perspective techniques were absorbed into Japanese artistic culture , and deployed in the refined landscapes of such artists as Hokusai and Hiroshige , the latter a member of the Utagawa school that Toyoharu founded . This school was to become one of the most influential , and produced works in a far greater variety of genres than any other school .
Early colour ukiyo @-@ e
= = = Peak period ( late 18th century ) = = =
While the late 18th century saw hard economic times , ukiyo @-@ e saw a peak in quantity and quality of works , particularly during the Kansei era ( 1789 – 1791 ) . The ukiyo @-@ e of the period of the Kansei Reforms brought about a focus on beauty and harmony that collapsed into decadence and disharmony in the next century as the reforms broke down and tensions rose , culminating in the Meiji Restoration of 1868 .
Especially in the 1780s , Torii Kiyonaga ( 1752 – 1815 ) of the Torii school depicted traditional ukiyo @-@ e subjects like beauties and urban scenes , which he printed on large sheets of paper , often as multiprint horizontal diptychs or triptychs . His works dispensed with the poetic dreamscapes made by Harunobu , opting instead for realistic depictions of idealized female forms dressed in the latest fashions and posed in scenic locations . He also produced portraits of kabuki actors in a realistic style that included accompanying musicians and chorus .
A law went into effect in 1790 requiring prints to bear a censor 's seal of approval to be sold . Censorship increased in strictness over the following decades , and violators could receive harsh punishments . From 1799 even preliminary drafts required approval . A group of Utagawa @-@ school offenders including Toyokuni had their works repressed in 1801 , and Utamaro was imprisoned in 1804 for making prints of 16th @-@ century political and military leader Toyotomi Hideyoshi .
Utamaro ( c . 1753 – 1806 ) made his name in the 1790s with his bijin ōkubi @-@ e ( " large @-@ headed pictures of beautiful women " ) portraits , focusing on the head and upper torso , a style others had previously employed in portraits of kabuki actors . Utamaro experimented with line , colour , and printing techniques to bring out subtle differences in the features , expressions , and backdrops of subjects from a wide variety of class and background . Utamaro 's individuated beauties were in sharp contrast to the stereotyped , idealized images that had been the norm . By the end of the decade , especially following the death of his patron Tsutaya Jūzaburō in 1797 , Utamaro 's prodigious output declined in quality , and he died in 1806 .
Appearing suddenly in 1794 and disappearing just as suddenly ten months later , the prints of the enigmatic Sharaku are amongst ukiyo @-@ e 's best known . Sharaku produced striking portraits of kabuki actors , introducing a greater level of realism into his prints that emphasized the differences between the actor and the portrayed character . The expressive , contorted faces he depicted contrasted sharply with the serene , mask @-@ like faces more common to artists such as Harunobu or Utamaro . Published by Tsutaya , Sharaku 's work found resistance , and in 1795 his output ceased as mysteriously as it had appeared , and his real identity is still unknown . Utagawa Toyokuni ( 1769 – 1825 ) produced kabuki portraits in a style Edo townsfolk found more accessible , emphasizing dramatic postures and avoiding Sharaku 's realism .
A consistent high level of quality marked ukiyo @-@ e of the late 18th @-@ century , but the works of Utamaro and Sharaku often overshadow those other masters of the era . One of Kiyonaga 's followers , Chōbunsai Eishi ( 1756 – 1829 ) , abandoned his position as painter for Shogun Tokugawa Ieharu to take up ukiyo @-@ e design . He brought a refined sense to his portraits of graceful , slender courtesans , and left behind a number of noted students . With a fine line , Eishōsai Chōki ( fl . 1786 – 1808 ) designed portraits of delicate courtesans . The Utagawa school came to dominate ukiyo @-@ e output in the late Edo period .
Edo was the primary centre of ukiyo @-@ e production throughout the Edo period . Another major centre developed in the Kamigata region of areas in and around Kyoto and Osaka . In contrast to the range of subjects in the Edo prints , those of Kamigata tended to be portraits of kabuki actors . The style of the Kamigata prints was little distinguished from those of Edo until the late 18th century , partly because artists often moved back and forth between the two areas . Colours tend to be softer and pigments thicker in Kamigata prints than in those of Edo . In the 19th century many of the prints were designed by kabuki fans and other amateurs .
Masters of the peak period
= = = Late flowering : flora , fauna , and landscapes ( 19th century ) = = =
The Tenpō Reforms of 1841 – 1843 sought to suppress outward displays of luxury , including the depiction of courtesans and actors . As a result , many ukiyo @-@ e artists designed travel scenes and pictures of nature , especially birds and flowers . Landscapes had been given limited attention since Moronobu , and they formed an important element in the works of Kiyonaga and Shuncho . It was not until late in the Edo period that landscape came into its own as a genre , especially via the works of Hokusai and Hiroshige . The landscape genre has come to dominate Western perspectives of ukiyo @-@ e , though ukiyo @-@ e had a long history preceding these late @-@ era masters . The Japanese landscape differed from the Western tradition in that it relied more heavily on imagination , composition , and atmosphere than on strict observance of nature .
The self @-@ proclaimed " mad painter " Hokusai ( 1760 – 1849 ) enjoyed a long , varied career . His work is marked by a lack of the sentimentality common to ukiyo @-@ e , and a focus on formalism influenced by Western art . Among his accomplishments are his illustrations of Takizawa Bakin 's novel Crescent Moon , his series of sketchbooks , the Hokusai Manga , and his popularization of the landscape genre with Thirty @-@ six Views of Mount Fuji , which includes his best @-@ known print , The Great Wave off Kanagawa. one of the most famous works of Japanese art . In contrast to the work of the older masters , Hokusai 's colours were bold , flat , and abstract , and his subject was not the pleasure districts but the lives and environment of the common people at work . Established masters Eisen , Kuniyoshi , and Kunisada also followed Hokusai 's steps into landscape prints in the 1830s , producing prints with bold compositions and striking effects .
Though not often given the attention of their better @-@ known forebears , the Utagawa school produced a few masters in this declining period . The prolific Kunisada ( 1786 – 1865 ) had few rivals in the tradition of making portrait prints of courtesans and actors . One of those rivals was Eisen ( 1790 – 1848 ) , who was also adept at landscapes . Perhaps the last significant member of this late period , Kuniyoshi ( 1797 – 1861 ) tried his hand at a variety of themes and styles , much as Hokusai had . His historical scenes of warriors in violent combat were popular , especially his series of heroes from the Suikoden ( 1827 – 1830 ) and Chūshingura ( 1847 ) . He was adept at landscapes and satirical scenes — the latter an area rarely explored in the dictatorial atmosphere of the Edo era ; that Kuniyoshia could dare tackle such subjects was a sign of the weakening of the Shogunate at the time .
Hiroshige ( 1797 – 1858 ) is considered Hokusai 's greatest rival in stature . He specialized in pictures of birds and flowers , and serene landscapes , and is best known for his travel series , such as The Fifty @-@ three Stations of the Tōkaidō and The Sixty @-@ nine Stations of the Kiso Kaidō , the latter a cooperative effort with Eisen . His work was more realistic , subtly coloured , and atmospheric than Hokusai 's ; nature and the seasons were key elements : mist , rain , snow , and moonlight were prominent parts of his compositions . Hiroshige 's followers , including adopted son Hiroshige II and son @-@ in @-@ law Hiroshige III , carried on their master 's style of landscapes into the Meiji era .
Masters of the late period
= = = Decline ( late 19th century ) = = =
Following the deaths of Hokusai and Hiroshige and the Meiji Restoration of 1868 , ukiyo @-@ e suffered a sharp decline in quantity and quality . The rapid Westernization of the Meiji period that followed saw woodblock printing turn its services to journalism , and face competition from photography . Practitioners of pure ukiyo @-@ e became more rare , and tastes turned away from a genre seen as a remnant of an obsolescent era . Artists continued to produce occasional notable works , but by the 1890s the tradition was moribund .
Synthetic pigments imported from Germany began to replace traditional organic ones in the mid @-@ 19th century . Many prints from this era made extensive use of a bright red , and were called aka @-@ e ( " red pictures " ) . Artists such as Yoshitoshi ( 1839 – 1892 ) led a trend in the 1860s of gruesome scenes of murders and ghosts , monsters and supernatural beings , and legendary Japanese and Chinese heroes . His One Hundred Aspects of the Moon ( 1885 – 1892 ) depicts a variety of fantastic and mundane themes with a moon motif . Kiyochika ( 1847 – 1915 ) is known for his prints documenting the rapid modernization of Tokyo , such as the introduction of railways , and his depictions of Japan 's wars with China and with Russia . Earlier a painter of the Kanō school , in the 1870s Chikanobu ( 1838 – 1912 ) turned to prints , particularly of the imperial family and scenes of Western influence on Japanese life in the Meiji period .
Meiji @-@ era ukiyo @-@ e
= = = Introduction to the West = = =
Aside from Dutch traders , who had had trading relations dating to the beginning of the Edo period , Westerners paid little notice to Japanese art before the mid @-@ 19th century , and when they did they rarely distinguished it from other art from the East . Swedish naturalist Carl Peter Thunberg spent a year in the Dutch trading settlement Dejima , near Nagasaki , and was one of the earliest Westerners to collect Japanese prints . The export of ukiyo @-@ e thereafter slowly grew , and at the beginning of the 19th century Dutch merchant @-@ trader Isaac Titsingh 's collection drew the attention of connoisseurs of art in Paris .
The arrival in Edo of American Commodore Matthew Perry in 1853 led to the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854 , which opened Japan to the outside world after over two centuries of seclusion . Ukiyo @-@ e prints were amongst the items he brought back to the United States . Such prints had appeared in Paris from at least the 1830s , and by the 1850s were numerous ; reception was mixed , and even when praised ukiyo @-@ e was generally thought inferior to Western works which emphasized mastery of naturalistic perspective and anatomy . Japanese art drew notice at the International Exhibition of 1867 in Paris , and became fashionable in France and England in the 1870s and 1880s . The prints of Hokusai and Hiroshige played a prominent role in shaping Western perceptions of Japanese art . At the time of their introduction to the West , woodblock printing was the most common mass medium in Japan , and the Japanese considered it of little lasting value .
Early Europeans promoters and scholars of ukiyo @-@ e and Japanese art included writer Edmond de Goncourt and art critic Philippe Burty , who coined the term " Japonism " . Stores selling Japanese goods opened , including those of Édouard Desoye in 1862 and art dealer Siegfried Bing in 1875 . From 1888 to 1891 Bing published the magazine Artistic Japan in English , French , and German editions , and curated an ukiyo @-@ e exhibition at the École des Beaux @-@ Arts in 1890 attended by artists such as Mary Cassatt .
American Ernest Fenollosa was the earliest Western devotee of Japanese culture , and did much to promote Japanese art — Hokusai 's works featured prominently at his inaugural exhibition as first curator of Japanese art Museum of Fine Arts in Boston , and in Tokyo in 1898 he curated the first ukiyo @-@ e exhibition in Japan . By the end of the 19th century , the popularity of ukiyo @-@ e in the West drove prices beyond the means of most collectors — some , such as Degas , traded their own paintings for such prints . Tadamasa Hayashi was a prominent Paris @-@ based dealer of respected tastes whose Tokyo office was responsible for evaluating and exporting large quantities of ukiyo @-@ e prints to the West in such quantities that Japanese critics later accused him of siphoning Japan of its national treasure . The drain first went unnoticed in Japan , as Japanese artists were immersing themselves in the classical painting techniques of the West .
Japanese art , and particularly ukiyo @-@ e prints , came to influence Western art from the time of the early Impressionists . Early painter @-@ collectors incorporated Japanese themes and compositional techniques into their works as early as the 1860s : the patterned wallpapers and rugs in Manet 's paintings were inspired by ukiyo @-@ e 's patterned kimonos , and Whistler focused his attention on ephemeral elements of nature as in ukiyo @-@ e landscapes . Van Gogh was an avid collector , and painted copies in oil of prints by Hiroshige and Eisen . Degas and Cassatt depicted fleeting , everyday moments in Japanese @-@ influenced compositions and perspectives . Ukiyo @-@ e 's flat perspective and unmodulated colours were a particular influence on graphic designers and poster makers . Toulouse @-@ Lautrec 's lithographs displayed his interest not only in ukiyo @-@ e 's flat colours and outlined forms , but also in their subject matter : performers and prostitutes . He signed much of this work with his initials in a circle , imitating the seals on Japanese prints . Other artists of the time who drew influence from ukiyo @-@ e include Monet , La Farge , Gauguin , and Les Nabis members such as Bonnard and Vuillard . French composer Claude Debussy drew inspiration for his music from the prints of Hokusai and Horoshige , most prominently in La mer ( 1905 ) . Imagist poets such as Amy Lowell and Ezra Pound found inspiration in ukiyo @-@ e prints ; Lowell published a book of poetry called Pictures of the Floating World ( 1919 ) on oriental themes or in an oriental style .
Ukiyo @-@ e influence on Western art
= = = Daughter traditions ( 20th century ) = = =
The travel sketchbook became a popular genre beginning about 1905 , as the Meiji government promoted travel within Japan to have citizens better know their country . In 1915 , publisher Shōzaburō Watanabe introduced the term shin @-@ hanga ( " new prints " ) to describe a style of prints he published that featured traditional Japanese subject matter and were aimed at foreign and upscale Japanese audiences . Prominent artists included Goyō Hashiguchi , called the " Utamaro of the Taishō period " for his manner of depicting women ; Shinsui Itō , who brought more modern sensibilities to images of women ; and Hasui Kawase , who made modern landscapes . Watanabe also published works by non @-@ Japanese artists , an early success of which was a set of Indian- and Japanese @-@ themed prints in 1916 by the English Charles W. Bartlett ( 1860 – 1940 ) . Other publishers followed Watanabe 's success , and some shin @-@ hanga artists such as Goyō and Hiroshi Yoshida set up studios to publish their own work .
Artists of the sōsaku @-@ hanga ( " creative prints " ) movement took control of every aspect of the printmaking process — design , carving , and printing were by the same pair of hands . Kanae Yamamoto ( 1882 – 1946 ) , then a student at the Tokyo School of Fine Arts , is credited with the birth of this approach . In 1904 he produced Fisherman using woodblock printing , a technique until then frowned upon by the Japanese art establishment as old @-@ fashioned and for its association with commercial mass production . The foundation of the Japanese Woodcut Artists ' Association in 1918 marks the beginning of this approach as a movement . The movement favoured individuality in its artists , and as such has no dominant themes or styles . Works ranged from the entirely abstract ones of Kōshirō Onchi ( 1891 – 1955 ) to the traditional figurative depictions of Japanese scenes of Un 'ichi Hiratsuka ( 1895 – 1997 ) . These artists produced prints not because they hoped to reach a mass audience , but as a creative end in itself , and did not restrict their print media to the woodblock of traditional ukiyo @-@ e .
Prints from the late @-@ 20th and 21st centuries have evolved from the concerns of earlier movements , especially the sōsaku @-@ hanga movement 's emphasis on individual expression . Screen printing , etching , mezzotint , mixed media , and other Western methods have joined traditional woodcutting amongst the printmaker 's techniques .
Descendents of ukiyo @-@ e
= = Style = =
Early ukiyo @-@ e artists brought with them a sophisticated knowledge of and training in the composition principles of classical Chinese painting ; gradually these artists shed the overt Chinese influence to develop a native Japanese idiom . The early ukiyo @-@ e artists have been called " Primitives " in the sense that the print medium was a new challenge to which they adapted these centuries @-@ old techniques — their image designs are not considered " primitive " . Many ukiyo @-@ e artists received training from teachers of the Kanō and other painterly schools .
A defining feature of most ukiyo @-@ e prints is a well @-@ defined , bold , flat line . The earliest prints were monochromatic , and these lines were the only printed element ; even with the advent of colour this characteristic line continued to dominate . In ukiyo @-@ e composition forms are arranged in flat spaces with figures typically in a single plane of depth . Attention was drawn to vertical and horizontal relationships , as well as details such as lines , shapes , and patterns such as those on clothing . Compositions were often asymmetrical , and the viewpoint was often from unusual angles , such as from above . Elements of images were often cropped , giving the composition a spontaneous feel . In colour prints , contours of most colour areas are sharply defined , usually by the linework . The aesthetic of flat areas of colour contrasts with the modulated colours expected in Western traditions and with other prominent contemporary traditions in Japanese art patronized by the upper class , such as in the subtle monochrome ink brushstrokes of zenga brush painting or tonal colours of the Kanō school of painting .
The colourful , ostentatious , and complex patterns , concern with changing fashions , and tense , dynamic poses and compositions in ukiyo @-@ e are in striking contrast with many concepts in traditional Japanese aesthetics . Prominent amongst these , wabi @-@ sabi favours simplicity , asymmetry , and imperfection , with evidence of the passage of time ; and shibui values subtlety , humility , and restraint . Ukiyo @-@ e can be less at odds with aesthetic concepts such as the racy , urbane stylishness of iki .
Ukiyo @-@ e displays an unusual approach to graphical perspective , one that can appear underdeveloped when compared to European paintings of the same period . Western @-@ style geometrical perspective was known in Japan — practised most prominently by the Akita ranga painters of the 1770s — as were Chinese methods to create a sense of depth using a homogeny of parallel lines . The techniques sometimes appeared together in ukiyo @-@ e works , geometrical perspective providing an illusion of depth in the background and the more expressive Chinese perspective in the fore . The techniques were most likely learned at first through Chinese Western @-@ style paintings rather than directly from Western works . Long after becoming familiar with these techniques , artists continued to harmonize them with traditional methods according to their compositional and expressive needs . Other ways of indicating depth included the Chinese tripartite composition method used in Buddhist pictures , where a large form is placed in the foreground , a smaller in the midground , and yet a smaller in the background ; this can be seen in Hokusai 's Great Wave , with a large boat in the foreground , a smaller behind it , and a small Mt Fuji behind them .
There was a tendency since early ukiyo @-@ e to pose beauties in what art historian Midori Wakakura called a " serpentine posture " , which involves the subjects ' bodies twisting unnaturally while facing behind themselves . Art historian Motoaki Kōno posited that this had its roots in traditional buyō dance ; Haruo Suwa countered that the poses were artistic licence taken by ukiyo @-@ e artists , causing a seemingly relaxed pose to reach unnatural or impossible physical extremes . This remained the case even when realistic perspective techniques were applied to other sections of the composition .
= = = Themes and genres = = =
Typical subjects were female beauties ( " ' bijin @-@ ga ' " ) , kabuki actors ( " ' yakusha @-@ e ' " ) , and landscapes . The women depicted were most often courtesans and geisha at leisure , and promoted the entertainments to be found in the pleasure districts . The detail with which artists depicted courtesans ' fashions and hairstyles allows the prints to be dated with some reliability . Less attention was given to accuracy of the women 's physical features , which followed the day 's pictorial fashions — the faces stereotyped , the bodies tall and lanky in one generation and petite in another . Portraits of celebrities were much in demand , in particular those from the kabuki and sumo worlds , two of the most popular entertainments of the era . While the landscape has come to define ukiyo @-@ e for many Westerners , landscapes flourished relatively late in the ukiyo @-@ e 's history .
Ukiyo @-@ e prints grew out of book illustration — many of Moronobu 's earliest single @-@ page prints were originally pages from books he had illustrated . E @-@ hon books of illustrations were popular and continued be an important outlet for ukiyo @-@ e artists . In the late period , Hokusai produced the three @-@ volume One Hundred Views of Mount Fuji and the fifteen @-@ volume Hokusai Manga , the latter a compendium of over 4000 sketches of a wide variety of realistic and fantastic subjects .
Traditional Japanese religions do not consider sex or pornography a moral corruption in the Judaeo @-@ Christian sense , and until the changing morals of the Meiji era led to its suppression , shunga erotic prints were a major genre . While the Tokugawa regime subjected Japan to strict censorship laws , pornography was not considered an important offense and generally met with the censors ' approval . Many of these prints displayed a high level a draughtsmanship , and often humour , in their explicit depictions of bedroom scenes , voyeurs , and oversized anatomy . As with depictions of courtesans , these images were closely tied to entertainments of the pleasure quarters . Nearly every ukiyo @-@ e master produced shunga at some point . Records of societal acceptance of shunga are absent , though Timon Screech posits that there were almost certainly some concerns over the matter , and that its level of acceptability has been exaggerated by later collectors , especially in the West .
Scenes from nature have been an important part of Asian art throughout history . Artists have closely studied the correct forms and anatomy of plants and animals , even though depictions of human anatomy remained more fanciful until modern times . Ukiyo @-@ e nature prints are called ' ' kachō @-@ e ' ' , or " flower @-@ and @-@ bird pictures " , though the genre was open to more than just flowers or birds , and the flowers and birds did not necessarily appear together . Hokusai 's detailed , precise nature prints are credited with establishing kachō @-@ e as a genre .
The Tenpō Reforms of the 1840s suppressed the depiction of actors and courtesans . Aside from landscapes and kachō @-@ e , artists turned to depictions of historical scenes , such as of ancient warriors or of scenes from legend , literature , and religion . The 11th @-@ century Tale of Genji and the 13th @-@ century Tale of the Heike have been sources of artistic inspiration throughout Japanese history , including in ukiyo @-@ e . Well @-@ known warriors and swordsmen such as Miyamoto Musashi ( 1584 – 1645 ) were frequent subjects , as were depictions of monsters , the supernatural , and heroes of Japanese and Chinese mythology .
From the 17th to 19th centuries Japan isolated itself from the rest of the world . Trade , primarily with the Dutch and Chinese , was restricted to the island of Dejima near Nagasaki . Outlandish pictures called Nagasaki @-@ e were sold to tourists of the foreigners and their wares . In the mid @-@ 19th century , Yokohama became the primary foreign settlement after 1859 , from which Western knowledge proliferated in Japan . Especially from 1858 to 1862 Yokohama @-@ e prints documented , with various levels of fact and fancy , the growing community of world denizens with whom the Japanese were now coming in contact ; triptychs of scenes of Westerners and their technology and technology were particularly popular .
Specialized prints included surimono , deluxe , limited @-@ edition prints aimed at connoisseurs , of which a five @-@ line kyōka poem was usually part of the design ; and uchiwa @-@ e printed hand fans , which often suffer from having been handled .
Ukiyo @-@ e genres
= = Production = =
= = = Paintings = = =
Ukiyo @-@ e artists often made both prints and paintings ; some specialized in one or the other . In contrast with previous traditions , ukiyo @-@ e painters favoured bright , sharp colours , and often delineated contours with sumi ink , an effect similar to the linework in prints . Unrestricted by the technical limitations of printing , a wider range of techniques , pigments , and surfaces were available to the painter . Artists painted with pigments made from mineral or organic substances , such as safflower , ground shells , lead , and cinnabar , and later synthetic dyes imported from the West such as Paris Green and Prussian Blue . Silk or paper kakemono hanging scrolls , makimono handscrolls , or byōbu folding screens were the most common surfaces .
Ukiyo @-@ e paintings
= = = Print production = = =
Ukiyo @-@ e prints were the works of teams of artisans in several workshops ; it was rare for designers to cut their own woodblocks . Labour was divided into four groups : the publisher , who commissioned , promoted , and distributed the prints ; the artists , who provided the design image ; the woodcarvers , who prepared the woodblocks for printing ; and the printers , who made impressions of the woodblocks on paper . Normally only the names of the artist and publisher were credited on the finished print .
Ukiyo @-@ e prints were impressed on hand @-@ made paper manually , rather than by mechanical press as in the West . The artist provided an ink drawing on thin paper , which was pasted to a block of cherry wood and rubbed with oil until the upper layers of paper could be pulled away , leaving a translucent layer of paper that the block @-@ cutter could use as a guide . The block @-@ cutter cut away the non @-@ black areas of the image , leaving raised areas that were inked to leave an impression . The original drawing was destroyed in the process .
Prints were made with blocks face up so the printer could vary pressure for different effects , and watch as paper absorbed the water @-@ based sumi ink , applied quickly in even horizontal strokes . Amongst the printer 's tricks were embossing of the image , achieved by pressing an uninked woodblock on the paper to achieve effects , such as the textures of clothing patterns or fishing net . Other effects included burnishing by rubbing with agate to brighten colours ; varnishing ; overprinting ; dusting with metal or mica ; and sprays to imitate falling snow .
The ukiyo @-@ e print was a commercial art form , and the publisher played an important role . Publishing was highly competitive ; over a thousand publishers are known from throughout the period . The number peaked at around 250 in the 1840s and 1850s — 200 in Edo alone — and slowly shrank following the opening of Japan until about 40 remained at the opening of the 20th century . The publishers owned the woodblocks and copyrights , and from the late 18th century enforced copyrights through the Picture Book and Print Publishers Guild . Prints that went through several pressings were particularly profitable , as the publisher could reuse the woodblocks without further payment to the artist or woodblock cutter . The woodblocks were also traded or sold to other publishers or pawnshops . Publishers were usually also vendors , and commonly sold each other 's wares in their shops . In addition to the artist 's seal , publishers marked the prints with their own seals — some a simple logo , others quite elaborate , incorporating an address or other information .
Print designers went through apprenticeship before being granted the right to produce prints of their own that they could sign with their own names . Young designers could be expected to cover part or all of the costs of cutting the woodblocks . As the artists gained fame publishers usually covered these costs , and artists could demand higher fees .
In pre @-@ modern Japan , people could go by numerous names throughout their lives , their childhood yōmyō personal name different from their zokumyō name as an adult . An artist 's name consisted of a gasei artist surname followed by an azana personal art name . The gasei was most frequently taken from the school the artist belonged to , such as Utagawa or Torii , and the azana normally took a Chinese character from the master 's art name — for example , many students of Toyokuni ( 豊国 ) took the " kuni " ( 国 ) from his name , including Kunisada ( 国貞 ) and Kuniyoshi ( 国芳 ) . The names artists signed to their works can be a source of confusion as they sometimes changed names through their careers ; Hokusai was an extreme case , using over a hundred names throughout his seventy @-@ year career .
The prints were mass @-@ marketed and by the mid @-@ 19th century total circulation of a print could run into the thousands . Retailers and travelling sellers promoted them at prices affordable to prosperous townspeople . In some cases the prints advertised kimono designs by the artist behind the print . From the second half of the 17th century , prints were frequently marketed as part of a series , each print stamped with the series name and the print 's number in that series . This proved a successful marketing technique , as collectors bought each new print in the series to keep their collections complete . By the 19th century , series such as Hiroshige 's Fifty @-@ three Stations of the Tōkaidō ran to dozens of prints .
Making ukiyo @-@ e prints
= = = = Colour print production = = = =
While colour printing in Japan dates to the 1640s , early ukiyo @-@ e prints used only black ink . Colour was sometimes added by hand , using a red lead ink in tan @-@ e prints , or later in a pink safflower ink in beni @-@ e prints . Colour printing arrived in books in the 1720s and in single @-@ sheet prints in the 1740s , with a different block and printing for each colour . Early colours were limited to pink and green ; techniques expanded over the following two decades to allow up to five colours . The mid @-@ 1760s brought full @-@ colour nishiki @-@ e prints made from ten or more woodblocks . To keep the blocks for each colour aligned correctly registration marks called kentō were placed on one corner and an adjacent side .
Printers first used natural colour dyes made from mineral or vegetable sources . The dyes had a translucent quality that allowed a variety of colours to be mixed from primary red , blue , and yellow pigments . In the 18th century , Prussian blue became popular , and was particularly prominent in the landscapes of Hokusai and Hiroshige , as was bokashi , where the printer produced gradations of colour or the blending of one colour into another . Cheaper and more consistent synthetic aniline dyes arrived from the West in 1864 . The colours were harsher and brighter than traditional pigments . The Meiji government promoted their use as part of broader policies of Westernization .
= = Criticism and historiography = =
Contemporary records of ukiyo @-@ e artists are rare . The most significant is the Ukiyo @-@ e Ruikō ( " Various Thoughts on Ukiyo @-@ e " ) , a collection of commentaries and artist biographies . Ōta Nanpo compiled the first , no @-@ longer @-@ extant version around 1790 . The work did not see print during the Edo era , but circulated in hand @-@ copied editions that were subject to numerous additions and alterations ; over 120 variants of the Ukiyo @-@ e Ruikō are known .
Before World War II , the predominant view of ukiyo @-@ e stressed the centrality of prints ; this viewpoint ascribes ukiyo @-@ e 's founding to Moronobu . Following the war , thinking turned to the importance of ukiyo @-@ e painting and making direct connections with 17th @-@ century Yamato @-@ e paintings ; this viewpoint sees Matabei as the genre 's originator , and is especially favoured in Japan . This view had become widespread among Japanese researchers by the 1930s , but the militaristic government of the time suppressed it , wanting to emphasize a division between the Yamato @-@ e scroll paintings associated with the court , and the prints associated with the sometimes anti @-@ authoritarian merchant class .
The earliest comprehensive historical and critical works on ukiyo @-@ e came from the West . Ernest Fenollosa was Professor of Philosophy at the Imperial University in Tokyo from 1878 , and was Commissioner of Fine Arts to the Japanese government from 1886 . His Masters of Ukioye of 1896 was the first comprehensive overview and set the stage for most later works with an approach to the history in terms of epochs : beginning with Matabei in a primitive age , it evolved towards a late @-@ 18th @-@ century golden age that began to decline with the advent of Utamaro , and had a brief revival with Hokusai and Hiroshige 's landscapes in the 1830s . Laurence Binyon , the Keeper of Oriental Prints and Drawings at the British Museum , wrote an account in Painting in the Far East in 1908 that was similar to Fenollosa 's , but placed Utamaro and Sharaku amongst the masters . Arthur Davison Ficke built on the works of Fenollosa and Binyon with a more comprehensive Chats on Japanese Prints in 1915 . James A. Michener 's The Floating World in 1954 broadly followed the chronologies of the earlier works , while dropping classifications into periods and recognizing the earlier artists not as primitives but as accomplished masters emerging from earlier painting traditions . For Michener and his sometime collaborator Richard Lane , ukiyo @-@ e began with Moronobu rather than Matabei . Lane 's Masters of the Japanese Print of 1962 maintained the approach of period divisions while placing ukiyo @-@ e firmly within the genealogy of Japanese art . The book acknowledges artists such as Yoshitoshi and Kiyochika as late masters .
Seiichirō Takahashi 's Traditional Woodblock Prints of Japan of 1964 placed ukiyo @-@ e artists in three periods : the first was a primitive period that included Harunobu , followed by a golden age of Kiyonaga , Utamaro , and Sharaku , and closed with a period of decline following the declaration beginning in the 1790s of strict sumptuary laws that dictated what could be depicted in artworks . The book nevertheless recognizes a larger number of masters from throughout this last period than earlier works had , and viewed ukiyo @-@ e painting as a revival of Yamato @-@ e painting . Tadashi Kobayshi further refined Takahashi 's analysis by identifying the decline as coinciding with the desperate attempts of the shogunate to hold on to power through the passing of draconian laws as its hold on the country continued to break down , culminating in the Meiji Restoration in 1868 .
Ukiyo @-@ e scholarship has tended to focus on the cataloguing of artists , an approach that lacks the rigour and originality that has come to be applied to art analysis in other areas . Such catalogues are numerous , but tend overwhelmingly to concentrate on a group of recognized geniuses . Little original research has been added to the early , foundational evaluations of ukiyo @-@ e and its artists , especially with regard to relatively minor artists . While the commercial nature of ukiyo @-@ e has always been acknowledged , evaluation of artists and their works has rested on the aesthetic preferences of connoisseurs and paid little heed to contemporary commercial success .
Standards for inclusion in the ukiyo @-@ e canon rapidly evolved in the early literature . Utamaro was particularly contentious , seen by Fenollosa and others as a degenerate symbol of ukiyo @-@ e 's decline ; Utamaro has since gained general acceptance as one of the form 's greatest masters . Artists of the 19th century such as Yoshitoshi were ignored or marginalized , attracting scholarly attention only towards the end of the 20th century . Works on late @-@ era Utagawa artists such as Kunisada and Kuniyoshi have revived some of the contemporary esteem these artists enjoyed . Many late works examine the social or other conditions behind the art , and are unconcerned with valuations that would place it in a period of decline .
Novelist Jun 'ichirō Tanizaki was critical of the superior attitude of Westerners who claimed a higher aestheticism in purporting to have discovered ukiyo @-@ e . He maintained that ukiyo @-@ e was merely the easiest form of Japanese art to understand from the perspective of Westerners values , and that Japanese of all social strata enjoyed ukiyo @-@ e , but that Confucian morals of the time kept them from freely discussing it , social mores that were violated by the West 's flaunting of the discovery .
Since the dawn of the 20th century historians of manga — Japanese comics and cartooning — have developed narratives connecting the art form to pre @-@ 20th @-@ century Japanese art . Particular emphasis falls on the Hokusai Manga as a precursor , though Hokusai 's book is not narrative , nor does the term manga originate with him . In English and other languages the word manga is used in the restrictive sense of " Japanese comics " or " Japanese @-@ style comics " , while in Japanese it indicates all forms of comics , cartooning , and caricature .
= = Collection and preservation = =
The ruling classes strictly limited the space permitted for the homes of the lower social classes ; the relatively small size of ukiyo @-@ e works was ideal for hanging in these homes . Little record of the patrons of ukiyo @-@ e paintings has survived . They sold for considerably higher prices than prints — up to many thousands of times more , and thus must have been purchased by the wealthy , likely merchants and perhaps some from the samurai class . Late @-@ era prints are the most numerous extant examples , as they were produced in the greatest quantities in the 19th century , and the older a print is the less chance it had of surviving . Ukiyo @-@ e was largely associated with Edo , and visitors to Edo often bought what they called azuma @-@ e ( " pictures of the Eastern capital " ) as souvenirs . Shops that sold them might specialize in products such as hand @-@ held fans , or offer a diverse selection .
The ukiyo @-@ e print market was highly diversified as it sold to a heterogeneous public , from dayworkers to wealthy merchants . Little concrete is known about production and consumption habits . Detailed records in Edo were kept in a wide variety of courtesans , actors , and sumo wrestlers , but no such records pertaining to ukiyo @-@ e remain — or perhaps ever existed . Determining what is understood about the demographics of ukiyo @-@ e consumption has required indirect means .
Determining at what prices prints sold is a challenge for experts , as records of hard figures are scanty and there was great variety in the production quality , size , supply and demand , and methods , which went through changes such as the introduction of full @-@ colour printing . How expensive prices can be considered is also difficult to determine as social and economic conditions were in flux throughout the period . In the 19th century , records survive of prints selling from as low as 16 mon to 100 mon for deluxe editions . Jun 'ichi Ōkubo suggests that prices in the 20s and 30s of mon were likely common for standard prints . As a loose comparison , a bowl of soba noodles in the early 19th century typically sold for 16 mon .
The dyes in ukiyo @-@ e prints are susceptible to fading when exposed even to low levels of light ; this makes long @-@ term display undesirable . The paper they are printed on deteriorates when it comes in contact with acidic materials , so storage boxes , folders , and mounts must be of neutral pH or alkaline . Prints should be regularly inspected for problems needing treatment , and stored at a relative humidity of 70 % or less to prevent fungal discolourations .
The paper and pigments in ukiyo @-@ e paintings are sensitive to light and seasonal changes in humidity . Mounts must be flexible , as the sheets can tear under sharp changes in humidity . In the Edo era , the sheets were mounted on long @-@ fibred paper and preserved scrolled up in plain paulownia boxes placed in another lacquer wooden box . In museum settings display times must be limited to prevent deterioration from exposure to light and environmental pollution . Scrolling causes concavities in the paper , and the unrolling and rerolling of the scrolls causes creasing . Ideal relative humidity for scrolls should be kept between 50 % and 60 % ; brittleness results from too dry a level .
Because ukiyo @-@ e prints were mass @-@ produced , collecting them presents considerations different from the collecting of paintings . There is wide variation in the condition , rarity , cost , and quality of extant prints . Prints may have stains , foxing , wormholes , tears , creases , or dogmarks , the colours may have faded , or they may have been retouched . Carvers may have altered the colours or composition of prints that went through multiple editions . When cut after printing , the paper may have been trimmed within the margin . Values of prints depend on a variety of factors , including the artist 's reputation , print condition , rarity , and whether it is an original pressing — even high @-@ quality later printings will fetch a fraction of the valuation of an original . As of 2009 , the record price for an ukiyo @-@ e print sold at auction was € 389 @,@ 000 for Sharaku 's portrait of kabuki actor Arashi Ryuzo .
Ukiyo @-@ e prints often went through multiple editions , sometimes with changes made to the blocks in later editions . Editions made from recut woodblocks also circulate , such as legitimate later reproductions , as well as pirate editions and other fakes . Takamizawa Enji ( 1870 – 1927 ) , a producer of ukiyo @-@ e reproductions , developed a method of recutting woodblocks to print fresh colour on faded originals , over which he used tobacco ash to make the fresh ink seem aged . These refreshed prints he resold as original printings . Amongst the defrauded collectors was American architect Frank Lloyd Wright , who brought 1 @,@ 500 Takamizawa prints with him from Japan to the US , some of which he had sold before the truth was discovered .
Ukiyo @-@ e artists are referred to in the Japanese style , the surname preceding the personal name , and well @-@ known artists such as Utamaro and Hokusai by personal name alone . Dealers normally refer to ukiyo @-@ e prints by the names of the standard sizes , most commonly the 34 @.@ 5 @-@ by @-@ 22 @.@ 5 @-@ centimetre ( 13 @.@ 6 in × 8 @.@ 9 in ) aiban , the 22 @.@ 5 @-@ by @-@ 19 @-@ centimetre ( 8 @.@ 9 in × 7 @.@ 5 in ) chūban , and the 38 @-@ by @-@ 23 @-@ centimetre ( 15 @.@ 0 in × 9 @.@ 1 in ) ōban — precise sizes vary , and paper was often trimmed after printing .
Many of the largest high @-@ quality collections of ukiyo @-@ e lie outside Japan . Examples entered the collection of the National Library of France in the first half of the 19th century . The British Museum began a collection in 1860 that by the late 20th century numbered 70 @,@ 000 items . The largest , surpassing 100 @,@ 000 items , resides in the Museum of Fine Arts , Boston , begun when Ernest Fenollosa donated his collection in 1912 . The first exhibition in Japan of ukiyo @-@ e prints was likely one presented by Kōjirō Matsukata in 1925 , who amassed his collection in Paris during World War I and later donated it to the National Museum of Modern Art , Tokyo . The largest collection of ukiyo @-@ e in Japan is the 100 @,@ 000 pieces in the Japan Ukiyo @-@ e Museum in the city of Nagano .
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= Deepwater stingray =
The deepwater stingray or giant stingaree ( Plesiobatis daviesi ) is a species of stingray and the sole member of the family Plesiobatidae . It is widely distributed in the Indo @-@ Pacific , typically over fine sediments on the upper continental slope at depths of 275 – 680 m ( 900 – 2 @,@ 230 ft ) . This species reaches 2 @.@ 7 m ( 8 @.@ 9 ft ) in length and 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) in width . It has an oval pectoral fin disc with a long , flexible , broad @-@ angled snout . Most of the entire latter half of its tail supports a distinctively long , slender , leaf @-@ shaped caudal fin . Its coloration is dark above and white below , and its skin is almost completely covered by tiny dermal denticles .
Preying on crustaceans , cephalopods , and bony fishes , the deepwater stingray may hunt both on the sea floor and well above it in open water . It is probably aplacental viviparous , with the mother supplying her gestating young with histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) . Captured rays merit caution due to their long , venomous stings . This species is taken by deepwater commercial fisheries , but in numbers too small to significantly threaten its population . Therefore , the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed it as Least Concern .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The first scientific description of the deepwater stingray was authored by John H. Wallace , as part of a 1967 Investigational Report from the Oceanographic Research Institute , Durban . He named the new species daviesi in honor of David H. Davies , the late director of the ORI , and placed it in the genus Urotrygon based on its long , low caudal fin and lack of a dorsal fin . The type specimens were collected during September 1996 near the Limpopo River mouth in Mozambique : the holotype is a mature male 92 cm ( 36 in ) across , and the paratype is an immature male 33 cm ( 13 in ) across . Other common names for this species include Davies ' stingray and giant stingray .
In a 1990 morphological phylogenetic study , Kiyonori Nishida concluded that the deepwater stingray and the sixgill stingray ( Hexatrygon bickelli ) were the most basal stingrays ( suborder Myliobatoidei ) . Therefore , he moved this species to its own genus , Plesiobatis , and family , Plesiobatidae ; the name is derived from the Greek plesio ( " primitive " ) and batis ( " ray " ) . Subsequent morphological studies have corroborated the basal position of Plesiobatis , but disagreed on its relationships to nearby taxa . John McEachran , Katherine Dunn , and Tsutomu Miyake in 1996 could not fully resolve the position of Plesiobatis , thus they assigned it provisionally to the family Hexatrygonidae . McEachran and Neil Aschliman in 2004 found P
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lesiobatis to be the sister taxon of Urolophus , and recommended that it be placed in the family Urolophidae . Until the phylogeny is better @-@ resolved , authors have tended to preserve the family Plesiobatidae .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Records of the deepwater stingray come from a number of locations scattered widely in the Indo @-@ Pacific : KwaZulu @-@ Natal in South Africa and Mozambique , the Gulf of Mannar , the northern Andaman Islands , the South China Sea , the Ryukyu Islands and the Kyushu @-@ Palau Ridge , along the southern coastline of Australia , northwestern Australia from the Rowley Shoals to Shark Bay , northeastern Australia from Townsville to Wooli , New Caledonia , and Hawaii . This bottom @-@ dwelling species generally inhabits the upper continental slope at depths of 275 – 680 m ( 900 – 2 @,@ 230 ft ) , over muddy or silty substrates . An anomalous record from only 44 m ( 144 ft ) deep off Mozambique was made . It seems to be locally common in tropical Australian waters , but may be rarer elsewhere .
= = Description = =
The deepwater stingray has a flabby body , with enlarged pectoral fins forming a disc usually longer than it is wide . The leading margins of the disc converge at a broad angle . The snout is thin and measures over six times as long as the diameter of the orbit ; the snout tip protrudes slightly from the disc . The small eyes are positioned just ahead of the spiracles , which have angular posterior rims . The large , circular nostrils are placed closed to the mouth , to which they are connected by a pair of broad grooves . Between the nostrils is a broad curtain of skin with a strongly fringed posterior margin . The wide , straight mouth contains 32 – 60 tooth rows in either jaw , increasing in number with age . Each tooth is small with a low , blunt cusp ; in adult males the teeth at the center are sharp and backward @-@ pointing . The five pairs of gill slits are small and placed beneath the disc .
The pelvic fins are small and have blunt outer corners . The moderately thick tail measures 93 – 102 % as long as the disc and lacks lateral skin folds and dorsal fins . One or two serrated stinging spines are present atop the tail , just ahead of the halfway point . The slender caudal fin originates a short distance behind the sting ; it is symmetrical above and below , and terminates in a rounded leaf @-@ like shape . The skin is densely covered by fine dermal denticles , that become sparse to absent on the pelvic fins , towards the ventral disc margin , and around the mouth . The deepwater stingray is purplish brown to blackish above ; some rays also have irregular darker blotches and spots . The underside is white , with a narrow dark border along the lateral disc margins . The tail is entirely dark , and the caudal fin is black . This large species grows up to 2 @.@ 7 m ( 8 @.@ 9 ft ) long , 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) across , and 118 kg ( 260 lb ) in weight off southern Africa , though it is not known to exceed 2 @.@ 0 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) long off Australia .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The diet of the deepwater stingray consists of cephalopods , crustaceans ( including penaeid prawns , crabs , and lobsters ) , and bony fishes ( including eels ) . Its long , flexible snout is well @-@ suited for rooting through sediment , while the presence of mesopelagic species in its diet suggest that it may also hunt well above the sea floor . One recorded individual was found severely gouged by kitefin sharks ( Dalatias licha ) , which are capable of excising plugs of flesh , cookiecutter @-@ like , from larger animals . The deepwater stingray is presumed to be similar to other stingrays in being aplacental viviparous , and having the developing embryos nourished by maternally produced histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) . Given its large size and deepwater habits , it is probably not highly prolific , with a small litter size and a long gestation period . The young are apparently born at close to 50 cm ( 20 in ) long , as evidenced by the capture of a free @-@ living specimen of that size that still bore a yolk sac scar . Males and females mature sexually at 1 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 7 m ( 4 @.@ 3 – 5 @.@ 6 ft ) and 1 @.@ 9 – 2 @.@ 0 m ( 6 @.@ 2 – 6 @.@ 6 ft ) long respectively . The maximum size , and likely also the maturation size , varies between geographic regions .
= = Human interactions = =
When captured , the deepwater stingray flails its powerful tail violently , and its long , venomous sting can inflict a serious injury to a fishery worker . It is caught incidentally by deepwater bottom trawls and longlines ; the meat may be sold but is poorly regarded . None of the deepwater commercial fisheries operating within its range ( including those off South Africa , Taiwan , Indonesia and Australia ) are extensive , and thus only small numbers of deepwater stingrays are landed . As a result , the International Union for Conservation of Nature has determined this species to be minimally threatened by human activity , and listed it under least concern . However , should deepwater fisheries expand in the future , it may be susceptible to depletion due to its probable rarity and low reproductive rate .
= Paper Mario =
Paper Mario , known in Japanese as Mario Story ( マリオストーリー , Mario Sutōrī ) and originally known as Super Mario RPG 2 , is a role @-@ playing video game developed by Intelligent Systems and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo 64 game console . It was first released in Japan on August 11 , 2000 , in North America on February 5 , 2001 , and in Europe and Australia on October 5 , 2001 . Paper Mario was re @-@ released for Nintendo 's Wii Virtual Console in July 2007 as well as Wii U Virtual Console in 2015 .
Paper Mario is set in the Mushroom Kingdom as the protagonist Mario tries to rescue Princess Peach from Bowser , who has imprisoned the seven " Star Spirits " , lifted her castle into the sky and has successfully defeated his foe after stealing the Star Rod from Star Haven and making himself invulnerable to any attacks . To save Mushroom Kingdom , rescue Peach , get the castle back , and defeat Bowser , Mario must locate the Star Spirits , who can negate the effects of the stolen Star Rod , by defeating Bowser 's minions guarding the star spirits . The player controls Mario and a number of partners to solve puzzles in the game 's overworld and defeat enemies in a turn @-@ based battle system . The battles are unique in that the player can influence the effectiveness of attacks by performing required controller inputs known as " action commands " .
Paper Mario is the second Mario role @-@ playing game to be released ( following Super Mario RPG ) and is the first installment for the Paper Mario series . Paper Mario is the predecessor to the GameCube game Paper Mario : The Thousand @-@ Year Door , the Wii game Super Paper Mario , the 3DS game Paper Mario : Sticker Star and the Wii U game Paper Mario : Color Splash . The game received a positive reaction from the media , attaining an aggregate score of 88 % from Game Rankings and 93 % from Metacritic . It was rated the 63rd best game made on a Nintendo system in Nintendo Power 's " Top 200 Games " list in 2006 .
= = Gameplay = =
Paper Mario combines traditional role @-@ playing game ( RPG ) elements with concepts and features from the Mario series . For the majority of the game , the player controls Mario , who can jump and use his hammer to overcome physical obstacles placed in the game 's overworld . Many of the game 's puzzles and boundaries are based upon the abilities of Mario 's partners , who each have a specialised skill required for progression in the game . The player accumulates partners as they advance into different locations ; only one partner can accompany Mario in the overworld , although the player can interchange them at any time . These characters also assist Mario in the game 's turn @-@ based battles , where damage inflicted against them results in temporary paralysis as the characters do not have individual HP statistics . Attacks in the game are similar to those in traditional RPGs , although the player can influence the power of a move when attacking or defending by timing a button @-@ press accurately or performing some other action command as required . Mario and his partners have a finite capacity to perform special moves , with each of these consuming a particular number of flower points ( FP ) when performed . Such statistics can be increased by earning Star Points ( experience points ) in combat to level up . There is also an on @-@ screen gauge to display Star Energy , which is required to perform another type of move that accumulate in number as the player advances through the game . The player can locate hidden battle upgrades in the game 's overworld , which promotes one partner character to a new rank at a time .
Progression through Paper Mario depends upon interaction with the game 's non @-@ player characters ( NPCs ) , who will often offer clues or detail the next event in the storyline . As in other RPGs , the player can find or purchase items from NPCs to help in and outside of combat . Badges can also be obtained that yield bonuses ranging from added moves to gradual health restoration during combat ; each consumes a set number of Badge Points ( BP ) , meaning Mario can only equip a limited number of badges at a time . Princess Peach is playable at particular points in the game as a recurring sidequest . The objectives and actions of each transition to Peach vary , although most are stealth @-@ based .
= = Plot and setting = =
The game is set in the Mushroom Kingdom , beginning as Mario and Luigi are relaxing in their house when the mail arrives with a letter , which turns out to be an invitation from Peach to a party . Mario and Luigi then head to the castle , and as Mario is about to have some quiet time with Peach , her castle is suddenly lifted by Bowser 's fortress . After his invasion and victory over Mario , the attached fortress serves as the location for playable side quests of the kidnapped Peach . In the main quest , Mario tries to retrieve all of the 7 imprisoned Star Spirits on land , where most of the locations are linked to the central Toad Town , which acts as the game 's hub area . The story 's main conflict arises when Bowser invades Star Haven , the residence for the Star Spirits , and steals the Star Rod .
= = = Story and characters = = =
The game 's story centers on Mario as he tries to reclaim the seven Star Spirits , who have been incarcerated in playing cards by Bowser and his assistant , Kammy Koopa . Their combined power is required to negate the effects of the Star Rod , which makes Bowser invincible . Once Mario rescues all of them , he uses their assistance to defeat Bowser and rescue Peach . The story is presented in the context of a novel , with each adventure involving the rescue of a Star Spirit denoted as a single chapter . Peach is playable between chapters , where she allies with a star kid named Twink in the castle to relay vital information to Mario regarding his quest .
Mario allies with eight partners in total , each of whom represents a different type of enemy from the Mario series . These allies are :
Goombario ( Kurio ( クリオ ) ) a Goomba , who has the ability to tell the player about any character , any environment , and any enemy .
Kooper ( Kameki ( カメキ ) ) a Koopa Troopa , with the ability to throw his shell at otherwise unreachable objects .
Bombette ( Pinky ( ピンキー , Pinkī ) ) a Bob @-@ omb , with the ability to blow up weak parts of walls .
Parakarry ( Paretta ( パレッタ ) ) a Paratroopa , with the ability to help Mario cross gaps too large to jump across .
Lady Bow ( Resaresa ( レサレサ ) ) a Boo , with the ability to make Mario become invisible and transparent .
Watt ( Akarin ( アカリン ) ) a Li 'l Sparky , with the ability to light up rooms ( also , the only ally in the game with the ability to penetrate an enemy 's defenses ) and to see hidden objects .
Sushie ( Opuku ( おプク ) ) a Cheep @-@ Cheep , with the ability to allow Mario to swim .
Lakilester ( Pokopī ( ポコピー , Pokopī ) ) a Lakitu , with the ability to allow Mario to traverse dangerous environments , such as spikes and lava .
After Peach 's castle is sent back to the ground and Mario defeats Bowser , he recounts his tale to Luigi , who had remained at home while Mario went on the adventure . Peach throws a huge party to honor Mario and his allies for saving the entire kingdom , which is then followed by a parade during the credits . In the end , Mario and Peach exit their parade float and gaze up the sky , seeing fireworks . This part will not end until the player turns off the console . When restarted , the file will restart from the last save .
= = Development = =
Paper Mario was developed by Intelligent Systems . Kumiko Takeda and Kaori Aoki wrote the game 's script , while Naohiko Aoyama was the art director responsible for the game 's distinctive graphical style . The game was initially called Super Mario RPG 2 , and was first revealed at Nintendo Space World ' 97 , a former video game trade show hosted by Nintendo . Critics compared the game 's 2D character style to PaRappa the Rapper . Shigeru Miyamoto , who consulted on the project , stated that the game was being developed with amateur gamers in mind . He had earlier revealed at E3 that around twenty developers were actively involved with the project . Paper Mario was re @-@ released on the Wii Virtual Console in 2007 , and the Wii U Virtual Console in 2015 . The game was also released for the iQue Player in 2004 .
= = = Music = = =
The game 's soundtrack was first released in Japan on September 21 , 2000 , with the game 's original title by Enterbrain , and distributed by the magazine Famitsu . It was followed in the United States a few months later as a Nintendo Power exclusive with the illustration from the international game cover . It included both the original music to the game , as well as sound effects , in 78 tracks on two discs . All of the game 's compositions were written by Yuka Tsujiyoko , with reprise arrangement of previous Super Mario themes by Koji Kondo . The game 's other event and sound effects music were composed by Taishi Senda . The game 's music mostly received positive reviews , with Lucas M. Thomas of IGN.com describing it as " vividly appointed with catchy , expressive tunes and comical audio cues . "
= = Reception and legacy = =
Paper Mario received critical acclaim . IGN 's Matt Casamassina praised the game 's accessibility , commenting that " it serves as the perfect introductory game to any person hoping to explore the genre " . Nonetheless , other reviewers complained about the " brain @-@ dead easy " puzzles and bosses requiring " basic strategy at best " . The game 's nostalgic value was lauded , with reviewers noting the sense of familiarity with the Mario series present in the game 's settings and characters . The game has often been compared to the previous Mario RPG title , Super Mario RPG . Eurogamer 's Tom Bramwell judged that " Paper Mario is a vastly superior game to SMRPG " , while IGN compared the game 's simple plot unfavourably with the SNES game and RPGFan claimed that some of Paper Mario 's story was copied from it . RPGFan also questioned the name of Paper Mario , as there were , in their opinion , insufficient gameplay features or aspects which used the paper theme to justify the name .
Critics lauded the game 's blend of RPG and platforming aspects . GameSpot noted the " exciting and somewhat strategic " battle system , which requires the player exploit the enemies ' weak points . The " refreshing " action command features was praised in particular for adding originality to a battle formula that was present in many games of the same genre . IGN claimed the game was " the best RPG for Nintendo 64 " , calling it " fantastically deep , intuitively designed , and wonderfully rewarding " . Despite this , enemy design itself was bemoaned for being " corny and generic " , with notable exceptions to some of the Paper Mario 's original boss characters . Eurogamer noted how " Of the various characters you meet , none is of less importance than any other " , welcoming the partner characters and their relating puzzles . GameSpot praised the game 's use of humour and side quests , with references to the control of Peach in particular .
The reaction to the game 's visuals was generally positive . IGN noted some paper @-@ based visual effects such as when Mario folds in a bed to sleep , but complained about character zoom @-@ ins , which revealed " a pixelated mass of colors " . Although reviewers claimed that the novel graphical style was initially confusing , most welcomed the style eventually , with GameSpot claiming that it was " extremely well done " . The audio was also mainly praised , although reviewers criticised the lack of voice acting and character @-@ specific sound effects . RPGFan were particularly critical of the game 's " generic filler music " , despite enjoying use of multiple songs simultaneously .
The game was also well received upon release for the Virtual Console , with IGN 's Lucas M. Thomas stating " it 's held up very well even placed into context against its GameCube and Wii era sequels , and it 's an RPG for goodness sakes " . Paper Mario also proved popular on the Virtual Console , reaching a high of " second most downloaded game " in the US in August 2007 .
Paper Mario was the top selling game in Japan on the week of its release , selling more than 276 @,@ 000 copies , and the top @-@ selling game for two weeks in other regions . It was ranked # 141 on Electronic Gaming Monthly 's " Greatest 200 Videogames of their Time " in February 2006 , the 63rd best game made on a Nintendo system in Nintendo Power 's " Top 200 Games " list , and the 13th greatest Nintendo 64 game of all time by the same magazine . It currently ranks as the sixth @-@ highest scoring Nintendo 64 game on Metacritic , the ninth highest rated video game of 2001 , and the highest @-@ scoring Nintendo 64 game released that year .
= 1885 Navy Midshipmen football team =
The 1885 Navy Midshipmen football team represented the United States Naval Academy in the 1885 college football season . The team was the fourth intercollegiate football squad to represent the United States Naval Academy , and marked the first time that the school played a multiple @-@ game season . The squad was captained by halfback Cornelius Billings . The year began with a blowout victory over St. John 's College , but was followed by close losses to Johns Hopkins University and the Princeton Tigers reserves squad . The season continued a seven @-@ season , eight game rivalry between the Naval Academy and Johns Hopkins , and began a ten @-@ game , seven @-@ year rivalry with St. John 's .
= = Prelude = =
According to Ellsworth P. Bertholf 's biographer C. Douglas Kroll , the first evidence of a form of football at the United States Naval Academy came in 1857 , but the school 's cadets lost interest in the game shortly afterward . The Naval Academy 's first ever football team was fielded in 1879 . The squad was entirely student @-@ operated , receiving no official support from Naval Academy officials . The team was entirely funded by its members and their fellow students . The 1879 team participated in just one game , which resulted in a scoreless tie . It was played against the Baltimore Athletic Club , apparently on the Academy superintendent 's cow pasture . Navy would not field a football team in 1880 or 1881 , due to the lack of support from officials . When football returned to the academy in 1882 , the squad was led by player @-@ coach Vaulx Carter , and won 8 – 0 in a match with Johns Hopkins , starting a seven @-@ year rivalry between the schools . The 1883 season resulted in Navy 's first ever loss , a 2 – 0 defeat by Johns Hopkins . Navy returned the favor the following year , defeating Hopkins in a close 9 – 6 game .
= = Schedule = =
= = Season summary = =
The Naval Academy scheduled three games for the 1885 season , breaking from the tradition of playing only Johns Hopkins . According to Morris Allison Bealle , " Football at Annapolis had shed its swaddling clothes when the autumn of 1885 rolled around . Some of the faculty actually gave in and admitted that football might , at that , be or become an interesting diversion " so the squad was allowed to schedule three games . The first was played against St. John 's College , also located in Annapolis . The game kicked off a brief rivalry with St. John 's , which would conclude in 1911 with Navy winning eighteen of twenty @-@ one contests . The 1885 match was a 46 – 10 blowout victory over St. John 's . The second game of the season was the annual Thanksgiving Day match against Johns Hopkins . After winning the previous year , Navy fell to Johns Hopkins 12 – 8 . The season concluded with the Naval Academy challenging the Princeton freshman team , a game which ended in a 10 – 0 shutout loss for Navy .
= = Players = =
The 1885 Naval Academy team was made up of thirteen players at four different positions . The squad consisted of seven rushers , two fullback , three halfbacks , and a quarterback :
= = Postseason and aftermath = =
The first postseason college football game would not be played until 1902 , with the Pasadena Tournament of Roses ' establishment of the east – west tournament game , later known as the Rose Bowl . The Midshipmen would not participate in their first Rose Bowl until the 1923 season , when they went 5 – 1 – 2 and tied with the Washington Huskies 14 – 14 in the match . As a result of the lack of a competition , there were no postseason games played after the 1885 season . According to statistics compiled by Billingsly , Houlgate , the National Championship Foundation , Parke Davis , and the Helms Athletic Foundation , Princeton was declared the 1885 season champion .
The 1885 season brought Navy 's overall win – loss record to an even 3 – 3 – 1 . It also brought the Academy 's record against Johns Hopkins to 2 – 2 tie . The season marked the first time a team for the Naval Academy would play a multiple @-@ game season . In 1886 , their schedule was expanded from three games to five , and continued to grow through subsequent years . It was the worst single @-@ season record for the Academy until 1888 , when they went 1 – 4 . Navy would finish the 1880s with four winning seasons , and an overall record of 14 – 12 – 2 . The school would outscore their opponents 292 – 231 , and would finish the 19th century with an overall record of 54 – 19 – 3 .
= Nasodigitoacoustic syndrome =
Nasodigitoacoustic syndrome , also called Keipert syndrome , is a rare congenital syndrome first described by J.A. Keipert and colleagues in 1973 . The syndrome is characterized by a mishaped nose , broad thumbs and halluces ( the big toes ) , brachydactyly , sensorineural hearing loss , facial features such as hypertelorism ( unusually wide @-@ set eyes ) , and developmental delay . It is believed to be inherited in an X @-@ linked recessive manner , which means a genetic mutation causing the disorder is located on the X chromosome , and while two copies of the mutated gene must be inherited for a female to be born with the disorder , just one copy is sufficient to cause a male to be born with the disorder . Nasodigitoacoustic syndrome is likely caused by a mutated gene located on the X chromosome between positions Xq22.2 – q28 . The incidence of the syndrome has not been determined , but it is considered to affect less than 200 @,@ 000 people in the United States , and no greater than 1 per 2 @,@ 000 in Europe . It is similar to Keutel , Muenke , Rubinstein and Teunissen @-@ Cremers syndrome .
= = Characteristics = =
Nasodigitoacoustic syndrome is congenital and is characterized by a number of nasal , facial and cranial features . These include a broad and high , sometimes depressed nasal bridge ( top of the nose , between the eyes ) and a flattened nasal tip . This can give the nose a shortened , arch @-@ like appearance . Hypertelorism ( unusually wide @-@ set eyes ) , prominent frontal bones and supraorbital ridge ( the eyebrow ridge ) , bilateral epicanthic folds ( an extra flap of skin over the eyelids ) , a broad forehead and an overall enlarged head circumference have also been observed . A bulging of the upper lip with an exaggerated cupid 's bow shape , and maxillary hypoplasia ( underdevelopment of the upper jaw ) with retraction have also been reported .
Several anomalies affecting the digits ( fingers and toes ) have been observed with the syndrome . A broadening of the thumbs and big toes ( halluces ) was reported in two brothers . The broadening was apparent in all distal phalanges of the fingers , although the pinkies were unaffected yet appeared to be clinodactylic ( warped , or bent toward the other fingers ) . Additional eports described this broadness of the thumbs and big toes , with brachydactyly ( shortness ) in the distal phalanges of the other digits except the pinkies in affected individuals . On X @-@ rays of a two @-@ year @-@ old boy with the disorder , the brachydactyly was shown to be caused by shortening of epiphyses ( joint @-@ ends ) of the distal phalanges . The broadness and brachydactyly of the big toes in particular may give them a stunted , rounded and stub @-@ like appearance .
The auditory , or " acoustic " abnormalities observed with the syndrome include sensorineural hearing loss and hoarseness . Two affected Turkish brothers with a mild form of this hearing loss , and a hoarse voice were reported . A laryngoscopic examination of both brothers revealed swelling of the vocal cords , and a malformed epiglottis . Sensorineural @-@ associated hearing impairment and hoarsness was also observed in a 10 @-@ year @-@ old girl and her father , and in a number of other cases .
Other characteristics seen with the syndrome include developmental delay , growth retardation , pulmonary stenosis ( an obstruction of blood @-@ flow from the right ventricle of the heart to the pulmonary artery ) with associated dyspnea ( shortness of breath ) , and renal agenesis ( failure of the kidneys to develop during the fetal period ) . Undescended testes , hyperactivity and aggressive behavior have also been noted .
= = Genetics = =
Nasodigitoacoustic syndrome is thought to be caused by a mutation in a gene on the X chromosome . A 2007 study concluded , based on analysis of microsatellite markers ( small gene sequences found in common among individuals having the same ethnicity , ancestry or genetic disease ) of the family described by Keipert , that this gene was likely located on the long arm of the X chromosome between positions Xq22.2 – q28 . This is not definitive , however , and no specific gene has been named .
The syndrome is strongly believed to be inherited in an X @-@ linked recessive manner . When a female carries a mutated gene on one of her two copies of the X chromosome , there is a 50 % chance of passing the mutation on to her children . Much like her , a daughter inheriting this mutation will be a carrier , but will not herself have the associated disease . However , a son who inherits the mutation will have the disease ; this is because males have only one copy of the X chromosome and therefore could only express the disease mutation .
This form of inheritance for Nasodigitoacoustic syndrome is not yet absolute , though , as a girl has been reported with the disorder . It is suggested that further analysis is needed for the inheritance to be formally established .
= = Diagnosis = =
The constellation of anomalies seen with Nasodigitoacoustic syndrome result in a distinct diagnosis . The diagnostic criteria for the disorder are broad distal phalanges of the thumbs and big toes , accompanied by a broad and shortened nose , sensorineural hearing loss and developmental delay , with predominant occurrence in males .
= = = Classification = = =
Nasodigitoacoustic syndrome is similar to several syndromes that share its features . Brachydactyly of the distal phalanges , sensorineural deafness and pulmonary stenosis are common with Keutel syndrome . In Muenke syndrome , developmental delay , distal brachydactyly and sensorineural hearing loss are reported ; features of Teunissen @-@ Cremers syndrome include nasal aberrations and broadness of the thumbs and big toes , also with brachydactyly . Broad thumbs and big toes are primary characteristics of Rubinstein syndrome .
= = Management = =
A number of features found with Nasodigitoacoustic syndrome can be managed or treated . Sensorineural hearing loss in humans may be caused by a loss of hair cells ( sensory receptors in the inner ear that are associated with hearing ) . This can be hereditary and / or within a syndrome , as is the case with nasodigitoacoustic syndrome , or attributed to infections such as viruses . For the management of sensorineural hearing loss , hearing aids have been used . Treatments , depending upon the cause and severity , may include a pharmacological approach ( i.e. , the use of certain steroids ) , or surgical intervention , like a cochlear implant .
Pulmonary , or pulmonic stenosis is an often congenital narrowing of the pulmonary valve ; it can be present in nasodigitoacoustic @-@ affected infants . Treatment of this cardiac abnormality can require surgery , or non @-@ surgical procedures like balloon valvuloplasty ( widening the valve with a balloon catheter ) .
= = History and epidemiology = =
The syndrome was initially described in 1973 by James A. Keipert and associates . They reported of two brothers with broad distal phalanges , sensorineural hearing loss , and facial features consistent with what would become known as Keipert or " nasodigitoacoustic " syndrome . Although no specific rate of incidence has been determined , the syndrome is considered a rare disease by both the Office of Rare Diseases ( ORDR ) at the National Institutes of Health , and Orphanet . This suggests , respectively , that Nasodigitoacoustic syndrome affects less than 200 @,@ 000 people in the U.S. , or affects no greater than 1 per 2 @,@ 000 people in Europe .
= = Publications = =
Gorlin , R. J. ; Toriello , H. V. ; Cohen , M. M. ( 1995 ) . Hereditary hearing loss and its syndromes . U. S. : Oxford University Press. pp. 208 – 209 . Retrieved April 21 , 2011 .
= Geri and Freki =
In Norse mythology , Geri and Freki ( Old Norse , both meaning " the ravenous " or " greedy one " ) are two wolves which are said to accompany the god Odin . They are attested in the Poetic Edda , a collection of epic poetry compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources , in the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson , and in the poetry of skalds . The pair has been compared to similar figures found in Greek , Roman and Vedic mythology , and may also be connected to beliefs surrounding the Germanic " wolf @-@ warrior bands " , the Úlfhéðnar .
= = Etymology = =
The names Geri and Freki have been interpreted as meaning either " the greedy one " or " the ravenous one " . The name Geri can be traced back to the Proto @-@ Germanic adjective * geraz , attested in Burgundian girs , Old Norse gerr and Old High German ger or giri , all of which mean " greedy " . The name Freki can be traced back to the Proto @-@ Germanic adjective * frekaz , attested in Gothic faihu @-@ friks " covetous , avaricious " , Old Norse frekr " greedy " , Old English frec " desirous , greedy , gluttonous , audacious " and Old High German freh " greedy " . John Lindow interprets both Old Norse names as nominalized adjectives . Bruce Lincoln further traces Geri back to a Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European stem * gher- , which is the same as that found in Garmr , a name referring to the hound closely associated with the events of Ragnarök .
= = Attestations = =
In the Poetic Edda poem Grímnismál , the god Odin ( disguised as Grímnir ) provides the young Agnarr with information about Odin 's companions . Agnarr is told that Odin feeds Geri and Freki while the god himself consumes only wine :
The pair is also alluded to via the kenning " Viðrir 's ( Odin 's ) hounds " in Helgakviða Hundingsbana I , verse 13 , where it is related that they roam the field " greedy for the corpses of those who have fallen in battle " .
In the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning ( chapter 38 ) , the enthroned figure of High explains that Odin gives all of the food on his table to his wolves Geri and Freki and that Odin requires no food , for wine is to him both meat and drink . High then quotes the above @-@ mentioned stanza from the poem Grímnismál in support . In chapter 75 of the Prose Edda book Skáldskaparmál a list of names for wargs and wolves is provided that includes both Geri and Freki .
In skaldic poetry Geri and Freki are used as common nouns for " wolf " in chapter 58 of Skáldskaparmál ( quoted in works by the skalds Þjóðólfr of Hvinir and Egill Skallagrímsson ) and Geri is again used as a common noun for " wolf " in chapter 64 of the Prose Edda book Háttatal . Geri is referenced in kennings for " blood " in chapter 58 of Skáldskaparmál ( " Geri 's ales " in a work by the skald Þórðr Sjáreksson ) and in for " carrion " in chapter 60 ( " Geri 's morsel " in a work by the skald Einarr Skúlason ) . Freki is also used in a kenning for " carrion " ( " Freki 's meal " ) in a work by Þórðr Sjáreksson in chapter 58 of Skáldskaparmál .
= = Archaeological record = =
If the rider on horseback on the image on the Böksta Runestone has been correctly identified as Odin , then Geri and Freki are shown taking part in hunting an elk or moose .
= = Theories = =
Freki is also a name applied to the monstrous wolf Fenrir in the Poetic Edda poem Völuspá . Folklorist John Lindow sees irony in the fact that Odin feeds one Freki at his dinner table and another — Fenrir — with his flesh during the events of Ragnarök .
Historian Michael Spiedel connects Geri and Freki with archaeological finds depicting figures wearing wolf @-@ pelts and frequently found wolf @-@ related names among the Germanic peoples , including Wulfhroc ( " Wolf @-@ Frock " ) , Wolfhetan ( " Wolf @-@ Hide " ) , Isangrim ( " Grey @-@ Mask " ) , Scrutolf ( " Garb @-@ Wolf " ) and Wolfgang ( " Wolf @-@ Gait " ) , Wolfdregil ( " Wolf @-@ Runner " ) , and Vulfolaic ( " Wolf @-@ Dancer " ) and myths regarding wolf warriors from Norse mythology ( such as the Úlfhéðnar ) . Spiegel believes this to point to the pan @-@ Germanic wolf @-@ warrior band cult centered on Odin that waned away after Christianization .
Scholars have also noted Indo @-@ European parallels to the wolves Geri and Freki as companions of a divinity . 19th century scholar Jacob Grimm observed a connection between this aspect of Odin 's character and the Greek Apollo , to whom both the wolf and the raven are sacred . Philologist Maurice Bloomfield further connected the pair with the two dogs of Yama in Vedic mythology , and saw them as a Germanic counterpart to a more general and widespread Indo @-@ European " Cerberus " -theme . Michael Speidel finds similar parallels in the Vedic Rudra and the Roman Mars . Elaborating on the connection between wolves and figures of great power , he writes : " This is why Geri and Freki , the wolves at Woden 's side , also glowered on the throne of the Anglo @-@ Saxon kings . Wolf @-@ warriors , like Geri and Freki , were not mere animals but mythical beings : as Woden 's followers they bodied forth his might , and so did wolf @-@ warriors . "
Bernd Heinrich theorizes that Geri and Freki , along with Odin and his ravens Huginn and Muninn , reflect a symbiosis observed in the natural world among ravens , wolves , and humans on the hunt :
In a biological symbiosis one organism typically shores up some weakness or deficiency of the other ( s ) . As in such a symbiosis , Odin the father of all humans and gods , though in human form was imperfect by himself . As a separate entity he lacked depth perception ( being one @-@ eyed ) and he was apparently also uninformed and forgetful . But his weaknesses were compensated by his ravens , Hugin ( mind ) and Munin ( memory ) who were part of him . They perched on his shoulders and reconnoitered to the ends of the earth each day to return in the evening and tell him the news . He also had two wolves at his side , and the man / god @-@ raven @-@ wolf association was like one single organism in which the ravens were the eyes , mind , and memory , and the wolves the providers of meat and nourishment . As god , Odin was the ethereal part — he only drank wine and spoke only in poetry . I wondered if the Odin myth was a metaphor that playfully and poetically encapsulates ancient knowledge of our prehistoric past as hunters in association with two allies to produce a powerful hunting alliance . It would reflect a past that we have long forgotten and whose meaning has been obscured and badly frayed as we abandoned our hunting cultures to become herders and agriculturists , to whom ravens act as competitors .
= Delaware Route 18 =
Delaware Route 18 ( DE 18 ) is a state highway located in Sussex County , Delaware . It runs from Maryland Route 318 ( MD 318 ) at the Maryland border east of Federalsburg , Maryland to U.S. Route 9 ( US 9 ) in Georgetown . DE 18 runs concurrent with DE 404 from its intersection with that highway southeast of Bridgeville to the eastern terminus , where DE 404 continues eastward to Five Points on US 9 . The route passes through rural areas of western Sussex County . What would become DE 18 was built as a state highway in stages during the 1920s and 1930s . By 1936 , DE 18 was designated to run from the Maryland border east through Georgetown to Lewes . In 1974 , the route east of Georgetown was replaced by US 9 and US 9 Business ( US 9 Bus . ) . DE 404 was designated along the eastern portion of DE 18 by 1987 .
= = Route description = =
DE 18 begins at the Maryland border , where it continues west into that state as MD 318 . From the state line , the route heads east on two @-@ lane undivided Federalsburg Road , passing through agricultural areas with some woods and homes . In Clarksons Crossroads , DE 18 turns southeast onto Cannon Road while Federalsburg Road continues northeast toward Bridgeville . The road continues to the community of Cannon , where it crosses Norfolk Southern 's Delmarva Secondary railroad line . East of Cannon , the route comes to an intersection with US 13 . Following this , DE 18 heads northeast through farm fields , reaching a junction with DE 404 .
At this point , DE 18 heads east concurrent with DE 404 along Seashore Highway , running through a mix of farmland and woodland with some residences , passing through tracts of the Redden State Forest . Farther east , DE 18 / DE 404 heads into Georgetown , running to the north of Delaware Technical Community College 's Jack F. Owens Campus . The road intersects US 113 and the western terminus of DE 404 Truck in a commercial area and continues east . The two routes head southeast onto North Bedford Street , passing homes and businesses . The road comes to an intersection with US 9 at The Circle in the center of Georgetown , where the Sussex County Courthouse is located . At this point , DE 18 ends and DE 404 continues east along US 9 .
DE 18 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 12 @,@ 176 vehicles at the west end of Georgetown to a low of 2 @,@ 582 vehicles at the US 13 intersection . The portion of DE 18 concurrent with DE 404 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
By 1920 , what would eventually become DE 18 was under contract as a state highway from southeast of Bridgeville to Georgetown and from Georgetown to Harbeson ; the remainder existed as an unimproved county road . The state highway was completed between Cannon and present @-@ day US 13 and from southeast of Bridgeville east to Lewes by 1924 , with the exception of a portion within Georgetown . The part of present @-@ day DE 18 west of Clarksons Crossroads was under proposal as a state highway by this time also . A year later , the portions of the route west of Clarksons Crossroads and within Georgetown were upgraded to state highway status . In 1927 , plans were made to replace the 1914 @-@ built county @-@ maintained bascule bridge over the Lewes and Rehoboth Canal in Lewes . Replacement of this bridge by the state was completed in 1929 . By 1931 , the state highway was finished between Clarksons Crossroads and Cannon . The portion of road from US 13 east to the current west end of the DE 404 concurrency was completed as a state highway a year later .
DE 18 was designated to run from the Maryland border west of Cannon east to Lewes Beach on the Delaware Bay by 1936 , following its current alignment east to Georgetown and continuing east through Gravel Hill , Harbeson , and Lewes . In 1974 , the eastern terminus of DE 18 was cut back to its current location in Georgetown , with an extended US 9 replacing the route between Georgetown and Five Points and US 9 Bus. replacing DE 18 from Five Points to Lewes . DE 404 was extended to run concurrent with DE 18 from east of Bridgevillle to Georgetown by 1987 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Sussex County .
= What Separates Me from You =
What Separates Me from You is the fourth studio album by American rock band A Day to Remember , and their third for Victory . Originally planned for release in late @-@ October 2010 , the album was delayed by a few weeks until mid @-@ November . The album , which was recorded mainly at The Wade Studios in Ocala , Florida , from May to July 2010 , was the first to feature guitarist Kevin Skaff . The album was produced mostly by Chad Gilbert , with help from Andrew Wade and the band 's vocalist , Jeremy McKinnon . " All I Want " was released as the first single . It reached number 12 on the U.S. Alternative Songs chart and number 25 on the Rock Songs chart .
The album debuted on the U.S. Billboard 200 at number 11 , and number 1 on several charts : Top Hard Rock Albums , Top Independent Albums , Top Modern Rock / Alternative Albums in the U.S. and the Rock Album Chart in the UK . The band played two songs from the album on their national TV debut in January 2011 , and then went on The Game Changers Tour to help promote the album ; shortly afterwards touring worldwide in support of the release . Two later singles off the album charted : " All Signs Point to Lauderdale " , released in May , reached number 32 on the Hot Modern Rock Tracks chart , and radio single " It 's Complicated " , released in October , peaked at number 34 on the same chart . What Separates Me from You was met with generally favorable reviews , with critics praising the album 's sound . The album was certified gold by the RIAA in March 2016 .
= = Background = =
While the band was touring Homesick ( 2009 ) , a line @-@ up change occurred when guitarist Tom Denney wanted to settle down . Four Letter Lie guitarist Kevin Skaff was added in his place ; Denney , however , was retained to work with the band behind the scenes . All of the songs for What Separates Me from You were written while the band were touring in 2009 and 2010 , and as early as March 2010 , vocalist Jeremy McKinnon stated that A Day to Remember already had " all of the pop / punk song ideas written [ ... ] And we 're then going to write five heavier songs " .
= = Music and lyrics = =
= = = Styles and amount of material = = =
Guitarist Neil Westfall said in a 2010 interview with Alter the Press ! : " We 've written a few jams , we 're always constantly writing , like I think we wrote some parts the other day . " Westfall also said once the band return home from touring , they were " going to drop everything and start writing and doing pre @-@ production full time . " At this point , the band had ten songs and were trying to condense them into five , then planning to write five more . Westfall said the band completed the final " few songs when we were back home with Tom ( Denney ) and Chad ( Gilbert ) . " On the pace of writing , McKinnon said : " It seems like a really fast thing that has happened but we 've been constantly working on it the entire time . " On the songs themselves , he said : " the pop @-@ punk stuff has a darker edge to it . I wrote it like that , it 's still pop @-@ punk but with a darker edge " . The album was influenced by Finch 's What It Is to Burn ( 20
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1935 , and was the second journal on this subject . The anti @-@ tobacco organizations were also against consumption of alcoholic beverages .
= = Reasons = =
= = = Hitler 's attitude towards smoking = = =
Adolf Hitler was a heavy smoker in his early life — he used to smoke 25 to 40 cigarettes daily — but gave up the habit , concluding that it was " a waste of money " . In later years , Hitler viewed smoking as " decadent " and " the wrath of the Red Man against the White Man , vengeance for having been given hard liquor " , lamenting that " so many excellent men have been lost to tobacco poisoning " . He was unhappy because both Eva Braun and Martin Bormann were smokers and was concerned over Hermann Göring 's continued smoking in public places . He was angered when a statue portraying a cigar @-@ smoking Göring was commissioned . Hitler is often considered to be the first national leader to advocate nonsmoking , however James VI and I , king of Scotland and England , was openly against smoking 330 years prior .
Hitler disapproved of the military personnel 's freedom to smoke , and during World War II he said on 2 March 1942 , " it was a mistake , traceable to the army leadership at the time , at the beginning of the war " . He also said that it was " not correct to say that a soldier cannot live without smoking " . He promised to end the use of tobacco in the military after the end of the war . Hitler personally encouraged close friends not to smoke . He even began to offer a gold watch to any of his inner circle who could quit . However , Hitler 's personal distaste for tobacco was only one of several catalysts behind the anti @-@ smoking campaign .
= = = Reproductive policies = = =
The Nazi reproductive policies were a significant factor behind their anti @-@ tobacco campaign . Women who smoked were considered to be vulnerable to premature aging and loss of physical attractiveness ; they were viewed as unsuitable to be wives and mothers in a German family . Werner Huttig of the Nazi Party 's Rassenpolitisches Amt ( Office of Racial Politics ) said that a smoking mother 's breast milk contained nicotine , a claim that modern research has proven correct . Martin Staemmler , a prominent physician during the Third Reich , opined that smoking by pregnant women resulted in a higher rate of stillbirths and miscarriages . This opinion was also supported by well @-@ known female racial hygienist Agnes Bluhm , whose book published in 1936 expressed the same view . The Nazi leadership was concerned over this because they wanted German women to be as reproductive as possible . An article published in a German gynecology journal in 1943 stated that women smoking three or more cigarettes per day were more likely to remain childless compared to nonsmoking women .
= = Research = =
Research and studies on tobacco 's effects on the population 's health were more advanced in Germany than in any other nation by the time the Nazis came to power . The link between lung cancer and tobacco was first proven in Nazi Germany , contrary to the popular belief that American and British scientists first discovered it in the 1950s . The term " passive smoking " ( " Passivrauchen " ) was coined in Nazi Germany . Research projects funded by the Nazis revealed many disastrous effects of smoking on health . Nazi Germany supported epidemiological research on the harmful effects of tobacco use . Hitler personally gave financial support to the Wissenschaftliches Institut zur Erforschung der Tabakgefahren ( Institute for Tobacco Hazards Research ) at the University of Jena , headed by Karl Astel . Established in 1941 , it was the most significant anti @-@ tobacco institute in Nazi Germany .
Franz H. Müller in 1939 and Eberhard Schairer in 1943 first used case @-@ control epidemiological methods to study lung cancer among smokers . In 1939 , Müller published a study report in a reputed cancer journal in Germany which claimed that prevalence of lung cancer was higher among smokers . Müller , described as the " forgotten father of experimental epidemiology " , was a member of the National Socialist Motor Corps ( NSKK ) and the Nazi Party ( NSDAP ) . Müller 's 1939 medical dissertation was the world 's first controlled epidemiological study of the relationship between tobacco and lung cancer . Apart from mentioning the increasing incidence of lung cancer and many of the causes behind it such as dust , exhaust gas from cars , tuberculosis , X @-@ ray and pollutants emitted from factories , Müller 's paper pointed out that " the significance of tobacco smoke has been pushed more and more into the foreground " .
Physicians in the Third Reich were aware that smoking was responsible for cardiac diseases , which were considered to be the most serious diseases resulting from smoking . Use of nicotine was sometimes considered to be responsible for increasing reports of myocardial infarction in the country . In the later years of World War II , researchers considered nicotine a factor behind the coronary heart failures suffered by a significant number of military personnel in the Eastern Front . A pathologist of the Heer examined thirty @-@ two young soldiers who had died from myocardial infarction at the front , and documented in a 1944 report that all of them were " enthusiastic smokers " . He cited the opinion of pathologist Franz Buchner that cigarettes are " a coronary poison of the first order " .
= = Measures = =
The Nazis used several public relations tactics to convince the general population of Germany not to smoke . Well @-@ known health magazines like the Gesundes Volk ( Healthy People ) , Volksgesundheit ( People 's Health ) and Gesundes Leben ( Healthy Life ) published warnings about the health consequences of smoking and posters showing the harmful effects of tobacco were displayed . Anti @-@ smoking messages were sent to the people in their workplaces , often with the help of the Hitler @-@ Jugend ( HJ ) and the Bund Deutscher Mädel ( BDM ) . The anti @-@ smoking campaign undertaken by the Nazis also included health education . In June 1939 , a Bureau against the Hazards of Alcohol and Tobacco was formed and the Reichsstelle für Rauschgiftbekämpfung ( Reich Office for Drug Control ) also helped in the anti @-@ tobacco campaign . Articles advocating nonsmoking were published in the magazines Die Genussgifte ( The Recreational Stimulants ) , Auf der Wacht ( On the Guard ) and Reine Luft ( Clean Air ) . Out of these magazines , Reine Luft was the main journal of the anti @-@ tobacco movement . Karl Astel 's Institute for Tobacco Hazards Research at Jena University purchased and distributed hundreds of reprints from Reine Luft .
After recognizing the harmful effects of smoking on health , several items of anti @-@ smoking legislation were enacted . The later 1930s increasingly saw anti @-@ tobacco laws implemented by the Nazis . In 1938 , the Luftwaffe and the Reichspost imposed a ban on smoking . Smoking was also banned not only in health care institutions , but also in several public offices and in rest homes . Midwives were restricted from smoking while on duty . In 1939 , the Nazi Party outlawed smoking in all of its offices premises , and Heinrich Himmler , the then chief of the Schutzstaffel ( SS ) , restricted police personnel and SS officers from smoking while they were on duty . Smoking was also outlawed in schools .
In 1941 , tobacco smoking in trams was outlawed in sixty German cities . Smoking was also outlawed in bomb shelters ; however , some shelters had separate rooms for smoking . Special care was taken to prevent women from smoking . The President of the Medical Association in Germany announced , " German women don 't smoke " . Pregnant women and women below the age of 25 and over the age of 55 were not given tobacco ration cards during World War II . Restrictions on selling tobacco products to women were imposed on the hospitality and food retailing industry . Anti @-@ tobacco films aimed at women were publicly shown . Editorials discussing the issue of smoking and its effects were published in newspapers . Strict measures were taken in this regard and a district department of the National Socialist Factory Cell Organization ( NSBO ) announced that it would expel female members who smoked publicly . The next step in the anti @-@ tobacco campaign came in July 1943 , when public smoking for persons under the age of 18 was outlawed . In the next year , smoking in buses and city trains was made illegal , on the personal initiative of Hitler , who feared female ticket takers might be the victims of passive smoking .
Restrictions were imposed on the advertisement of tobacco products , enacted on 7 December 1941 and signed by Heinrich Hunke , the President of the Advertising Council . Advertisements trying to depict smoking as harmless or as an expression of masculinity were banned . Ridiculing anti @-@ tobacco activists was also outlawed , as was the use of advertising posters along rail tracks , in rural regions , stadiums and racing tracks . Advertising by loudspeakers and mail was also prohibited .
Restrictions on smoking were also introduced in the Wehrmacht . Cigarette rations in the military were limited to six per soldier per day . Extra cigarettes were often sold to the soldiers , especially when there was no military advance or retreat in the battleground , however these were restricted to 50 for each person per month . Teenaged soldiers serving in the 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend , composed of Hitler Youth members , were given confectionery instead of tobacco products . Access to cigarettes was not allowed for the Wehrmacht 's female auxiliary personnel . Medical lectures were arranged to persuade military personnel to quit smoking . An ordinance enacted on 3 November 1941 raised tobacco taxes by approximately 80 – 95 % of the retail price . It would be the highest rise in tobacco taxes in Germany until more than 25 years after the collapse of the Nazi regime .
= = Effectiveness = =
The early anti @-@ smoking campaign was considered a failure , and from 1933 to 1937 there was a rapid increase in tobacco consumption in Germany . The rate of smoking in the nation increased faster even than in neighboring France , where the anti @-@ tobacco movement was tiny and far less influential . Between 1932 and 1939 , per capita cigarette consumption in Germany increased from 570 to 900 per year , while the corresponding numbers for France were from 570 to 630 .
The cigarette manufacturing companies in Germany made several attempts to weaken the anti @-@ tobacco campaign . They published new journals and tried to depict the anti @-@ tobacco movement as " fanatic " and " unscientific " . The tobacco industry also tried to counter the government campaign to prevent women from smoking and used smoking models in their advertisements . Despite government regulations , many women in Germany regularly smoked , including the wives of many high @-@ ranking Nazi officials . For instance , Magda Goebbels smoked even while she was interviewed by a journalist . Fashion illustrations displaying women with cigarettes were often published in prominent publications such as the Beyers Mode für Alle ( Beyers Fashion For All ) . The cover of the popular song Lili Marleen featured singer Lale Andersen holding a cigarette .
The Nazis implemented more anti @-@ tobacco policies at the end of the 1930s and by the early years of World War II , the rate of tobacco usage declined . As a result of the anti @-@ tobacco measures implemented in the Wehrmacht , the total tobacco consumption by soldiers decreased between 1939 and 1945 . According to a survey conducted in 1944 , the number of smokers increased in the Wehrmacht , but average tobacco consumption per military personnel declined by 23 @.@ 4 % compared to the immediate pre @-@ World War II years . The number of people who smoked 30 or more cigarettes per day declined from 4 @.@ 4 % to 0 @.@ 3 % .
The Nazi anti @-@ tobacco policies were not free of contradictions . For example , the Volksgesundheit ( People 's Health ) and Gesundheitspflicht ( Duty to be Healthy ) policies were enforced in parallel with the active distribution of cigarettes to people who the Nazis saw as " deserving " groups ( e.g. frontline soldiers , members of the Hitler Youth ) . On the other hand , " undeserving " and stigmatized groups ( Jews , war prisoners ) were denied access to tobacco .
= = Association with antisemitism and racism = =
Apart from public health concerns , the Nazis were heavily influenced by ideology ; specifically , the movement was influenced by concepts of racial hygiene and bodily purity . Nazi leaders believed that it was wrong for the master race to smoke and that tobacco consumption was equal to " racial degeneracy " . The Nazis viewed tobacco as a " genetic poison " . Racial hygienists opposed tobacco use , fearing that it would " corrupt " the " German germ plasm " . Nazi anti @-@ tobacco activists often tried to depict tobacco as a vice of the degenerate Negroes .
The Nazis claimed that the Jews were responsible for introducing tobacco and its harmful effects . The Seventh @-@ day Adventist Church in Germany announced that smoking was an unhealthy vice spread by the Jews . Johann von Leers , editor of the Nordische Welt ( Nordic World ) , during the opening ceremony of the Wissenschaftliches Institut zur Erforschung der Tabakgefahren in 1941 , proclaimed that " Jewish capitalism " was responsible for the spread of tobacco use across Europe . He said that the first tobacco on German soil was brought by the Jews and that they controlled the tobacco industry in Amsterdam , the principal European entry point of Nicotiana .
= = After World War II = =
After the collapse of Nazi Germany at the end of World War II , American cigarette manufacturers quickly entered the German black market . Illegal smuggling of tobacco became prevalent , and the anti @-@ smoking campaign started by the Nazis ceased to exist after the fall of the Third Reich . In 1949 , approximately 400 million cigarettes manufactured in the United States entered Germany illegally every month . In 1954 , nearly two billion Swiss cigarettes were smuggled into Germany and Italy . As part of the Marshall Plan , the United States sent tobacco to Germany free of charge ; the amount of tobacco shipped into Germany in 1948 was 24 @,@ 000 tons and was as high as 69 @,@ 000 tons in 1949 . Per capita yearly cigarette consumption in post @-@ war Germany steadily rose from 460 in 1950 to 1 @,@ 523 in 1963 . At the end of the 20th century , the anti @-@ tobacco campaign in Germany was unable to approach the level of the Nazi @-@ era climax in the years 1939 – 41 and German tobacco health research was described by Robert N. Proctor as " muted " .
= SS Batavier II ( 1897 ) =
SS Batavier II was a steam packet for the Batavier Line that sailed between Rotterdam and London for most of her career . The ship was built in 1897 by the Gourlay Brothers of Dundee . The Dutch ship could carry a limited amount of freight and up to 321 passengers . She was rebuilt in 1909 which increased her length by over 5 metres ( 16 ft ) .
During World War I , the Batavier Line attempted to maintain service , but in September 1916 , Batavier II was seized as a prize by German submarine UB @-@ 6 and sailed into Zeebrugge and retained . Ten months later , Batavier II was shelled by British submarine E55 and sank near Texel .
= = Career = =
Batavier II and her sister ship Batavier III were built for William Müller and Company by the Gourlay Brothers of Dundee , Scotland . The ship was launched on 17 August 1897 . As built , she was 74 @.@ 4 metres ( 244 ft 1 in ) long ( between perpendiculars ) and 10 @.@ 2 metres ( 33 ft 6 in ) abeam . Batavier II was powered by a single 4 @-@ cylinder , triple @-@ expansion steam engine of 2 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 500 kW ) that moved her up to 14 knots ( 26 km / h ) . She could carry up to 321 passengers : 44 in first class , 27 in second class , and up to 250 in steerage . She was listed at 1 @,@ 136 gross register tons ( GRT ) .
Upon completion in October 1897 , she joined the 683 @-@ ton Batavier I in packet service between Rotterdam and London . The pair were joined by Batavier III after her completion in November . In Rotterdam , the ships docked at the Willemsplein ; in London , the ships originally docked near London Bridge , but in 1899 switched to the Customs House and Wool Quays near the Tower Bridge . Also beginning in 1899 , Batavier Line service between Rotterdam and London was offered daily except Sundays ; each of the ships made three round trips per week . In addition to passengers , Batavier II could also carry a limited quantity of freight . One example that may be typical was a load of 1 long ton ( 1 @.@ 1 short tons ) of dry chemical wood pulp in 5 bales carried to London in March 1907 . In 1909 , Batavier II was rebuilt to 1 @,@ 335 GRT and lengthened by 5 @.@ 3 metres ( 17 ft 5 in ) to 79 @.@ 7 metres ( 261 ft 6 in ) .
After the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , the Batavier Line continued service on the Rotterdam – London route . In December 1914 , Batavier II made news when porters handling what was identified as a 750 @-@ pound ( 340 kg ) crate of Swedish matches discovered an escaped German Army officer inside . The plan , apparently , was for him to be shipped from London to Rotterdam via Batavier II . The plot unraveled when the porters could only move the heavy crate by rolling it , which knocked the man unconscious ; the officer was returned to the custody of British military officials .
In June 1915 , passengers on Batavier II witnessed an attack by two German airplanes against a British steamship between the Galloper and the North Hinder Lightships . The attack was broken off when two British airplanes arrived over the ship to engage the German aircraft ; none of the airplanes were destroyed , and the ship was unscathed .
On 24 September 1916 , after Batavier II had departed from Rotterdam , the ship was stopped by the German submarine UB @-@ 6 . She was seized as prize and sailed into German @-@ held Zeebrugge . There , Batavier II 's Dutch crew and women and children passengers were released and sent via train to Rotterdam . The Germans confiscated the ship 's cargo of food . Also on board Batavier II were four escaped Russian prisoners of war and Richard Hansemann , a German @-@ born New York businessman . American newspapers carried reports of Hansemann 's plight , reporting by 1 October that he would likely be impressed into the German Army .
Batavier II 's whereabouts and activities over the next ten months are uncertain . She remained under German control for a time , but how long is not clear from sources . Batavier II was back under Dutch control by late July 1917 .
On 27 July 1917 , Batavier II was shelled by British submarine E55 just outside Dutch territorial waters . Damaged by E55 's gunfire , Batavier II 's crew steered her back into Dutch territorial waters . E55 then sent a prize crew on board Batavier II and sailed her back outside Dutch waters . By the time a Dutch torpedo boat arrived on the scene , Batavier II was taking on water and had drifted back into Dutch territory . The torpedo boat sent the message " respect neutrality " to E55 which retrieved her prize crew and departed . Despite efforts to stem the flow of water , Batavier II sank 1 nautical mile ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) from the Molengat North Buoy , off Texel .
= Battle of White Marsh =
The Battle of White Marsh or Battle of Edge Hill was a battle of the Philadelphia campaign of the American Revolutionary War fought December 5 – 8 , 1777 , in the area surrounding Whitemarsh Township , Pennsylvania . The battle , which took the form of a series of skirmish actions , was the last major engagement of 1777 between British and American forces .
George Washington , commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the American revolutionary forces , spent the weeks after his defeat at the Battle of Germantown encamped with the Continental Army in various locations throughout Montgomery County , just north of British @-@ occupied Philadelphia . In early November , the Americans established an entrenched position approximately 16 miles ( 26 km ) north of Philadelphia along the Wissahickon Creek and Sandy Run , primarily situated on several hills between Old York Road and Bethlehem Pike . From here , Washington monitored British troop movements in Philadelphia and evaluated his options .
On December 4 , Gen. Sir William Howe , the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of British forces in North America , led a sizable contingent of troops out of Philadelphia in one last attempt to destroy Washington and the Continental Army before the onset of winter . After a series of skirmishes , Howe called off the attack and returned to Philadelphia without engaging Washington in a decisive conflict .
With the British back in Philadelphia , Washington was able to march his troops to winter quarters at Valley Forge .
= = Background and movement to battle = =
After their October 4 , 1777 , defeat at the Battle of Germantown , Washington 's army retreated along Skippack Pike to Pawling 's Mill , beyond the Perkiomen Creek , where they remained encamped until October 8 . They then marched east on Skippack Pike , turned left on Forty @-@ Foot Road ( present @-@ day Old Forty @-@ Foot Road ) , and marched to Sumneytown Pike , where they camped on the property of Frederick Wampole near Kulpsville in Towamencin Township . While there , Brig. Gen. Francis Nash died of wounds incurred at Germantown and was buried in the Mennonite Meeting Cemetery . Washington remained at Towamencin for one week , gathering supplies and waiting to see if Howe would move against him . On October 16 , Washington moved his forces to Methacton Hill in Worcester Township . After learning of Howe 's withdrawal from Germantown to Philadelphia , Washington moved his army to Whitpain , 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) closer to Philadelphia , on October 20 . On October 29 , Washington 's army numbered 8 @,@ 313 Continentals and 2 @,@ 717 militia , although the terms of enlistment of many soldiers from Maryland and Virginia were due to expire . With his ranks reinforced , Washington dispatched a brigade to assist with the defense of Forts Mifflin and Mercer , on the Delaware River . On November 2 , at the recommendation of his council of war , Washington marched his forces to White Marsh , approximately 13 miles ( 21 km ) northwest of Philadelphia . At White Marsh , the army began to build redoubts and defensive works .
After the surrender of British Lt. Gen. John Burgoyne after the Battles of Saratoga , Washington began drawing troops from the north , including the 1 @,@ 200 men of Varnum 's Rhode Island brigade , and about 1 @,@ 000 more men from various Pennsylvania , Maryland and Virginia units . Maj. Gen. Horatio Gates sent Col. Daniel Morgan 's rifle corps , and the brigades of Paterson and Glover . With these additional forces , and the pending onset of winter , Washington had to face the problem of supplying his army . A quarter of the troops were barefooted , and there were very few blankets or warm clothing . Washington became so desperate that he even offered a reward of $ 10 to the person who could supply the " best substitute for shoes , made of raw hides " . Morale was so low and desertion so common that Washington offered a pardon on October 24 to all deserters who returned by January 1 . Washington 's loss of Philadelphia and inactivity brought criticism from Congress , who pressured him to attack the city . He therefore called a council of war on November 24 which voted against an attack 11 to 4 . Nonetheless , Washington rode out the next day to view the British defenses , which turned to be stronger than he had expected .
On October 19 , Howe withdrew the British forces from Germantown and focused on the defense of Philadelphia . British military engineer Capt. John Montresor supervised the building of a series of fourteen formidable redoubts that began at Upper Ferry , along the Schuylkill River , and extended eastward to the shores of the Delaware River , just north of Philadelphia . Howe took advantage of his time in Philadelphia to raise additional forces from the loyalist population in the region . Newly @-@ promoted Maj. John Graves Simcoe reinforced his unit , the Queen 's Rangers , which had lost over a quarter of its men at the Battle of Brandywine . William Allen , Jr . , the son of notable loyalist William Allen , raised the 1st Battalion of Pennsylvania Loyalists , and was made its lieutenant colonel . Loyalist James Chalmers raised the 1st Battalion of Maryland Loyalists , and was given its command . Recruitment also took place among the city 's Irish Catholic population , with the formation of the Irish Catholic Volunteers , and in the counties immediately surrounding Philadelphia . In mid @-@ November , the fall of Forts Mifflin and Mercer effectively ended American control of the Delaware River , and much @-@ needed supplies began arriving at the city 's docks , along with 2 @,@ 000 additional British soldiers .
The weeks with two major armies sitting within miles of each other were not without conflict , and a petite guerre ensued in the no man 's land between White Marsh and Northern Liberties . Minor skirmishes between light troops increased in intensity throughout November , with almost daily losses being incurred by both the British and the Americans . In retaliation , on November 22 , Howe ordered his troops to set fire to several large country houses in the Germantown area , including Fair Hill , a mansion and country estate that had previously belonged to John Dickinson . Eleven houses in all were burned to the ground , and residents of Philadelphia climbed onto rooftops and church steeples to watch the spectacle . Just one day earlier , crowds had gathered to watch the burning of Commodore John Hazelwood 's Pennsylvania Navy in the Delaware . On the same morning the mansions were burned , an earthquake struck Philadelphia , and was felt as far away as Lancaster . On November 27 , an aurora borealis lit up the night skies . The two events caused quite a stir among both the residents of Philadelphia and the troops , British and American alike , who took them as an ominous sign of things to come .
By early December , Howe decided , despite having written to Colonial Secretary Lord George Germain requesting to be relieved of his command , that he was in a position to make one last attempt to destroy Washington 's army before the onset of winter , and he began preparations for an attack on the American forces . Washington 's intelligence network in Philadelphia , led by Maj. John Clark , became aware of British plans to surprise the Americans . According to a historically unsubstantiated story , Howe 's movements were revealed to the Americans by a Quaker woman named Lydia Darrah , who overheard British officers quartered in her house discussing Howe 's plan , and crossed the British lines to deliver this information to Col. Elias Boudinot of the Continental Army , who was at the Rising Sun Tavern between Germantown and Northern Liberties , ( located at the present day intersection of Germantown Avenue and Old York Road ) attempting to secure provisions . Boudinot immediately relayed this information to Washington , and the Continental Army was ready when Howe , with a force of approximately 10 @,@ 000 men , marched out of Philadelphia just prior to midnight on December 4 . The advance column , led by Lt. Gen. Lord Cornwallis , headed up Germantown Pike . A second column , led by Lt. Gen. von Knyphausen , marched toward the American left .
= = First day of battle = =
Just after midnight on December 5 , Cornwallis ' vanguard , which consisted of two British light infantry battalions , skirmished with an American cavalry patrol under the command of Capt. Allen McLane near Three Mile Run on Skippack Road . McLane sent a messenger to Washington , alerting him of the British movements . While the main body of the British troops marched through Germantown , Beggarstown , and Flourtown , American alarm cannons were sounded and positions manned . At 3 : 00 am , the British halted on Chestnut Hill , just south of the American defenses , and waited for daybreak . During the night , Washington ordered his troops to build additional campfires to deceive the British . " ... [ I ] t looked as if fifty thousand men were encamped there . By day we could see this was merely a trick ... , " wrote Hessian Maj. Carl von Bauermeister .
Expecting a confrontation , Washington took the precaution of striking his tents before sunrise , and sent the heavy baggage north to Trappe . He then dispatched troops to find out the size and intent of the British column . Brig. Gen. James Irvine of the Pennsylvania militia took 600 men and marched them through the Wissahickon Valley toward Chestnut Hill . Brig. Gen. James Potter 's brigade of about 1 @,@ 000 Pennsylvania militia and Webb 's 2nd Connecticut Regiment of 200 men moved to screen Irvine 's right . Around noon , Irvine 's detachment encountered the British light infantry on the north side of Chestnut Hill . The Pennsylvania militia got off the first volley , but were soon routed by the British . While attempting to rally his fleeing troops , Irvine had three fingers shot off , and was taken prisoner when he fell from his horse . Potter 's brigade immediately fled , despite orders to advance and skirmish with the British light infantry . The 2nd Connecticut made a brief stand , killing three and wounding eleven , including British Capt. Sir James Murray @-@ Pulteney .
British Lt. Col. Robert Abercromby decided to push his advantage after scattering Irvine 's troops . He pushed north and captured St. Thomas Episcopal Church , located on a hillock . Howe arrived a short while later , and ascended to the top of the church 's bell tower in an attempt to view the American positions . Deciding the American defenses were too strong to attack with his present force , he opted to shell their defenses with artillery fire ; however , his guns did not have the range to hit Washington 's defenses . His forces camped on Chestnut Hill that night , and planned a new way of attack for the following day .
= = Second and third days of battle = =
The two armies spent December 6 watching each other across the Wissahickon Valley . Howe hoped that Washington would leave his positions to attack the British ; Washington did not , preferring instead to let the British do the maneuvering . By day 's end , Howe decided upon a flanking movement toward the Americans ' left , toward Jenkintown and Cheltenham Township , while Maj. Gen. Charles Grey 's forces would create a distraction by attacking the American center .
Sometime after 1 : 00 am on December 7 , Howe marched the British Army back through Germantown , and then to Jenkintown , where they remained until noon . As the British movements were concealed by a ridge on Chestnut Hill , Washington did not become aware of Howe 's maneuvering until 8 : 00 am . He immediately moved Morgan 's Rifle Corps. and Col. Mordecai Gist 's Maryland militia eastward to cover his left flank . About a mile to the right of this detachment , Brig. Gen. James Potter 's brigade of Pennsylvania militia , and Webb 's 2nd Connecticut Regiment , under Lieut . Col. Isaac Sherman , proceeded down Lime Kiln road toward Edge Hill . Movement of the British rear guard , including the Jägers and the Queen 's Rangers , was hindered by the burning of the villages of Cresheim and Beggarstown by troops at the front of the column . Howe 's right was now situated near the Abington Presbyterian Meeting . His main force moved to situate itself on Edge Hill , a ridge that ran parallel to , and a mile in front of , the American lines . Grey 's column had broken off from the main column , and proceeded up Whitemarsh Church Road toward the American center .
Gen. Grey had been instructed not to attack until he heard the sound of firing from Howe 's column , but after several hours , he became impatient and decided to proceed on his own . He formed his column into three divisions , with the Queen 's Rangers were on the left , the Jägers on each side of the road , and the light infantry of the Guards on the right , and headed in the direction of Tyson 's Tavern on Limekiln Road . As Grey advanced toward the American center , his troops took fire from American militia on Edge Hill . The militia were quickly routed , with between twenty and thirty killed , and fifteen of them taken as prisoners . Gens . John Cadwalader and Joseph Reed , out reconnoitering on horse near Twickenham , the country estate of Thomas Wharton Jr . , attempted to rally the Potter 's fleeing Pennsylvania militia . Lieut . Col. Sherman , the officer in charge of the 2nd Connecticut Continentals , resented Reed 's assumption of command , and later complained to Washington that it put " ... Officers and Men into such confusion that it rendered it impossible to keep that regularity so necessary when going into Action . " The British soon had them surrounded and outnumbered , and the Pennsylvania militia again panicked and fled . The 2nd Connecticut Continentals made a stand , firing between two and five rounds per man ; Sherman only gave the order to retreat when the Jägers were within 15 – 20 yards of his position . At some point , Cadwalader and Reed became separated from the militia , and Reed 's horse was shot out from under him . A body of Hessians charged at the two officers with bayonets , but Capt. McLane rode up with a few dragoons and ordered a charge that scattered the Hessians . McLane then took the two officers to safety .
The Pennsylvania militia fled in panic down Edge Hill , across Sandy Run , and toward the main American camp . Right behind them were men of the 2nd Connecticut , also in disorderly retreat . They were pursued to within yards of their encampment by the Queen 's Rangers and Jägers , who then fell back and took a position on Edge Hill , between Grey 's troops and Howe 's main column .
Morgan 's Rifle Corps. and Gist 's Maryland militia had taken position on Edge Hill , about a mile to the east of Grey 's troops , and higher up on the ridge . A small group of Americans moved down to attack Col. Twistleton 's Light Infantry of the Guards , but were quickly repulsed by the British . William Augustus West , Lord Cantelupe , who was stationed with the light infantry , noted that the 4th and 23rd Regiments engaged the Americans with 9 men killed and 19 wounded . British Maj. John André reported that one American was killed .
Meanwhile , the main body of Morgan 's and Gist 's troops engaged Howe 's main column in dense woods , where they fought " Indian style " , from tree to tree . The Maryland militia attacked Abercromby 's 1st Light Infantry Battalion with unusual vigor : British officers , who were used to encountering militia who would flee at the first sign of battle , would later express admiration at the skill of Morgan 's and Gist 's men . Morgan 's troops were not reinforced , and were forced to retreat back to the main camp after Cornwallis sent in the 33rd Regiment of Foot .
= = British withdrawal = =
On the morning of December 8 , British generals and engineers once again studied the American positions , looking for any advantage they could exploit in the American defenses . To the astonishment of both the British and the Americans , Howe decided to withdraw and return to Philadelphia . Despite being successful in two major skirmishes over the previous days , his maneuvering had not gotten as far around the American flank as he had hoped and his troops ' provisions were running low . Also , the nights were getting colder and the troops had left their tentage and gear in Philadelphia .
Mark Boatner says that Howe " decided that Washington 's defenses were too strong to warrant the risk of a general assault . At 2 : 00 pm , the British began their withdrawal , lighting numerous campfires — in a tactic similar to one used by Washington three days prior — to conceal their movements . An American reconnaissance party , led by Capt. McLane , discovered that Howe was marching back down Old York Road into Philadelphia and communicated this information back to Washington . Morgan 's troops harassed the enemy 's rear , in particular Grey 's column , which was hindered by the weight of the artillery that it was transporting . A contingent of Hessians formed to oppose them with their fieldpieces and Morgan 's troops retreated . The British arrived in Philadelphia later that day .
= = Casualties = =
No American official casualty return from December 5 to 8 is known to exist . Some information , however , can be pieced together from various sources . For December 5 , David Martin says that General Irvine 's force took about 40 casualties , while a Loyalist officer with the British Army wrote that Irvine was captured along with 23 of his men . For December 6 , Howard Peckham says that the Americans lost 30 killed , 40 wounded and 15 captured . The figure of 15 prisoners taken was confirmed by John André in his journal .
For December 7 , Colonel John Laurens stated that “ the loss of Morgan 's riflemen was 27 killed and wounded ” , while John Donaldson , an American cavalryman wrote that “ Morgan had 44 killed & wounded & among them was Major Morris a brave & gallant officer ” This reference was to Major Joseph Morris of the 1st New Jersey Regiment , so Donaldson 's figure was evidently for the whole force under Morgan 's command , while Laurens ' figure was for the Corps of Riflemen only . Benson Lossing confirms that “ twenty @-@ seven were killed and wounded in Morgan 's Corps ” , while Major Morris was badly wounded and the Maryland Militia lost “ 16 or 17 ” wounded . For December 8 , David Martin says that the Maryland Militia lost 20 killed or wounded and 15 prisoners . From these sources , the aggregate American loss from December 5 – 8 would appear to have been 16 killed or wounded and 24 captured on the 5th ; 70 killed or wounded and 15 captured on the 6th ; 44 killed or wounded on the 7th and 20 killed or wounded and 15 captured on the 8th . This gives 150 killed or wounded and 54 captured , for a total loss of 204 men .
Lord Cantelupe wrote in his diary that " the number of killed & wounded on our side amount to one hundred & twenty , one officer killed . Cantelupe 's figure agrees approximately with Howe 's official casualty return for “ the different skirmishes from 4th to 8th December ” , which gives 19 killed , 60 wounded and 33 missing . David Martin gives the total British loss , including deserters , as 350 , which would suggest that 238 men deserted .
= = Aftermath = =
Washington , frustrated at not being able to confront Howe in a more decisive action , wrote in his report to Henry Laurens , president of Congress , " I sincerely wish , that they had made an Attack ; the Issue in all probability , from the disposition of our Troops and the strong situation of our Camp , would have been fortunate and happy . At the same time I must add that reason , prudence , and every principle of policy , forbade us quitting our post to attack them . Nothing but Success would have justified the measure , and this could not be expected from their position . "
On December 11 , the Continental Army left White Marsh for Valley Forge . It took the soldiers eight days to make the 13 @-@ mile ( 21 km ) journey . The following April , Howe resigned his post and returned to Britain , and was replaced by Gen. Sir Henry Clinton . Following France 's entry into the war , the British evacuated Philadelphia overland the following spring , and while en route to New York City , they were attacked by Washington at the Battle of Monmouth .
Remains of the American redoubts were visible near Farmar Mill , as were vestiges of stone chimneys from the soldier 's makeshift huts , as late as 1860 . The battle is alluded to in Sally Wister 's Journal , and the author later views the remains of the nearby camp . Fort Washington State Park , which encompasses a portion of the area occupied by the American forces , was established in the early 1920s by Philadelphia 's Fairmount Park Commission and is today managed by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources . The park 's Fort Hill marks the spot where a temporary fort once stood at the western end of the American position . The Pennsylvania Militia ( under Gens . Armstrong , Cadwalader and Irvine ) held positions on the park 's Militia Hill . Nearby , Emlen House , Washington 's headquarters between November 2 and December 11 , remains standing despite destructive modernization in 1854 .
= Privilege of peerage =
The privilege of peerage is the body of special privileges belonging to members of the British peerage . It is distinct from Parliamentary privilege , which applies only to those peers serving in the House of Lords and the members of the House of Commons , while Parliament is in session and forty days before and after a Parliamentary session .
The privileges have been lost and eroded over time . Only three survived into the 20th century : the right to be tried by other peers of the realm instead of juries of commoners , freedom from arrest in civil ( but not criminal ) cases , and access to the Sovereign to advise him or her on matters of state . The right to be tried by other peers was abolished in 1948 . Legal opinion considers the right of freedom from arrest as extremely limited in application , if at all . The remaining privilege is not exercised and was recommended for formal abolition in 1999 , but has never been formally revoked .
Peers also have several other rights not formally part of the privilege of peerage . For example , they are entitled to use coronets and supporters on their achievements of arms .
= = Extent = =
The privilege of peerage extends to all temporal peers and peeresses regardless of their position in relation to the House of Lords . The right to sit in the House is separate from the privilege , and is held by only some peers ( see History of reform of the House of Lords ) . Scottish peers from the Acts of Union 1707 and Irish peers from the Act of Union 1800 , therefore , have the privilege of peerage . From 1800 , Irish peers have had the right to stand for election to the United Kingdom House of Commons but they lose the privilege of peerage for the duration of their service in the lower House . Since 1999 , hereditary peers of England , Scotland , Great Britain , and the United Kingdom who are not members of the House of Lords may stand for election to the House of Commons . Their privilege of peerage is not explicitly lost by service in the lower House . Any peer issuing a disclaimer under the provisions of the Peerage Act 1963 loses all privileges of peerage . The privilege of peerage also extends to wives and widows of peers . A peeress by marriage loses the privilege upon marrying a commoner , but a peeress suo jure does not . Individuals who hold courtesy titles , however , do not have such privileges by virtue of those titles . Lords Spiritual ( the 26 Archbishops and Bishops who sit in the House of Lords ) do not have the privilege of peerage as , at least since 1621 , they have been Lords of Parliament , and not peers .
= = Trial by peers = =
Just as commoners have a right to trial by a jury of their equals ( other commoners ) , peers and peeresses formerly had a right to
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28 @.@ 02 inHg ) was also the most intense tropical cyclone in the Florida Panhandle until Hurricane Opal ( 942 mbar ; 27 @.@ 82 inHg ) . At the time , it was tied with an 1882 storm , which also had a central pressure of 949 mbar ( 28 @.@ 02 inHg ) at landfall in northwest Florida .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Caribbean = = =
On September 21 , the United States Weather Bureau issued advisories because of strong swells in the Leeward Islands , indicating the presence of a tropical disturbance .
The system produced heavy precipitation and strong winds in the eastern Caribbean islands . In Jamaica , the hurricane caused significant damages to banana and coconut plantations . Communications from Holland Bay were disrupted when the station was demolished . The greatest damages were reported from the northern half of the island . At Port Antonio , the custom house was destroyed , while a hotel was several damaged . Nine deaths occurred in the city . In Nueva Gerona , Cuba , severe winds destroyed well constructed buildings , devastating the town . Only ten homes remained standing . At a large plantation , every building but the house was destroyed . Nearly all of the chickens on the property were killed during the storm . Throughout Isla de la Juventud , damage reached approximately $ 2 million . The island 's food supply was also ruined . Offshore , a number of ships capsized or went missing , resulting in " many " deaths . There were at least 20 fatalities on the island , while other accounts state that there were hundreds killed . Orchards and crops were destroyed on the Pinar del Río Province . A relief committed issued an appeal for aid to then @-@ Cuban president Mario García Menocal and Americans . At the Burnside Hotel , among few buildings were demolished , a soup kitchen was opened to feed storm victims .
= = = United States = = =
On September 23 , northeast storm warnings were issued for the Florida coast from West Palm Beach to Boca Grande . On September 25 , the Weather Bureau advised marine traffic to remain alert in the Gulf of Mexico , noting that the intensity of the storm was unknown . Later , hurricane warnings were issued from Apalachicola , Florida , to Mobile , Alabama , on September 25 . Warnings were also released from Pascagoula , Mississippi , to New Orleans , Louisiana , on September 26 . The warnings were briefly discontinued because of track uncertainties , but they were re @-@ issued when the cyclone began to curve northeast . On September 27 and September 28 , scheduled vessel trips were cancelled in New Orleans , Louisiana . Marine traffic resumed after the storm passed east of the city . The storm struck the Gulf Coast later than anticipated because of slow forward motion .
In Louisiana , rain bands produced 6 @.@ 40 in ( 160 mm ) of rain in Burrwood . The Louisville and Nashville Railroad sent trains on alternate routes because of eroded tracks near Lake Catherine . The effects of the cyclone also damaged crops and timber stands in Louisiana and Mississippi . The storm surge associated with the hurricane moved several structures from their foundations in Buras , Louisiana . There , the storm was blamed for the death of an 8 @-@ year @-@ old boy . Nine additional fatalities occurred near Houma after the fishing bark Wanna was wrecked . In Biloxi , warnings prevented considerable loss of shrimp boats . Street cars and other traffic were practically suspended in Gulfport .
In Alabama , more than 5 in ( 125 mm ) of rain was measured in Montgomery , prompting flood advisories for the lower Alabama River watershed . At Camp Sheridan , a United States Army World War I training camp , the streets were inundated with at least a few inches of water . In Mobile , trees and telephone and telegraph wires were downed , cutting off communications . Roofs were detached and the galleries of houses were torn away . Police stopped the streets cars were operating and shut off the electricity . No boats from the area were lost , and waterfront damage was negligible .
The hurricane severed communication from Pensacola , Florida , though reports eventually indicated that the wireless radio plant was not destroyed . Several small watercraft washed ashore , including the USS Quincy , and numerous wharves , docks , and boat storages received damage . Total damages reached about $ 170 @,@ 000 in the vicinity of Pensacola . Near the city , a portion of the Louisville and Nashville Railroad was 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) underwater , while several of their bridges washed away . At Valparaiso , tides reached 7 @.@ 5 ft ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) above normal . Significant destruction of timber occurred in Okaloosa and Santa Rosa counties , and crops , structures , and livestock were affected . Strong winds occurred along the southwest coast of Florida , and a wind gust of 44 mph ( 70 km / h ) was reported in Jacksonville . A total of five people were killed in Crestview .
The storm and its remnants also produced rainfall in Georgia , North Carolina , and South Carolina .
= Sunderland A.F.C. =
Sunderland Association Football Club ( / ˈsʌndərlənd / , local / ˈsʊndlən / ) is an English professional football club based in the North East city of Sunderland in the larger metropolitan area of Tyne and Wear . The club is currently playing in the Premier League , the top league of English football . Since its formation in 1879 , the club has won six top @-@ flight First Division ( now the Premier League ) titles ( 1892 , 1893 , 1895 , 1902 , 1913 , and 1936 ) , a total only bettered by five other clubs , and has finished runners @-@ up five times . The club has also won the FA Cup twice ( 1937 and 1973 ) and been runners @-@ up twice ( 1913 and 1992 ) , as well as winning the FA Community Shield in 1936 and being finalists the following year . Sunderland have also been Football League Cup finalists in 1985 and 2014 .
Sunderland won their first FA Cup in 1937 with a 3 – 1 victory over Preston North End , and remained in the top league for 68 successive seasons until they were relegated for the first time in 1958 . Sunderland 's most notable trophy after the Second World War was their second FA Cup in 1973 , when the club secured a 1 – 0 victory over Leeds United . The team has won the second tier title five times in that period and the third tier title once .
Sunderland play their home games at the 49 @,@ 000 @-@ capacity all @-@ seater Stadium of Light having moved from Roker Park in 1997 . The original ground capacity was 42 @,@ 000 which was increased to 49 @,@ 000 following expansion in 2000 . Sunderland have a long @-@ standing rivalry with their neighbouring club Newcastle United , with whom they have contested the Tyne – Wear derby since 1898 . Since their most recent promotion to the Premier League in 2007 , Sunderland have become one of the world 's wealthiest football brands , being valued at USD $ 93 million in 2014 , 31st in the world overall .
= = History = =
= = = Early years and league triumphs = = =
Founded 17 October 1879 as ' Sunderland and District Teachers A.F.C. ' by schoolmaster James Allan , Sunderland joined The Football League for the 1890 – 91 season . They replaced Stoke , who had failed to be re @-@ elected , becoming the first new club to join the league since its inauguration in 1888 . During the late 19th century , they were declared the " Team of All Talents " by William McGregor , the founder of the league , after a 7 – 2 win against Aston Villa . Sunderland won the league championship in the 1891 – 92 season , one season after joining The Football League . The club 's 42 points were five clear of nearest rivals Preston North End , and this performance led The Times to describe the players as " a wonderfully fine team " . Sunderland successfully defended the title the following season , aided by centre forward Johnny Campbell , who broke the 30 @-@ goal mark for the second time in consecutive seasons . In the process , they became the first team to score 100 goals in a season , a feat not matched until 1919 – 20 , when West Bromwich Albion set a new record .
Sunderland came close to winning a third successive league championship in the 1893 – 94 season , finishing second behind Aston Villa . However , they regained the title in the 1894 – 95 season , ending the season five points ahead of Everton . After winning the English League Championship , Sunderland played against Heart of Midlothian , the champions of the Scottish League , in a game described as the Championship of the World title match . Sunderland won the game 5 – 3 and were announced " Champions of the world " . Sunderland came close to winning another league title in the 1897 – 98 season , when they finished as runners @-@ up to Sheffield United . That season was their last at Newcastle Road , as they moved to Roker Park the following season . After coming second in 1900 – 01 , the club won their fourth league title in the 1901 – 02 season , beating Everton by a three @-@ point margin .
In 1904 , Sunderland 's management was embroiled in a payment scandal involving player Andrew McCombie . The club was said to have given the player £ 100 ( £ 9 @.@ 7 thousand today ) to help him start his own business , on the understanding that he would repay the money after his benefit game . However , McCombie refused to repay the money , claiming it had been a gift . An investigation conducted by the Football Association concluded that the money given to McCombie was part of a " re @-@ signing / win / draw bonus " , which violated the Association 's rules . Sunderland were fined £ 250 ( £ 24 @.@ 3 thousand today ) , and six directors were suspended for two and a half years for not showing a true record of the club 's financial dealings . Sunderland manager Alex Mackie was also suspended for three months for his involvement in the affair .
= = = Further league championship titles = = =
On 5 December 1908 , Sunderland achieved their highest ever league win , against north @-@ east rivals Newcastle United . They won the game 9 – 1 ; Billy Hogg and George Holley each scored hat @-@ tricks . The club won the league again in 1913 , but lost their first FA Cup final 1 – 0 to Aston Villa , in a very tough loss . This was the closest the club has come to winning the league title and the FA Cup in the same season . Two seasons later the First World War brought the league to a halt . After the league 's resumption , Sunderland came close to winning another championship in the 1922 – 23 season , when they were runners @-@ up to Liverpool . They also came close the following season , finishing third , four points from the top of the league . The club escaped relegation from the First Division by one point in the 1927 – 28 season despite 35 goals from Dave Halliday .
The point was won in a match against Middlesbrough , and they finished in fifteenth place . Halliday improved his goal scoring to 43 goals in 42 games the following season , an all @-@ time Sunderland record for goals scored in a single season .
The club 's sixth league championship came in the 1935 – 36 season , and they won the FA Cup the following season , after a 3 – 1 victory against Preston North End at Wembley Stadium . The remainder of the decade saw mid @-@ table finishes , until the league and FA Cup were suspended for the duration of the Second World War . Some football was still played as a morale boosting exercise , in the form of the Football League War Cup . Sunderland were finalists in the tournament in 1942 , but were beaten by Wolverhampton Wanderers .
For Sunderland , the immediate post @-@ war years were characterised by significant spending ; the club paid £ 18 @,@ 000 ( £ 574 thousand today ) for Carlisle United 's Ivor Broadis in January 1949 . Broadis was also Carlisle 's manager at the time , and this is the first instance of a player transferring himself to another club . This , along with record @-@ breaking transfer fees to secure the services of Len Shackleton and Welsh international Trevor Ford , led to a contemporary nickname , the " Bank of England club " . The club finished third in the First Division in 1950 , their highest finish since the 1936 championship .
= = = Financial troubles and three cup finals = = =
The late 1950s saw a sharp downturn in Sunderland 's fortunes , and the club was once again implicated in a major financial scandal in 1957 . Found guilty of making payments to players in excess of the maximum wage , they were fined £ 5 @,@ 000 ( £ 109 @,@ 000 today ) , and their chairman and three directors were suspended . The following year , Sunderland were relegated from the highest division for the first time in their 68 @-@ year league history .
Sunderland 's absence from the top flight lasted six years . The club came within one game of promotion back to the First Division in the 1962 – 63 season . Sunderland required only a draw in their final game against promotion rivals Chelsea , who had another game left to play after this match , to secure promotion . However , they were defeated , and Chelsea won their last game 7 – 0 to clinch promotion , finishing ahead of Sunderland on goal average . After the close call in the previous season , the club was promoted to Division One in 1964 after finishing in second place . Sunderland beat Charlton Athletic in the final stages of the season , where they clinched promotion with a game to spare . At the end of the decade , they were again relegated to the Second Division after finishing 21st .
Sunderland won their last major trophy in 1973 , in a 1 – 0 victory over Don Revie 's Leeds United in the FA Cup Final . A Second Division club at the time , Sunderland won the game thanks mostly to the efforts of their goalkeeper Jimmy Montgomery , who saved two of Leeds shots at goal in quick succession , one being from hot @-@ shot Peter Lorimer . Ian Porterfield scored a volley in the 30th minute to beat Leeds and take the trophy . Since 1973 only two other clubs , Southampton in 1976 , and West Ham United in 1980 , have equalled Sunderland 's achievement of lifting the FA Cup while playing outside the top tier of English football .
By winning the 1973 FA Cup Final , Sunderland qualified for the UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup , the club 's only appearance in European competition to date . Sunderland beat Vasas Budapest 3 – 0 on aggregate , and were drawn against Lisbon club Sporting in the second round . They won the first leg at Roker Park 2 – 1 but were defeated 2 – 0 in the away leg , and were knocked out of the competition 3 – 2 on aggregate . After spending six seasons in the Second Division , Sunderland were promoted to Division One in the 1975 – 76 season ; they topped the table over Bristol City by three points . However , Sunderland were relegated the following season back into Division Two , without their FA Cup Final winning manager Bob Stokoe , who had resigned because of health problems at the start of the season . The club celebrated its 100 @-@ year centenary in the 1979 – 80 season with a testimonial against an England XI side , which they lost 2 – 0 .
Sunderland appeared in their first League Cup final in 1985 , but lost 1 – 0 to Norwich City . In 1987 , Sunderland saw one of the lowest points in their history , when they were relegated to the Third Division of the English league for the first time . Under new chairman Bob Murray and new manager Denis Smith , the club was promoted the following season . In 1990 , they were promoted back to the top flight in unusual circumstances . Sunderland lost to Swindon Town in the play @-@ off final , but Swindon 's promotion was revoked after the club was found guilty of financial irregularities and Sunderland were promoted instead . They stayed up for one year before being relegated on the final day of the following season .
Sunderland 's next outing in a major final came in 1992 when , as a Second Division club , they returned to the FA Cup final . There was to be no repeat of the heroics of 1973 , as Sunderland lost 2 – 0 to Liverpool .
= = = New stadium , promotions and relegations = = =
In 1995 , they faced the prospect of a return to the third @-@ tier of English football . Peter Reid was brought in as manager , and quickly turned things around . Reid 's time in charge had a stabilising effect ; he remained manager for seven years . After promotion from Division One in the 1995 – 96 season , Sunderland began their first season in the Premier League , but finished third from the bottom and were relegated back to the First Division . In 1997 , Sunderland left Roker Park , their home for 99 years . Bearing fond memories of the stadium , former Sunderland player Len Shackleton said , " There will never be another place like Roker " . The club moved to the Stadium of Light , a 42 @,@ 000 @-@ seat arena that , at the time , was the largest stadium built in England after the Second World War . The capacity was later increased to 49 @,@ 000 . Sunderland returned to the Premier League as First Division champions in 1999 with a then @-@ record 105 points . Sunderland 's 1999 – 2000 season started at Stamford Bridge , where Chelsea beat them 4 – 0 . However , in the return match later in the season Sunderland turned the tables on Chelsea , avenging their 4 – 0 defeat with a 4 – 1 win at the Stadium of Light . Sunderland also achieved a 2 – 1 victory over rivals Newcastle United at St. James ' Park , a result which helped bring about the resignation of Newcastle 's manager , Ruud Gullit . At the end of the season Sunderland finished seventh , with Kevin Phillips winning the European Golden Shoe in his first top @-@ flight season , scoring 30 goals .
Another seventh @-@ place finish in the 2000 – 01 season was followed by two less successful seasons , and they were relegated to the second @-@ tier with a then @-@ record low 19 points in 2003 . Former Ireland manager Mick McCarthy took over at the club , and , in 2005 , he took Sunderland up as champions for the third time in less than ten years . However , the club 's stay in the top flight was short @-@ live as Sunderland were once again relegated , this time with a new record @-@ low total of 15 points . McCarthy left the club in mid @-@ season , and he was replaced temporarily by former Sunderland player Kevin Ball . The record @-@ low fifteen @-@ point performance was surpassed in the 2007 – 08 season by Derby County , who finished on eleven points .
= = = Drumaville Consortium takeover and Ellis Short era = = =
Following Sunderland 's relegation from the Premier League , the club was taken over by the Irish Drumaville Consortium , headed by ex @-@ player Niall Quinn , who appointed former Manchester United captain Roy Keane as the new manager . Under Keane , the club rose steadily up the table with an unbeaten run of 17 games to win promotion to the Premier League , and were named winners of the Championship after beating Luton Town 5 – 0 at Kenilworth Road on 6 May 2007 .
The club 's form in the 2007 – 08 season was better than during their last season in the Premier League , as they finished 15th with 39 points . Following an inconsistent start to the 2008 – 09 season Keane resigned , to be replaced by coach Ricky Sbragia as caretaker until the end of the season . After keeping Sunderland in the Premier League , Sbragia stepped down from his managerial post . Meanwhile , off the pitch , Irish @-@ American tycoon Ellis Short completed a full takeover of the club from the Irish Drumaville Consortium , and Steve Bruce was announced as the new manager on 3 June .
One of Bruce 's first signings , Darren Bent , cost a club record fee of £ 10 million . Sunderland started their first season under Bruce strongly but then went 14 matches without a win over the winter , eventually finishing the 2009 – 10 season in 13th . Sunderland completed the signing of Ghana international Asamoah Gyan in Aug 2010 for a fee around £ 13 million , becoming their new record transfer fee . Sunderland started the next season strongly and the club challenged for a European qualification place by the end of 2010 . However , striker Darren Bent left Sunderland for Aston Villa in Jan 2011 in a deal potentially worth £ 24 million ( a record transfer fee received for the club ) . Following Bent 's departure Sunderland suffered a mid @-@ season slump and finished 10th — which was still their highest top @-@ flight finish for 10 years .
Ellis Short replaced Quinn as chairman in Oct 2011 , with Quinn becoming Director of International Development . Bruce was sacked on 30 November 2011 , following a poor run of results , and was replaced by Martin O 'Neill . O 'Neill made an instant impact , with Sunderland taking 13 points from a possible 18 in his first six games in charge . O 'Neill was named the Premier League Manager of the Month for December , and went on to guide the club to the FA Cup quarter @-@ finals for the first time since 2004 . On 20 Feb , Niall Quinn left the club with immediate effect . Sunderland endured a difficult start to 2012 – 13 season , with their first victory not coming until late Sept , against Wigan . With the threat of relegation looming , O 'Neill was sacked on 30 March and Italian Paolo Di Canio was announced as O 'Neill 's replacement the following day . The appointment prompted the immediate resignation of club Vice Chairman David Miliband due to Di Canio 's " past political statements " . The appointment of Di Canio also sparked opposition from the Durham Miners ' Association , which threatened to remove one of its mining banners from Sunderland 's Stadium of Light , which is built on the former site of the Wearmouth Colliery . The threat by the Durham Miners ' Association was removed after meeting with the management of the club . After a 2 – 1 loss at Chelsea , Di Canio 's second match in charge saw Sunderland beat Newcastle 3 – 0 at St James ' Park in the Tyne Wear Derby and their first win at St James Park since Nov 2000 . Sunderland went on to survive relegation with one game to go . Over the summer , the club appointed Italian former agent Roberto De Fanti as the club 's first director of football .
Di Canio was sacked after a poor start to the 2013 – 14 season , and reports of a complete breakdown in relations with his players . Gus Poyet was announced as his replacement on 8 Oct 2013 . Poyet brought a turnaround in Sunderland 's fortunes as they brought their way back into contention for survival with wins against Newcastle , Manchester City and Everton . Poyet also led Sunderland to the 2014 Football League Cup Final against Manchester City , winning a penalty shoot @-@ out at Manchester United in the semi @-@ final . Sunderland were defeated 3 – 1 by Manchester City in the final , despite leading 1 – 0 at half time through a Fabio Borini goal . Despite a major post @-@ final slump , which left the club bottom of the table 7 points adrift with 6 games remaining , they drew at Manchester City and then defeated Chelsea 1 – 2 , becoming the first side to beat Chelsea at Stamford Bridge in the Premier League under José Mourinho , ending a streak of 77 games over two spells . The Black Cats went on to win their next 3 games , including away at Man Utd , to avoid relegation with a game to spare . De Fanti was sacked as Director of Football in Jan 2014 and was replaced with Lee Congerton as Sporting Director .
Poyet signed a new two @-@ year deal after the last game of the season . However , on 16 March 2015 Poyet was sacked , following a run of 1 win in 12 games that left the club just one place above the relegation zone . Veteran Dutchman Dick Advocaat was appointed as the club 's new head coach the following day on a deal to the end of the season . Advocaat led Sunderland to Premier League safety with a game to spare following a 0 – 0 draw away at Arsenal . Eight games into the 2015 – 16 season he resigned from the position , leaving Sunderland second from bottom and without a win . Sam Allardyce was appointed the next manager in Oct 2015 , and secured a 3 – 0 victory over Newcastle Utd in his second game , giving the club a record beating six wins in a row against their local rivals . Congerton left the club in Dec 2015 , with the club apparently no longer wishing to use the Director of Football role. n the January transfer window Allardyce signed centre @-@ backs Lamine Koné and Jan Kirchhoff and attacking midfielder Wahbi Khazri . On 6 February 2016 , Sunderland scored two late goals to draw 2 @-@ 2 with Liverpool at Anfield , having trailed 2 @-@ 0 with ten minutes remaining . Later that week winger Adam Johnson was sacked by the club after pleading guilty to one count of sexual activity with a child and one charge of grooming . Sunderland remained in the relegation zone for much of the remainder of the 2015 – 16 season , before they boosted their survival chances by beating Norwich City 3 – 0 at Carrow Road on 16 April , closing the gap on 17th @-@ place Norwich to just one point . Allardyce successfully led Sunderland to safety from relegation after beating Everton 3 – 0 on 11 May , a result which also ensured the relegation of rivals ( and one of his former clubs ) Newcastle United . Allardyce earned praise for his management of Sunderland from some pundits , particularly for his organized approach and emphasis on a strong defence
= = Colours and crest = =
Sunderland played in an all blue strip from their formation until 1884 , when they adopted a red and white halved strip . They assumed the current strip of red and white stripes in the 1887 – 88 season . Their badge included a ship , the upper part of the Sunderland coat of arms , a black cat , and a football in front of Sunderland 's red and white stripes . In 1977 the badge was changed , but still included the ship , football and the background of red and white stripes .
This badge was used until the relocation from Roker Park to the Stadium of Light . To coincide with the move , Sunderland released a new crest divided into four quarters ; the upper right and lower left featured their traditional red and white colours , but the ship was omitted . The upper left section features the Penshaw Monument and the lower right section shows the Wearmouth Bridge . A colliery wheel at the top of the crest commemorates County Durham 's mining history , and the land the Stadium of Light was built on , formerly the Monkwearmouth Colliery . The crest also contains two lions , the black cats of Sunderland , and a banner displaying the club 's motto , Consectatio Excellentiae , which means " In pursuit of excellence " .
= = Stadium = =
Sunderland have had seven stadiums throughout their history ; the first was at Blue House Field in Hendon in 1879 . The ground was close to the place where Sunderland formed , at Hendon Board School ; at that time the rent for use of the ground was £ 10 ( £ 900 today ) . The club relocated briefly to Groves Field in Ashbrooke in 1882 , before moving again the following season . The club 's third stadium was Horatio Street in Roker , the first Sunderland stadium north of the River Wear ; the club played a single season there before another move , this time to Abbs Field in Fulwell for two seasons . Abbs Field was notable for being the first Sunderland ground to which they charged admission .
Sunderland moved to Newcastle Road in 1886 . By 1898 , the ground reached a capacity of 15 @,@ 000 after renovations , and its rent had risen to £ 100 ( £ 10 thousand today ) a year . Near the turn of the 20th century , Sunderland needed a bigger stadium . They returned to Roker and set up home in Roker Park . It was opened on 10 September 1898 , and the home team played a match the same day against Liverpool , which they won . The stadium 's capacity increased to 50 @,@ 000 after redevelopment with architect Archibald Leitch in 1913 . Sunderland were nearly bankrupted by the cost of renovating the Main Stand , and Roker Park was put up for sale but no further action was taken . On 8 March 1933 , an overcrowded Roker Park recorded the highest ever attendance at a Sunderland match , 75 @,@ 118 against Derby County in a FA Cup sixth round replay . Roker Park suffered a bombing in 1943 , in which one corner of the stadium was destroyed . A special constable was killed while patrolling the stadium . By the 1990s , the stadium was no longer large enough , and had no room for possible expansion . In January 1990 , the Taylor Report was released after overcrowding at the Hillsborough Stadium resulted in 96 deaths , an incident known as the Hillsborough Disaster . The report recommended that all major stadiums must be converted to an all @-@ seater design . As a result , Roker Park 's capacity was reduced . It was demolished in 1997 and a housing estate built in its place .
In 1997 , Sunderland moved to their present ground , Stadium of Light in Monkwearmouth , which was opened by Prince Andrew , Duke of York . Built with an original capacity of 42 @,@ 000 , it hosted its first game against Dutch team Ajax . The stadium bears a similar name to the Portuguese club Benfica 's ground Estádio da Luz , albeit in a different language . Stadium expansion in 2000 saw the capacity increase to 49 @,@ 000 . A Davy lamp monument stands outside the stadium , and a miners banner was presented to the club by the Durham Miners ' Association , as a reminder of the Monkwearmouth Colliery pit the stadium was built on .
= = Supporters and rivalries = =
Sunderland held the seventh highest average home attendance out of the 20 clubs in the Premier League at the end of the 2013 – 14 season with an average of 41 @,@ 089 , and held the sixth highest average attendance in the 2014 – 15 season with an average of over 43 @,@ 000 . Sunderland fans often sell out allocations for away games : in the 2013 – 14 season , 9 @,@ 000 Sunderland fans attended Old Trafford for the second leg of the Football League Cup semi @-@ final , which they won to go through to the final . At Wembley , London was taken over by thousands of Mackems , the sights of Covent Garden and Leicester Square were awash with red and white , local shops completely sold out of alcohol but only one arrest was reported by the police . Support is drawn from across the North East , in particular County Durham , and beyond . The club has many supporter branches across the world , including the United States , Australia , Canada , Cambodia , and Greece . According to YouGov statistics they are the most left @-@ wing supporters in the Premier League , and often sing " The Red Flag " during games . Former chairman Bob Murray described Sunderland as a " Labour Club " .
Traditionally , Sunderland 's main rivals are Newcastle United , with whom they contest the Tyne – Wear derby . The club was rivals with the now defunct Sunderland Albion in the 1880s and 1890s ; a breakaway club formed by Sunderland 's founder James Allan . Sections of fans share a mutual friendship with Dutch club Feyenoord , this was developed after Wearside shipbuilders found jobs in Rotterdam during the 1970s and 80s .
The club has an official quarterly magazine , called the Legion of Light , which season ticket holders receive for no cost . One of the club 's current fanzine is A Love Supreme . Others in the past have been It 's The Hope I Can 't Stand , It 's An Easy One For Norman / It 's An Easy One For Given , Sex and Chocolate , Wise Men Say and The Roker Roar ( later The Wearside Roar ) .
= = = Affiliated clubs = = =
Sunderland have recently created affiliations with several African clubs including Ghana 's Asante Kotoko , Eqypt 's El @-@ Ittihad El @-@ Iskandary and South Africa 's Bidvest Wits . Sunderland also have an affiliation with Belgian side Lierse S.K. , allowing the possibility for young African players who would not qualify for a UK work permit to spend three years with Lierse to gain a Belgian passport . In August 2014 , Sunderland announced a commercial partnership with Washington D.C. based MLS club D.C. United .
= = Statistics and records = =
The holder of the record for the most league appearances is Jimmy Montgomery , having made 527 first team appearances between 1961 and 1976 . The club 's top league goal scorer is Charlie Buchan , who scored 209 goals from 1911 – 1925 ; Bobby Gurney is the record goalscorer over all competitions with 227 goals between 1926 and 1939 . Dave Halliday holds the record for the most goals scored in a season : 43 in the 1928 – 29 season in the Football League First Division . As of October 2014 John O 'Shea is the most capped player for the club , making 100 appearances for the Republic of Ireland .
The club 's widest victory margin in the league was in the 9 – 1 win against Newcastle United in the First Division in 1908 . Sunderland 's biggest ever win in the FA cup was against Fair field ( a non @-@ league team ) and the final score was 11 – 1 . Their heaviest defeats in the league were 8 – 0 against Sheffield Wednesday in 1911 , West Ham United in 1968 , Watford in 1982 and Southampton in 2014 Sunderland joined the top division in England , The Football League , in the 1890 – 91 season and were not relegated until 1957 – 58 ( a span of 67 seasons ) . In October 2015 , Sunderland defeated rivals Newcastle United for the sixth consecutive time , a new record .
Sunderland 's record home attendance is 75 @,@ 200 for a sixth round replay FA Cup match against Derby County on 8 March 1933 .
= = = Transfers = = =
The biggest transfer fee Sunderland have ever received for one of their players is £ 24 million for Darren Bent who moved to Aston Villa on 18 January 2011 . The biggest fee Sunderland have received for a player produced by the Sunderland academy is £ 16 million ( rising to a possible £ 20 million ) for Jordan Henderson , who moved to Liverpool on 9 July 2011 . The biggest transfer fee paid by Sunderland is the eventual £ 16 million after add @-@ ons for Bent , who was bought from Tottenham Hotspur in July 2009 .
= = = Overall = = =
Seasons spent at Level 1 of the football league system : 86
Seasons spent at Level 2 of the football league system : 29
Seasons spent at Level 3 of the football league system : 1
Seasons spent at Level 4 of the football league system : 0
As of the 2015 @-@ 16 season
= = Nicknames = =
Sunderland 's official nickname is The Black Cats . They have other nicknames , such as ' The Rokerites ' , ' The Lads ' or ' The Mackems ' . After leaving Roker Park for the Stadium of Light in 1997 , the club decided on a vote to settle the nickname for the last time . The Black Cats won the majority of the 11 @,@ 000 votes , beating off other used nicknames such as the Light Brigade , the Miners , and the Sols . There is a long historical link between black cats and Sunderland , including the " Black Cat Battery " , an Artillery battery based on the River Wear .
Around the early 19th century , the southern side of the River Wear contained four gun batteries , which guarded the river mouth during the Napoleonic wars . In 1805 , the battery was manned by local militia , the Sunderland Loyal Volunteers , one of whom was a cooper by trade named Joshua Dunn . He was said to have " fled from the howling of an approaching black cat , convinced by the influence of the full moon and a warming dram or two that it was the devil incarnate " . From that point onwards the John Paul Jones Battery was known as the Black Cat Battery .
A Sunderland supporter , Billy Morris , took a black cat in his top pocket as a good luck charm to the 1937 FA Cup final in which Sunderland brought home the trophy for the first time . During the 1960s a black cat lived in Roker Park , fed and watered by the football club . Since the 1960s the emblem of the Sunderland A.F.C. Supporters Association has been a black cat .
As well as the " Team of All Talents " at the turn of the 20th century , Sunderland were known as the " Bank of England club " during the 1950s . This was a reference to the club 's spending in the transfer market at the time , which saw the transfer @-@ record broken twice . At the beginning of the 2006 – 07 season , the purchase of the club by the Irish Drumaville Consortium , the appointments of Niall Quinn and Roy Keane to their respective roles as chairman and manager , as well as the relatively large number of Irish players in the squad , led some fans to jokingly dub the team " Sund @-@ Ireland " .
= = Kit sponsorship = =
The first sponsor to appear on Sunderland kits was Cowie 's , the business group of then chairman Tom Cowie , between 1983 – 85 . The club was sponsored by the Vaux Breweries between 1985 and 1999 , with drink brands such as Lambtons sometimes appearing on kits . Subsequently , the club were sponsored by Sunderland car dealership company Reg Vardy from 1999 to 2007 . Sunderland were sponsored by the Irish bookmaker Boylesports , who signed a four @-@ year contract with the club in 2007 worth up to £ 12 million . In April 2010 , Sunderland signed a two @-@ year shirt sponsorship deal with tombola , a local online bingo company . On 25 June 2012 , Sunderland announced the strengthening of their partnership with the Invest in Africa initiative , with the initiative becoming the club 's shirt sponsor for two years . The project is closely linked with Tullow Oil . However , after a year the club announced a new sponsorship deal with South African company Bidvest . On June 1 , 2015 Sunderland announced a new sponsorship with Dafabet to appear on the kits for the following season .
The first kit manufacturer to appear on Sunderland kits was Umbro , between 1975 – 81 . French brand Le Coq Sportif produced kits between 1981 – 83 . Nike 's first stint as kit manufacturer came between 1983 – 86 , before kits from Patrick ( 1986 – 88 ) , Hummel ( 1988 – 94 ) , Avec ( 1994 – 97 ) and Asics ( 1997 – 00 ) . Nike returned between 2000 – 04 . Diadora produced kits for a solitary season , 2004 – 05 , and Lonsdale made kits between 2005 – 07 . Umbro returned for five seasons between 2007 – 12 , before Adidas became the club 's kit manufacturer for the first time in 2012 .
= = Players = =
= = = First team squad = = =
As of 26 July 2016 .
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = = Out on loan = = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Reserves and Academy = = =
= = Club officials = =
= = = Board of Directors = = =
= = = Coaching staff = = =
= = Managers = =
= = Honours = =
The following are the honours Sunderland have achieved since their foundation in 1879 .
= = = League = = =
First Division / Premier League : 6 ( level 1 )
1891 – 92 , 1892 – 93 , 1894 – 95 , 1901 – 02 , 1912 – 13 , 1935 – 36
Second Division / First Division / Championship : 5 ( level 2 )
1975 – 76 , 1995 – 96 , 1998 – 99 , 2004 – 05 , 2006 – 07
Promotion ( 1 ) : 1989 – 90
Third Division / Second Division / League One : 1 ( level 3 )
1987 – 88
= = = Cup = = =
FA Cup :
Winners ( 2 ) : 1937 , 1973
Charity Shield
Winners ( 1 ) : 1936
Sheriff of London Charity Shield :
Winners ( 1 ) : 1903
= = = Other = = =
BBC Sports Personality Team of the Year Award : 1
1973
Football World Championship : 1
1895
= William Gibson =
William Ford Gibson ( born March 17 , 1948 ) is an American and Canadian speculative fiction writer and essayist widely credited with pioneering the science fiction subgenre known as cyberpunk . Beginning his writing career in the late 1970s , his early works were bleak , noir , near @-@ future stories that explored the effects of technology , cybernetics , and computer networks on humans — a " combination of lowlife and high tech " — and helped to create an iconography for the information age before the ubiquity of the Internet in the 1990s .
Gibson notably coined the term " cyberspace " in his short story " Burning Chrome " ( 1982 ) and later popularized the concept in his acclaimed debut novel Neuromancer ( 1984 ) . These early works have been credited with " renovating " science fiction literature after it had fallen largely into insignificance in the 1970s .
After expanding on Neuromancer with two more novels to complete the dystopic Sprawl trilogy , Gibson collaborated with Bruce Sterling on the alternate history novel The Difference Engine ( 1990 ) , which became an important work of the science fiction subgenre steampunk . In the 1990s , Gibson composed the Bridge trilogy of novels , which explored the sociological developments of near @-@ future urban environments , postindustrial society , and late capitalism .
Following the turn of the century and the events of 9 / 11 , Gibson emerged with a string of increasingly realist novels — Pattern Recognition ( 2003 ) , Spook Country ( 2007 ) , and Zero History ( 2010 ) — set in a roughly contemporary world . These works saw his name reach mainstream bestseller lists for the first time . His more recent novel , The Peripheral ( 2014 ) , returned to a more overt engagement with technology and recognizable science fiction concerns .
In 1999 , The Guardian described Gibson as " probably the most important novelist of the past two decades , " while the Sydney Morning Herald called him the " noir prophet " of cyberpunk . Throughout his career , Gibson has written more than 20 short stories and 10 critically acclaimed novels ( one in collaboration ) , contributed articles to several major publications , and collaborated extensively with performance artists , filmmakers , and musicians . His work has been cited as an influence across a variety of disciplines spanning academia , design , film , literature , music , cyberculture , and technology .
= = Early life = =
= = = Childhood , itinerance , and adolescence = = =
William Ford Gibson was born in the coastal city of Conway , South Carolina , and he spent most of his childhood in Wytheville , Virginia , a small town in the Appalachians where his parents had been born and raised . His family moved frequently during Gibson 's youth owing to his father 's position as manager of a large construction company . In Norfolk , Virginia , Gibson attended Pines Elementary School , where the teachers ' lack of encouragement for him to read was a cause of dismay for his parents . While Gibson was still a young child , a little over a year into his stay at Pines Elementary , his father choked to death in a restaurant while on a business trip . His mother , unable to tell William the bad news , had someone else inform him of the death . Tom Maddox has commented that Gibson " grew up in an America as disturbing and surreal as anything J. G. Ballard ever dreamed " .
A few days after the death , Gibson 's mother returned them from their home in Norfolk to Wytheville . Gibson later described Wytheville as " a place where modernity had arrived to some extent but was deeply distrusted " and credits the beginnings of his relationship with science fiction , his " native literary culture " , with the subsequent feeling of abrupt exile . At the age of 12 , Gibson " wanted nothing more than to be a science fiction writer " . He spent a few unproductive years at basketball @-@ obsessed George Wythe High School , a time spent largely in his room listening to records and reading books . At 13 , unbeknownst to his mother , he purchased an anthology of Beat generation writing , thereby gaining exposure to the writings of Allen Ginsberg , Jack Kerouac , and William S. Burroughs ; the lattermost had a particularly pronounced effect , greatly altering Gibson 's notions of the possibilities of science fiction literature .
A shy , ungainly teenager , Gibson grew up in a monoculture he found " highly problematic " , consciously rejected religion and took refuge in reading science fiction as well as writers such as Burroughs and Henry Miller . Becoming frustrated with his poor academic performance , Gibson 's mother threatened to send him to a boarding school ; to her surprise , he reacted enthusiastically . Unable to afford his preferred choice of Southern California , his then " chronically anxious and depressive " mother , who had remained in Wytheville since the death of her husband , sent him to Southern Arizona School for Boys in Tucson . He resented the structure of the private boarding school but was in retrospect grateful for its forcing him to engage socially . On the SAT ( Scholastic Aptitude Test ) exams , he scored 148 out of 150 in the written section but 5 out of 150 in mathematics , to the consternation of his teachers .
= = = Draft @-@ dodging , exile , and counterculture = = =
After his mother 's death when he was 18 , Gibson left school without graduating and became very isolated for a long time , traveling to California and Europe , and immersing himself in the counterculture . In 1967 , he elected to move to Canada in order " to avoid the Vietnam war draft " . At his draft hearing , he honestly informed interviewers that his intention in life was to sample every mind @-@ altering substance in existence . Gibson has observed that he " did not literally evade the draft , as they never bothered drafting me " ; after the hearing he went home and purchased a bus ticket to Toronto , and left a week or two later . In the biographical documentary No Maps for These Territories ( 2000 ) , Gibson said that his decision was motivated less by conscientious objection than by a desire to " sleep with hippie chicks " and indulge in hashish . He elaborated on the topic in a 2008 interview :
After weeks of nominal homelessness , Gibson was hired as the manager of Toronto 's first head shop , a retailer of drug paraphernalia . He found the city 's émigré community of American draft dodgers unbearable owing to the prevalence of clinical depression , suicide , and hardcore substance abuse . He appeared , during the Summer of Love of 1967 , in a CBC newsreel item about hippie subculture in Yorkville , Toronto , for which he was paid $ 500 – the equivalent of 20 weeks rent – which financed his later travels . Aside from a " brief , riot @-@ torn spell " in the District of Columbia , Gibson spent the rest of the 1960s in Toronto , where he met Vancouverite Deborah Jean Thompson , with whom he subsequently traveled to Europe . Gibson has recounted that they concentrated their travels on European nations with fascist regimes and favourable exchange rates , including spending time on a Greek archipelago and in Istanbul in 1970 , as they " couldn 't afford to stay anywhere that had anything remotely like hard currency " .
The couple married and settled in Vancouver , British Columbia in 1972 , with Gibson looking after their first child while they lived off his wife 's teaching salary . During the 1970s , Gibson made a substantial part of his living from scouring Salvation Army thrift stores for underpriced artifacts he would then up @-@ market to specialist dealers . Realizing that it was easier to sustain high college grades , and thus qualify for generous student financial aid , than to work , he enrolled at the University of British Columbia ( UBC ) , earning " a desultory bachelor 's degree in English " in 1977 . Through studying English literature , he was exposed to a wider range of fiction than he would have read otherwise ; something he credits with giving him ideas inaccessible from within the culture of science fiction , including an awareness of postmodernity . It was at UBC that he attended his first course on science fiction , taught by Susan Wood , at the end of which he was encouraged to write his first short story , " Fragments of a Hologram Rose " .
= = = Early writing and the evolution of cyberpunk = = =
After considering pursuing a master 's degree on the topic of hard science fiction novels as fascist literature , Gibson discontinued writing in the year that followed graduation and , as one critic put it , expanded his collection of punk records . During this period he worked at various jobs , including a three @-@ year stint as teaching assistant on a film history course at his alma mater . Impatient at much of what he saw at a science fiction convention in Vancouver in 1980 or 1981 , Gibson found a kindred spirit in fellow panelist , punk musician and author John Shirley . The two became immediate and lifelong friends . Shirley persuaded Gibson to sell his early short stories and to take writing seriously .
Through Shirley , Gibson came into contact with science fiction authors Bruce Sterling and Lewis Shiner ; reading Gibson 's work , they realised that it was , as Sterling put it , " breakthrough material " and that they needed to " put down our preconceptions and pick up on this guy from Vancouver ; this [ was ] the way forward . " Gibson met Sterling at a science fiction convention in Denver , Colorado in the autumn of 1981 , where he read " Burning Chrome " – the first cyberspace short story – to an audience of four people , and later stated that Sterling " completely got it " .
In October 1982 , Gibson traveled to Austin , Texas for ArmadilloCon , at which he appeared with Shirley , Sterling and Shiner on a panel called " Behind the Mirrorshades : A Look at Punk SF " , where Shiner noted " the sense of a movement solidified " . After a weekend discussing rock and roll , MTV , Japan , fashion , drugs and politics , Gibson left the cadre for Vancouver , declaring half @-@ jokingly that " a new axis has been formed . " Sterling , Shiner , Shirley and Gibson , along with Rudy Rucker , went on to form the core of the radical cyberpunk literary movement .
= = Literary career = =
= = = Early short fiction = = =
Gibson 's early writings are generally near @-@ future stories about the influences of cybernetics and cyberspace ( computer @-@ simulated reality ) technology on the human race . His themes of hi @-@ tech shanty towns , recorded or broadcast stimulus ( later to be developed into the " sim @-@ stim " package featured so heavily in Neuromancer ) , and dystopic intermingling of technology and humanity , are already evident in his first published short story , " Fragments of a Hologram Rose " , in the Summer 1977 issue of Unearth . The latter thematic obsession was described by his friend and fellow author , Bruce Sterling , in the introduction of Gibson 's short story collection Burning Chrome , as " Gibson 's classic one @-@ two combination of lowlife and high tech . "
Beginning in 1981 , Gibson 's stories appeared in Omni and Universe 11 , wherein his fiction developed a bleak , film noir feel . He consciously distanced himself as far as possible from the mainstream of science fiction ( towards which he felt " an aesthetic revulsion " , expressed in " The Gernsback Continuum " ) , to the extent that his highest goal was to become " a minor cult figure , a sort of lesser Ballard . " When Sterling started to distribute the stories , he found that " people were just genuinely baffled ... I mean they literally could not parse the guy 's paragraphs ... the imaginative tropes he was inventing were just beyond peoples ' grasp . "
While Larry McCaffery has commented that these early short stories displayed flashes of Gibson 's ability , science fiction critic Darko Suvin has identified them as " undoubtedly [ cyberpunk 's ] best works " , constituting the " furthest horizon " of the genre . The themes which Gibson developed in the stories , the Sprawl setting of " Burning Chrome " and the character of Molly Millions from " Johnny Mnemonic " ultimately culminated in his first novel , Neuromancer .
= = = Neuromancer = = =
Neuromancer was commissioned by Terry Carr for the second series of Ace Science Fiction Specials , which was intended to exclusively feature debut novels . Given a year to complete the work , Gibson undertook the actual writing out of " blind animal terror " at the obligation to write an entire novel – a feat which he felt he was " four or five years away from " . After viewing the first 20 minutes of landmark cyberpunk film Blade Runner ( 1982 ) which was released when Gibson had written a third of the novel , he " figured [ Neuromancer ] was sunk , done for . Everyone would assume I 'd copped my visual texture from this astonishingly fine @-@ looking film . " He re @-@ wrote the first two @-@ thirds of the book twelve times , feared losing the reader 's attention and was convinced that he would be " permanently shamed " following its publication ; yet what resulted was a major imaginative leap forward for a first @-@ time novelist .
Neuromancer 's release was not greeted with fanfare , but it hit a cultural nerve , quickly becoming an underground word @-@ of @-@ mouth hit . It became the first winner of one science fiction " triple crown " — both Nebula and Hugo Awards as the year 's best novel and Philip K. Dick Award as the best paperback original — eventually selling more than 6 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide .
Lawrence Person in his " Notes Toward a Postcyberpunk Manifesto " ( 1998 ) identified Neuromancer as " the archetypal cyberpunk work " , and in 2005 , Time included it in their list of the 100 best English @-@ language novels written since 1923 , opining that " [ t ] here is no way to overstate how radical [ Neuromancer ] was when it first appeared . " Literary critic Larry McCaffery described the concept of the matrix in Neuromancer as a place where " data dance with human consciousness ... human memory is literalized and mechanized ... multi @-@ national information systems mutate and breed into startling new structures whose beauty and complexity are unimaginable , mystical , and above all nonhuman . " Gibson later commented on himself as an author circa Neuromancer that " I 'd buy him a drink , but I don 't know if I 'd loan him any money , " and referred to the novel as " an adolescent 's book " . The success of Neuromancer was to effect the 35 @-@ year @-@ old Gibson 's emergence from obscurity .
= = = Sprawl trilogy , The Difference Engine , and Bridge trilogy = = =
Although much of Gibson 's reputation has remained rooted in Neuromancer , his work continued to evolve conceptually and stylistically . Despite adding the final sentence of Neuromancer , " He never saw Molly again " , at the last minute in a deliberate attempt to prevent himself from ever writing a sequel , he did precisely that with Count Zero ( 1986 ) , a character @-@ focused work set in the Sprawl alluded to in its predecessor . He next intended to write an unrelated postmodern space opera , titled The Log of the Mustang Sally , but reneged on the contract with Arbor House after a falling out over the dustjacket art of their hardcover of Count Zero . Abandoning The Log of the Mustang Sally , Gibson instead wrote Mona Lisa Overdrive ( 1988 ) , which in the words of Larry McCaffery " turned off the lights " on cyberpunk literature . It was a culmination of his previous two novels , set in the same universe with shared characters , thereby completing the Sprawl trilogy . The trilogy solidified Gibson 's reputation , with both later novels also earning Nebula and Hugo Award and Locus SF Award nominations
The Sprawl trilogy was followed by the 1990 novel The Difference Engine , an alternative history novel Gibson wrote in collaboration with Bruce Sterling . Set in a technologically advanced Victorian era Britain , the novel was a departure from the authors ' cyberpunk roots . It was nominated for the Nebula Award for Best Novel in 1991 and the John W. Campbell Memorial Award in 1992 , and its success drew attention to the nascent steampunk literary genre of which it remains the best @-@ known work .
Gibson 's second series , the " Bridge trilogy " , is composed of Virtual Light ( 1993 ) , a " darkly comic urban detective story " , Idoru ( 1996 ) , and All Tomorrow 's Parties ( 1999 ) . The first and third books in the trilogy center on San Francisco in the near future ; all three explore Gibson 's recurring themes of technological , physical , and spiritual transcendence in a more grounded , matter @-@ of @-@ fact style than his first trilogy . Salon.com 's Andrew Leonard notes that in the Bridge trilogy , Gibson 's villains change from multinational corporations and artificial intelligences of the Sprawl trilogy to the mass media – namely tabloid television and the cult of celebrity . Virtual Light depicts an " end @-@ stage capitalism , in which private enterprise and the profit motive are taken to their logical conclusion " . This argument on the mass media as the natural evolution of capitalism is the opening line of the major Situationist work The Society of the Spectacle . Leonard 's review called Idoru a " return to form " for Gibson , while critic Steven Poole asserted that All Tomorrow 's Parties marked his development from " science @-@ fiction hotshot to wry sociologist of the near future . "
= = = Late period novels = = =
After All Tomorrow 's Parties , Gibson began to adopt a more realist style of writing , with continuous narratives – " speculative fiction of the very recent past . " Science fiction critic John Clute has interpreted this approach as Gibson 's recognition that traditional science fiction is no longer possible " in a world lacking coherent ' nows ' to continue from " , characterizing it as " SF for the new century " . Gibson 's novels Pattern Recognition ( 2003 ) , Spook Country ( 2007 ) and Zero History ( 2010 ) are set in the same contemporary universe — " more or less the same one we live in now " — and put Gibson 's work onto mainstream bestseller lists for the first time . As well as the setting , the novels share some of the same characters , including Hubertus Bigend and Pamela Mainwaring , employees of the enigmatic marketing company Blue Ant .
A phenomenon peculiar to this era was the independent development of annotating fansites , PR @-@ Otaku and Node Magazine , devoted to Pattern Recognition and Spook Country respectively . These websites tracked the references and story elements in the novels through online resources such as Google and Wikipedia and collated the results , essentially creating hypertext versions of the books . Critic John Sutherland characterised this phenomenon as threatening " to completely overhaul the way literary criticism is conducted " .
After the September 11 , 2001 attacks , with about 100 pages of Pattern Recognition written , Gibson had to re @-@ write the main character 's backstory , which had been suddenly rendered implausible ; he called it " the strangest experience I 've ever had with a piece of fiction . " He saw the attacks as a nodal point in history , " an experience out of culture " , and " in some ways ... the true beginning of the 21st century . " He is noted as one of the first novelists to use the attacks to inform his writing . Examination of cultural changes in post @-@ September 11 America , including a resurgent tribalism and the " infantilization of society " , became a prominent theme of Gibson 's work . The focus of his writing nevertheless remains " at the intersection of paranoia and technology " .
= = = Latest novel = = =
William Gibson 's most recent work is a novel titled The Peripheral . He described the story briefly in an appearance he made at the New York Public Library on April 19 , 2013 , and read an excerpt from the first chapter of the book entitled “ The Gone Haptics . ” The story takes place in two eras , one about thirty years into the future and the other further in the future . The Peripheral was released on October 28 , 2014 .
= = Collaborations , adaptations , and miscellanea = =
= = = Literary collaborations = = =
Three of the stories that later appeared in Burning Chrome were written in collaboration with other authors : " The Belonging Kind " ( 1981 ) with John Shirley , " Red Star , Winter Orbit " ( 1983 ) with Sterling , and " Dogfight " ( 1985 ) with Michael Swanwick . Gibson had previously written the foreword to Shirley 's 1980 novel City Come A @-@ walkin ' and the pair 's collaboration continued when Gibson wrote the introduction to Shirley 's short story collection Heatseeker ( 1989 ) . Shirley convinced Gibson to write a story for the television series Max Headroom for which Shirley had written several scripts , but the network canceled the series .
Gibson and Sterling collaborated again on the short story " The Angel of Goliad " in 1990 , which they soon expanded into the novel @-@ length alternate history story The Difference Engine ( 1990 ) . The two were later " invited to dream in public " ( Gibson ) in a joint address to the U.S. National Academy of Sciences Convocation on Technology and Education in 1993 ( " the Al Gore people " ) , in which they argued against the digital divide and " appalled everyone " by proposing that all schools be put online , with education taking place over the Internet . In a 2007 interview , Gibson revealed that Sterling had an idea for " a second recursive science novel that was just a wonderful idea " , but that Gibson was unable to pursue the collaboration because he was not creatively free at the time .
In 1993 , Gibson contributed lyrics and featured as a guest vocalist on Yellow Magic Orchestra 's Technodon album , and wrote lyrics to the track " Dog Star Girl " for Deborah Harry 's Debravation .
= = = Film adaptations , screenplays , and appearances = = =
Gibson was first solicited to work as a screenwriter after a film producer discovered a waterlogged copy of Neuromancer on a beach at a Thai resort . His early efforts to write film scripts failed to manifest themselves as finished product ; " Burning Chrome " ( which was to be directed by Kathryn Bigelow ) and " Neuro @-@ Hotel " were two attempts by the author at film adaptations that were never made . In the late 1980s he wrote an early version of Alien 3 ( which he later characterized as " Tarkovskian " ) , few elements of which survived in the final version . Gibson 's early involvement with the film industry extended far beyond the confines of the Hollywood blockbuster system . At one point , he collaborated on a script with Kazakh director Rashid Nugmanov after an American producer had expressed an interest in a Soviet @-@ American collaboration to star Russian @-@ Korean star Victor Tsoi . Despite being occupied with writing a novel , Gibson was reluctant to abandon the " wonderfully odd project " which involved " ritualistic gang @-@ warfare in some sort of sideways @-@ future Leningrad " and sent Jack Womack to Russia in his stead . Rather than producing a motion picture , a prospect that ended with Tsoi 's death in a car crash , Womack 's experiences in Russia ultimately culminated in his novel Let 's Put the Future Behind Us and informed much of the Russian content of Gibson 's Pattern Recognition . A similar fate befell Gibson 's collaboration with Japanese filmmaker Sogo Ishii in 1991 , a film they planned on shooting in the Walled City of Kowloon until the city was demolished in 1993 .
Adaptations of Gibson 's fiction have frequently been optioned and proposed , to limited success . Two of the author 's short stories , both set in the Sprawl trilogy universe , have been loosely adapted as films : Johnny Mnemonic ( 1995 ) with screenplay by Gibson and starring Keanu Reeves , Dolph Lundgren and Takeshi Kitano , and New Rose Hotel ( 1998 ) , starring Christopher Walken , Willem Dafoe , and Asia Argento . The former was the first time in history that a book was launched simultaneously as a film and a CD @-@ ROM interactive video game . As of 2013 , Vincenzo Natali still hoped to bring Neuromancer
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to the screen , after some years in development hell . Count Zero was at one point being developed as The Zen Differential with director Michael Mann attached , and the third novel in the Sprawl trilogy , Mona Lisa Overdrive , has also been optioned and bought . An anime adaptation of Idoru was announced as in development in 2006 , and Pattern Recognition was in the process of development by director Peter Weir , although according to Gibson the latter is no longer attached to the project . Announced at International Film Festival Rotterdam in 2015 is an adaptation of Gibson 's short story Dogfight by BAFTA award @-@ winning writer and director Simon Pummell . Written by Gibson and Michael Swanwick and first published in Omni in July 1985 , the film is being developed by British producer Janine Marmot at Hot Property Films .
Television is another arena in which Gibson has collaborated ; he co @-@ wrote with friend Tom Maddox , The X @-@ Files episodes " Kill Switch " and " First Person Shooter " , broadcast in the U.S. on 20th Century Fox Television in 1998 and 2000 . In 1998 he contributed the introduction to the spin @-@ off publication Art of the X @-@ Files . Gibson made a cameo appearance in the television miniseries Wild Palms at the behest of creator Bruce Wagner . Director Oliver Stone had borrowed heavily from Gibson 's novels to make the series , and in the aftermath of its cancellation Gibson contributed an article , " Where The Holograms Go " , to the Wild Palms Reader . He accepted another acting role in 2002 , appearing alongside Douglas Coupland in the short film Mon Amour Mon Parapluie in which the pair played philosophers . Appearances in fiction aside , Gibson was the focus of a biographical documentary by Mark Neale in 2000 called No Maps for These Territories . The film follows Gibson over the course of a drive across North America discussing various aspects of his life , literary career and cultural interpretations . It features interviews with Jack Womack and Bruce Sterling , as well as recitations from Neuromancer by Bono and The Edge .
= = = Exhibitions , poetry , and performance art = = =
Gibson has contributed text to be integrated into a number of performance art pieces . In October 1989 , Gibson wrote text for such a collaboration with acclaimed sculptor and future Johnny Mnemonic director Robert Longo titled Dream Jumbo : Working the Absolutes , which was displayed in Royce Hall , University of California Los Angeles . Three years later , Gibson contributed original text to " Memory Palace " , a performance show featuring the theater group La Fura dels Baus at Art Futura ' 92 , Barcelona , which featured images by Karl Sims , Rebecca Allen , Mark Pellington with music by Peter Gabriel and others . It was at Art Futura ' 92 that Gibson met Charlie Athanas , who would later act as dramaturg and " cyberprops " designer on Steve Pickering and Charley Sherman 's adaptation of " Burning Chrome " for the Chicago stage . Gibson 's latest contribution was in 1997 , a collaboration with critically acclaimed Vancouver @-@ based contemporary dance company Holy Body Tattoo and Gibson 's friend and future webmaster Christopher Halcrow .
In 1990 , Gibson contributed to " Visionary San Francisco " , an exhibition at the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art shown from June 14 to August 26 . He wrote a short story , " Skinner 's Room " , set in a decaying San Francisco in which the San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge was closed and taken over by the homeless – a setting Gibson then detailed in the Bridge trilogy . The story inspired a contribution to the exhibition by architects Ming Fung and Craig Hodgetts that envisioned a San Francisco in which the rich live in high @-@ tech , solar @-@ powered towers , above the decrepit city and its crumbling bridge . The architects exhibit featured Gibson on a monitor discussing the future and reading from " Skinner 's Room " . The New York Times hailed the exhibition as " one of the most ambitious , and admirable , efforts to address the realm of architecture and cities that any museum in the country has mounted in the last decade " , despite calling Ming and Hodgetts 's reaction to Gibson 's contribution " a powerful , but sad and not a little cynical , work " . A slightly different version of the short story was featured a year later in Omni .
= = = Cryptography = = =
A particularly well @-@ received work by Gibson was Agrippa ( a book of the dead ) ( 1992 ) , a 300 @-@ line semi @-@ autobiographical electronic poem that was his contribution to a collaborative project with artist Dennis Ashbaugh and publisher Kevin Begos , Jr . Gibson 's text focused on the ethereal nature of memories ( the title refers to a photo album ) and was originally published on a 3 @.@ 5 " floppy disk embedded in the back of an artist 's book containing etchings by Ashbaugh ( intended to fade from view once the book was opened and exposed to light — they never did , however ) . Gibson commented that Ashbaugh 's design " eventually included a supposedly self @-@ devouring floppy @-@ disk intended to display the text only once , then eat itself . " Contrary to numerous colorful reports , the diskettes were never actually " hacked " ; instead the poem was manually transcribed from a surreptitious videotape of a public showing in Manhattan in December 1992 , and released on the MindVox bulletin board the next day ; this is the text that circulated widely on the Internet .
Since its debut in 1992 , the mystery of Agrippa remained hidden for 20 years . Although many had tried to hack the code and decrypt the program , the uncompiled source code was lost long ago . Alan Liu and his team at " The Agrippa Files " created an extensive website with tools and resources to crack the Agrippa Code . They collaborated with Matthew Kirschenbaum at the Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities and the Digital Forensics Lab , and Quinn DuPont , a PhD student of cryptography from the University of Toronto , in calling for the aid of cryptographers to figure out how the program works by creating " Cracking the Agrippa Code : The Challenge " , which enlisted participants to solve the intentional scrambling of the poem in exchange for prizes . The code was successfully cracked by Robert Xiao in late July 2012 .
= = = Essays and short @-@ form nonfiction = = =
Gibson is a sporadic contributor of non @-@ fiction articles to newspapers and journals . He has been a sporadic contributor of longer @-@ form articles to Wired and of op @-@ eds to The New York Times , and has written for The Observer , Addicted to Noise , New York Times Magazine , Rolling Stone , and Details Magazine . His first major piece of nonfiction , the article " Disneyland with the Death Penalty " concerning the city @-@ state of Singapore , resulted in Wired being banned from the country and attracted a spirited critical response . He commenced writing a blog in January 2003 , providing voyeuristic insights into his reaction to Pattern Recognition , but abated in September of the same year owing to concerns that it might negatively affect his creative process .
Gibson recommenced blogging in October 2004 , and during the process of writing Spook Country – and to a lesser extent Zero History – frequently posted short nonsequential excerpts from the novel to the blog . The blog was largely discontinued by July 2009 , after the writer had undertaken prolific microblogging on Twitter under the nom de plume " GreatDismal " . In 2012 , Gibson released a collection of his non @-@ fiction works entitled Distrust That Particular Flavor .
= = Influence and recognition = =
Hailed by Steven Poole of The Guardian in 1999 as " probably the most important novelist of the past two decades " in terms of influence , Gibson first achieved critical recognition with his debut novel , Neuromancer . The novel won three major science fiction awards ( the Nebula Award , the Philip K. Dick Award , and the Hugo Award ) , an unprecedented achievement described by the Mail & Guardian as " the sci @-@ fi writer 's version of winning the Goncourt , Booker and Pulitzer prizes in the same year " . Neuromancer gained unprecedented critical and popular attention outside science fiction , as an " evocation of life in the late 1980s " , although The Observer noted that " it took the New York Times 10 years " to mention the novel .
Gibson 's work has received international attention from an audience that was not limited to science fiction aficionados as , in the words of Laura Miller , " readers found startlingly prophetic reflections of contemporary life in [ its ] fantastic and often outright paranoid scenarios . " It is often situated by critics within the context of postindustrialism as , according to academic David Brande , a construction of " a mirror of existing large @-@ scale techno @-@ social relations " , and as a narrative version of postmodern consumer culture . It is praised by critics for its depictions of late capitalism and its " rewriting of subjectivity , human consciousness and behaviour made newly problematic by technology . " Tatiani Rapatzikou , writing in The Literary Encyclopedia , identifies Gibson as " one of North America 's most highly acclaimed science fiction writers " .
= = = Cultural significance = = =
In his early short fiction , Gibson is credited by Rapatzikou in The Literary Encyclopedia with effectively " renovating " science fiction , a genre at that time considered widely " insignificant " , influencing by means of the postmodern aesthetic of his writing the development of new perspectives in science fiction studies . In the words of filmmaker Marianne Trench , Gibson 's visions " struck sparks in the real world " and " determined the way people thought and talked " to an extent unprecedented in science fiction literature . The publication of Neuromancer ( 1984 ) hit a cultural nerve , causing Larry McCaffery to credit Gibson with virtually launching the cyberpunk movement , as " the one major writer who is original and gifted to make the whole movement seem original and gifted . " Aside from their central importance to cyberpunk and steampunk fiction , Gibson 's fictional works have been hailed by space historian Dwayne A. Day as some of the best examples of space @-@ based science fiction ( or " solar sci @-@ fi " ) , and " probably the only ones that rise above mere escapism to be truly thought @-@ provoking " .
Gibson 's early novels were , according to The Observer , " seized upon by the emerging slacker and hacker generation as a kind of road map " . Through his novels , such terms as cyberspace , netsurfing , ICE , jacking in , and neural implants entered popular usage , as did concepts such as net consciousness , virtual interaction and " the matrix " . In " Burning Chrome " ( 1982 ) , he coined the term cyberspace , referring to the " mass consensual hallucination " of computer networks . Through its use in Neuromancer , the term gained such recognition that it became the de facto term for the World Wide Web during the 1990s . Artist Dike Blair has commented that Gibson 's " terse descriptive phrases capture the moods which surround technologies , rather than their engineering . "
Gibson 's work has influenced several popular musicians : references to his fiction appear in the music of Stuart Hamm , Billy Idol , Warren Zevon , Deltron 3030 , Straylight Run ( whose name is derived from a sequence in Neuromancer ) and Sonic Youth . U2 's Zooropa album was heavily influenced by Neuromancer , and the band at one point planned to scroll the text of Neuromancer above them on a concert tour , although this did not end up happening . Members of the band did , however , provide background music for the audiobook version of Neuromancer as well as appearing in No Maps for These Territories , a biographical documentary of Gibson . He returned the favour by writing an article about the band 's Vertigo Tour for Wired in August 2005 . The band Zeromancer take their name from Neuromancer .
The film The Matrix ( 1999 ) drew inspiration for its title , characters and story elements from the Sprawl trilogy . The characters of Neo and Trinity in The Matrix are similar to Bobby Newmark ( Count Zero ) and Molly ( " Johnny Mnemonic " , Neuromancer ) . Like Turner , protagonist of Gibson 's Count Zero , characters in The Matrix download instructions ( to fly a helicopter and to " know kung fu " , respectively ) directly into their heads , and both Neuromancer and The Matrix feature artificial intelligences which strive to free themselves from human control . Critics have identified marked similarities between Neuromancer and the film 's cinematography and tone . In spite of his initial reticence about seeing the film on its release , Gibson later described it as " arguably the ultimate ' cyberpunk ' artifact . " In 2008 he received honorary doctorates from Simon Fraser University and Coastal Carolina University . He was inducted by Science Fiction Hall of Fame that same year , presented by his close friend and collaborator Jack Womack .
= = = Visionary influence and prescience = = =
In Neuromancer , Gibson first used the term " matrix " to refer to the visualised Internet , two years after the nascent Internet was formed in the early 1980s from the computer networks of the 1970s . Gibson thereby imagined a worldwide communications network years before the origin of the World Wide Web , although related notions had previously been imagined by others , including science fiction writers . At the time he wrote " Burning Chrome " , Gibson " had a hunch that [ the Internet ] would change things , in the same way that the ubiquity of the automobile changed things . " In 1995 , he identified the advent , evolution and growth of the Internet as " one of the most fascinating and unprecedented human achievements of the century " , a new kind of civilization that is – in terms of significance — on a par with the birth of cities , and in 2000 predicted it would lead to the death of the nation state .
Observers contend that Gibson 's influence on the development of the Web reached beyond prediction ; he is widely credited with creating an iconography for the information age , long before the embrace of the Internet by the mainstream . Gibson introduced , in Neuromancer , the notion of the " meatpuppet " , and is credited with inventing — conceptually rather than participatorally — the phenomenon of virtual sex . His influence on early pioneers of desktop environment digital art has been acknowledged , and he holds an honorary doctorate from Parsons The New School for Design . Steven Poole claims that in writing the Sprawl trilogy Gibson laid the " conceptual foundations for the explosive real @-@ world growth of virtual environments in video games and the Web " . In his afterword to the 2000 re @-@ issue of Neuromancer , fellow author Jack Womack suggests that Gibson 's vision of cyberspace may have inspired the way in which the Internet ( and the Web particularly ) developed , following the publication of Neuromancer in 1984 , asking " what if the act of writing it down , in fact , brought it about ? "
Gibson scholar Tatiani G. Rapatzikou has commented , in Gothic Motifs in the Fiction of William Gibson , on the origin of the notion of cyberspace :
Gibson 's vision , generated by the monopolising appearance of the terminal image and presented in his creation of the cyberspace matrix , came to him when he saw teenagers playing in video arcades . The physical intensity of their postures , and the realistic interpretation of the terminal spaces projected by these games – as if there were a real space behind the screen — made apparent the manipulation of the real by its own representation .
In his Sprawl and Bridge trilogies , Gibson is credited with being one of the few observers to explore the portents of the information age for notions of the sociospatial structuring of cities . Not all responses to Gibson 's visions have been positive , however ; virtual reality pioneer Mark Pesce , though acknowledging their heavy influence on him and that " no other writer had so eloquently and emotionally affected the direction of the hacker community , " dismissed them as " adolescent fantasies of violence and disembodiment . " In Pattern Recognition , the plot revolves around snippets of film footage posted anonymously to various locations on the Internet . Characters in the novel speculate about the filmmaker 's identity , motives , methods and inspirations on several websites , anticipating the 2006 lonelygirl15 internet phenomenon . However , Gibson later disputed the notion that the creators of lonelygirl15 drew influence from him . Another phenomenon anticipated by Gibson is the rise of reality television , for example in Virtual Light , which featured a satirical extrapolated version of COPS .
When an interviewer in 1988 asked about the Bulletin Board System jargon in his writing , Gibson answered " I 'd never so much as touched a PC when I wrote Neuromancer " ; he was familiar , he said , with the science @-@ fiction community , which overlapped with the BBS community . Gibson similarly did not play computer games despite appearing in his stories . He wrote Neuromancer on a 1927 olive @-@ green Hermes portable typewriter , which Gibson described as " the kind of thing Hemingway would have used in the field " . By 1988 he used an Apple IIc and AppleWorks to write , with a modem ( " I don 't really use it for anything " ) , but until 1996 Gibson did not have an email address , a lack he explained at the time to have been motivated by a desire to avoid correspondence that would distract him from writing . His first exposure to a website came while writing Idoru when a web developer built one for Gibson . In 2007 he said , " I have a 2005 PowerBook G4 , a gig of memory , wireless router . That 's it . I 'm anything but an early adopter , generally . In fact , I 've never really been very interested in computers themselves . I don 't watch them ; I watch how people behave around them . That 's becoming more difficult to do because everything is ' around them ' . "
= = Selected bibliography = =
Nonfiction
= The Doon School =
The Doon School ( informally Doon ) is a boys @-@ only independent boarding school in Dehradun , Uttarakhand , India . It was founded in 1935 by Satish Ranjan Das , a Kolkata lawyer . He prevised a school modelled on the British public school , but alive to Indian ambitions and desires . The school 's first headmaster was an Englishman , Arthur E. Foot , who had spent nine years as a science master at Eton College , England before coming to Doon , and returned to England right after India 's independence . The present headmaster is Peter McLaughlin , who has occupied the post since 2009 and is the ninth headmaster of the school . He is a member of Headmasters ' and Headmistresses ' Conference .
The school is a member of G20 Schools and Round Square group . Doon houses roughly 500 pupils aged 13 to 18 . Admission to the school is based on a competitive entrance examination and an interview . Every year in January and April , the school admits pupils aged 13 in Grade 7 ( known as D @-@ form ) and aged 14 in Grade 8 ( C @-@ form ) respectively . Doon pupils take the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education in tenth grade and are thereafter offered two strands for the final two years : International Baccalaureate ( IB ) or Indian School Certificate ( ISC ) . The school began offering the IB curriculum only in 2006 , before which all pupils had to sit the ISC examinations in twelfth grade .
Doon has consistently been ranked the best residential school of India by media such as BBC , The Times of India and Outlook . Although the school has often been cited as ' Eton of India ' by media outlets such as the BBC , The Guardian , Financial Times , The Economist , The Daily Telegraph and Forbes , it strongly eschews the label . Doon remains a boys @-@ only school despite continued pressure from political leaders , including President Pratibha Patil , to become coeducational . Old boys of the school are commonly known as Doscos . Although the total number of Doscos is relatively small ( estimated at 5 @,@ 000 since the school 's founding ) , they include some of India 's most prominent politicians , government officials and business leaders . The best known alumnus is former Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
Doon was founded by Satish Ranjan Das , a lawyer from Calcutta and advocate @-@ general of Bengal , who in 1927 became a member of the Viceroy 's Executive Council of Lord Irwin on the condition that he would use the prestige of this position to raise funds for a new type of school in India . He decided to name the new school " Doon " , as it was situated in the Doon Valley . He travelled widely in India with the goal of collecting ₹ 4 millions , but at the time of his death had raised only ₹ 1 million in cash and a further ₹ 1 million in promises . With the money , Das formed the Indian Public Schools ' Society ( IPSS ) , which had the objective of founding new public schools in India that would admit students regardless of caste , creed or social status . Under the IPSS , a Board of Governors supervises all matters of Doon . Jawaharlal Nehru encouraged a move towards establishing the school , but Mahatma Gandhi " would have nothing to do with it " .
After the death of Das in 1928 , the IPSS accomplished little , and by 1934 some of the original presenter had begun to inquire about the return of their money . To solve this problem , Sir Joseph Bhore , then Railway Minister of Lord Willingdon 's Council , became IPSS chairman and , with Sir Akbar Hydari as secretary , worked to obtain the former estate of the Forest Research Institute in Dehra Dun on favourable terms . Sir Frank Noyce also joined the team . Lord Halifax , then President of the British Board of Education , led a selection committee that nominated Arthur E. Foot , a science teacher at Eton College , to be the first headmaster . On 27 October 1935 , the Viceroy , Lord Willingdon , presided over the formal opening of the school . Seventy boys enrolled in the first term , and 110 more signed up for the second .
The houses at the new school were originally named after their respective housemasters , but later renamed in honour of the largest presenter to the IPSS : Hyderabad House was named after Sir Akbar Hydari secured a contribution of ₹ 200 @,@ 000 from the Nizam of Hyderabad 's government ; . Kashmir House , after Maharajah Hari Singh , then ruler of Jammu and Kashmir , promised a contribution of ₹ 100 @,@ 000 ( 100 @,@ 000 rupees ) , which was delivered in 1935 ; . Tata House , after the Tata and Wadia Trusts promised ₹ 150 @,@ 000 , half of which was delivered in 1935 ; . Jaipur House , after Rai Bahadur Amarnath Atal arranged for contributions of ₹ 100 @,@ 000 from the Durbar of Jaipur . No building was named after Rai Bahadur Rameshwar Nathany , since his donation of ₹ 100 @,@ 000 was initially anonymous .
= = = Founding ethos = = =
Arthur Foot had never visited India before accepting the position of headmaster , and knew little of Dehradun beyond what he learned by consulting an atlas . He noted that it appeared to be surrounded by forests and close to mountains , and the possibilities of outdoor recreation and mountaineering seem to have influenced his decision as much as the chance to create a completely new type of school in India . Foot 's first action upon being offered the position was to recruit J.A.K. ( John ) Martyn from Harrow School as his deputy . Doon 's ethos and guiding principles were determined early in its life by Foot , Martyn , R.L. Holdsworth and Jack Gibson , who went on to become Principal of Mayo College . While these masters all came from very traditional British schools , they were determined to create a uniquely Indian public school rather than a transplanted British institution , and they were soon joined in their efforts by equally influential Indians such as Sudhir Khastgir ( the school 's first art teacher , who had trained previously in Santiniketan ) and Gurdial Singh , a pioneering mountaineer who taught at Doon for several decades .
In an essay entitled The Objects of Education published in the school magazine , Foot offered a template for a complete education for boys , which included teaching them to distinguish clearly between good and evil , form a habit of choosing good over evil , think logically , express their thoughts and views clearly , and maintain a healthy body . In other essays , Foot identified the milestones in the development of each student :
By 14 he should have learnt all the ordinary principles of social behaviour . He should know how to stand up and speak to a variety of different types of people – to his own mother , to someone else 's mother , to his father , to his schoolmasters , to servants , to Mahatma Gandhi or to the Viceroy , and to do this without any self @-@ consciousness ... At fourteen a boy should have constructed a framework of competence in language , in mathematical ability , and in social behaviour . After that age he is , as it were , filling in a design on to the framework . In short he is learning to exercise taste ... At 16 , he acquired taste , a sense of the beautiful and the ugly , of the strong and the weak , of good and evil ... At 17 must come another quality , less instinctive and requiring a maturer mind : he must acquire a capacity of judgement .
Martyn , who was involved with Doon for several decades and became its second headmaster , acknowledged the influence of the very remarkable German man , Kurt Hahn , in the development of the school 's ethos . Although Martyn had not visited India before , he immediately accepted Foot 's offer because of the opportunity it afforded to implement Hahn 's ideas , which he had not been able to do at Harrow . Martyn acknowledged Foot 's leadership in the development of the school , but added that they both had similar ideas : " I would not have been as bold as he was in trying to eliminate punishments , but we were equally keen on providing as wide a range as possible of activities that were creative and challenging ... The problem , as we saw it , was to create an atmosphere in which boys would learn the importance of public spirit at the same time as they acquired self @-@ confidence and initiative . "
= = = Headmasters = = =
Foot and Martyn , the first two headmasters at Doon , were both from elite British institutions – Eton College and Harrow School . They were determined to model Doon on those two schools , but both agreed that it should cater primarily for Indian boys rather than the sons of British expatriates . The public school jargon introduced by these headmasters is still in use . For example , the weekly masters ' meeting , started by Foot , is called Chambers , a term taken from Eton , and evening " prep " ( the boarding @-@ school equivalent of homework ) is called Toye @-@ time , a term taken from Winchester College .
Though Foot modelled Doon on Eton and Harrow ( and the school is often called the " Eton of India " by various press agencies ) , he did not want Doon to be considered elitist . Foot once said , " our boys will join an aristocracy , but it ’ s an aristocracy of service , not one of wealth , privilege or position " . The school 's first Indian headmaster was Eric Simeon appointed in 1970 . He came from a military background and laid great emphasis on disciplined living . The next headmaster , Gulab Ramchandani , was the first alumnus to become headmaster . Ramchandani 's successor Shomie Das , another alumnus , was the grandson of school founder Satish Ranjan Das . During his tenure , the Oberoi house was added to the original four houses .
The main emphasis of the next headmaster , John Mason , was to make Doon affordable for school pupils ; Doon did not raise its fees during his tenure . Kanti Bajpai became the third old boy to become headmaster . He oversaw the introduction of numerous punishments , notably " yellow cards " , to control an outburst of bullying at Doon . Peter McLaughlin , a member of the Headmasters ' and Headmistresses ' Conference ( HMC ) , became the first non @-@ Indian headmaster for almost four decades when he was appointed in 2009 . Shortly before taking up his appointment he said , " We will be adhering to the school credo of engaging individuals in socially productive work , at the same time delivering on quality education . "
In June 2016 the school announced the appointment of Matthew Raggett , principal of the Leipzig International School 's secondary department , to succeed Peter McLaughlin from the end of the summer term .
= = = DS @-@ 75 celebrations = = =
The annual Founder 's Day celebration of the school is an event of three or four @-@ days in the Autumn Term , usually in the last week of October . Many ex @-@ pupils come from all parts of the world to celebrate the event . Security on campus is tight , since alumni attending the event often include senior politicians and government officials , and the chief guest is usually a very prominent person . The event includes productions of English dramas followed by an orchestral concert given by members of the school 's Music Society .
Doon celebrated its 75th Founder 's Day ( Platinum Jubilee ) in October 2010 with an event christened DS @-@ 75 . Among the chief guests were the then President Pratibha Patil of India , King Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck of Bhutan and Kapil Sibal , ( then Union Minister for Human Resource Development ) . Pratibha Patil , in her address , urged the school authorities to make Doon a co @-@ educational institution . Rahul Gandhi , General Secretary of the Indian National Congress , who studied at Doon for two years , stayed away for security reasons . One of the main attractions was a discussion ( dubbed the " Chandbagh Debate " ) held between alumni including Vikram Seth , Kamal Nath , Manpreet Singh Badal , Jyotiraditya Madhavrao Scindia and retired headmaster Kanti Bajpai , on the topic Can India lead ? . It was moderated by television commentator Karan Thapar , an alumnus of the school .
Ashvin Kumar made the film Dazed in Doon for the celebrations , using pupils for the cast and crew . Most of it was shot in June and July during the summer break , and those scenes which required the entire student body were filmed after the school reopened in August . The Doon School , however , objected to the film and its distribution , obtaining a court order to delay its release and labelling it " defamatory " . Shayan Italia , another alumnus , composed and gave a live performance of the song " Doscos Forever , Brothers for Life " to mark the event . On 22 October 2010 , a commemorative postage stamp depicting the school 's main building was released by the Indian Postal Service to mark the occasion of the 75th Founder 's Day .
= = Campus = =
The school occupies a single campus covering approximately 72 acres ( 290 @,@ 000 m2 ) flanked by Chakrata Road and Mall Road in the Dehradun Cantonment area of Dehradun city , Uttarakhand , India . To house the school , the IPSS acquired Chandbagh Estate in Dehradun from the Forest Research Institute . Part of the estate was once a deer park . The IPSS also acquired an adjoining estate , now known as Skinner 's Field , from the descendants of James Skinner . At the time of acquisition it was overgrown and somewhat neglected , its most prominent features being two sheds formerly used to house elephants . The new Art and Media School , located on the site of the old Music School and inaugurated in October 2010 by Kapil Sibal , was shortlisted for the 2010 World Architecture News Education Award . The school 's South Garden has been mentioned in Inside Outside Magazine 's Annual Awards for its green principles and GRIHA standards of environmental compatibility .
The Chandbagh estate is located in a green part of Dehradun and a wide variety of flora and fauna are found on the estate , including many rare trees that date back to the days of the Forest Research Institute . The school has over 150 species of trees on its campus , and the formal gardens attract a variety of birds . In 1996 , a book titled Trees of Chandbagh was released which provided a comprehensive account of vegetation found on Doon 's campus , known as Chandbagh .
= = = Houses = = =
Doon follows the house system . When the school opened in 1935 , there were only three houses . Today there are five main houses ( Hyderabad , Jaipur , Kashmir , Tata and Oberoi ) and two holding houses ( Foot and Martyn , named after former headmasters ) , where new students live for a year before moving to one of the main houses .
Each house is run by a housemaster , who is also an active member of the teaching staff . The housemaster is assisted by a senior boy known as the house captain . One senior boy serves as school captain and is assisted by prefects from each house . Boys are assigned to houses at the time of admission and develop great loyalty to them , since all intramural sports involve fierce competition between houses . For some alumni , inter @-@ house rivalry continues well into middle @-@ age . Boys with even the most distant family connections to a particular house are invariably assigned to that house .
For many decades , housemasters were always men , but now there are housemistresses as well . Each housemaster and housemistress is assisted by a matron known as " The Dame " , who provides pastoral care for pupils , some of whom take several terms to adjust fully to life in a boarding school , particularly given Doon 's monastic lifestyle and strict routine . The homes of housemasters and housemistresses are adjacent or physically attached to their houses to enable close supervision and support .
= = Academic life = =
The school follows flexible modular scheduling to educate the pupils . The school practices a five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ day week consisting of 40 periods ( or " schools " ) , each of 40 minutes . The school day begins with " first bell " soon after 6 : 15 am . The boys have chhota haazri before doing calisthenics outdoors on the playing fields . There are eight classes in total with a 20 @-@ minute break and lunch in between . All meals are served in a central dining hall , and boys from each table take turns acting as waiters for their table @-@ mates .
The academic year has always consisted of two terms : the Spring Term and the Autumn Term . In the early decades , the academic year followed the calendar year . This changed in the late 1970s so that the Spring Term now runs from February to the end of May . New pupils ( " D @-@ Formers " ) join Doon at the beginning of April . The Autumn Term runs from August to the year @-@ end examinations in November after which the boys are promoted to the new class beginning in February . These internal examinations are known as " trials " , while examinations leading to certificates such as the Indian School Certificate are known as " finals " .
Social work , known formally as " Socially Useful Productive Work " , is also part of school life . All boys of the school must complete a mandatory quota of social service hours every term . Pupils and alumni have frequently organised efforts across India to assist people affected by natural disasters . During the 1991 Uttarkashi earthquake the school 's amateur radio club was used by the government for communication purposes . Doon also oversees a Panchayat Ghar teaching impoverished children , and many building projects and workshops for the local community . Discipline has always been strict , and the school has expelled children from well @-@ known families . In the 1950s , Martyn 's suggestion that Sanjay Gandhi finish his senior year elsewhere was accepted without question by his mother , Indira Gandhi . In contrast , Doon 's decision to expel a ward of Chief Minister Nityanand Swami of Uttarakhand in 2000 led to allegations of threats to disrupt power and water supplies ; the difficulty was overcome by the prime minister 's intervention .
= = = Pupils = = =
Pupils are known as " Doscos " , a contraction of " Doon " and " school " . The press often calls alumni Doscos , but in Doon itself they are called ex @-@ Doscos , or simply Old Boys . The vast majority of alumni are Indians , but a dwindling number are from Pakistan having studied at Doon before the Partition of India forced them to leave in 1947 . Relations between Indian and Pakistani alumni have remained warm over the years , despite the long history of conflict between the two countries . Boys from Bangladesh and Nepal continue to study at Doon . Doon remains a boys @-@ only school despite continued pressure from political leaders , including President Pratibha Patil , to become coeducational .
= = School activities = =
= = = Sports = = =
Sports are compulsory at the school . It has over 30 acres ( 120 @,@ 000 m2 ) of playing fields , the largest of which are Skinner 's Field and the Main Field . Cricket , hockey , athletics , boxing and association football are played seasonally . Tennis , table tennis , badminton , squash , basketball , swimming and gymnastics tournaments are also available . Sport is dominated by cricket and hockey during the spring term and by football , athletics and boxing in the autumn term . Inter @-@ house matches are played in cricket , hockey and football . Sports facilities include a 25 @-@ metre swimming pool , a boxing ring and a multi @-@ purpose hall with a gymnasium and facilities for indoor badminton , basketball and table tennis . There are two artificial turf cricket pitches , five basketball courts , six tennis courts , four squash courts , ten cricket nets , seven fields for hockey and football ( which can be converted to four cricket pitches to accommodate seasonal sports ) , a modern cricket pavilion and two 400 @-@ metre athletics tracks .
Doon hosts the annual Afzal Khan Memorial Basketball Tournament , an inter @-@ school basketball tournament .
= = = Clubs and societies = = =
Extracurricular activities are also a compulsory element of school life , and magazines are published in English and Hindi . There are around 23 clubs and societies , including politics , drama , photography , aeromodelling , first @-@ aid , dramatics , painting , sculpture , carpentry , amateur radio , music ( including Trinity Guildhall music examinations ) , senior and junior English debating societies , Model United Nations , chess and astronomy . In many societies pupils come together to discuss a particular topic , presided over by a schoolmaster and often including a guest speaker . The school has often invited prominent figures to give speeches and talks to the students ; these have included heads of state , politicians , ornithologists , naturalists , artists , writers , economists , diplomats and industrialists .
The Doon School Weekly is the official school newspaper , distributed every Saturday morning . It chronicles school activities and is a platform for creative and political writing . It was founded in 1936 and is edited by pupils . Although it is subject to censorship , satire and criticism of school policies have been published in the past . More subversive publications , far more critical of teachers and the school establishment , have occasionally been produced without official sponsorship . Other school magazines include The Yearbook and The Doon School Information Review . Publications by academic departments include Echo ( Science ) , The Econocrat ( Economics ) , Infinity ( Mathematics ) , Grand Slam ( Sports ) and The Circle ( History and Political Science ) .
= = = Mountaineering = = =
Halfway through each term , the boys take a one @-@ week " midterm " – a rugged trip , often through the Siwalik Hills or Himalayas . Senior boys make treks of up to five days , unaccompanied by teachers , camping out in tents , cooking their own food and hiking . They plan these trips themselves . Alumni have credited these midterms as being among their most formative and character @-@ building experiences .
Doon has been credited with pioneering mountaineering in India , due to the accomplishments of masters such as R.L. Holdsworth , Jack Gibson and Gurdial Singh and alumni such as Nandu Jayal . Notable climbs by staff and alumni include Bandarpunch ( 6 @,@ 316 m ) in 1950 , Kala Nag ( 6 @,@ 387 m ) in 1956 , Trisul ( 7 @,@ 120 m ) in 1951 , Kamet ( 7 @,@ 756 m ) in 1955 , Abi Gamin ( 7 @,@ 355 m ) in 1953 and 1955 , Mrigthuni ( 6 @,@ 855 m ) in 1958 and Jaonli ( 6 @,@ 632 metres ) in 1964 .
Some of these expeditions have had their idiosyncrasies . After Gurudial Singh led a successful climb of Trisul , he performed a headstand asana on the summit as a tribute to the Hindu god Shiva , who is said to abide there . Holdsworth has been claimed to hold the high @-@ altitude record for smoking a pipe , which he did on the summit of Kamet after the first ascent in 1931 . Two Doon pupils climbed the Matterhorn in 1951 wearing cricket boots .
= = = Theatre and music = = =
An amphitheatre known as the Rose Bowl was built largely by pupils in two years during the 1930s and underwent a major structural change in 2009 . It can seat up to 1 @,@ 000 people and has been the setting for numerous Shakespeare plays and other classics of western theatre , as well as musical performances and speeches during school ceremonies such as Founder 's Day . The Multi @-@ Purpose Hall is a more modern indoor theatre that can accommodate approximately 2 @,@ 000 people . Plays are regularly staged in English and Hindi , with 8 – 9 productions each year including 2 major productions as part of the Founder 's Day celebrations . The Inter House Once @-@ Act Play competition is held each year , alternatively in English and Hindi . Many of the plays historically have been joint productions with the Welham Girls ' School in Dehradun .
In 2001 a new music school was built beside the Rose Bowl . It houses a music library , a concert hall and several practice and teaching rooms where students learn various western and Indian instruments . Pupils of the school have an option to appear for the Trinity Guildhall music examinations , conducted by Trinity College London , in piano , violin , drums and classical guitar . In 2002 the school choir raised ₹ 2 million for victims of the 2001 Gujarat earthquake by organising a charity concert with the title Concerto 2000 , in which drummer Sivamani also took part . To commemorate its Platinum Jubilee , the school launched a music album called Spirit of Doon in collaboration with EMI . The school choir sang two songs ( " Lab pe Aati Hai Dua " and " Anand Loke " ) for the project but only the former was included in the final recording . The tracks were written by the lyricist Gulzar and were sung by Sonu Nigam , Shayan Italia and Bhajan Sopori .
= = School songs = =
Attendance at the morning assembly is required of all pupils and teachers . It traditionally begins with a song from the school 's Song Book :
Song No. 1 – " Jana Gana Mana " by Rabindranath Tagore
Song No. 2 – " Chisti Ne Jis Zamin Mein " by Muhammad Iqbal
Song No. 3 – " Anand Loke " by Rabindranath Tagore
Song No. 4 – " Saare Jahan Se Achcha " by Muhammad Iqbal
Song No. 5 – " Lab Pe Aati Hai Dua " by Muhammad Iqbal
Song No. 6 – " Vandana Ke in Swaron Mein " ( a Bhajan )
Song No. 7 – " Ghungat Ke Pat Khol Re " ( attributed to Meerabai )
Song No. 8 – " He Jagtrata Vishv Vidhata "
Song No. 9 – " Pitu Matu Sahayak " ( a Bhajan )
Song No. 10 – " Vande Mataram " ( from a poem by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay )
Although Jana Gana Mana is India 's National anthem , it is traditionally referred to as " Song No. 1 " at Doon since it was adopted as the School Song in 1935 , fifteen years before it was adopted as India 's national anthem . The school songs were deliberately chosen to include both Urdu poetry and Hindu bhajans as a way of emphasising Doon 's secular ethos ; similarly , the school prayers include a mix of Anglican hymns and Indian poetry .
= = Affiliations = =
= = = Ties with other schools = = =
From its foundation in 1937 until the early 1980s , Welham Boys ' School was a feeder school for Doon School and Mayo College . This ended when Surendra Kandhari , an old boy and former housemaster at Doon , became Principal of Welham and transformed it into a high school . Several families who send their sons to Doon send their daughters to Welham Girls ' School , and many Doon alumni have married alumnae of Welham . The two schools hold an annual " dance social " , and their alumni sometimes collaborate in organising events . Pakistani ex @-@ pupils from Doon established the Chand Bagh School 40 km north of Lahore , Pakistan , in 1998 , modelling it on the general structure of Doon . Doon also has exchange programmes with a number of overseas schools . As of September 2011 , a small number of Doon students were attending Eton College , Harrow School , Millfield , Schule Schloss Salem , The Armidale School , Bridge House School , Deerfield Academy , King 's Academy , Stowe School , Scotch College , Melbourne and St. Mark 's School ( Texas ) . In 2011 Doon twinned with The Thomas Hardye School , Dorchester , England , through a cultural exchange project organised by the BBC and British Council in light of the 2012 Summer Olympic Games held in the UK .
= = = Schools with similar names = = =
As private schools became more widespread in India , several other schools used " Doon " as part of their names , causing some confusion . Among them are Doon Global School , Doon Presidency School , Doon International School , Doon Preparatory School , Doon Cambridge School , Doon Girls School , Doon Public School ( in West Delhi , not the Doon Valley ) and the Doon College of Spoken English . None of them is related to The Doon School .
= = = Memberships = = =
The Doon School is a member of following organisations : G20 Schools , Round Square , Rotary International 's Interact Club , Headmasters ' and Headmistresses ' Conference , International Boys ' Schools Coalition , Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations , International Baccalaureate Organization ( IBO ) , Indian Public Schools ' Conference , Rashtriya Life Saving Society ( India ) , International Award Association
The school is the regional test centre for University of Cambridge ESOL Examinations and SAT Tests .
= = Public image = =
Doon in films & television
The film Dazed in Doon , which was commissioned by the School on the occasion of its 75th anniversary and produced by old boy Ashvin Kumar , was banned by the school authorities because it " doesn 't give the school a good name " . The dispute remains unresolved .
In September 2010 , BBC Sport made a documentary on the Doon School for the World Olympic Dreams Project . The documentary was produced in association with the British Council . Its main purpose was to show the school where Abhinav Bindra , the first Indian individual Olympic gold medallist , spent his formative years .
In the 2010 Bollywood film Aisha , the character Randhir Gambhir is a Doon School alumnus .
Doon in literature
Vikram Seth used his own experiences of being bullied at Doon to model the character of Tapan in A Suitable Boy .
In Salman Rushdie 's short @-@ story anthology East , West , the protagonists Zulu and Chekhov are Doscos .
In Tenzing Norgay 's autobiography Man of Everest , he refers to Bandarpunch as " The Doon School mountain " due to the fact that the mountain was frequented by two Doon School teachers Jack Gibson and John Martyn .
Doon in research
Doon School Chronicles is the first of five ethnographic films called the Doon School Quintet , made by David MacDougall between 1997 and 2000 about the culture of the School . Macdougall has written of a tendency of some alumni to idealise a Golden Age set in the first decade of the school 's life , which sometimes makes them resistant to change .
Constructing Post @-@ Colonial India : National Character and the Doon School by Sanjay Srivastva is a detailed sociological study of the school 's culture and how it has influenced India 's national character .
'Poor ' Children in ' Rich ' Schools , a 2005 report by the Institute of Social Studies Trust , discusses why the Doon School has no reservations ( quotas for specific social groups ) in its admissions process . The post quotes an unnamed student who explains , " passing the Doon School entrance exam means that you have proved yourself worthy of the school . Reserving seats for students seems to imply that the school must prove itself worthy of you . "
In 1969 , Asian Survey ( then Asian Review ) - an Asian studies academic journal of University of California , Berkeley - produced a report on The Doon School as a part of their project which documented Indian history after the entry of East India Company .
In Indian Tales of the Raj , Zareer Masani studies how Doon School 's alumni affected the Indian political scene in the ' 60s .
= = Notable people = =
= = = Alumni = = =
Pupils of Doon have gone on to achieve prominence in politics , government service , the armed forces of India and Pakistan , commerce , journalism , the arts and literature . They include nine Cabinet Ministers , two chief ministers , several members of the Indian Parliament and state Legislative Assemblies ; a Naxalite , nineteen generals , two admirals , former heads of the Indian and Pakistani Air Forces and twenty @-@ four ambassadors , including those from India , Pakistan , Nepal and the United Kingdom . The best @-@ known alumnus is former Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi , who appointed so many old boys to his administration that his inner circle was called a " Doon cabinet " . Gandhi 's reliance on Doon alumni for political advice was criticised in the media , and they seldom held public office for some time afterward . Though this has changed with the political ascendance of Jyotiraditya Madhavrao Scindia , Kamal Nath and Rahul Gandhi .
Notable Doon alumni to have held senior positions in Indian and Pakistani politics include the former Indian diplomat turned politician Mani Shankar Aiyar , currently a Rajya Sabha nominee , the former Defence Secretary of Pakistan Ghulam Jilani Khan , Kamal Nath ( Politician , class of 1964 ) , Rahul Gandhi ( Congress Politician , class of 1986 ) , Sanjay Gandhi ( Congress Politician , class of 1964 ) , Naveen Patnaik ( Politician , class of 1964 ) , Jyotiraditya Madhavrao Scindia ( Politician , class of 1989 ) , Dr. Karan Singh ( Politician , class of 1948 ) In the field of Literature and Poetry , Doon alumni include Amitav Ghosh ( class of 1972 ) , Ramachandra Guha ( class of 1973 ) , Vikram Seth ( class of 1970 ) , Ardashir Vakil .
Doon alumni in Journalism include Prannoy Roy ( class of 1965 ) , Aroon Purie ( class of 1962 ) , Karan Thapar , Virendra Prabhakar and Vikram Chandra . The first Indian Rhodes scholar was a Doon School alumni - Lovraj Kumar . Doon is also the alma mater of the first Indian individual Olympic gold medallist , Abhinav Bindra ( class of 1999 ) and the mountaineering pioneer Nandu Jayal . In the field of Arts and Entertainment , Doon 's alumni include Roshan Seth ( Class of 1960 ) , Himani Shivpuri ( class of 1971 ) , Chandrachur Singh and Abhishek Poddar , a prominent art collector . The sculptor Anish Kapoor ( class of 1970 ) also attended Doon .
In Business , the Doon alumni included Anil Kumar , former senior partner at McKinsey & Company and co @-@ founder of the Indian School of Business , Gautam Thapar , founder and chairman of the Avantha Group , Malvinder Mohan Singh and Shivinder Mohan Singh , former owners of Ranbaxy Laboratories and presently owning Fortis Healthcare .
= = = Faculty = = =
Doon has benefited from the services of the following academics in the past :
Peter Lawrence
Jack Gibson
J. A. K. Martyn
Sheel Vohra
R. L. Holdsworth
Gurdial Singh
Sudhir Khastgir
Chetan Anand
Simon Singh
Vikram Seth
Satendra Nandan
= West Bengal =
West Bengal ( / wɛst bɛŋˈɡɔːl / ; Bengali pronunciation : [ pɔʃtʃimbɔŋɡɔ ] ) is a state in eastern India and is the nation 's fourth @-@ most populous state , with over 91 million inhabitants . Spread over 34 @,@ 267 sq mi ( 88 @,@ 750 km2 ) , it is bordered by the countries of Bangladesh , Nepal and Bhutan , and the Indian states of Odisha , Jharkhand , Bihar , Sikkim and Assam . The state capital is Kolkata . Together with the neighbouring nation of Bangladesh , it makes up the ethno @-@ linguistic region of Bengal .
Ancient Bengal was the site of several major janapadas ( kingdoms ) . It was also part of large empires such as the Maurya Empire ( second century BC ) and Gupta Empire ( fourth century AD ) ; and part of the regional Buddhist Pala Empire ( 8th to 11th century ) and Sena dynasty ( 11th – 12th century ) . From the 13th century onward , the region was controlled by the Bengal Sultanate , Hindu kings and Baro @-@ Bhuyan landlords under the suzerainty of the Mughal Empire , until the British East India company took control of the region from the Mughals in the late 18th century . The company consolidated their hold on the region following the Battle of Plassey in 1757 and Battle of Buxar in 1764 and by 1793 took complete control of the region . Kolkata ( or Calcutta ) served for many years as the capital of British controlled territories in India . The early and prolonged exposure to British administration resulted in the expansion of Western education , culminating in development of science , institutional education , and social reforms in the region , including what became known as the Bengali renaissance . A hotbed of the Indian independence movement through the early 20th century , Bengal was divided during India 's independence in 1947 along religious lines into two separate entities : West Bengal — a largely Hindu state of India — and East Bengal — a mostly Muslim part of the newly created Dominion of Pakistan . East Bengal later became the independent nation of Bangladesh in 1971 .
A major agricultural producer , West Bengal is the sixth @-@ largest contributor to India 's net domestic product . Noted for its political activism , the state was ruled by democratically elected communist governments for 34 years from 1977 . It is noted for its cultural activities and the presence of cultural and educational institutions ; the state capital Kolkata is known as the " cultural capital of India " . The state 's cultural heritage , besides varied folk traditions , ranges from stalwarts in literature including Nobel @-@ laureate Rabindranath Tagore to scores of musicians , film @-@ makers and artists . West Bengal is also distinct from most other Indian states in its appreciation and practice of playing Association football besides cricket , the national favourite sport .
= = Etymology = =
The origin of the name Bengal ( known as Bangla and Bongo in Bengali language ) is unknown . One theory suggests that the word derives from " Bang , " a Dravidian tribe that settled the region around 1000 BC . The word might have been derived from the ancient kingdom of Vanga ( or Banga ) . Although some early Sanskrit literature mentions the name , the region 's early history is obscure .
At the end of British Rule over the Indian subcontinent , the Bengal region was partitioned in 1947 along religious lines into east and west . The east came to be known as East Bengal and the west came to known as West Bengal , which continued as an Indian state . In 2011 , the Government of West Bengal proposed a change in the official name of the state to Poschimbongo ( Bengali : পশ ্ চিমবঙ ্ গ Pôshchimbônggô ) . This is
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Thomas de Dundee resigned their rights to this episcopal see , but nevertheless Cardinal Hugh Aycelin used his influence to secure Thomas papal provision as bishop on 18 November . In the following year Adam de Darlington was compensated by being appointed Bishop of Caithness , the bishopric which adjoined Ross to the north .
Perhaps because of the political troubles in Scotland at the time , there is a two @-@ year gap between Thomas receiving provision to the see and gaining its " temporalities " , i.e. gaining actual possession of the office . Scotland 's king , John de Balliol , had been in a conflict of authority with the King of the English , who deposed King John in 1296 . It was not until 31 July 1297 that the temporalities of the see were released to Thomas by King Edward I of England , probably after a meeting between Thomas and King Edward at London . According to one source King Edward had been told by Pope Boniface VIII to install Thomas as bishop , Edward proceeded to judge the matter for himself . After doing so , and having received Thomas ' oath of fealty , King Edward ordered John de Warrene , the Earl of Surrey , to install Thomas into his episcopal temporalities .
= = = Episcopate = = =
Thomas had taken up his diocese in Scotland by 17 August 1298 . On this date his seal was attached to a document which recorded the losses suffered by Scone Abbey following the Scottish rebel defeat by the English crown at the Battle of Falkirk . In the first few years of the 14th century Thomas witnessed three charters of Coupar Angus Abbey in the company of Robert Wishart , Bishop of Glasgow , a known opponent of the English crown .
He witnessed another charter relating to that abbey , between 1300 and 1302 , by John de Soules , who issued it as Guardian of Scotland acting in King John Balliol 's name . After the resurgence of English power in Scotland in 1304 Thomas can be found co @-@ operating with King Edward 's officials . In the autumn of 1305 King Edward planned a council of advisors to assist his new governor , John of Brittany , and Bishop Thomas was thought trustworthy enough to be included in this council .
It appears that Bishop Thomas remained pro @-@ English and pro @-@ Balliol after the rising in 1306 of Robert de Brus , Earl of Carrick . Bruce had himself crowned king on 25 March ( becoming King Robert I of Scotland ) . Bishop Thomas ' positions mirrored those of William II , Earl of Ross . On 7 December 1307 King Edward II of England was seeking Bishop Thomas ' support against King Robert .
However , the realities of de Brus power in this part of Scotland were pushed home in the following year . On 13 December 1307 King Robert secured the submission of Bishop Thomas ' temporal protector , Earl William . After this submission Bishop Thomas acted as one of the sureties for Earl William 's future loyalty . The other guarantor was David de Moravia , Bishop of Moray ) .
Record of Bishop Thomas ' activity in the following years is scarce . The sources do not name him as an attendee of the St Andrews parliament of 17 March 1309 , a parliament at which many of the Scottish clergy declared their support for King Robert . However , very few prelates or churchmen were mentioned individually , so that it is not possible to conclude anything about Bishop Thomas ' attendance . He may have attended most or all of the assemblies and parliaments of the following decade , but only for the parliament held at Scone on 3 December 1318 is he specifically recorded as being present .
On 29 October 1312 he attached his seal to a treaty between King Robert and the King of Norway . Thomas was the recipient of a papal mandate issued on 1 June 1317 authorising him to give dispensation for the wrongful marriage between King Robert 's brother Edward de Brus and a daughter of Earl William of Ross . He is found on 1 November 1321 arranging to pay a loan which had been granted by Coupar Angus Abbey to Radulf de Dundee , a loan that had been granted all the way back in 1312 .
His probable last occurrence in the sources concerned a conflict with Kinloss Abbey regarding the prebendal parish church of Avoch . The parish of Avoch lay within Thomas ' diocese , but the Abbot of Kinloss claimed the primary right to possess it . A papal mandate was issued on 5 January 1325 to William de Lindores , the Chancellor of Ross , commanding him to judge the dispute . Bishop Thomas was almost certainly alive on that date , but he was dead by 17 April , when Roger , canon of Abernethy , received papal provision to the bishopric of Ross , said to be vacant by Thomas ' death .
= John Dudley , 2nd Earl of Warwick =
John Dudley , 2nd Earl of Warwick , KB ( 1527 ( ? ) – 21 October 1554 ) was an English nobleman and the heir of John Dudley , 1st Duke of Northumberland , leading minister and regent under Edward VI of England from 1550 – 1553 . As his father 's career progressed , John Dudley respectively assumed his father 's former titles , Viscount Lisle and Earl of Warwick . Interested in the arts and sciences , he was the dedicatee of several books by eminent scholars , both during his lifetime and posthumously . His marriage to the former Protector Somerset 's eldest daughter , in the presence of the King and a magnificent setting , was a gesture of reconciliation between the young couple 's fathers . However , their struggle for power flared up again and ended with the Duke of Somerset 's execution . In July 1553 , after King Edward 's death , Dudley was one of the signatories of the letters patent that attempted to set Lady Jane Grey on the throne of England , and took arms against Mary Tudor , alongside his father . The short campaign did not see any military engagements and ended as the Duke of Northumberland and his son were taken prisoners at Cambridge . John Dudley the younger was condemned to death yet reprieved . He died shortly after his release from the Tower of London .
= = Education and court life = =
John Dudley was the third of thirteen children born to Sir John Dudley and Jane Guildford , daughter of Sir Edward Guildford . When John was born , his father was a young knight , son of the executed Edmund Dudley , councillor to Henry VII ; in 1537 he became vice @-@ admiral and later Lord Admiral . In 1542 he received his mother 's title of Viscount Lisle . The elder John Dudley was a family man and happily married , as was noted by contemporaries and is evident from letters . The Dudleys moved in evangelical circles from the early 1530s , and their children were educated in Renaissance humanism and science by tutors and companions such as Roger Ascham , John Dee , and Thomas Wilson . Of the brothers , John in particular had scholarly and artistic leanings . He was the dedicatee of Walter Haddon 's Cantabrigienses ( 1552 ) and Thomas Wilson 's Arte of Rhetoricke ( 1553 ) . As late as 1570 , John Dee dedicated his Mathematicall Praeface to Euclid 's Elements to the long @-@ deceased young man 's memory , praising his use of arithmetics and " hearty love to virtuous sciences " . Dudley had his own small library with books in French , Italian and Latin as well as a Greek grammar , and " a tragedie in english of the unjust supremacie of the bushope of Rome " .
John Dudley became his father 's heir after his eldest brother Henry was killed in 1544 during the siege of Boulogne under King Henry VIII . At the coronation of Edward VI in 1547 he was made a Knight of the Bath . Some weeks into Edward 's reign the new Privy Council awarded themselves a round of promotions based on Henry VIII 's wishes , and the elder John Dudley was created Earl of Warwick , the younger assumed his father 's old title of Viscount Lisle . The younger John Dudley and his brothers Ambrose and Robert frequently took part in tournaments and other court festivities . On 3 June 1550 he was married to Anne Seymour , eldest daughter of Edward Seymour , 1st Duke of Somerset and former Lord Protector of England . The marriage was a grand affair attended by the twelve @-@ year @-@ old King Edward at the palace of Sheen . According to his diary Edward had a lot of fun ; he watched mock battles , masques , and there was " a fair dinner made " , a great banquet . The match was to express the renewed amity between the young couple 's fathers , who had been political rivals , but the peace would not last . The Earl of Warwick leading the English government since early 1550 , Somerset began to plot his removal and was executed for felony in January 1552 .
After King Edward , now fourteen , had raised his father to the dukedom of Northumberland in October 1551 , John Dudley became styled Earl of Warwick . In January 1553 he was summoned to Parliament in his own right , so that he could attend the House of Lords . This he did but made no impact , and it is even unclear whether the other Lords allowed him to participate in debates . In April 1552 Warwick became Master of the Horse , a major position in the royal household normally held by more experienced men . In 1551 he travelled with a diplomatic mission to France . At one point he ran into financial difficulties , possibly due to bad company , as a knowing letter from his father to him reveals :
I had thought you had had more discretion than to hurt yourself through fantasies or care , specially for such things as may be remedied and holpen . ... And therefore you should not hide from me your debts whatsoever it be ... send me word in any wise of the whole sum of your debts , for I and your mother will see them forthwith paid and whatsoever you do spend in the honest service of our master and for his honour , so you do not let wild and wanton men consume it , as I have been served in my days , you must think all is spent as it should be , and all that I have must be yours ... Your loving Father . Northumberland .
In February 1553 Princess Mary visited London and was welcomed in the outskirts by the Earl of Warwick at the head of numerous gentlemen . It was a splendid occasion , Mary being received by the Lords of the Council " as if she had been Queen of England " . Still without a proper income of his own , in the next month , Warwick received the wardship of his fourteen @-@ year @-@ old brother @-@ in @-@ law , Edward Seymour .
= = Downfall = =
In January 1553 the King became ill and by the beginning of June his condition was hopeless . For more than a year , the Imperial ambassador Jehan de Scheyfye had been convinced of Northumberland being engaged in some " mighty plot " to settle the Crown on his own head . Always looking out for signs as to this respect , he reported talk that the Duke was contemplating the divorce of his eldest son in order to marry him to Princess Elizabeth . In fact , it was Warwick 's youngest brother , Guildford Dudley , who had recently been married . His bride was Lady Jane Grey . The potential importance of this and two simultaneous weddings escaped ambassador Jehan de Scheyfye . Lady Jane was to ascend the English throne after the King 's death , according to Edward 's will , headed " My Devise for the Succession " , in which he bypassed his half @-@ sisters Mary and Elizabeth . The Earl of Warwick was among the hundred and two personages who signed the letters patent of 21 June , which were supposed to settle the Crown on Jane . When the Duke of Northumberland took arms against Mary Tudor on 14 July , his eldest son went with him .
They passed a week that saw no action in Cambridge and Bury St Edmunds , hearing on 20 July that the Council in London had declared for Mary . Staying at Cambridge , Northumberland himself proclaimed Mary Tudor as queen at the market place . Warwick was with him as he threw up his cap and " so laughed that the tears ran down his cheeks for grief . " The city that had welcomed the Duke splendidly was nervous to please the new queen . A large group of townsmen and university scholars surrounded King 's College to arrest the Duke , who was with his son lodged on the premises . In contrast to his father , Warwick resisted arrest . A letter from the Council arrived that everyman could go his way , so the Duke asked to be set free , " and so continued they all night [ at liberty ] " . At dawn the Earl of Warwick " was booted ready to have ridden in the morning " , and escape . It was too late , however , as the Earl of Arundel arrived to again arrest the Duke and his entourage . The prisoners returned riding side by side through London , the guards having difficulties protecting them against the hostile populace .
After a few days , almost all the Dudley family were imprisoned in the Tower . All the men were eventually attainted and condemned to death . Warwick was tried on 18 August 1553 in Westminster Hall , alongside his father and the Marquess of Northampton . Warwick 's turn was last and he , unlike the other defendants , pleaded guilty immediately . After sentence was passed Northumberland asked : " that her Majesty may be gracious to my children ... considering they went by my commandment who am their father , and not of their own free wills " . His execution was planned for 21 August at eight in the morning , however , it was suddenly cancelled ; Northumberland was instead escorted to St Peter ad Vincula , where he publicly took the Catholic communion , forswearing his hitherto Protestant faith , in what was a great propaganda coup for the new , Catholic , government . Any hopes of a pardon were in vain for the Duke who , after short notice , was now to be beheaded the next day . An hour before his father 's execution the Earl of Warwick was likewise led to St Peter ad Vincula to receive the sacrament ; he then returned to his prison cell .
From mid @-@ September Warwick was allowed visits by his wife . The rebellion of Thomas Wyatt in February 1554 led to the executions of Jane Grey and her husband , Guildford Dudley . John , Ambrose , Robert , and Henry Dudley remained imprisoned in a room of the Beauchamp Tower . They made carvings in the walls , John carving their heraldic devices with his name " IOHN DVDLI " . He was allowed to perambulate on the leads , " being crazed for want of air " . During 1554 Jane Dudley , John 's mother , and his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Henry Sidney , were busy befriending the Spanish nobles around the new king consort , Prince Philip of Spain , as well in England as in Spain . In October , John Dudley and his brothers Robert and Henry were released due to their efforts , but John Dudley died immediately afterwards at Henry Sidney 's house Penshurst in Kent .
= = Ancestry = =
= Robert Furman =
Robert Ralph Furman ( August 21 , 1915 – October 14 , 2008 ) was a civil engineer who during World War II was the chief of foreign intelligence for the Manhattan Engineer District directing espionage against the German nuclear energy project . He participated in the Alsos Mission , which conducted a series of operations with the intent to place all uranium in Europe into Allied hands , and at the end of the war rounded up German atomic scientists to keep them out of the Soviet Union . He personally escorted half of the uranium @-@ 235 necessary for the Little Boy atomic bomb to the Pacific island of Tinian . He was also a key figure overseeing the construction of The Pentagon building . After the war he founded Furman Builders Inc . , a construction company that built hundreds of structures , including the Potomac Mills shopping mall in Woodbridge , Virginia .
= = Early life = =
Robert Ralph Furman was born on August 21 , 1915 , in Trenton , New Jersey , one of five sons of William and Leila Ficht Furman . His father was a bank teller , and his mother worked as a riveter during World War II . He attended Princeton University and graduated in 1937 with a degree in civil engineering . He then worked for the Pennsylvania Railroad and a construction company in New York .
= = World War II = =
In December 1940 , Furman was activated as a member of the United States Army Reserve and assigned to the Quartermaster Corps Construction Division , where he worked for Colonel Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , supervising the day @-@ to @-@ day construction of The Pentagon . When the building was completed in 1943 , Groves was reassigned to the " Manhattan Project " and brought his aide , Furman , with him .
In August 1943 Furman was put in charge of an intelligence effort formed by Groves in response to concerns raised by atomic bomb project scientists about the German nuclear energy project . As director of intelligence , Furman was responsible for ascertaining the progress the Germans were making . In December 1943 , Groves sent Furman to Britain to discuss the establishment of a London Liaison Office for the Manhattan Project and the British government , and to confer over coordinating the intelligence effort .
Furman sent the spy Moe Berg to Switzerland to meet the head of the German project , Werner Heisenberg . After chatting with Heisenberg at a cocktail party , Berg concluded that the Germans were a long way behind the Allied effort . Furman travelled to Rome in June 1944 , where he interviewed Italian scientists about the German project .
When the Alsos Mission found documentation in office of Union Minière in Antwerp that indicated over 1 @,@ 000 tons of refined uranium had been sent to Germany , but about 150 tons still remained at Olen , Belgium , Groves sent Furman back to Europe with orders to secure the Olen cache . The Alsos Mission located 68 tons there , but another 80 tons was missing , having been shipped to France in 1940 ahead of the German invasion of Belgium . Groves had the Olen uranium shipped to England and , ultimately , to the United States .
Documentation indicated that the missing uranium had been sent to Toulouse . An Alsos Mission team under Boris Pash 's command reached Toulouse on October 1 and inspected a French Army arsenal with a Geiger counter . When the needle jumped near some barrels , they were inspected and found to be the 31 tons of uranium from Belgium . The 3342nd Quartermaster Truck Company was released from the Red Ball Express to retrieve the shipment . The barrels were collected and transported to Marseilles , where Furman supervised their loading on a ship bound for the United States .
In April 1945 , Furman participated in Operation Harborage . The Alsos Mission and the 1269th Engineer Combat Battalion occupied Haigerloch , where they found and destroyed a German experimental nuclear reactor , and recovered uranium and heavy water . The Alsos Mission took Heisenberg into custody on May 2 . Furman supervised his detention and that of nine other German scientists , who were taken to Rheims , then Versailles , and finally to the country estate of Farm Hall in England , where their conversations were monitored and where they could not defect to the Soviet Union .
In July 1945 , Furman personally escorted half of the uranium @-@ 235 necessary for the Little Boy atomic bomb to the Pacific island of Tinian . Accompanied by Captain James F. Nolan , a radiologist with Project Alberta , Furman set out by car from Santa Fe to Albuquerque on July 14 , then travelled by air to Hamilton Field , California . The men boarded the cruiser USS Indianapolis at Hunters Point Naval Shipyard , and crossed the Pacific to Tinian , arriving on July 26 . A few days after leaving Tinian , the Indianapolis was torpedoed and sunk by a Japanese submarine with the loss of over 800 men .
= = Later life = =
Furman left the army the year after the war ended and founded Furman Builders Inc. in Rockville , Maryland . The firm built hundreds of homes , schools and commercial buildings , including the Potomac Mills shopping mall in Woodbridge , Virginia , the Metropolitan Baptist Church in Washington , D.C. , and the United States embassy in Nicaragua . He married Mary Eddy in 1952 . They had four children : a son , David , and three daughters , Martha Keating , Julia Costello and Serena Furman .
For the most part , Furman kept quiet about his exploits during the war . He served as president of the local rotary club and sang baritone in a barbershop quartet . He retired in 1993 , and died of metastatic melanoma on October 14 , 2008 at Buckingham 's Choice retirement community in Adamstown , Maryland at the age of 93 .
= Like Crazy =
Like Crazy is a 2011 American romantic drama film directed by Drake Doremus and starring Anton Yelchin , Felicity Jones and Jennifer Lawrence . Written by Doremus and Ben York Jones , the film tells the story of Anna ( Felicity Jones ) , a British exchange student who falls in love with an American student , Jacob ( Yelchin ) , only to be separated from him when she is denied re @-@ entry into the United States after staying in the country longer than her student visa allows .
Doremus based the storyline of the film partly on his own long @-@ distance relationship with a woman living in London while he lived in Los Angeles . Rather than writing a traditional screenplay , he and Ben York Jones compiled a 50 @-@ page outline of the film from which the actors improvised almost all of the dialogue . Filming took place over four weeks in Los Angeles and London with a budget of $ 250 @,@ 000 .
Like Crazy premiered on January 22 , 2011 at the Sundance Film Festival , where it won the festival 's Grand Jury Prize . It was released in theaters on October 28 , 2011 and grossed over $ 3 @.@ 7 million at the box office . Most reviews of the film were positive , with reviewers giving particular praise to the performances of Yelchin and Jones , although some found the plot unrealistic and contrived .
= = Plot = =
Anna Gardner ( Felicity Jones ) , a British exchange student attending college in Los Angeles , meets and falls in love with Jacob Helm ( Anton Yelchin ) , an American student who returns her affections . After graduation , Anna decides to spend the summer with Jacob rather than return to the United Kingdom , unaware of the consequences of staying longer than her student visa , which expired upon her graduation , allows . After returning to London for a family engagement , Anna flies back to Los Angeles , where she is detained , denied entry , and sent back to the United Kingdom by immigration officials .
The couple 's love for each other grows strained by their separation and long @-@ distance relationship . Despite her efforts at appealing the immigration decision , Anna is told she is banned from entering the United States . Meanwhile , Jacob leaves behind his successful design business and visits Anna in London for a few weeks . There , he learns that Anna 's parents , Bernard ( Oliver Muirhead ) and Jackie ( Alex Kingston ) , have hired an immigration lawyer to try to get the ban lifted . Bernard suggests that marrying may help their efforts . Jacob is uncomfortable with the suggestion , and the couple struggle with their feelings .
After Jacob returns to the United States , he and Anna grow apart , and Jacob begins a relationship with his colleague , Samantha ( Jennifer Lawrence ) . Anna also tries to find a new life for herself , beginning work as a secretary for a magazine , but she is unable to abandon her feelings for Jacob . She eventually phones him from London and says that they will never find in others what they found in each other , and that they should marry . Soon after , Jacob breaks up with Samantha , returns to London and marries Anna in a small registry office ceremony with her parents as witnesses — both affirming that they will " never allow anything to destroy the feelings we share for each other " . With a tearful parting , Jacob returns to his business in Los Angeles while the couple wait six months before they appeal the ban on Anna 's visa .
Six months later , Jacob flies back to the United Kingdom for the appeal , but it is rejected . With their relationship compromised and no hope of resolving the visa issue , Anna and Jacob begin to fight with each other out of jealousy and frustration . Jacob leaves the UK , and soon both are seeing other people . Anna eventually gets promoted at work to the position of editor — something she wanted very much . Her love life , however , is not as positive or fulfilling — her new boyfriend Simon ( Charlie Bewley ) does not evoke the same feelings in her as Jacob , whom she still misses .
Sometime later , Anna is finally offered a new visa . She gives up her job , her current boyfriend and her apartment , and flies to Los Angeles to Jacob , who greets her with flowers at the airport where they have an awkward reunion . Jacob brings Anna to his house where he joins her in the shower , and as the water falls over them , they remember happier memories they had together at the beginning of their relationship , which has now become strained due to their indiscretions during the time spent apart .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Drake Doremus was inspired to make Like Crazy by the end of his eight @-@ year long @-@ distance relationship with Desiree Pappenscheller , who lived in London while Doremus lived in Los Angeles . Many elements of the film resemble their real @-@ life relationship , such as frequent travelling between Los Angeles and London , trouble with American immigration laws , a brief marriage , a trip to Santa Catalina Island ( where Jacob takes Anna in the early stages of their relationship ) , and the gift of a bracelet ( in the film , a bracelet is given to Anna by Jacob ) . The story was co @-@ written by Ben York Jones , who had also been involved in long @-@ distance relationships . Together , they assembled a 50 @-@ page outline of the film which read more like a short story than a traditional screenplay . The outline included backstory , plot points , specific scene objectives , themes and emotional moments , but had minimal dialogue .
Anton Yelchin was Doremus 's first choice to play Jacob , based on Yelchin 's previous work , and was cast almost immediately after meeting Doremus to discuss the role . After auditioning a number of actresses from Los Angeles and London to play Anna , Doremus talked to English actress Felicity Jones over the phone and asked her to tape rough versions of two scenes from the film . He was so impressed with her rendition of the film 's final scene — in which Anna and Jacob stand silently in a shower — that he decided to cast her . After Jones arrived in Los Angeles , she and Yelchin began an intensive week @-@ long rehearsal before filming began . Yelchin and Jones met in a Mexican restaurant to get to know one another and , during the week prior to shooting , spent " all day and often all night " discussing Anna and Jacob 's relationship with each other and Doremus .
= = = Filming = = =
Like Crazy was filmed over four weeks — the first three in Los Angeles and the last in London . The production budget was $ 250 @,@ 000 , which included the cost of airfares for the cast and crew . The film was shot on a Canon EOS 7D still camera with cinema lenses , mounted on a rig constructed by cinematographer John Guleserian . He chose the 7D for its portability and the ease it provided for shooting improvised scenes , where he found other cameras too cumbersome . Guleserian said that many of the film 's scenes were shot " really far away from our characters [ followed by ] really tight close ups " due to the technological limitations of the camera , but he noted that this added to the tone of the film .
Only a small number of crew members were employed to maintain the sense of intimacy that Doremus wanted on set . At its largest , the crew consisted of around 20 people , while some scenes were shot with as few as three crew members , such as a scene on a Santa Monica beach where only Doremus , Guleserian and " a sound guy " were present in addition to the actors . Doremus would often ask members of the crew to leave when filming intimate scenes between Jones and Yelchin so that the two actors would feel more comfortable . These scenes would be shot in improvised takes of up to 30 minutes in length , with Doremus providing only occasional direction . The film 's dialogue was almost entirely improvised by the actors , whose lines Doremus believed would come about " by virtue of being fully involved in the character and the moment " .
= = = Music = = =
The film 's original score was composed by pianist Dustin O 'Halloran . Other music used in the film included songs by Paul Simon , M83 , Stars , The Mary Onettes and Figurine . Doremus listened to several of these artists as he developed the story ; he said that their songs " became the fabric of the film " . He assembled a similar set of songs on a CD which he gave to the cast and crew to listen to throughout production .
An official soundtrack , titled Like Crazy : Music from the Motion Picture , was released on CD and in digital format in conjunction with the film 's release . The track listing is as follows :
= = Release = =
Like Crazy premiered at the Sundance Film Festival on January 22 , 2011 , where it won the Grand Jury Prize . During the festival , the film 's distribution rights were acquired by Paramount Vantage for $ 4 million .
The film was given a limited release in theaters on October 28 , 2011 . It earned $ 123 @,@ 140 on its opening weekend with a per @-@ theater average of $ 30 @,@ 785 from four theaters . Its widest release was 162 theaters , and it closed on January 12 , 2012 after playing for 11 weeks , earning $ 3 @,@ 395 @,@ 391 in total at the domestic box office . Internationally , it grossed $ 336 @,@ 098 , making a total box office gross of $ 3 @,@ 731 @,@ 489 .
In the United States , Like Crazy was released by Paramount Home Media on DVD and Blu @-@ ray and made available for digital download on March 6 , 2012 . It was released on DVD in the United Kingdom on May 28 , 2012 . The DVD release included an audio commentary recorded by Doremus , Guleserian and editor Jonathan Alberts , while the Blu @-@ ray included deleted and alternate scenes in addition to the commentary .
= = Reception = =
Reviews for Like Crazy have been favorable . The film has a 73 % " certified fresh " rating on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes , based on 146 reviews ; the consensus states " It has the schmaltzy trappings of many romantic films , but Like Crazy allows its characters to express themselves beyond dialogue , crafting a true , intimate study . " At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the film received an average score of 71 based on 37 reviews , indicating " generally favorable reviews " .
In a review for The Wall Street Journal , Joe Morgenstern described Like Crazy as a " wise and beautiful little film " , giving particular praise to Guleserian 's cinematography and Yelchin and Jones 's improvised performances . David Edelstein of New York magazine claimed that Like Crazy was " the most infectious love story in decades " , comparing its " wonderfully sane " perspective to other romance films and romantic comedies . Entertainment Weekly 's Lisa Schwarzbaum gave the film an A – grade and praised Doremus , Yelchin and Felicity Jones 's storytelling ability in creating " a palpably real , universally identifiable manifestation of young love in all its ecstasy and agony " . In a review for Rolling Stone , Peter Travers gave the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 4 stars , writing that " Drake Doremus has crafted a crazily inventive and totally irresistible tale of first love that makes the familiar seem bittersweet and heart @-@ stoppingly new " . He described Felicity Jones as " a marvel " and Yelchin as " outstanding " . Time magazine 's Mary Pols commended the film 's ambiguous ending and wrote , " Like Crazy is a cinematic love potion and you leave it feeling bewitched . " Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave the film 3 out of 4 stars , praising Jones and Yelchin 's performances and the " intelligent , graceful indie style " of the film , although he found the storyline somewhat unrealistic . Indiewire 's Eric Kohn gave the film a B + grade and felt that while the plot developed slowly , Yelchin and Jones shared " an indelible and entirely realistic chemistry " . Variety film critic Andrew Barker , who described the film as " an exquisite , beautifully acted gem " , gave particular praise to the film 's " dexterous editing " , given that it " contains nary an extraneous detail , while still managing to luxuriate in the tender and awkward silences of young love " .
A more negative review of the film came from Manohla Dargis of The New York Times , who found it " a conventional , wan affair , despite its art @-@ cinema flourishes " and thought that Anna 's inability to obtain a visa was a contrived plot point that conflicted with Doremus 's attempt at creating realism . The Globe and Mail 's Rick Groen also found Like Crazy unrealistic , giving the film 2 out of 4 stars and writing that " nothing feels more false than a failed attempt at getting real " . Writing for Salon , Andrew O 'Hehir opined that the film was uninteresting , unmemorable , and " sickly sweet " . Nick Pinkerton of The Village Voice found Jones and Yelchin 's performances " aggressively average " and described the film as " a rote story , arbitrarily scattered into abstraction " .
= = Accolades = =
= Fool 's Gold Loaf =
Fool 's Gold Loaf is a sandwich made by the Colorado Mine Company , a restaurant in Denver , Colorado . The sandwich consists of a single warmed , hollowed @-@ out loaf of bread filled with the contents of one jar of creamy peanut butter and one jar of grape jelly , and a pound of bacon . The sandwich 's connection to Elvis Presley is the source of its legend and prolonged interest . According to The Life and Cuisine of Elvis Presley , it was the focus of a midnight sandwich run by Elvis Presley and his friends . Taking his private jet from Graceland , Presley and his friends purchased 30 of the sandwiches and spent three hours eating them and drinking Perrier and champagne before flying home . The story became legend and the sandwich became the subject of continued media interest and part of numerous cookbooks , typically focused around Presley 's love of food .
= = Origin = =
There are two accounts on the origin of Fool 's Gold Loaf . According to Graeme Wood , the Fool 's Gold Loaf was created by Cindy and Buck Scott , owners of the Colorado Mine Company restaurant . Wood writes that Elvis obtained the recipe from the Scotts , so his personal chef could make it , but noted that " the Fool 's Gold Loaf never made a recorded encore " .
According to Nick Andurlakis , he helped create the sandwich while he was working at the Colorado Mine Company as a chef and suggested the Fool 's Gold Loaf to Elvis . Andurlakis claims that he personally delivered the sandwiches to Elvis on the famous night .
The sandwich was named to fit the mining motif of the restaurant .
= = Preparation = =
The recipe has been repeated numerous sources and across the internet , including The Life and Cuisine of Elvis Presley and Andurlakis , a chef of the Colorado Mine Company .
The Fool 's Gold Loaf begins with a loaf of French white bread that is covered in two tablespoons of margarine and baked in the oven at 350F / 180C until brown . One pound of sliced bacon is fried in oil until crispy and drained . The loaf is sliced lengthwise , hollowed out , and filled with peanut butter , grape jelly and bacon .
According to Andurlakis , he personally served Elvis the Fool 's Gold Loaf with bacon , peanut butter , and blueberry preserves on a loaf of French bread . The specific type of preserves was allegedly Dickinson 's blueberry preserves .
= = Elvis connection = =
David Adler 's book contains a detailed account of the event that made both Elvis and the Fool 's Gold Loaf sandwich famous . On the night of February 1 , 1976 , Elvis Presley was at his home Graceland in Memphis , entertaining Capt. Jerry Kennedy of the Denver , Colorado police force , and Ron Pietrafeso of Colorado 's Strike Force Against Crime . The three men began discussing the sandwich , and Presley decided he wanted one right then . Presley had been to the restaurant before , while in Denver . Kennedy and Pietrafeso were friends of the owners and hung out there often , so they were driven to the Memphis airport and boarded Presley 's private jet , the Lisa Marie , and flew the two hours to Denver . When they arrived at Stapleton International Airport at 1 : 40 AM , the plane taxied to a special hangar where the passengers were greeted by Buck Scott , the owner of the Colorado Mine Company , and his wife Cindy who had brought 30 fresh Fool 's Gold Loaves for the men . They spent two hours in the hangar eating the sandwiches , washing them down with Perrier and champagne . Presley invited the pilots of the plane , Milo High and Elwood Davis , to join them . When they were done , they flew back to Memphis without ever having left the Denver airport .
= = Coverage = =
The Fool 's Gold Loaf connection to Elvis dominates the media 's coverage of the subject . It was widely reported as " legend " by the media ; including the NBC 's Today , Joplin Globe , and Gloucester Times . Doug Clark , a columnist for The Spokesman Review , recounts the popular story and writes that the Fool 's Gold Recipe is " surprisingly tasty " and notes that it contains around 8 @,@ 000 calories . The popular legend and sandwich were also noted by the Smithsonian Magazine .
The Fool 's Gold Loaf has been included in numerous publications and cookbooks . The Fool 's Gold Loaf was included and generated national interest with David Alder 's book The Life and Cuisine of Elvis Presley . Alder 's work would continue with the television documentary : The Burger and The King . Another publication by Alder , Eating the Elvis Presley Way was later released .
The Fool 's Gold Loaf has been detailed in Ramble Colorado : The Wanderer 's Guide to the Offbeat , Overlooked , and Outrageous . The The Peanut Butter and Co . Cookbook refers to the Fool 's Gold Loaf legend and ties it to the peanut butter , banana and bacon sandwich , also known as the " Elvis sandwich " .
In addition , the sandwich and its connection to Elvis Presley is featured in the 2013 romantic comedy The F Word ( What If ) , with The Last Leg showing it off as well in order to promote the film .
= The Book of est =
The Book of est is a fictional account of the training created by Werner Erhard , ( est ) , or Erhard Seminars Training , first published in 1976 by Holt , Rinehart and Winston . The book was written by est graduate Luke Rhinehart . Rhinehart is the pen name of writer George Cockroft . The book was endorsed by Erhard , and includes a foreword by him . Its contents attempts to replicate the experience of the est training , with the reader being put in the place of a participant in the course . The end of the book includes a comparison by the author between Erhard 's methodologies to Zen , The Teachings of Don Juan by Carlos Castaneda , and to Rhinehart 's own views from The Dice Man .
Reception to the book was mixed . There were critical reviews in Library Journal , Kirkus Reviews , and The New York Times Book Review . An article about Erhard and est in the religious journal Quarterly Review placed the book among " the most accessible sources about est " . Professor Walter A. Effross of the American University Washington College of Law cites The Book of est in an article in the Buffalo Law Review analyzing the control of new age movements over their intellectual property .
= = Background = =
Werner Erhard ( born John Paul Rosenberg ) originally from Pennsylvania , he migrated to California . He was a former salesman , training manager and executive in the encyclopedia business , . He created the Erhard Seminars Training ( est ) course in 1971 @.@ est was a form of Large Group Awareness Training , and was part of the Human Potential Movement. est was a four @-@ day , 60 @-@ hour self @-@ help program given to groups of 250 people at a time . The program was very intensive : each day would contain 15 – 20 hours of instruction . During the training , est personnel utilized jargon to convey key concepts , and participants had to agree to certain rules which remained in effect for the duration of the course . Participants were taught that they were responsible for their life outcomes .
By 1977 over 100 @,@ 000 people completed the est training , including public figures and mental health professionals . Est was controversial . It had its critics and proponents . Werner Erhard and Associates repackaged the course as " The Forum " , a seminar focused on " goal @-@ oriented breakthroughs " . By 1988 , approximately one million people had taken some form of the trainings . A group of his associates formed the company Landmark Education in 1991 . In 2013 they renamed it Landmark Worldwide LLC . Landmark fully purchased from Erhard the intellectual property in the Forum and other courses by 2002 .
= = Publication = =
The book was first published in 1976 in a hardcover format by Holt , Rinehart and Winston , and a paperback edition was released later in the same year . It was published in German in 1983 by Hugendubel . In November 2008 , Luke Rhinehart , in association with Joe Vitale and Mark J. Ryan , re @-@ released The Book of est as an E @-@ book .
= = Contents = =
The Book of est includes a one @-@ page foreword by Werner Erhard . Erhard writes in the foreword that Rhinehart 's book " brilliantly ... communicates clearly to the reader both a sense of being in the training room and the spirit of what takes place there . " Erhard 's foreword notes : " although this book dramatizes the highlights of the training and attempts to give you the vicarious experience of being at a training , this is a book , and the est experience cannot result from reading any book " .
With Erhard 's endorsement , Rhinehart attempts to replicate the " transformation " experience from est . The book imparts the message that the participant 's life " doesn 't work " , and that after two weekends the individual will come to understand how to " win " . The book presents a fictional dramatization of the est training . Punctuation style usage , including exclamation points and boldface type , bring the reader 's attention to key items in the text .
Rhinehart describes the est training as a form of participatory theatre , writing : " Seeing the trainer as a master actor ... permits us to evaluate his acts and words more intelligently than if we misinterpret him as being a scholar or scientist giving a lecture . " In an analysis of how to approach the est training , Rhinehart comments that " It might best be described , if it can be described at all , as theater — as living theater , participatory theater , encounter theater . Once we begin to see est in these terms , much that fails to fit the scheme of therapy or religion or science begins to make sense . "
In Rhinehart 's fictional account of the training , the est course leader begins with the instruction : " Let me make one thing clear . I don 't want any of you to believe a thing I 'm saying . Get that . Don 't believe me . Just listen . " The est trainer explains that the course techniques are used because " Werner has found that they work . " When one of the est participants asks why the instructor says certain statements during the course , the instructor responds : " I 'm saying them because Werner has found that the trainer 's saying them works . "
Participants in est are told that they cannot take notes during the course , and at the end of the seminar the instructor declines to go over a review of the training . In order to participate in the course , trainees must adhere to agreements which include : they may not exit the course facility except during specified break time , they cannot sit next to someone they knew before coming to the course , and they cannot take unprescribed medications or alcohol for the week prior to the training .
Individuals are given a chance to receive a full refund and leave the course after the instructor goes over the course agreements . A second chance to leave the course and receive a refund is offered on the third day of the course . At the end of the training , the seminar participants are strongly encouraged to bring guests to sign up for the course – participants are instructed that " bringing guests is a manifestation of a person 's willingness to participate in life . "
The concluding portion of the book includes a comparison of Werner Erhard 's methodologies to Zen , The Teachings of Don Juan by Carlos Castaneda , and to Rhinehart 's views from The Dice Man . Drawing a parallel to the " controlled folly " described in Castaneda 's A Separate Reality , Rhinehart argues that in almost all cases , enlightenment is linked to humor : " One can rarely have an enlightenment experience except under the impact of nonsense ... Every time we laugh we are in a way experiencing a mini enlightenment , a tiny letting go of some attachment to some bit of belief or sense . Full enlightenment , in these terms , is accepting what is , which leads to experiencing fully whatever one is experiencing . "
Rhinehart comments that those who have taken part in the est training feel the need for a sense of community : " Most graduates indicate that the value of the seminar series depends not so much on it 's ostensible data content or on the processes introduced , but on the sharing on an intimate basis with others . " He notes that some of the graduates of the est training " treat him [ Erhard ] with the love and awe normally associated with that of disciples for spiritual teachers " . He likens Erhard 's relationship to his staff members to the way in which a guru interacts with disciples : " [ It is ] the essentially eastern phenomenon of a powerful being ( usually a guru or a spiritual teacher ) attracting other powerful beings who nevertheless choose to channel their power through their leader . " Rhinehart argues that est " may be seen as in many ways the culmination to date of the ' Easternization of America ' , a process that first became notable in the late fifties and early sixties " .
= = Critical reception = =
James Charney notes in his review of the book for Library Journal , " Questions of effectiveness or possible harm are hardly considered . " Charney characterizes the problem of the book and its subject matter as a " kind of with @-@ it diffuseness which disallows any intelligent understanding on principle " . In a review of the book for The New York Times Book Review , Zane Berzins was critical of the work , commenting : " There isn 't much to be said for the book except that it exudes a kind of repellent fascination . " A review of the book in Kirkus Reviews was negative ; the review characterizes it as , " Not a book , really . A verbatim transcription of one of Werner Erhard 's weekend sessions in $ 250 doublethink . " Kirkus Reviews criticizes the author for not engaging in any judgmental analysis of the est training methodology . The review concludes , " at least the reader finally has an opportunity to see what an estian seminar is , with vomit bags , circuitous logic , pathetic interplay between overbearing trainer and angst @-@ ridden trainee , and all . "
In an article about Erhard and est for the religious journal Quarterly Review , Florida International University assistant religious studies professor Robert R. Hann places the book among " the most accessible sources about est " . Hann comments that since the book has been " reviewed by Erhard and carries his statement of support for the author " , it " can therefore be presumed to be , if not ' canonical , ' then at least not significantly at odds with the perspective of est itself . "
Professor Walter A. Effross of the American University Washington College of Law cites The Book of est along with Adelaide Bry 's est : 60 Hours That Transform Your Life , in an article in the Buffalo Law Review analyzing the control of new age movements over their intellectual property . Effross notes that the copyright page of The Book of est gives a notice that : " material based in part on unpublished lectures created and copyrighted by Werner Erhard and used by the author with his permission . No material created and copyrighted by Werner Erhard may be used or disseminated in any medium or language without his prior written authorization . " Effross comments on the potential loss of control over his material that Erhard may have invited due to endorsing these books about his methodology : " ... because it enabled commentators to make ' fair use ' of the disclosed information , it was not helpful for ... Werner Erhard , the founder of est , to endorse a first @-@ person account of an est training , even one which provided only simulations of est 's ' processes , ' or guided meditations . ( However , the publicity [ Erhard 's organization ] achieved from such exposure during crucial periods of ... expansion may have been seen as justifying the intellectual property risk . ) "
= Cuisine of the Thirteen Colonies =
The cuisine of the Thirteen Colonies includes the foods , eating habits , and cooking methods of the Thirteen British colonies in North America before the American revolution . It was derived from familiar traditions from the colonists ’ home countries in the British Isles and particularly England . Many agricultural items came through trade with England and the West Indies . Certain familiar items grew better in the Old World than others , and this led to a dependence on imports which drove the daily lives of the colonists . However , the colonial diet was increasingly supplemented by new animal and plant foods indigenous to the New World .
In the years leading up to 1776 , a number of events led to a drastic change in the diet of the American colonists . As they could no longer depend on British and West Indian imports , agricultural practices of the colonists began to focus on becoming completely self @-@ sufficient .
= = Regional cuisines = =
The majority of immigrants to North America in the 17th and 18th centuries came from various parts of Britain in four waves . These four migration waves established the four major regional cultures that still affect life in the United States to this day . Each of the migrations settled in different regions and were dominated by regional cultures from the British Isles that were transplanted across the Atlantic . Along with specific customs related to everything from religion to language , the British migrants brought with them food habits that formed major regional cuisines of English @-@ speaking America .
= = = Virginia = = =
In the early 17th century the first wave of English immigrants began arriving in North America , settling mainly around Chesapeake Bay in Virginia and Maryland . The Virginian settlers were dominated by English noblemen with their servants ( many were Cavaliers fleeing in the aftermath of the English Civil War 1642 – 51 ) and poor peasants from southern England .
The society the Cavaliers brought with them was highly stratified and this was reflected in food and eating habits . The aristocrats that would be the basis for the First Families of Virginia were very fond of game and red meat . Roast beef was a particular favorite , and even when oysters and goose were available , wealthy colonists could complain about the absence of meat . Virginia was the only place in North America where haute cuisine of any kind was practiced before the 19th century . Virginians such as William Byrd ( 1652 – 1704 ) would indulge in extravagant dishes such as stewed swan or roast snipe , dinners were important social events , and the art of dinner conversation was considered an important skill in affluent households .
Poor white farmers and black slaves ate much more humble fare and were quicker to incorporate American and African foodstuffs and flavorings . The food of the poor whites in the 17th century was similar to soul food of the 20th century . Overall , both rich and poor southerners ate spicier and more pungent food than elsewhere in the early colonies , and feasting was an important part of life for all social classes .
Cooking in southern England was noted for a tendency toward frying , simmering and roasting , and this also became true for Virginian cooking . While wealthy households tended to vary cooking methods greatly , poor households were generally confined to boiling and frying . The only form of cooking that was slow to develop was baking . Typical dishes among the upper classes were fricassees of various meats with herbs , and sometimes a good amount of claret . Common food among the lower classes was corn porridge , or mush , and hominy with greens and salt @-@ cured meat , and later the traditional southern fried chicken and chitlins .
= = = New England = = =
New England was first settled beginning in 1620 , and it was dominated by East Anglian Calvinists , better known as the Puritans . The religious fundamentalism of the Puritans created a cuisine that was austere , disdainful of feasting and with few embellishments . Eating was seen as a largely practical matter and one of the few occasions when New Englanders would engage in massive bouts of eating and drinking was at funerals , times when even children might drink large amounts of alcohol . Age was one of the most important signs of authority and determined
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cases of extreme necessity .
Game had begun to become scarce in the region east of the Mississippi river . This could have been from over @-@ hunting , or the game could have been driven westward as the colonial population increased . Fortunately , Irish and Scottish immigrants had been importing cattle into the American colonies during the early part of the 18th century . Consequently , when game was becoming scarce and mutton had a moratorium placed upon it , cattle were available to take their place as a protein source . This change increased farmers ' profit from animal husbandry . Cattle raising had begun on a small scale during the French @-@ Indian War , but when the American Revolution came , farmers were able to increase their cattle holdings and increase the presence of beef in the American diet . In addition to beef production , the cattle also increased the production of milk and dairy products like butter . This may have contributed to the preference of butter over pork fat , especially in the northern colonies .
With the arrival of English soldiers by ship , and naval battles on the seas , areas used for salt water fishing became perilous , and lay dormant for much of the war . In addition , many of the fishing vessels were converted into warships . Before the war , there was often talk about the excess of lobsters and cod off the shores of New England . This seemed to change during and after the war , due to the vast numbers of ships and artillery entering the ocean waters . Once lobster harvesting and cod fishing was reestablished , most fishermen found that the lobster and cod had migrated away from the shores .
Where Americans had a historic disdain for the refineries of French cooking , that opinion , at least in a small part , began to change with the American alliance with the French . In the first American publication of Hannah Glasse ’ s Art of Cookery Made Easy , the insults toward French dishes disappeared . A number of Bostonians even attempted to cook French cuisine for their French allies , sometimes with comedic results when entire frogs were put into soups rather than just their legs . Nonetheless , the alliance supported a friendship with France that later resulted in a large migration of French cooks and chefs to America during the French Revolution .
The American diet was changed through this friendship as well as due to the changes forced through boycott and hostilities with England . After a time , trade did resume with the West Indies but was limited to necessities . Items that sustained the war effort in America were traded , with crops such as rice from the Carolinas shipped out and coffee beans imported in order to brew America ’ s new beverage of choice .
= James " Honest Dick " Tate =
James William " Honest Dick " Tate ( January 2 , 1831 – unknown ) was the Kentucky State Treasurer . He was nicknamed " Honest Dick " because of his good reputation and rapport with his colleagues . The nickname turned ironic , however , when Tate absconded with nearly a quarter of a million dollars from the state 's treasury in 1888 . He was never found .
Tate 's thievery was frequently cited during Kentucky 's fourth constitutional convention as a reason to impose term limits on Kentucky 's elected officials . The one @-@ term limit remained in force on most of Kentucky 's officials until the state 's constitution was amended in 1992 to allow the Governor , Lieutenant Governor , State Treasurer and other state officeholders to serve two consecutive terms .
= = Early life = =
James William Tate was born the only child of Nancy ( Taylor ) Tate and her second husband , Colonel Thomas L. Tate in Franklin County , Kentucky . His father was descended from a Virginia family of Scots @-@ Irish ancestry . His father was a farmer and a veteran of the War of 1812 , and his paternal grandfather was a veteran of the American Revolutionary War . His maternal grandfather was Reverend John Taylor , a pioneer Baptist minister in Kentucky .
Tate received his education in Franklin and Woodford counties and finished his schooling in 1848 . Later that year , at age 17 , Tate began work as a clerk at the Frankfort post office . On 3 June 1856 , he married Lucy Hawkins . On 28 June 1858 , the couple had their first child , a son named Howard , who died at the age of three . The couple also had a daughter , Edmonia .
= = Political career = =
Tate 's political career began with an appointment by Governor Lazarus W. Powell to the position of Assistant Secretary of State for the state of Kentucky in 1854 . A model Democrat , he resigned the post when Know @-@ Nothing Governor Charles S. Morehead was elected in 1855 . Four years later , he was appointed to the post again under Democratic Governor Beriah Magoffin , and supported the Breckinridge wing of Kentucky 's Democratic party during the American Civil War . Though Magoffin resigned in 1862 due to disagreements with the General Assembly , Tate continued to serve under Magoffin 's hand @-@ picked successor , James F. Robinson , resigning again at the end of Robinson 's term in 1863 . From 1865 – 7 , Tate served as Assistant Clerk to the Kentucky House of Representatives . At the end of his service in the house , Tate successfully ran for state treasurer , a post to which he would be re @-@ elected every two years for the next two decades .
In 1878 , Tate was mentioned in the Biographical Encyclopedia of Kentucky . The biographer gushed that in 1867 , Tate had " materially contributed , by his personal popularity , to the great success of the Democratic party " adding :
Biennially , since that time , without opposition in his own party , he has been successively re @-@ elected by popular majorities , perhaps exceeding those obtained by any other candidate for office in the State . From these evidences of popularity , it would seem that his lease on the office might be regarded as a fixed fact .
In the gubernatorial race of 1887 , Republican challenger William O. Bradley made an issue of the need to examine the treasury . Though Bradley ultimately lost the race , the idea of auditing the treasurer 's records took root , and the General Assembly began calling for a commission to undertake the audit in the 1887 – 8 session . Tate claimed to need time to get his books in order ; this effectively delayed the establishment of the commission , but it was ultimately formed .
= = Disappearance and aftermath = =
In the first quarter of 1888 , Tate began a pattern of behavior that would have aroused considerable suspicion in a man of lesser repute . He began depositing only checks in the state 's bank account , instead of cash , as was usual . In a short period of time , he paid a number of personal debts . On 14 March 1888 , Henry Murray , one of Tate 's clerks , noticed him filling two tobacco sacks with gold and silver coins later determined to be worth about $ 100 @,@ 000 . He departed for Louisville , leaving a note saying he would return in two days . Again , due to the nature of his job and his perceived record of trustworthiness , nobody found his actions questionable . After a week passed with no word from Tate , it became clear what had happened . Records would later show that , after a few days in Louisville , Tate boarded a train for Cincinnati , and then vanished , leaving his wife and daughter behind .
During the investigation that followed , the state 's ledger , which was almost indecipherable , was found to show Tate giving some state officials loans that were many times left unpaid and advances on their salaries , including an advance of several thousand dollars to Governor Preston H. Leslie in 1872 . Tate had apparently used some of the state 's money to make personal investments in mines and real estate . Governor Simon B. Buckner announced that between his atrocious bookkeeping , his embezzlement and his outright theft , Tate had misappropriated $ 247 @,@ 128 @.@ 50 from the state 's treasury .
Impeachment hearings followed in the House of Representatives , and the Senate removed Tate from office , convicting him on four counts . A criminal indictment followed . An 1895 case marked " Not to be officially reported " freed those implicated in the scandal from any obligation to repay the state . " Tateism " became synonymous with political corruption in the state , and Tate 's crime was frequently cited at the state 's fourth constitutional convention in 1891 . The resulting constitution expanded the one @-@ term limit that had applied to the governor since 1800 to all statewide elected officials . The legislature and voters adopted a two @-@ term limit for such officials in 1992 .
Despite the General Assembly 's offer of $ 5 @,@ 000 for information leading to Tate 's arrest , he was never found . Though his family at first claimed they had heard nothing from Tate and presumed he may have committed suicide , his daughter eventually admitted that she had received at least four letters from her father between April and December 1888 . The letters were postmarked from British Columbia ( Canada ) , Japan , China , and San Francisco . Another witness claimed to have seen a letter to one of Tate 's friends written in 1890 and postmarked from Brazil . That was the last known communication from " Honest Dick " Tate . An article in The New York Times , citing " friends who should know " , claimed that Tate was believed to have died in China in 1890 .
= Something There =
" Something There " is a song written by lyricist Howard Ashman and composer Alan Menken for Walt Disney Pictures 30th animated feature film Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 ) . Sung by the majority of the film 's main cast , the song was recorded by American actors Paige O 'Hara as Belle and Robby Benson as the Beast via voice over , featuring actors Jerry Orbach , Angela Lansbury and David Ogden Stiers as Lumiere , Mrs. Potts and Cogsworth , respectively . The only song performed by the Beast , " Something There " is heard midway through Beauty and the Beast during a scene in which Belle and the Beast finally begin to acknowledge their own feelings for each other .
A last @-@ minute addition to the film , the simple love song was quickly written by Ashman and Menken to replace the more elaborate and ambitious " Human Again " after the latter was cut from Beauty and the Beast . O 'Hara based her own vocal performance on that of American singer and actress Barbra Streisand , who Howard advised the actress to impersonate , while O 'Hara herself convinced the songwriters to have Benson record the song . Critical reception towards " Something There " has been positive , with film and music critics alike praising Ashman 's abilities as both a songwriter and a storyteller .
= = Background = =
" Something There " was written by lyricist Howard Ashman and composer Alan Menken . According to Menken , " Something There " was written as " a very quick replacement for ... ' Human Again ' , " the latter of which was ultimately cut from Beauty and the Beast because it was considered " too ambitious " for the film . Eleven minutes in length , producer Don Hahn explained that the song was cut because " We just couldn 't figure out how to make it work and not take away from the central story of Belle . " Upon learning that " Human Again " was removed from Beauty and the Beast , Ashman and Menken were forced to return " to the drawing board to write something more contained and simple , " the ultimate result of which was the love song " Something There , " which has been described as " shorter and more direct " than " Human Again " . The creative team also believed that the Beast saving Belle was enough to justify the dance sequence near the end of the film , though later realised they had in fact not yet earned this moment ; this quiet song where Beast gives Belle his library was pitched and written by Howard Ashman and " and as soon as that was written , we knew the movie was going to work " .
In his biography I 'm Not Dead ... Yet ! , actor Robby Benson , voice of the Beast , revealed that it was co @-@ star Paige O 'Hara 's idea to have Benson 's character duet with O 'Hara 's Belle in " Something There " . According to Benson , the actress " explained to Ashman and Menken that [ Benson ] had made records and sang in Broadway musicals . " O 'Hara briefly struggled to record one of the song 's lines – " a bit alarming " – to which an ailing Ashman , who was forced to communicate with O 'Hara and the studio via telephone from his hospital bed in New York due to his illness , simply responded " Streisand . " By this , Ashman meant that he wanted O 'Hara to impersonate singer and actress Barbra Streisand , and by doing so O 'Hara finally recorded the song successfully . " Something There " was recorded by O 'Hara and Benson accompanied by a live orchestra .
= = Context , sequence and analysis = =
In the book The Meanings of " Beauty and the Beast " : A Handbook , author Jerry Griswold observed that the " Something There " musical sequence is preceded by " the once feisty Belle ... bandaging and nursing [ the Beast ] " after he rescues her from the wolves . Contextually , the purpose of the song has been identified as " Dramatizing [ Belle and the Beasts ' ] partnership . " Leading up to the musical sequence , the Beast first " surprises Belle by showing her his library and then they learn to eat together . " Author Robin O. Winter observed that " During the scene they begin to see beneath their outer appearances and start to appreciate each other 's inner qualities , " while one critic identified this as one of the scenes in " which Belle and the Beast hesitantly slowly open up to one another . " Writing for Wesleyan University , Rachel Anne Silverman observed that " Something There " depicts " The first time Belle and the Beast 's attraction is introduced , " describing the couple 's relationship as " a passion that has developed over time . " Initially , Belle is alarmed " as she realizes her growing love for the Beast , " briefly hiding behind a tree as she sings . According to the Hal Leonard Corporation and Music Theatre International , the castle 's staff of enchanted objects also discover " something different between Belle and the Beast . " " Something There " concludes with Belle and the Beast retreating to a fireplace and reading . In the original film , " Something There " immediately precedes the film 's title song . However , for its special edition re @-@ release , the song is immediately followed by the newly reinstated " Human Again " .
Identifying the song as " where the genius of music as storytelling kicks in , " Simon Brew of Den of Geek felt that " Something There " is " the track with the heaviest workload . " The author observed that " In two minutes and 19 seconds , [ the song ] gets across just how the position and feelings of the characters have changed . " For instance , " At the beginning of ' Something There , ' Belle admits that she thought the Beast was mean , coarse , and unrefined . By the end , she ’ s feeling pretty smitten , " according to Oh My Disney . The song also depicts the film 's passing of time , while providing audiences with an opportunity " to appreciate Beast and first see the potential for Belle and him . " On the song 's role in the special edition version of the film , co @-@ director Kirk Wise explained , " There 's a ... little suite of music now that starts with ' Something There ' ... which segues into ' Human Again ' which gives the object perspective on what they hope for when [ Belle and the Beast ] fall in love and that transitions into ' Beauty and the Beast ' the ballad , which is the culmination of their relationship . " Dubbing the song " soliloquies of Belle and the Beast , " TV Guide drew comparisons between " Something There " and songs from the musical South Pacific .
The " Something There " musical sequence was added towards the end of Beauty and the Beast 's filmmaking process . Belle was animated by Mark Henn , while the Beast was animated by Aaron Blaise . Henn described " Something There " as " a great sequence , " continuing , " I love to animate songs . " Los Angeles Times ' Charles Solomon felt that Belle was drawn inconsistently throughout the film , observing that the character appears " noticeably slimmer " during " Something There " .
= = Composition = =
Written in the key of D major at a quick allegretto tempo of 108 beats per minute in common time , the " playful " " Something There " is a Broadway musical @-@ inspired duet in which Belle and the Beast finally conclude that " there 's something there that wasn 't there before . " The song spans a duration of two minutes and eighteen seconds , making it the third shortest song on the soundtrack behind the reprises of " Belle " and " Gaston " , respectively . Describing " Something There " as " a fluffy song , " Filmtracks.com observed that the song " shares many instrumental devices with ' Belle ' ; " one of Belle 's verses in " Something There " serves as " a reprise of the secondary phrase from [ ' Belle ' ] " . Combined , O 'Hara and Benson 's vocal ranges span two octaves , from the low note of G3 to the high note of E5 . The song , described as " a poignant character number " performed " Against a background of the easy rhythms of soft , lilting violins , " " allowed [ O 'Hara and Benson ] to blend their voices . " In addition , Women 's Studies in Communication observed that the " tentative bursts of notes symbolize the uncertainties of this new way of relating " .
In the song 's first verse , " Belle articulates how her attraction to [ the Beast ] stems from his shut @-@ off demeanor , " singing , " There 's something sweet / And almost kind / But he was mean / And he was coarse and unrefined / But now he 's dear / And so unsure / I wonder why I didn 't see it there before . " The Beast 's verse reads , " when we touched she didn 't shudder at my paw . " According to Laurence E. MacDonald , author of the book The Invisible Art of Film Music : A Comprehensive History , Benson " shocked many filmgoers with his richly resonant baritone . " Finally , Belle sings the song 's bridge , which reads , " New and a bit alarming / Who 'd have ever thought that this could be ? / True , that he 's no Prince Charming / But there 's something in him that I simply didn 't see . " According to the Los Angeles Times , by the end of " Something There " , " the audience understands what Belle and Beast feel and how disconcerting those emotions seem . "
= = Reception = =
" Something There " has garnered mostly positive reviews from film and music critics . Writing for Den of Geek , Simon Brew felt that " Something There " is " where the genius of music as storytelling kicks in . " In Brew 's opinion , the " utterly convincing and un @-@ mawkish " song works " because the two characters aren 't on screen singing directly at each other . " Brew concluded , " Everyone who makes an animated film that has a love story at the heart should watch this . " Filmtracks.com described " Something There " as an " affable " song . Particularly praising Ashman 's songwriting , Charles Solomon of the Los Angeles Times wrote that " Ashman 's songs advance the plot by exploring the characters ' emotions and making story points more concisely than conventional exposition . " Solomon concluded , " By the end of the deceptively simple @-@ sounding ' Something There , ' the audience understands what Belle and Beast feel and how disconcerting those emotions seem . " O 'Hara continues to cite " Something There " as her favorite of the film 's songs , elaborating , " Every time I see the Beast with that grin on his face and the bird in his hand , my heart just melts . "
For the studio 's pending live @-@ action adaptation of Beauty and the Beast , Julia Emmanuele of Hollywood.com suggested that the filmmakers " feel free to drop ' Something There ' if there ’ s no room for it " because " it won 't be missed . " However , when English actress Emma Watson confirmed in January 2015 that she will be portraying Belle via Facebook , she cited " Something There " as one of her favorite songs from her childhood . Irving Tan of Sputnikmusic jokingly called " Something There " " the closest the movie comes to admitting its horrendously inappropriate stance on human @-@ animal sexual relations . "
= Bad ( Michael Jackson song ) =
" Bad " is a song by an American singer Michael Jackson . " Bad " was released by Epic Records on September 7 , 1987 , as the second single from Jackson 's third major @-@ label and seventh studio album of the same name . The song was written and composed by Jackson and co @-@ produced by Quincy Jones and Jackson . Jackson stated that the song was influenced by a real @-@ life story he had read about .
" Bad " was well received by contemporary music critics , with some critics noting that " Bad " helped Jackson 's image become edgier during the Bad @-@ era . The song peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 , and remained at the top position of the chart for two weeks , becoming Jackson 's Bad album 's second number one single , and Jackson 's eighth number one entry on the chart . Internationally , the song was also commercially successful , charting within the top ten in eleven countries as well as charting within the top five in the United Kingdom , France , Italy , Norwegian , Switzerland and Swedish charts . The song peaked at number one on the Netherlands and European charts .
The full version of the music video for " Bad " , released in August 1987 , and broadcast as a CBS prime time special , was directed entirely by Martin Scorsese and co @-@ starred Wesley Snipes in one of his first appearances prior to being discovered as an actor . The video portrays Michael Jackson and various backup dancers shown performing complex choreography in a subway station . " Bad " has been covered and parodied by many different artists since its release and has become a song used frequently in tributes to Jackson after his death in June 2009 .
The song is featured in the 2010 animated film Megamind . It is also featured in the first theatrical trailer for the 2016 animated film The Angry Birds Movie .
= = Synopsis = =
Jackson plays a teenager named Darryl , who has just completed a term at an expensive private school . He returns to the city and takes the subway back to his neglected neighborhood . Darryl finds his home is empty where he is greeted by his old friends . The leader of the group is Mini Max ( an emerging Wesley Snipes ) . At first , relations are friendly but slightly awkward . Then , the situation begins deteriorate as the gang starts to realize how much Darryl has changed . They especially notice how uncomfortable he has become with their criminal activities . Darryl takes the gang to the subway station ( The Hoyt Schermerhorn Station in Brooklyn ) In an attempt to show his friends he is still " bad " by robbing an elderly man . He has a change of heart at the last minute and Mini Max chastises him telling Darryl he 's no longer bad . After more disrespect from Mini Max , the video cuts to Darryl and a group of street kids dancing while Jackson sings " Bad " . Darryl insists that Max is headed for a fall which is nearly Darryl 's undoing . Eventually , Mini Max accepts that and after a final handshake , leaves Darryl in peace . At the end of the video Darryl is left alone watching his gang leave .
= = Background and inspiration = =
" Bad " is a song that was written ( in 1986 ) and recorded by Michael Jackson in January 1987 for his seventh studio album of the same name and produced by Quincy Jones ( with Jackson serving as co @-@ producer ) . " Bad " was originally intended to be a duet between Jackson and musician Prince ; although the plans were not fruitful . In Jackson 's 1988 autobiography Moonwalk , Jackson discussed the concept of " Bad " , elaborating that ,
" ' Bad ' is a song about the street . It 's about this kid from a bad neighborhood who gets to go away to a private school . He comes back to the old neighborhood when he 's on a break from school and the kids from the neighborhood start giving him trouble . He sings , ' I 'm bad , you 're bad , who 's bad , who 's the best ? ' He 's saying when you 're strong and good , then you 're bad . "
In a 1988 interview with Ebony and Jet magazines ( which was released on Hulu shortly after his death ) , Jackson said that he had gotten the idea for the song from a true story that he had read about in Time or Newsweek magazine . Jackson stated that the story said that a student that went to school in upstate New York , who was " from the ghetto " , had tried to make something of his life and planned to leave all of his friends behind when he returned from Thanksgiving break . He added that the student 's friends ' jealousy resulted in them killing the student ; Jackson stated that the student 's death was not included in the music video . The only case that fits these details is that of Edmund Perry . However , Perry was not killed by kids in his neighborhood ; he was killed by a plainclothes police officer when Perry and his brother allegedly attacked and badly beat the officer in a mugging attempt .
= = Composition = =
The song is written in the key of A Minor with a time signature in common time . Jackson 's vocal range spans from G3 to C6 . The track has a tempo of 114 beats per minute . " Bad " was viewed as a rived " Hit the Road , Jack " progression . Davitt Sigerson , a writer for Rolling Stone magazine , commented on the track 's lyrical content while reviewing Bad , " When Jackson declares that ' the whole world has to answer right now , ' he is not boasting but making a statement of fact regarding his extraordinary stardom . If anything , he is scorning the self @-@ coronation of lesser funk royals and inviting his fickle public to spurn him if it dare . " Sigerson compared the track to material by James Brown , whose " It 's a Man 's Man 's Man 's World " is openly referenced by the four chromatic note brass introduction to the song . Lyrically , " Bad " pertains to proving to people that you are tough boasting , with Jackson asking " who 's bad ? " in a repeating lyric in the song 's chorus .
= = Critical reception = =
" Bad " was well received by contemporary music critics . Some critics noted that the song helped Jackson 's image become more edgy during the Bad @-@ era . Davitt Sigerson , a writer for Rolling Stone magazine , commented that the track " needs no " defense " and he generally praised Jackson 's vocal performance in the song . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic listed " Bad " , along with two other songs from the album , as being top picks from the album 's eleven tracks . In separate review of the song , Erlewine commented that Jackson 's vocals " sounded like [ he was ] the love child of James Brown and Mavis Staples " and added that " musically speaking , in this case , ' Bad ' is very good " . He also noted that the track 's " authority and boasting helped to humanize " Jackson and " changed his image " , remarking that it was " fun hearing him talking trash and being his own bigger booster " . Jennifer Clay of Yahoo Music noted that while Jackson 's new edgier image was a " little hard to swallow " , the image worked musically on the album 's songs " Bad " , " Man in the Mirror " , and " Dirty Diana " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Bad " charted within the top ten , at number eight , on the Billboard Hot 100 on October 10 , 1987 and peaked at number one on October 24 , 1987 . " Bad " stayed at the top position for two consecutive weeks . " Bad " was Jackson 's Bad album 's second number one single on the Billboard Hot 100 , and Jackson 's eighth number one entry on the chart . The track also charted on the Billboard Hot R & B Singles and Billboard Hot Dance Club Play at number one . " Bad " was commercially successful internationally , generally charting within the top ten , as well as reaching the top position , on music charts . " Bad " debuted at number five on the United Kingdom charts on September 26 , 1987 . The following week , the song charted at its peak position of number three , where it remained for two consecutive weeks . " Bad " remained within the chart 's top ten positions for four weeks , and charted within the top 100 for a total of eleven weeks in 1987 . " Bad " peaked at number five on Canadian music charts on November 7 , 1987 . " Bad " peaked at number four in Sweden on October 14 , 1987 . The song spent four weeks within the chart 's top ten . On October 3 , " Bad " debuted at number nine in France , and after six weeks of charting within the top ten , the song peaked at number four on November 14 . " Bad " debuted on New Zealand music charts at number four on October 18 , and the following week moved to its peak position of number two . The song then stayed within the top ten for the next five weeks . The track charted within the top fifty positions for fifteen weeks in 1987 and 1988 .
The song also charted at number two in Norway in the thirty @-@ ninth week of 1987 , and charted within the top ten positions for eight weeks in 1987 . The song was also very successful on the Australian music charts , peaking at number four . " Bad " debuted on Austrian charts at number ten on November 1 , 1987 . The following week the song charted out of the top ten and the next week returned to the top ten at number nine , which was its peak position . The song debuted at number eighty @-@ seven in Dutch on September 9 , 1987 . The following week , the song moved up to number eleven , which was seventy @-@ three positions higher than its previous week . The song peaked at number one , and remained at the top position for two consecutive weeks . In 2006 , Jackson 's music re @-@ entered charts following his music being re @-@ issued for his Visionary album . The track entered Spanish charts for the first time on April 4 , 2006 , and debuted at the top position . " Bad " remained within the top twenty positions for nine consecutive weeks . The song debuted at its peak position at number five in Italy on April 6 . After Jackson 's death in June 2009 , his music re @-@ entered charts again worldwide . In July , the track peaked at number eleven in Italy , number twenty in Spain , number twenty @-@ five in Sweden , number thirty @-@ seven in Denmark and number forty in the United Kingdom .
= = Music video = =
The full music video for " Bad " is an 18 @-@ minute short film written by novelist and screenwriter Richard Price and directed by Martin Scorsese . The video has many references to the 1961 film West Side Story , especially the " Cool " sequence . The soundtrack for the full length video used a different audio track than the album recording . This soundtrack included an instrumental organ solo which was not a part of the album recording .
The video was not commercially released until it was included in the video albums ; Video Greatest Hits - HIStory ( long version on DVD and short version in VHS ) , Number Ones ( short version ) , Michael Jackson 's Vision ( long version ) and the Target version DVD of Bad 25 ( short version ) . The full video was introduced in a TV special Michael Jackson : The Magic Returns on Primetime , a CBS television show on August 31 , 1987 .
The full video won awards at various prestigious award ceremonies including Favorite Single ( Soul / R & B ) at the American Music Awards and Biggest Selling Album by a Male Soloist in the UK from the Guinness Book of World Records .
After Jackson 's death in June 2009 , Letitia James of the New York City Council , began trying to convince the agency to rename or co @-@ name the station or to hang a plaque at the station in Jackson 's honor , but her request was denied by the Metropolitan Transportation Authority of New York in September 2009 . James commented , " Having Michael Jackson visit and moonwalk at this station was a huge deal not only for Brooklyn , but all of New York in the ' 80s [ ... ] And renaming this station in his honor would put it on the map and help ensure that people don 't forget . " A source from the MTA commented that no subway stations in the MTA system are named or co @-@ named after individuals , mostly because it could confuse riders .
= = Choreography = =
The choreographer Gregg Burge confirmed the influence , although they intended to do a more contemporary version of it . Assistant choreographer Jeffrey Daniel commented , " It 's like a train coming across the screen [ ... ] and that 's the effect I was looking for and it worked " .
The video 's choreographers Jeffrey Daniel and Gregg Burge were influenced by West Side Story when designing the dance routines but wanted to keep the scene more contemporary and incorporated the " moonwalk " into the movements . The music video received a nomination for choreography at the 1988 MTV Video Music Awards Ceremony . The video for " Bad " and Michael Jackson 's " The Way You Make Me Feel " video were both nominated for Best Choreography . However , Janet Jackson 's video " The Pleasure Principle " .
= = Live performances = =
" Bad " was performed during Jackson 's Bad world tour concert series from 1987 to 1989 , in both the first and second leg , as the final song in the first leg and sixteenth song in the second leg in the setlist . The song was also included on the first leg only of Jackson 's Dangerous World Tour . A small snippet of the song was sung during his performance of They Don 't Care About Us during his This Is It concerts which never occurred due to his death . It was rumored that Jackson had plans to perform the song during certain dates of the This Is It tour . A live version of the song is available on the DVD Live at Wembley July 16 , 1988 .
= = Cover versions = =
" Weird Al " Yankovic recorded a parody of the song , titled " Fat " , for his 1988 album Even Worse .
Lenny Henry made a parody video of " Bad " , called " Mad " , the parody was first shown in The Lenny Henry Show .
Ray Stevens performed a country / bluegrass version on his album I Never Made a Record I Didn 't Like .
Alvin and the Chipmunks covered the song for their 1988 album The Chipmunks and The Chipettes : Born to Rock .
After Jackson 's death in June 2009 , " Bad " was performed ( usually in a medley with other of Jackson 's songs ) as a tribute to Jackson . Shaun Micallef created his version in the 2010 New Year 's Special . At the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards tribute to Jackson , dancers performed dance routines from Jackson 's music videos while the music to the song was played in the background . The songs that were chosen were " Bad " , " Thriller " ( 1982 ) and " Smooth Criminal " ( 1987 ) .
In February 2010 , the song was parodied by The Fringemunks in " The iPad Song " , which criticized the device .
American TV series Glee did a Michael Jackson tribute episode in 2012 entitled " Michael " , which included an a cappella version of " Bad " featuring the Beelzebubs as part of The Warblers . This cover debuted and peaked at number 80 at Billboard Hot 100 , number 48 at Billboard Digital Songs , number 90 at Billboard Canadian Hot 100 , and number 29 at Billboard Adult Pop Songs chart at the week of February 18 , 2012 .
A version of this song was played on The Super Mario Bros. Super Show ! in an episode called " King Mario of Cramlot " .
Tohru Nakabayashi rearranged the song for the arcade version of Michael Jackson 's Moonwalker .
Takayuki Nakamura rearranged the song for the Sega Genesis and Sega Master System versions of the game .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Official versions = =
Album version – 4 : 06
7 " single mix ( new album version ) – 4 : 06
Dance extended mix includes " false fade " – 8 : 23
Dance remix radio edit – 4 : 56
Dub version – 4 : 06
A cappella – 3 : 49
Afrojack Club Mix – 7 : 36
Afrojack remix featuring Pitbull DJ Buddha Edit – 4 : 31
" Remember the Time " / " Bad " ( Immortal version ) – 4 : 39
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= = 2012 reissue = =
On August 14 , 2012 , the remix was released as a digital single via iTunes and Amazon.com. It is a new remix of the 1987 hit " Bad " worked on as a collaboration between Afrojack , DJ Buddha and Pitbull .
= = = Track listing = = =
Digital Single
Bad ( Afrojack Remix ) [ feat . Pitbull ] [ DJ Buddha Edit ] - Single - 4 : 29
HMV Exclusive CD Single ( HMV Bad 25 pre @-@ order only bonus CD )
Bad [ Remix By Afrojack Featuring Pitbull - The Derry Mix ] - 3 : 54
= = = Chart performance = = =
As a digital single prior to the album release , the single appeared on several country 's music charts . It debuted at Number 52 on Billboard Japan Hot 100 chart as the title " Bad 2012 " on the week of September 15 , 2012 , and peaked at Number 6 several weeks later . It also appeared on US Billboard Dance / Electronic Digital Songs Chart with Number 45 for one week on September 1 , 2012 . On the week of September 29 , 2012 , it debuted on Hot Dance Club Songs chart at Number 42 , and peaked at Number 18 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
This remix received overwhelmingly negative reviews from the music criticism . Randall Roberts from Los Angeles Times Pop Music Critic said , the song is " an insult " to Jackson memory , and the remix is " so ungracefully " Evan Sawdey from PopMatters said , the version " with two guest verses from Pitbull , is just outright trash " MisterCharlie from supajam.com reviews this single extremely negative . The single 's review from The Guardian said it was " a clubbed @-@ up remix featuring the world 's worst rapper " .
= = = Chart = = =
= Hurricane Alberto ( 1982 ) =
Hurricane Alberto caused the worst flooding in western Cuba in 32 years . The first tropical storm and hurricane of the 1982 Atlantic hurricane season , Alberto developed from a tropical disturbance on June 2 in the southern Gulf of Mexico . It rapidly organized and attained hurricane status the following day , the earliest date for a hurricane in the Atlantic Ocean since Hurricane Alma in May 1970 . Shortly after reaching peak winds off 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) , Alberto rapidly weakened due to approaching upper @-@ level winds . Initial forecasts predicted the hurricane would continue northeastward into Florida ; it turned sharply westward and drifted erratically for several days across the eastern Gulf of Mexico , before dissipating on June 6 .
Alberto produced heavy rainfall in western Cuba , causing flash flooding and severe damage . The storm damaged 8 @,@ 745 houses and destroyed 154 buildings , leaving hundreds homeless . Heavy rainfall continued in the country for several weeks after the storm , and damage from Alberto totaled about $ 85 million ( 1982 USD , $ 208 million 2016 USD ) . At least 23 people were killed in the country . Initially , Alberto was forecast to continue northeastward and strike Florida , though it turned and rapidly weakened , resulting in minor effects in the state .
= = Meteorological history = =
In late May , a tropical disturbance gradually developed over the northwestern portion of the Caribbean . It drifted westward into the Yucatán Peninsula , and on June 1 the convection organized into a circular cloud pattern in association with a low pressure system . The system tracked northeastward into the Gulf of Mexico while continuing to organize , and subsequent to the formation of a low @-@ level circulation it developed into Tropical Depression One while located about 40 miles ( 65 km ) north @-@ northwest of Cancún . Reconnaissance Aircraft confirmed the existence of the tropical depression later that day . Early on June 3 , it is estimated the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Alberto while located about 150 miles ( 240 km ) north @-@ northwest of the western tip of Cuba , based on a ship report of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) winds about 115 miles ( 185 km ) south of its center . An Air Force flight was scheduled into the storm , though was forbidden by the Cuban government due to its presence in Cuban airspace .
Alberto quickly strengthened while moving northeastward through the southeastern Gulf of Mexico , and intensified into a hurricane about nine hours after attaining tropical storm status . Late on June 3 , Alberto attained peak winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) while located about 120 miles ( 195 km ) west @-@ southwest of Key West , Florida . Shortly after peaking in intensity , strong upper @-@ level westerly winds impacted the deep convection of the storm . By early on June 4 Alberto weakened to a tropical storm after turning sharply westward due to weak steering currents . It drifted erratically as the circulation became exposed , and early on June 5 it degenerated into a convectiveless tropical depression . As a tropical depression , Alberto drifted to the east @-@ northeast and later turned to the east , and late on June 6 it dissipated while located about 70 miles ( 115 km ) off the coast of Florida .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Cuba = = =
The rainbands of Alberto produced heavy rainfall and flash flooding across western Cuba . The rainfall peaked at 39 @.@ 84 inches ( 1012 mm ) , the fourth highest rainfall total in the country since 1963 . More than 50 @,@ 000 were forced to evacuate from the resulting floods , which were described as the worst flooding in the northwestern portion of the country since 1950 .
Hurricane Alberto damaged a total of 8 @,@ 745 houses in the country . In Pinar del Río Province , 71 homes were destroyed , and across the nation hundreds of people were left homeless . 83 buildings were collapsed in the capital city of Havana , while six factories in Havana Province received damage . The passage of Alberto left several districts in Havana without electricity , telegraph , telephone , and mail service . The Cuban military was deployed to rescue those trapped in flooded homes and also to remove fallen trees . Agricultural damage included about 250 @,@ 000 downed banana trees and 400 drowned cattle . Heavy rainfall continued for weeks after the passage of Alberto , resulting in severe damage to the tobacco crop . Subsequent winds and rains destroyed storage sheds which ruined 1 @.@ 8 million lb . ( 900 @,@ 000 kg ) of the recently finished harvest ; 2 @.@ 6 million lb . ( 1 @.@ 3 million kg ) of tobacco leaves were also damaged . Two days after its closest approach , the death toll in Cuba reached 11 , and a day later it was raised to 23 fatalities . The final death toll was reported as either 23 or 24 , with one report indicating 17 people missing ; Pinar del Río Province reported at least 20 deaths and Havana reported three casualties . Damage was estimated at $ 85 million ( 1982 USD , $ 208 million 2016 USD ) .
= = = Florida = = =
Due to its sudden development and project track into southwest Florida , the National Hurricane Center issued a tropical storm warning and hours later a hurricane warning from the Dry Tortugas to Marathon in the Florida Keys and along the southwestern coastline northward to Fort Myers . A hurricane watch was also issued from Marathon to Jupiter Inlet . At the time of the issuance of the hurricane warning , Alberto had been moving steadily northeastward ; extrapolating its motion indicated a landfall on Key West within 12 hours and a mainland landfall at Key Largo within 24 hours . Additionally , most computer models predicted Alberto to continue northeastward across south Florida . Only one model , not available until later , suggested a weakness in steering currents that would prevent a Florida landfall .
Officials ordered mandatory evacuations along the southwest coast of Florida . More than 1 @,@ 000 left their homes to stay in nine emergency shelters . Air Florida canceled all flights from Miami to Key West . Many residents in the lower Florida Keys were unable to evacuate to the mainland , with about 50 people in Key West evacuating to four emergency shelters set up in the city . Officials closed schools in Monroe County at midday on June 3 and also sent all nonessential city and county employees home .
Gale force winds and heavy rainfall were reported in the lower Florida Keys ; Key West reported 6 @.@ 25 inches ( 160 mm ) during a 24 @-@ hour period , with the maximum reported winds at a land station being 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) in the Dry Tortugas . Moderate rainfall was reported throughout southern Florida and the eastern Florida Keys , as well , peaking at 16 @.@ 47 inches ( 418 mm ) at Tavernier . Alberto spawned three tornadoes and a waterspout in the Florida Keys , one of which at Stock Island which damaged several boats . One of the three tornadoes picked up a moving car and lightly injured the driver . Another knocked down two telephone poles on the Overseas Highway , which resulted in an hour traffic delay . Damage from the tornadoes totaled $ 275 @,@ 000 ( 1982 USD , $ 620 @,@ 000 2010 USD ) .
= Prosaurolophus =
Prosaurolophus ( / ˌproʊsɔːˈrɒləfəs / ; meaning " before Saurolophus " , in comparison to the later dinosaur with a similar head crest ) is a genus of hadrosaurid ( or duck @-@ billed ) dinosaur from the Late Cretaceous of North America . It is known from the remains of at least 25 individuals belonging to two species , including skulls and skeletons , but it remains obscure . Around 9 m ( 30 ft ) , its fossils have been found in the late Campanian @-@ age Upper Cretaceous Dinosaur Park Formation in Alberta , and the roughly contemporaneous Two Medicine Formation in Montana , dating to around 75 @.@ 5 @-@ 74 @.@ 0 million years ago . Its most recognizable feature is a small solid crest formed by the nasal bones , sticking up in front of the eyes .
The type species is P. maximus , described by American paleontologist Barnum Brown of the American Museum of Natural History in 1916 . A second species , P. blackfeetensis , was described by Jack Horner of the Museum of the Rockies in 1992 . The two species were differentiated mainly by crest size and skull proportions .
= = Description = =
Prosaurolophus was a large @-@ headed duckbill ; the most complete described specimen has a skull around 0 @.@ 9 metres ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) long on a skeleton about 8 @.@ 5 metres ( 28 ft ) long . It had a small , stout , triangular crest in front of the eyes ; the sides of this crest were concave , forming depressions . The upper arm was relatively short .
When originally described by Brown , Prosaurolophus maximus was known from a skull and jaw . Half of the skull was badly weathered at the time of examination , and the level of the parietal was distortedly crushed upwards to the side . The different bones of the skull could be easily defined , with the exception of the parietals and nasal bones . Brown found that the skull of the already described genus Saurolophus is very similar overall to , but also smaller than the skull of P. maximus . A unique feature of a shortened frontal in lambeosaurines is also found in Prosaurolophus , and the other horned hadrosaurines Brachylophosaurus , Maiasaura , and Saurolophus . Although they lack a shorter frontal , the genera Edmontosaurus and Shantungosaurus share with saurolophins an elongated dentary .
= = History of discovery = =
Well @-@ known paleontologist Barnum Brown recovered a duckbill skull in 1915 for the American Museum of Natural History ( AMNH 5836 ) from the Red Deer River of Alberta , near Steveville . He described the specimen in 1916 as a new genus , Prosaurolophus . Brown 's choice of name comes from a comparison to the genus Saurolophus , which he had described in 1912 . Saurolophus had a similar but longer and more spike @-@ like head crest . The skull had a damaged muzzle and was inadvertently reconstructed too long , but better remains were soon found that showed the true shape ; one is a nearly complete skeleton and skull , described by William Parks in 1924 . Twenty to twenty @-@ five individuals are known for this species , including seven skulls with at least some of the rest of the skeleton .
The second species , P. blackfeetensis , is based on a specimen in the Museum of the Rockies ( MOR 454 ) , which was described by another notable paleontologist , Jack Horner . This specimen , and the remains of three or four other individuals , were found in Glacier County , Montana . In this case , the fossils were found in a bonebed of Prosaurolophus remains , which indicates that the animals lived together for at least some time . The bonebed is interpreted as reflecting a group of animals that congregated near a water source during a drought .
Horner differentiated the two species by details of the crest . He interpreted P. blackfeetensis as having a
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steeper , taller face than P. maximus , with the crest migrating backward toward the eyes during growth . More recent studies have regarded the differences as insufficient to support two species .
= = Classification = =
Because of its name , Prosaurolophus is often associated with Saurolophus . However , this is contentious ; some authors have found the animals to be closely related , whereas others have not , instead finding it closer to Brachylophosaurus , Edmontosaurus , Gryposaurus , and Maiasaura .
= = = History of classification = = =
In 1918 , Lawrence Lambe revised the classifications of Hadrosauridae ( then Trachodontidae ) . He invalidated the family name and Trachodontinae , replacing them with Hadrosauridae and Hadrosaurinae . The other subfamily in Hadrosauridae then was Saurolophinae , which included Stephanosaurus ( = Lambeosaurus ) , Cheneosaurus , Corythosaurus , Prosaurolophus , and Saurolophus . Lambe , in 1920 , split Saurolophinae and found only two genera remaining in it , Prosaurolophus , and the type genus . The previous genera were then reclassified into Stephanosaurinae or Hadrosaurinae . In 1928 , Prosaurolophus was assigned to Saurolophinae by Franz Nopcsa . The group contained hadrosaurids with a " males with median horn @-@ like protuberance on the skull " and " very numerous teeth " , found by Nopsca to be Parasaurolophus , Saurolophus , and Prosaurolophus .
In 1954 , Charles Sternberg reevaluated the genera in Hadrosauridae , invoking the probability that Saurolophinae should be sunk into Hadrosaurinae . This greatly changed the classifications of the family , as the " saurolophines " were kept separate because of their supposedly " footed " ischium . Sternberg identified that the " footed " ischium assigned to Saurolophus was not found with the holotype , and was only assigned to it because of the location of the find . Also , he noted that William Parks ( 1924 ) found a complete skeleton of Prosaurolophus clearly showing a " unfooted " ischium , which Sternberg realized meant that it was unlikely that Saurolophus possessed a " footed " ischium . Sternberg 's reevaluation led to the abandonment of Saurolophinae .
Young ( 1958 ) found that the subfamily Saurolophinae , however , was not to be abandoned , and in it placed his new genus Tsintaosaurus , as well as Prosaurolophus and Saurolophus , and also Kritosaurus ( which included Gryposaurus and excluded K. navajovius ) . Two years previous , Friedrich von Huene separated Saurolophinae from Hadrosauridae , naming Saurolophidae . Saurolophidae was a family in Huene 's Hadrosauria , including the genera Prosaurolophus , Saurolophus , and the probably unrelated Bactrosaurus . Another author to support the separation of Saurolophinae was John Ostrom ( 1961 ) . Ostrom found that the saurolophines Brachylophosaurus , Prosaurolophus , and Saurolophus all possessed a " pseudonarial crest " , a feature which united them , while distinguishing them from hollow @-@ crested lambeosaurines .
Hopson ( 1975 ) supported the division of Hadrosauridae into two subfamilies , Hadrosaurinae and Lambeosaurinae , and was first to suspect what modern analyses find . Hopson found that Hadrosaurinae could clearly be divided into groups , the " kritosaurs " , the " edmontosaurs " , and the " saurolophines " , including Prosaurolophus , Saurolophus , Tsintaosaurus and Lophorhothon , and intermediate between the " kritosaurs " and " saurolophines " . Brett @-@ Surman ( 1975 ) also followed Sternberg with sinking Saurolophinae into Hadrosaurinae , and like Hopson , he recognized three groups within the subfamily . Like Hopson , one group was called the Edmontosaurus lineage , the second the Kritosaurus group , and the third uniting Prosaurolophus and Saurolophus . Over a decade later in 1989 , Brett @-@ Surman scientifically named the groups of hadrosaurines , the first becoming Edmontosaurini , the second Kritosaurini , and the third Saurolophini .
= = = Phylogeny = = =
The first cladistic analysis to encompass the interrelationships of Hadrosauridae was conducted by Weishampel and Horner ( 1990 ) . They found Saurolophinae synonymous with Hadrosaurinae , but only separated the subfamily into two groups . The first group included Gryposaurus , Aralosaurus , Maiasaura , and Brachylophosaurus . The other contained Edmontosaurus , Saurolophus , Prosaurolophus , Lophorhothon , and Shantungosaurus .
A detailed cladgram of hadrosaurid relationships was published in 2013 by Acta Palaeontologica Polonica . The study was led by Alberto Prieto @-@ Márquez , and recovered Prosaurolophus in a similar position as suggested by Brown in 1916 . The below cladogram was the one recovered by their analysis :
In 2001 , Prosaurolophus was studied with other hadrosaurids by Wagner . The genus , along with Corythosaurus and Maiasaura , were considered by Wagner to be synonymous with Saurolophus , Hypacrosaurus and Brachylophosaurus respectively . Prosaurolophus maximus was reassigned to Saurolophus as S. maximus . The same year however , Prosaurolophus was found to be distinct from Saurolophus , in an analysis of Hu et al .. Their analysis was unique from any of the time , and they recovered Prosaurolophus in Saurolophinae , with Saurolophus , Lophorhothon , Tsintaosaurus , Jaxartosaurus , and Kritosaurus . No other analysis has recovered this group of dinosaurs .
Horner et al . ( 2004 ) also recovered a different phylogeny of Saurolophinae . Prosaurolophus was , for the first time , recovered separate from Saurolophus , in fact not even closely related . Prosaurolophus was found in a group with Brachylophosaurus , Maiasaura , Grpyosaurus , and Edmontosaurus , while Saurolophus was grouped with Naashoibitosaurus ( = Kritosaurus ) and " Kritosaurus " australis .
The Prosaurolophus @-@ Saurolophus clade has been a problematic grouping when trying to place among hadrosaurines . Many skull features are similar to Edmontosaurus , while other are closer to Gryposaurus , so the group has been classified as close to both . However , the clade might be closer to Edmontosaurus , as the features are more numerous uniting them .
= = Paleobiology = =
As a hadrosaurid , Prosaurolophus would have been a large herbivore , eating plants with a sophisticated skull that permitted a grinding motion analogous to chewing . Its teeth were continually replaced and packed into dental batteries that contained hundreds of teeth , only a relative handful of which were in use at any time . Plant material would have been cropped by its broad beak , and held in the jaws by a cheek @-@ like structure . Feeding would have been from the ground up to around 4 meters ( 13 ft ) above . Like other hadrosaurs , it could have moved both bipedally and quadrupedally . Comparisons between the scleral rings of Prosaurolophus and modern birds and reptiles suggest that it may have been cathemeral , active throughout the day at short intervals .
= = = Social behavior = = =
As noted , there is bonebed evidence that this genus lived in groups during at least part of the year . Additionally , it had several potential methods for display in a social setting . The bony facial crest is an obvious candidate , and nasal diverticula may also have been present . These postulated diverticula would have taken the form of inflatable soft @-@ tissue sacs housed in the deep excavations flanking the crest and elongate holes for the nostrils . Such sacs could be used for both visual and auditory signals .
= = Paleoecology = =
The Dinosaur Park Formation , home to Prosaurolophus maximus , is interpreted as a low @-@ relief setting of rivers and floodplains that became more swampy and influenced by marine conditions over time as the Western Interior Seaway transgressed westward . The climate was warmer than present @-@ day Alberta , without frost , but with wetter and drier seasons . Conifers were apparently the dominant canopy plants , with an understory of ferns , tree ferns , and flowering plants . In this well @-@ studied formation , P. maximus is only known from the upper part , which had more of a marine influence than the lower section . It was the most common hadrosaurine of this section , which was deposited about 75 @.@ 5 million years ago . The Dinosaur Park Formation was also home to well @-@ known dinosaurs like the horned Centrosaurus , Styracosaurus , and Chasmosaurus , fellow duckbills Gryposaurus , Corythosaurus , Lambeosaurus , and Parasaurolophus , tyrannosaurid Gorgosaurus , and armored Edmontonia and Euoplocephalus .
The roughly contemporaneous Two Medicine Formation , home to P. maximus , is well known for its fossils of dinosaur nests , eggs , and young , produced by the hadrosaurids Hypacrosaurus stebingeri and Maiasaura , and the troodontid Troodon . The tyrannosaurid Daspletosaurus , caenagnathid Chirostenotes , dromaeosaurids Bambiraptor and Saurornitholestes , armored dinosaurs Edmontonia and Euoplocephalus , hypsilophodont Orodromeus , and horned dinosaurs Achelousaurus , Brachyceratops , Einiosaurus , and Styracosaurus ovatus were also present . This formation was more distant from the Western Interior Seaway , and higher and drier than the Dinosaur Park Formation . The age of Prosaurolophus maximus remains from this formation is from approximately 75 @.@ 5 to 74 @.@ 0 million years ago .
= Bart Simpson =
Bartholomew JoJo " Bart " Simpson is a fictional character in the American animated television series The Simpsons and part of the Simpson family . He is voiced by Nancy Cartwright and first appeared on television in The Tracey Ullman Show short " Good Night " on April 19 , 1987 . Cartoonist Matt Groening created and designed Bart while waiting in the lobby of James L. Brooks ' office . Groening had been called to pitch a series of shorts based on his comic strip , Life in Hell , but instead decided to create a new set of characters . While the rest of the characters were named after Groening 's family members , Bart 's name is an anagram of the word brat . After appearing on The Tracey Ullman Show for three years , the Simpson family received its own series on Fox , which debuted December 17 , 1989 .
At ten years old , Bart is the eldest child and only son of Homer and Marge , and the brother of Lisa and Maggie . Bart 's most prominent and popular character traits are his mischievousness , rebelliousness and disrespect for authority . He has appeared in other media relating to The Simpsons – including video games , The Simpsons Movie , The Simpsons Ride , commercials , and comic books – and inspired an entire line of merchandise .
In casting , Nancy Cartwright originally planned to audition for the role of Lisa , while Yeardley Smith tried out for Bart. Smith 's voice was too high for a boy , so she was given the role of Lisa . Cartwright found that Lisa was not interesting at the time , so instead auditioned for Bart , which she thought was a better role .
Hallmarks of the character include his chalkboard gags in the opening sequence ; his prank calls to Moe ; and his catchphrases " Eat my shorts " , " ¡ Ay , caramba ! " , and " Don 't have a cow , man ! "
During the first two seasons of The Simpsons , Bart was the show 's breakout character and " Bartmania " ensued , spawning Bart Simpson @-@ themed merchandise touting his rebellious attitude and pride at underachieving , which caused many parents and educators to cast him as a bad role model for children . Around the third season , the series started to focus more on the family as a whole , though Bart still remains a prominent character . Time named Bart one of the 100 most important people of the 20th century , and he was named " entertainer of the year " in 1990 by Entertainment Weekly . Nancy Cartwright has won several awards for voicing Bart , including a Primetime Emmy Award in 1992 and an Annie Award in 1995 . In 2000 , Bart , along with the rest of his family , was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame .
= = Role in The Simpsons = =
The Simpsons uses a floating timeline in which the characters do not age at all , and as such , the show is always assumed to be set in the current year . In several episodes , events have been linked to specific times , though sometimes this timeline has been contradicted in subsequent episodes . Bart 's year of birth was stated in " I Married Marge " ( season three , 1991 ) as being in the early 1980s . He lived with his parents in the Lower East Side of Springfield until the Simpsons bought their first house . When Lisa was born , Bart was at first jealous of the attention she received , but he soon warmed to her when he discovered that " Bart " was her first word . Bart 's first day of school was in the early 1990s . His initial enthusiasm was crushed by an uncaring teacher and Marge became worried that something was truly wrong with Bart. One day during recess , Bart met Milhouse and started entertaining him and other students with various gestures and rude words . Principal Skinner told him " you 've just started school , and the path you choose now may be the one you follow for the rest of your life ! Now , what do you say ? " In his moment of truth , Bart responded , " eat my shorts " . The episode " That ' 90s Show " ( season nineteen , 2008 ) contradicted much of the backstory 's time frame ; for example , it was revealed that Homer and Marge were childless in the early 1990s .
Bart 's hobbies include skateboarding , watching television ( especially The Krusty the Clown Show which includes The Itchy & Scratchy Show ) , reading comic books ( especially Radioactive Man ) , playing video games and generally causing mischief . His favorite movies are Jaws and the Star Wars Trilogy . For the duration of the series , Bart has attended Springfield Elementary School and has been in Edna Krabappel 's fourth grade class . While he is too young to hold a full @-@ time job , he has had occasional part @-@ time jobs . He works as a bartender at Fat Tony 's social club in " Bart the Murderer " ( season three , 1991 ) ; as Krusty the Clown 's assistant in " Bart Gets Famous " ( season five , 1994 ) ; as a doorman in Springfield 's burlesque house , the Maison Derrière in " Bart After Dark " ( season eight , 1996 ) ; and briefly owns his own factory in " Homer 's Enemy " . ( season eight , 1997 )
= = Character = =
= = = Creation = = =
Matt Groening first conceived of Bart and the rest of the Simpson family in 1986 , while waiting in the lobby of producer James L. Brooks ' office . Groening had been called in to pitch a series of animated shorts for The Tracey Ullman Show , and had intended to present an adaptation of his Life in Hell comic strip . When he realized that animating Life in Hell would require him to rescind publication rights , Groening decided to go in another direction . He hurriedly sketched out his version of a dysfunctional family , naming the characters after members of his own family . For the rebellious son , he substituted " Bart " , an anagram of the word brat , for his own name , as he decided it would have been too obvious for him to have named the character ' Matt ' . Bart 's middle initial J is a " tribute " to animated characters such as Bullwinkle J. Moose and Rocket J. Squirrel from The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show , who received their middle initial from Jay Ward . According to the book Bart Simpson 's Guide to Life , Bart 's full middle name is " JoJo " .
Bart had originally been envisioned as " a much milder , troubled youth given to existential angst who talks to himself " , but the character was changed based on Cartwright 's voice acting . Groening has credited several different figures with providing inspiration for Bart : Matt Groening 's older brother Mark provided much of the motivation for Bart 's attitude . Bart was conceived as an extreme version of the typical misbehaving child character , merging all of the extreme traits of characters such as Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn into one person . Groening describes Bart as " what would happen if Eddie Haskell [ from Leave It to Beaver ] got his own show " . Groening has also said that he found the premise of Dennis the Menace disappointing and was inspired to create a character who was actually a menace .
Bart made his debut with the rest of the Simpson family on April 19 , 1987 in The Tracey Ullman Show short " Good Night " . In 1989 , the shorts were adapted into The Simpsons , a half @-@ hour series airing on the Fox Broadcasting Company . Bart and the Simpson family remained the main characters on this new show .
= = = Design = = =
The entire Simpson family was designed so that they would be recognizable in silhouette . The family was crudely drawn , because Groening had submitted basic sketches to the animators , assuming they would clean them up ; instead , they just traced over his drawings . Bart 's original design , which appeared in the first shorts , had spikier hair , and the spikes were of different lengths . The number was later limited to nine spikes , all of the same size . At the time Groening was primarily drawing in black and " not thinking that [ Bart ] would eventually be drawn in color " gave him spikes which appear to be an extension of his head . The features of Bart 's character design are generally not used in other characters ; for example , no other characters in current episodes have Bart 's spiky hairline , although several background characters in the first few seasons shared the trait .
The basic rectangular shape of Bart 's head is described by director Mark Kirkland as a coffee can . Homer 's head is also rectangular ( with a dome on top ) , while spheres are used for Marge , Lisa , and Maggie . Different animators have different methods of drawing Bart. Former director Jeffrey Lynch starts off with a box , then adds the eyes , then the mouth , then the hair spikes , ear , and then the rest of the body . Matt Groening normally starts with the eyes , then the nose , and the rest of the outline of Bart 's head . Many of the animators have trouble drawing Bart 's spikes evenly ; one trick they use is to draw one on the right , one on the left , one in the middle , then continue to add one in the middle of the blank space until there are nine . Originally , whenever Bart was to be drawn from an angle looking down so the top of his head was seen , Groening wanted there to be spikes along the outline of his head , and in the middle as well . Instead , Wes Archer and David Silverman drew him so that there was an outline of the spikes , then just a smooth patch in the middle because " it worked graphically . " In " The Blue and the Gray " , Bart ( along with Lisa and Maggie ) finally questions why his hair has no visible border to separate head from hair .
In the season seven ( 1995 ) episode " Treehouse of Horror VI " , Bart ( along with Homer ) was computer animated into a three @-@ dimensional character for the first time for the " Homer3 " segment of the episode . The computer animation was provided by Pacific Data Images . While designing the 3D model of the character , the animators did not know how they would show Bart 's hair . They realized that there were vinyl Bart dolls in production and purchased one to use as a model .
= = = = Appearance = = = =
Bart , like the rest of his family , has yellow skin . Bart usually wears a red T @-@ shirt , blue shorts and blue trainers . When the Simpson family goes to church in the episodes , or to school events or shows , Bart wears a blue suit with a white shirt , a purple tie , blue shorts and a blue jacket .
= = = Voice = = =
Bart 's voice is provided by Nancy Cartwright , who voices several other child characters on The Simpsons , including Nelson Muntz , Ralph Wiggum , Todd Flanders , and Kearney . While the roles of Homer and Marge were given to Dan Castellaneta and Julie Kavner because they were already a part of The Tracey Ullman Show cast , the producers decided to hold casting for the roles of Bart and Lisa . Yeardley Smith had initially been asked to audition for the role of Bart , but casting director Bonita Pietila believed her voice was too high . Smith later recalled , " I always sounded too much like a girl . I read two lines as Bart and they said , ' Thanks for coming ! ' " Smith was given the role of Lisa instead . On March 13 , 1987 , Nancy Cartwright went in to audition for the role of Lisa . After arriving at the audition , she found that Lisa was simply described as the " middle child " and at the time did not have much personality . Cartwright became more interested in the role of Bart , who was described as " devious , underachieving , school @-@ hating , irreverent , [ and ] clever " . Matt Groening let her try out for the part instead , and upon hearing her read , gave her the job on the spot . Cartwright is the only one of the six main Simpsons cast members who had been professionally trained in voice acting prior to working on the show .
Cartwright 's normal speaking voice is said to have " no obvious traces of Bart " . The voice came naturally to Cartwright ; prior to The Tracey Ullman Show , she had used elements of it in shows such as My Little Pony , Snorks , and Pound Puppies . Cartwright describes Bart 's voice as easy to perform , saying , " Some characters take a little bit more effort , upper respiratory control , whatever it is technically . But Bart is easy to do . I can just slip into that without difficulty . " She usually does five or six readings of every line in order to give the producers more to work with . In flashforward episodes , Cartwright still provides the voice of Bart. For " Lisa 's Wedding " , ( season six , 1995 ) Bart 's voice was electronically lowered .
Despite Bart 's fame , Cartwright is rarely recognized in public . When she is recognized and asked to perform Bart 's voice in front of children , Cartwright refuses as it " freaks [ them ] out " . During the first season of The Simpsons , the Fox Network did not allow Cartwright to give interviews because they did not want to publicize that Bart was voiced by a woman .
Until 1998 , Cartwright was paid $ 30 @,@ 000 per episode . During a pay dispute in 1998 , Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors with new actors , going as far as preparing for casting of new voices . The dispute was resolved and Cartwright received $ 125 @,@ 000 per episode until 2004 , when the voice actors demanded that they be paid $ 360 @,@ 000 an episode . The dispute was resolved a month later , and Cartwright 's pay rose to $ 250 @,@ 000 per episode . After salary renegotiations in 2008 , the voice actors receive approximately $ 400 @,@ 000 per episode . Three years later , with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut , Cartwright and the other cast members accepted a 30 percent pay cut to just over $ 300 @,@ 000 per episode .
= = = Hallmarks = = =
In the opening sequence of many Simpsons episodes , the camera zooms in on Springfield Elementary School , where Bart can be seen writing a message on the chalkboard . This message , which changes from episode to episode , has become known as the " chalkboard gag " . Chalkboard messages may involve political humor such as " The First Amendment does not cover burping " , pop culture references such as " I can 't see dead people " , and meta @-@ references such as " I am not a 32 year old woman " and " Nobody reads these anymore " . The animators are able to produce the chalkboard gags quickly and in some cases have changed them to fit current events . For example , the chalkboard gag for " Homer the Heretic " ( season four , 1992 ) read , " I will not defame New Orleans . " The gag had been written as an apology to the city for a controversial song in the previous week 's episode , " A Streetcar Named Marge " , which called the city a " home of pirates , drunks and whores " . Many episodes do not feature a chalkboard gag because a shorter opening title sequence , where the chalkboard gags are cut , is used to make more room for story and plot development .
One of Bart 's early hallmarks were his prank calls to Moe 's Tavern owner Moe Szyslak in which Bart calls Moe and asks for a gag name . Moe tries to find that person in the bar , but rapidly realizes it is a prank call and ( despite not knowing who actually made the call ) angrily threatens Bart. These calls were based on a series of prank calls known as the Tube Bar recordings . Moe was based partly on Tube Bar owner Louis " Red " Deutsch , whose often profane responses inspired Moe 's violent side . The prank calls debuted in " Homer 's Odyssey " , ( season one , 1990 ) the third episode to air , but were included in " Some Enchanted Evening " , the first episode of the series that was produced . As the series progressed , it became more difficult for the writers to come up with a fake name and to write Moe 's angry response , so the pranks were dropped as a regular joke during the fourth season but they have occasionally resurfaced on the show .
The catchphrase " Eat My Shorts " was an ad @-@ lib by Cartwright in one of the original table readings , harking back to an incident when she was in high school . Cartwright was in the marching band at Fairmont High School , and one day while performing , the band chanted " Eat my shorts " rather than the usual " Fairmont West ! Fairmont West ! " Bart 's other catchphrases , " ¡ Ay , caramba ! " and " Don 't have a cow , man ! " , were featured on T @-@ shirts manufactured during the production of the early seasons of The Simpsons . " Cowabunga " is also commonly associated with Bart , although it was mostly used on the show after it had been used as a slogan on the T @-@ shirts . The use of catchphrase @-@ based humor was mocked in the episode " Bart Gets Famous " ( season five , 1994 ) in which Bart lands a popular role on Krusty the Clown 's show for saying the line " I didn 't do it . " The writers chose the phrase " I didn 't do it " because they wanted a " lousy " phrase " to point out how really crummy things can become really popular " .
Bart commonly appears nude in the show , although in every case only his buttocks are visible . In The Simpsons Movie ( 2007 ) , Bart appears in a sequence where he is skateboarding while fully nude ; several different items cover his genitalia , but for a brief moment his penis can be seen . The scene was one of the first worked on for the film , but the producers were nervous about the segment because they thought it would earn the movie an R rating . Despite this , the film was rated PG @-@ 13 by the Motion Picture Association of America for " Irreverent Humor Throughout . " The scene was later included by Entertainment Weekly in their list of " 30 Unforgettable Nude Scenes . "
= = = Personality = = =
Bart 's character traits of rebelliousness and disrespect for authority have been compared to that of America 's founding fathers , and he has been described as an updated version of Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn , rolled into one . In his book Planet Simpson , Chris Turner describes Bart as a nihilist , a philosophical position that argues that existence is without objective meaning , purpose , or intrinsic value .
Bart 's rebellious attitude has made him a disruptive student at Springfield Elementary School , where Bart is an underachiever and proud of it . He is constantly at odds with his teacher Ms. Krabappel , Principal Skinner , and occasionally Groundskeeper Willie . Bart does poorly in school and is well aware of it , having once declared , " I am dumb , okay ? Dumb as a post ! Think I 'm happy about it ? " On one occasion , Lisa successfully proves that Bart is dumber than a hamster , although Bart ultimately outsmarts her in the end . In " Separate Vocations " ( season three , 1992 ) Bart becomes hall monitor and his grades go up , suggesting that he struggles mainly because he does not pay attention , not because he is stupid . This idea is reinforced in " Brother 's Little Helper " , ( season eleven , 1999 ) in which it is revealed that Bart suffers from attention deficit disorder . His lack of smarts can also be attributed to the hereditary " Simpson Gene " , which affects the intelligence of most male members of the Simpson family . Although he gets into endless trouble and can be sadistic , shallow and selfish , Bart also exhibits many qualities of high integrity . He has , on a few occasions , helped Principal Skinner and Mrs. Krabappel : In " Sweet Seymour Skinner 's Baadasssss Song " ( season five , 1994 ) , Bart accidentally got Skinner fired and befriended him outside the school environment . Bart missed having Skinner as an adversary and got him rehired , knowing that this would mean that the two could no longer be friends .
Due to Bart 's mischievousness and Homer 's often uncaring and incompetent behavior , the two have a turbulent relationship . Bart regularly addresses Homer by his given name instead of " Dad " , while Homer in turn often refers to him as " the boy " . Homer has a short temper and when enraged by Bart will strangle him on impulse in a cartoonishly violent manner . One of the original ideas for the show was that Homer would be " very angry " and oppressive toward Bart , but these characteristics were toned down somewhat as their characters were explored . Marge is a much more caring , understanding and nurturing parent than Homer , but she also refers to Bart as " a handful " and is often embarrassed by his antics . In " Marge Be Not Proud " , ( season seven , 1995 ) she felt she was mothering Bart too much and began acting more distant towards him after he was caught shoplifting . At the beginning of the episode , Bart protested at her over @-@ mothering but as her attitude changed , he felt bad and made it up to her . Despite his attitude , Bart is sometimes willing to experience humiliation if it means pleasing his mom . Marge has expressed an understanding for her " special little guy " and has defended him on many occasions . She once said " I know Bart can be a handful , but I also know what he 's like inside . He 's got a spark . It 's not a bad thing ... Of course , it makes him do bad things . "
Bart shares a sibling rivalry with his younger sister , Lisa , but has a buddy @-@ like relationship with his youngest sister Maggie , due to her infant state . While Bart has often hurt Lisa , and even fought her physically , the two are often very close . Bart cares for Lisa deeply and has always apologized for going too far . He also believes Lisa to be his superior when it comes to solving problems and frequently goes to her for advice . Bart is also highly protective of Lisa : When a bully destroys her box of cupcakes in " Bart the General " , ( season one , 1990 ) , Bart immediately stands up for her .
Bart is portrayed as a popular cool boy and has many friends at school . Out of all of them his best friend is Milhouse Van Houten , although Bart has at times shown embarrassment about their friendship . Bart is a bad influence on Milhouse , and the two have been involved in a lot of mischief together . Because of this behavior , Milhouse 's mother forbids Milhouse from playing with Bart in " Homer Defined " ( season three , 1991 ) . While at first he pretended that he did not care , Bart eventually realizes that he needs Milhouse , and Marge manages to convince Mrs. Van Houten to reconsider . Milhouse is a frequent target for local bullies Nelson Muntz and his friends Jimbo , Dolph , and Kearney . At times , Bart also finds himself at the hands of their abuse . Milhouse describes their social standing as " Three and a half . We get beat up , but we get an explanation . " While Bart and the bullies have been adversaries at times , with Bart once declaring war on Nelson , the school bullies actually like Bart for his ways and hang out with him at times , especially Nelson who eventually becomes close friends with him .
Bart is one of the biggest fans of children 's television host Krusty the Clown . He once declared , " I 've based my whole life on Krusty 's teachings , " and sleeps in a room filled with Krusty merchandise . He has helped the clown on many occasions , for example , foiling Sideshow Bob 's attempt to frame Krusty for armed robbery in " Krusty Gets Busted " ( season one , 1990 ) , reuniting Krusty with his estranged father in " Like Father , Like Clown " . and helping Krusty return to the air with a comeback special and reignite his career in " Krusty Gets Kancelled " . For his part , Krusty has remained largely ignorant of Bart 's help and treats Bart with disinterest . One summer , Bart enthusiastically attended Kamp Krusty , which turned out to be a disaster , with Krusty nowhere to be seen . Bart keeps his hopes up by believing that Krusty would show up , but is soon pushed over the edge , and finally decides that he is sick of Krusty 's shoddy merchandise and takes over the camp . Krusty immediately visits the camp in hopes of ending the conflict and manages to appease Bart. One of the original ideas for the series was that Bart worshiped a television clown but had no respect for his father , although this was never directly explored . Because of this original plan , Krusty 's design is basically Homer in clown make @-@ up . When Bart foiled Sideshow Bob 's plans in " Krusty Gets Busted " , it sparked a long @-@ standing feud between the two . The writers decided to have Bob repeatedly return to get revenge on Bart. They took the idea of the Coyote chasing the Road Runner and depicted Bob as an intelligent person obsessed with catching a bratty boy . Bob has appeared in fourteen episodes , generally plotting various evil schemes , but is always foiled in the end .
Despite being currently portrayed as an underachiever , Bart was actually very happy and looking forward about going to school . However , the boy 's initial enthusiastic nature is crushed by an uncaring and bitter teacher who said that he would be a failure at life and never amount to anything . Deeply hurt by this comment , Bart then began the process of developing his path into the mischievous , rebellious , disruptive , disrespectful , snarky , nihilistic , school @-@ hating , prankster @-@ pulling , trouble @-@ making delinquent he is known for being today .
= = Reception and cultural influence = =
= = = Bartmania = = =
In 1990 , Bart quickly became one of the most popular characters on television in what was termed " Bartmania " . He became the most prevalent Simpsons character on memorabilia , such as T @-@ shirts . In the early 1990s , millions of T @-@ shirts featuring Bart were sold ; as many as one million were sold on some days . Believing Bart to be a bad role model , several American public schools banned T @-@ shirts featuring Bart next to captions such as " I 'm Bart Simpson . Who the hell are you ? " and " Underachiever ( ' And proud of it , man ! ' ) " . The Simpsons merchandise sold well and generated $ 2 billion in revenue during the first 14 months of sales . The success of Bart Simpson merchandise inspired an entire line of black market counterfeit items , especially T @-@ shirts . Some featured Bart announcing various slogans , others depicted redesigns of the character , including " Teenage Mutant Ninja Bart , Air Simpson Bart , [ and ] RastaBart " . Matt Groening generally did not object to bootleg merchandise , but took exception to a series of " Nazi Bart " shirts which depicted Bart in Nazi uniform or as a white power skinhead . 20th Century Fox sued the creator of the shirts , who eventually agreed to stop making them .
Due to the show 's success , over the summer of 1990 the Fox Network decided to switch The Simpsons ' timeslot so that it would move from 8 : 00 p.m. EST on Sunday night to the same time on Thursday , where it would compete with The Cosby Show on NBC , the number one show at the time . Through the summer , several news outlets published stories about the supposed " Bill vs. Bart " rivalry . The August 31 , 1990 issue of Entertainment Weekly featured a picture of Bill Cosby wearing a Bart Simpson T @-@ shirt . " Bart Gets an " F " " ( season two , 1990 ) was the first episode to air against The Cosby Show , and it received a lower Nielsen rating , tying for eighth behind The Cosby Show , which had an 18 @.@ 5 rating . The rating is based on the number of household televisions that were tuned into the show , but Nielsen Media Research estimated that 33 @.@ 6 million viewers watched the episode , making it the number one show in terms of actual viewers that week . At the time , it was the most watched episode in the history of the Fox Network , and it is still the highest rated episode in the history of The Simpsons . Because of his popularity , Bart was often the most promoted member of the Simpson family in advertisements for the show , even for episodes in which he was not involved in the main plot .
Bart was described as " television 's king of 1990 " , " television 's brightest new star " and an " undiminished smash " . Entertainment Weekly named Bart the " entertainer of the year " for 1990 , writing that " Bart has proved to be a rebel who 's also a good kid , a terror who 's easily terrorized , and a flake who astonishes us , and himself , with serious displays of fortitude . " In the United States congressional , senatorial and gubernatorial elections of 1990 , Bart was one of the most popular write @-@ in candidates , and in many areas was second only to Mickey Mouse amongst fictional characters . In the 1990 Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade , Bart made his debut as one of the giant helium @-@ filled balloons for which the parade is known . The Bart Simpson balloon has appeared at every parade since . This was referenced in The Simpsons in the episode " Bart vs. Thanksgiving " , which aired the same day as the parade , where Homer tells Bart , " If you start building a balloon for every flash @-@ in @-@ the @-@ pan cartoon character , you turn the parade into a farce ! " Meanwhile , behind and unbeknownst to him , the television briefly shows a Bart Simpson balloon .
The album The Simpsons Sing the Blues was released in September 1990 and was a success , peaking at # 3 on the Billboard 200 and becoming certified 2x platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America . The first single from the album was the pop rap song " Do the Bartman " , performed by Nancy Cartwright and released on November 20 , 1990 . The song was written by Michael Jackson , although he did not receive any credit . Jackson was a fan of The Simpsons , especially Bart , and had called the producers one night offering to write Bart a number one single and do a guest spot on the show . Jackson eventually guest starred in the episode " Stark Raving Dad " ( season three , 1991 ) under the pseudonym John Jay Smith . While the song was never officially released as a single in the United States , it was successful in the United Kingdom . In 1991 it was the number one song in the UK for three weeks from February 16 to March 9 and was the seventh best @-@ selling song of the year . It sold half a million copies and was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry on February 1 , 1991 .
= = = Bart as a role model = = =
Bart 's rebellious nature , which frequently resulted in no punishment for his misbehavior , led some parents and conservatives to characterize him as a poor role model for children . Robert Bianco of the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette wrote that " [ Bart ] outwits his parents and outtalks his teachers ; in short , he 's the child we wish we 'd been , and fear our children will become . " In schools , educators claimed that Bart was a " threat to learning " because of his " underachiever and proud of it " attitude and negative attitude regarding his education . Others described him as " egotistical , aggressive and mean @-@ spirited . " In response to the criticism , James L. Brooks said , " I 'm very wary of television where everybody is supposed to be a role model , you don 't run across that many role models in real life . Why should television be full of them ? "
In 1990 William Bennett , who at the time was drug czar of the United States , visited a drug treatment centre in Pittsburgh and upon noticing a poster of Bart remarked , " You guys aren 't watching The Simpsons , are you ? That 's not going to help you any . " When a backlash over the comment ensued , Bennett apologized , claiming he " was just kidding " and saying " I 'll sit down with the little spike head . We 'll straighten this thing out . " In a 1991 interview , Bill Cosby described Bart as a bad role model for children , calling him " angry , confused , frustrated . " In response , Matt Groening said , " That sums up Bart , all right . Most people are in a struggle to be normal . He thinks normal is very boring , and does things that others just wished they dare do . " On January 27 , 1992 , then @-@ President George H. W. Bush said , " We are going to keep on trying to strengthen the American family , to make American families a lot more like the Waltons and a lot less like the Simpsons . " The writers rushed out a tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek reply in the form of a short segment which aired three days later before a rerun of " Stark Raving Dad " in which Bart replied , " Hey , we 're just like the Waltons . We 're praying for an end to the Depression , too . "
Although there were many critics of the character , favorable comments came from several quarters . Columnist Erma Bombeck wrote , " Kids need to know that somewhere in this world is a contemporary who can pull off all the things they can only fantasize about , someone who can stick it to their parents once in a while and still be permitted to live . " In 2003 , Bart placed first in a poll of parents in the United Kingdom who were asked " which made @-@ up character had the most influence " on children under 12 years old .
= = = Commendations = = =
In 1998 , Time named Bart one of the 100 most important people of the 20th century . He was the only fictional character to make the list . He had previously appeared on the cover of the December 31 , 1990 edition . He was also ranked # 48 in TV Guide 's " 50 Greatest TV Stars of All Time " in 1996 and both he and Lisa ranked # 11 in TV Guide 's " Top 50 Greatest Cartoon Characters of All Time " in 2002 .
At the 44th Primetime Emmy Awards in 1992 , Cartwright won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance for voicing Bart in the season three episode " Separate Vocations " . She shared the award with five other voice actors from The Simpsons . Various episodes in which Bart is strongly featured have been nominated for Emmy Awards for Outstanding Animated Program , including " Radio Bart " in 1992 , " Future @-@ Drama " in 2005 , " The Haw @-@ Hawed Couple " in 2006 and " Homer 's Phobia " , which won the award in 1997 . In 1995 , Cartwright won an Annie Award for " Voice Acting in the Field of Animation " for her portrayal of Bart in an episode . In 2000 , Bart and the rest of the Simpson family were awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame located at 7021 Hollywood Boulevard .
In 2014 Bart Simpson became the second mascot of Russian football club FC Zenit Saint Petersburg , wearing number 87 on his back ( referring to The Simpsons debut in 1987 ; the club 's first mascot is a blue @-@ maned lion ) .
= = = Merchandising = = =
Alongside T @-@ shirts , Bart has been included in various other The Simpsons @-@ related merchandise , including air fresheners , baseball caps , bumper stickers , cardboard standups , refrigerator magnets , key rings , buttons , dolls , posters , figurines , clocks , soapstone carvings , Chia Pets , bowling balls and boxer shorts . The Bart Book , a book about Bart 's personality and attributes , was released in 2004 . Other books include Bart Simpson 's Guide to Life . The Simpsons and Philosophy : The D 'oh ! of Homer , which is not an official publication , includes a chapter analyzing Bart 's character and comparing him to the " Nietzschean ideal " .
Bart has appeared in other media relating to The Simpsons . He has appeared in every one of The Simpsons video games , including Bart vs. the World , Bart Simpson 's Escape from Camp Deadly , Bart vs. the Space Mutants , Bart 's House of Weirdness , Bart vs. The Juggernauts , Bartman Meets Radioactive Man , Bart 's Nightmare , Bart & the Beanstalk and The Simpsons Game , released in 2007 . Alongside the television series , Bart regularly appears in issues of Simpsons Comics , which were first published on November 29 , 1993 and are still issued monthly , and also has his own series called Bart Simpson Comics which have been released since 2000 . Bart also plays a role in The Simpsons Ride , launched in 2008 at Universal Studios Florida and Hollywood .
Bart , and other The Simpsons characters , have appeared in numerous television commercials for Nestlé 's Butterfinger candy bars from 1990 to 2001 , with the slogan " Nobody better lay a finger on my Butterfinger ! " Lisa would occasionally advertise it too . Matt Groening would later say that the Butterfinger advertising campaign was a large part of the reason why Fox decided to pick up the half @-@ hour show . The campaign was discontinued in 2001 , much to the disappointment of Cartwright . Bart has also appeared in commercials for Burger King and Ramada Inn . In 2001 , Kellogg 's launched a brand of cereal called " Bart Simpson Peanut Butter Chocolate Crunch " , which was available for a limited time . Before the half @-@ hour series went on the air , Matt Groening pitched Bart as a spokesperson for Jell @-@ O. He wanted Bart to sing " J @-@ E @-@ L @-@ L @-@ O " , then burp the letter O. His belief was that kids would try to do it the next day , but he was rejected .
On April 9 , 2009 , the United States Postal Service unveiled a series of five 44 @-@ cent stamps featuring Bart and the four other members of the Simpson family . They are the first characters from a television series to receive this recognition while the show is still in production . The stamps , designed by Matt Groening , were made available for purchase on May 7 , 2009 .
= Oh , What a Knight ! =
Oh , What a Knight ! is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film follows a young woman , named May Brandon , who dreams a medieval fantasy in which she is wooed , rescued and married by a loyal knight . When she awakes , she dismisses her fiancé and tells him of her dream . He decides to become the knight of her dreams and dresses as one , but the experience is unpleasant and ruins her fantasy . There are no known staff or cast credits for the film , but a surviving film still shows three actors . The film was released on October 18 , 1910 and was met with praise by The New York Dramatic Mirror . The film had a wide national release and was also shown in Canada , but is now presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from October 22 , 1910 . It states : " May Brandon is a young woman of the present day who finds that the course of true love can sometimes run too smooth . She is engaged to the man of her choice , but no one objects . In fact , there is not the slightest opposition to her marriage in any quarter . And , being a woman , she does not like it . Perhaps she would have been married in the orthodox way had it not been for a dream that she had . In her sleep she found herself a beautiful young woman , persecuted because she was loyal to the knight she had selected . Her father was obdurate , and finally practically made her a prisoner in his gloomy old castle . Her sweetheart called with a rope ladder . They escaped , and after a number of thrilling adventures were married , and presumably lived happy forever afterwards . When May awoke , she was more discontented than ever . She flouted her fiancé , and returned his ring and swore she would never marry him . But finally she told him of her dream , and he won forgiveness by promising to run away with her like the knight of her dreams . Being a man of his word , he did . But the romance all faded out of it . The adventures they passed through were not to the woman 's liking , and her experience convinced her that swashbuckling knights are as much out of date as are stagecoaches . "
= = Production = =
The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil . Film historian Q. David Bowers does not attribute a cameraman for this production , but at least two possible candidates exist . Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company , but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . The cast credits are unknown , but many 1910 Thanhouser productions are fragmentary . In late 1910 , the Thanhouser company released a list of the important personalities in their films . The list includes G.W. Abbe , Justus D. Barnes , Frank H. Crane , Irene Crane , Marie Eline , Violet Heming , Martin J. Faust , Thomas Fortune , George Middleton , Grace Moore , John W. Noble , Anna Rosemond , Mrs. George Walters . A surviving film still gives the possibility of identifying three of the actors in the film .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel drama , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet long , was released on October 18 , 1910 . The film is known to have had a wide national release , with showing theaters in South Dakota , New Hampshire , Oklahoma , Kansas , Pennsylvania , Indiana , Maryland , Nebraska , North Carolina , Montana , and Missouri . The film was also shown in Vancouver , Canada by the Province Theatre .
The Moving Picture News and The Moving Picture World were both neutral in their review of the film , giving neither specific praise nor criticism of the production . The New York Dramatic Mirror review was positive : " This idea has been used quite recently in an Independent film , but not nearly so effectively as in the hands of the capable Thanhouser players . They give the farcical events an air of reality that goes far to strengthen the comical results . ... She insists on her lover rigging himself up in knightly costume and carrying her off on a horse to be married . The absurdity of this business in modern times is not made as much of as might have been , but it brings plenty of laughter . The actress who played the part of the girl marred her work by turning too often to face the camera . She is very pretty and attractive but she should not permit it to appear that she is so well aware of her beauty . " Some advertisements by theaters heavily promoted the comedy aspect of the film with generic quips .
= 1981 – 82 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season =
The 1981 – 82 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season was destructive and deadly in Madagascar , where four cyclones killed 100 people and caused $ 250 million ( USD ) in damage . The season was fairly active , lasting from October to May . There were nine named storms that attained gale @-@ force winds , or at least 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . Five of the storms attained tropical cyclone status , which have 10 minute sustained winds of at least 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) .
The first storm was Tropical Cyclone Alex , which was named by the Australian Bureau of Meteorology ( BoM ) . this was due to the boundary of the basin at the time , which incorporated the Indian Ocean south of the equator and extended from the east coast of Africa to 80 °
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200 mi ( 322 km ) east @-@ southeast of the Swan Islands , Honduras . Without strengthening substantially , the depression moved west @-@ northwest for the next day and a half , passing north of the Swan Islands based upon weather reports , and then curved northward . On September 13 , the depression gradually curved to the northeast , and on the afternoon of September 14 it made landfall southeast of Cienfuegos , Cuba . The cyclone then crossed the central region of Cuba , entering the Bahamian islands in the evening . Shortly thereafter , by 00 : 00 UTC on September 15 the depression became a tropical storm and peaked with maximum sustained winds of 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) . The cyclone then turned north , passing about 15 mi ( 24 km ) west of Nassau in the afternoon . The weak storm then turned abruptly to the northwest , having been trapped by a building ridge , and early the next day , while centered north of Andros Island , it assumed a gradual curve to the southwest . Late that day , it degenerated into a tropical depression and dissipated over the Straits of Florida on September 17 , as the Great Miami hurricane approached from just 550 mi ( 885 km ) to the east @-@ southeast .
In Cuba , impacts were minimal . The cyclone produced sustained winds up to 43 mph ( 69 km / h ) and pressures as low as 1 @,@ 004 mb ( 29 @.@ 65 inHg ) in the Bahamas . In South Florida , the cyclone did not produce tropical storm @-@ force winds , although thunderstorms produced 1 @.@ 20 inches ( 30 @.@ 48 mm ) of rainfall at Miami , Florida , on September 16 . No severe effects occurred and the storm was not mentioned in the monthly notations of the local U.S. Weather Bureau office in Miami . However , its presence and that of the Great Miami hurricane , then of Category 4 intensity and in the South @-@ Central Bahamas , caused confusion in the local press . On the morning of September 17 , one day before the Miami hurricane struck , the Miami Herald published a front @-@ page story on the weak tropical storm in the Straits of Florida and included statements by the editors that it was not anticipated to strike Florida ; news articles on the hurricane , which was expected to deliver " destructive winds " to the area , were not published by other local newspapers until the afternoon , leaving Miami residents confused as to the extent of the danger .
= = = Hurricane Seven = = =
By 12 : 00 UTC on September 11 — just twelve hours after the formation of the preceding cyclone — a new tropical storm formed in the Atlantic about 1 @,@ 100 mi ( 1 @,@ 770 km ) east of the island of Martinique , though it probably originated earlier and was undetected ; operationally , the storm was not tracked until September 14 . Steadily moving north of due west , the cyclone quickly became a hurricane the next day , and over the next three days , while bypassing the Greater Antilles to the north , it continued to intensify to a major hurricane , with maximum sustained winds of at least 111 mph ( 179 km / h ) , yet few ships were near the eye with which to determine its path . On the afternoon of September 16 , the cyclone peaked at 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) , near the upper threshold of the modern @-@ day classification of Category 4 , and shortly thereafter passed just 10 mi ( 16 @.@ 1 km ) north of the island of Grand Turk , striking Mayaguana at peak intensity early the next day . Continuing over the South @-@ Central Bahamas and Andros Island on September 17 – 18 , the cyclone , with winds of 145 mph ( 233 km / h ) , then struck South Florida near Perrine , 15 mi ( 24 km ) south of Downtown Miami , shortly before 12 : 00 UTC on September 18 , with its large eye passing over the Miami metropolitan area . Swiftly crossing southernmost Florida , the potent hurricane weakened slightly before entering the Gulf of Mexico near Punta Rassa in the afternoon , and its path gradually curved northwest on September 19 . Late on September 20 , its path slowed drastically and curved west , making landfall near Perdido Beach , Alabama , with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) and a measured pressure of 954 @.@ 9 mb ( 28 @.@ 20 inHg ) in the calm eye . Quickly weakening thereafter , the cyclone paralleled the coasts of Alabama and Mississippi , dissipating more than two days later over Louisiana .
Throughout the Bahamas , reports of damage were relatively scarce despite the intensity with which the storm struck the region . However , numerous structures were completely destroyed . The storm was attributed to 372 deaths in the Southeastern United States , 114 of which took place in Miami and at least 150 at Moore Haven , where a storm surge estimated as high as 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 57 m ) overtopped portions of a levee on Lake Okeechobee . Many people in Miami , transients who knew little of hurricanes , perished after examining damage during the passage of the eye , unaware that the back end of the storm was approaching . Flimsy structures built to house workers during the Florida land boom of the 1920s were completely leveled . The hurricane partially contributed to the end of the land boom , which was in decline by early 1926 . In terms of monetary losses , damage from the hurricane was estimated to be as high as $ 125 million ( 1926 USD ) . Up to 4 @,@ 725 structures throughout southern Florida were destroyed and 8 @,@ 100 damaged , leaving at least 38 @,@ 000 people displaced . A storm surge of 14 ft ( 4 @.@ 27 m ) occurred south of Miami and winds on Miami Beach were recorded at 130 mph ( 210 km / h ) before the anemometer blew away . The lowest pressure was estimated at 930 mb ( 27 @.@ 46 inHg ) , the seventh most intense in a storm to strike the United States . The storm also produced significant damage , rainfall up to 16 @.@ 2 in ( 411 @.@ 48 mm ) , and a storm surge up to 14 @.@ 2 ft ( 4 @.@ 33 m ) in the Florida Panhandle . The entire state of Florida lost 35 % of its grapefruit and orange crops combined , including nearly 100 % losses in the Miami area . In a study of hurricane damage statistics conducted in 2008 , it was estimated that if a storm similar to that of the Miami hurricane were to occur in 2005 it would result in over $ 140 – 157 billion in damage . In all , the storm caused at least 478 deaths along its path accounting for the revised toll in the United States since 2003 . The storm 's slow movement caused it to produce substantial effects to coastal regions between Mobile and Pensacola ; these areas experienced heavy damage from wind , rain , and storm surge . Wind records at Pensacola indicate that the city encountered sustained winds of hurricane force for more than 20 hours , including winds above 100 mph ( 161 km / h ) for five hours . The storm tide destroyed nearly all waterfront structures on Pensacola Bay and peaked at 14 ft ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) near Bagdad , Florida . Rainfall maximized at Bay Minette , Alabama , where 18 @.@ 5 in ( 470 mm ) fell .
= = = Hurricane Eight = = =
Twelve hours after the Great Miami hurricane struck Alabama , the eighth tropical storm of the season formed in the east @-@ central Atlantic about 2 @,@ 000 mi ( 3 @,@ 220 km ) southwest of Horta in the Azores on September 21 . Over the next three days , it moved north of due east and rapidly strengthened , becoming a minimal hurricane by 12 : 00 UTC on September 22 and later peaking at 105 mph ( 169 km / h ) — equivalent to a moderately strong Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale — on the morning of September 24 . For about 24 hours thereafter , the cyclone briefly curved to the northeast before turning sharply to the east early on September 26 . Late that day , the cyclone swerved precipitously to the north , making landfall on the island of São Miguel near Ponta Delgada at peak intensity . Curving northwest and then south of due west , the cyclone weakened after striking São Miguel and reverted to a minimal hurricane late on September 27 . It gradually completed a counter @-@ clockwise loop through the western Azores , curving due south as a tropical storm , though its cool surface temperatures and enlarged size suggest it might have been a subtropical cyclone then . Just afterward , late on September 28 , it hit Faial Island near Horta with sustained winds near 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . Over the next two days , it moved generally south @-@ southeast and slowly weakened , curving suddenly east @-@ southeast beginning on September 30 . Turning south of due east , it dissipated by 18 : 00 UTC on October 1 .
= = = Tropical Storm Nine = = =
Early on October 3 , a tropical depression developed in the South @-@ Central Caribbean about 100 mi ( 160 km ) east of Serrana Bank and the Miskito Cays . It quickly intensified into a minimal tropical storm with maximum sustained winds of 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) , the strongest in its life span . Curving west @-@ northwest without further intensification , the weak cyclone made landfall near Barra Patuca in Gracias a Dios Department , Honduras , shortly before 12 : 00 UTC on October 4 . Shortly thereafter , the storm gradually turned just north of due west , and early on October 5 , after degenerating into a tropical depression , it made a second landfall over Belize just south of Alabama Wharf in Toledo District . Less than 12 hours later , the cyclone dissipated over eastern Guatemala .
= = = Hurricane Ten = = =
On October 14 a tropical depression developed in the southern Caribbean Sea about 350 mi ( 563 km ) north @-@ northwest of Colón , Panama . Strengthening into a minimal tropical storm the next day , it gradually curved to the north @-@ northwest over the next four days , becoming a hurricane on October 18 . It then quickly intensified to a major hurricane early on October 19 as it turned northward toward western Cuba . Shortly before striking the Isla de la Juventud south of Nueva Gerona , it attained maximum sustained winds of 145 mph ( 233 km / h ) on October 20 . The cyclone then continued strengthening , peaking at 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) before making landfall on the Cuban mainland south of Güira de Melena . The center passed just 10 mi ( 16 km ) east of the capital Havana before entering the Straits of Florida about 80 mi ( 129 km ) south of Key West , Florida . The cyclone then weakened and turned to the northeast on October 21 , passing within 20 mi ( 32 @.@ 2 km ) of the Florida Keys while remaining east of Florida . Nearly two days later , about 48 hours after turning east @-@ northeast , the cyclone passed over Bermuda late on October 22 with sustained winds up to 120 mph ( 190 km / h ) ; Hamilton , Bermuda , recorded calm winds and 963 @.@ 4 mb ( 28 @.@ 45 inHg ) in the eye , along with sustained winds up to 102 mph ( 164 km / h ) with gusts to 138 mph ( 222 km / h ) afterward . Three days thereafter , on October 25 the storm executed a clockwise , semicircular loop to the south @-@ southwest , and a day later it lost hurricane intensity . Gradually curving to the west , the cyclone dissipated early on October 28 , though it was once believed to have been an extratropical cyclone as early as October 23 .
The hurricane inflicted devastation along its path , causing at least 709 deaths in Cuba and Bermuda . Upon striking Cuba , the hurricane caused catastrophic damage and as many as 600 deaths . Several small towns in the storm 's path were completely destroyed and damage estimates exceeded $ 100 million ( 1928 USD ) . In the upper Florida Keys and on Key Biscayne , minimal hurricane conditions occurred , causing minor damage in South Florida . In Bermuda , 40 % of the structures were damaged and two homes destroyed , but otherwise damage was light in the harbor . While weather forecasters knew of the storm 's approach on Bermuda , it covered the thousand miles from the Bahamas to Bermuda so rapidly it apparently struck with few warning signs aside from heavy swells . On October 21 , with the eye of the storm still 700 mi ( 1 @,@ 130 km ) from Bermuda , weather forecasts from the United States called for the hurricane to strike the island on the following morning with gale force . The Arabis @-@ class sloop HMS Valerian , based at the HMD Bermuda , was returning from providing hurricane relief in the Bahamas and was overtaken by the storm shortly before she could make harbour . Unable to enter through Bermuda 's reefline , she fought the storm for more than five hours before she was sunk with the loss of 85 men . The British merchant ship Eastway was also sunk near Bermuda . When the centre of the storm passed over Bermuda , winds increased to 114 mph ( 183 km / h ) at Prospect Camp , whereupon the Army took down its anemometer to protect it . The Royal Naval Dockyard was being hammered and never took its anemometer down . It measured 138 mph ( 222 km / h ) at 13 : 00 UTC , before the wind destroyed it .
= = = Tropical Storm Eleven = = =
Around 06 : 00 UTC on November 12 , a tropical depression developed about 115 mi ( 185 km ) north of El Porvenir , Kuna Yala , Panama . Moving northwest , the cyclone rapidly attained peak winds of 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) early on November 13 but failed to intensify further over the next three days . Passing less than 50 mi ( 80 @.@ 47 km ) west of the Swan Islands , Honduras , early on November 14 , the cyclone gradually turned north by the afternoon . Curving parabolically to the northeast on October 15 , it weakened to a tropical depression early the next day before hitting the Isla de la Juventud in Cuba . 12 hours later , after striking mainland Cuba , it dissipated over the southern Straits of Florida .
= = Other storms = =
Reports from the government of the Mexican state of Veracruz indicate that in late September 1926 a tropical disturbance formed in the northwest Caribbean Sea , then moved across the Yucatán Peninsula and the Bay of Campeche to strike Veracruz as a hurricane on September 28 . The storm reportedly began with sudden fury at 16 : 00 UTC and produced unspecified winds as high as 124 mph ( 200 km / h ) — if sustained , equal to those of a strong Category 3 hurricane — causing boats to be stranded , roofs to be torn off , and trees and electric cables to be blown down , though the worst conditions reportedly lasted only two hours . The reported storm ruined most of the seashore as a storm tide destroyed the local breakwater , including at the historic Hotel Villa del Mar in the city of Veracruz , demolishing most of the hotel as well as the yacht club there , and forced train service to be suspended . The city was flooded to a depth of 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 52 m ) , but well constructed buildings in the city center survived the wind . Several ships were sunk in the harbor , and several sailors were feared drowned . However , a peer @-@ reviewed publication in 2012 , which reanalyzed the 1926 Atlantic hurricane season , did not confirm its supposed existence .
= = Seasonal effects = =
= Hadleigh Castle =
Hadleigh Castle in the English county of Essex overlooks the Thames estuary from a ridge to the south of the town of Hadleigh . Built after 1215 during the reign of Henry III by Hubert de Burgh , the castle was surrounded by parkland and had an important economic , as well as defensive role . Hadleigh was significantly expanded and remodelled by Edward III , who turned it into a grander property , designed to defend against potential French attack as well as provide the King with a convenient private residence close to London . Built on a geologically unstable hill of London clay , the castle has often been subject to subsidence ; this , combined with the sale of its stonework in the 16th century , has led to it now being ruined . The remains are now preserved by English Heritage and protected under UK law as a Grade I listed building and scheduled monument .
= = History = =
= = = 13th century = = =
Hadleigh Castle was first built by Hubert de Burgh , the 1st Earl of Kent , who was a key supporter of King John . De Burgh was given the honour of Rayleigh by John in 1215 as a reward for his services , but chose not to develop the existing caput of Rayleigh Castle , instead building a new fortification south of the town of Hadleigh . The exact date of construction is uncertain , but it is now believed the work was conducted early in de Burgh 's tenure of the site , permission being retrospectively officially confirmed through a licence to crenellate in 1230 under Henry III .
The site was chosen on top of a local ridge , overlooking the Thames estuary , formed from a geologically unstable outcrop of London clay . In the 13th century , marshlands would have stretched away to the south of the castle , with the tide occasionally reaching up as far as the base of the hill itself , and the area would have been more wooded than today . By 1235 the park of Hadleigh had been formed around the castle , including woodland , a fishpond , stables and a park lodge , but the castle was also associated with a wider estate including Rayleigh , Thundersley and Eastwood Parks .
The first castle built on the site was probably of an octagonal design , running along the top of the ridge , protected by square and semi @-@ circular mural towers , with a barbican guarding the eastern entrance . It probably resembled White Castle , remodelled by de Burgh in the same period , or Bolingbroke and Beeston Castles , both built in the 1220s . The castle was built of Kentish ragstone and cemented by a mortar containing a large proportion of seashells , particularly cockleshells from the cockle beds of neighbouring Canvey Island . A valuable tidal watermill had been built by 1249 , essential for making bread for the castle ; recent archaeological work suggests that it was positioned on a wharf reaching out into the estuary just to the south @-@ east of the castle . Terraced gardens were built along the south side of the castle overlooking the estuary , probably including vineyards .
De Burgh finally fell out of favour with Henry III ; he was imprisoned and then finally stripped of Hadleigh Castle in 1239 . For the rest of the century , Hadleigh was retained as a royal castle , as part of an estate containing 142 acres ( 57 ha ) of agricultural land , the park and the castle mill . By the 1250s , the castle had fallen into neglect and , despite some investment after it was given to Queen Eleanor in 1273 , it remained in relatively poor condition . Only the mill , vital for the operation of the wider estate , appears to have been well @-@ maintained . A new 17 @-@ metre @-@ wide by 9 @-@ metre @-@ long ( 56 foot by 30 foot ) hall and an adjacent solar complex were built at the castle around 1290 , but collapsed due to subsidence shortly afterwards . In 1299 the castle was given to Queen Margaret , who complained about the quality of the building and insisted that repairs were carried out . Her husband , Edward I , visited the castle twice , using it as a base for hunting in the area .
= = = 14th century = = =
Edward II took a much closer interest in Hadleigh , leading to a period of renewal and rebuilding during his reign and that of his son , Edward III . Edward II first stayed there in 1311 , and work was done to renovate the castle before he arrived , including building new royal quarters and repairing some of the castle walls that had succumbed to subsidence . Amongst the buildings known to be in the castle during the period were the castle hall , larder , kitchen , cellar , a long house , prison , an " old chamber " and armoury ; they were guarded by a garrison of 24 soldiers during crises . Edward stayed there frequently during his reign up until 1324 , on occasion travelling to Hadleigh Castle from London on his royal barge , which docked at a wharf to the south of the castle .
Edward III acquired Hadleigh Castle in 1330 , when he recovered it from his mother , Isabella of France , who had taken it from Edward when she deposed him in 1326 . Edward paid little initial interest to the castle , but in the 1360s decided to make much greater use of the property , ordering large parts of it to be rebuilt at a cost of more than £ 2200 . Between 1361 and 1363 the internal buildings were renovated and new royal lodgings built along the south walls , after which the east side of the castle was rebuilt entirely , with two large circular towers installed in a new stretch of curtain wall , completed by 1365 . The north side of the castle was rebuilt to include a main entrance with a portcullis and a drawbridge , protected by a barbican and a large circular tower called the " High Tower " , which was complete by 1370 . The work was probably overseen by William of Wykeham .
Originally , historians believed that Edward 's decision to rebuild much of the castle was in response to the growing tensions with France ; in this version of events , Hadleigh would have formed an importance coastal fortification along the Thames estuary , protecting it from French raids . Current historical opinion plays down this motivation , noting that at the time of the work on Hadleigh relations with France were unusually good . Instead , it is suspected that the increasing elderly Edward intended Hadleigh more as a personal retreat close to London , where he could stay in privacy and considerable comfort . Whilst the entrance on the inland side remained relatively basic , the building work created a grander impression from the estuary – any visitors to London , English or French , would have passed by Queenborough Castle on the south bank and Hadleigh on the north , the combination communicating a strong sense of royal power .
= = = 15th – 19th centuries = = =
Edward III 's grandson , Richard II , made little use of Hadleigh , and the use of the castle was granted to Aubrey de Vere until his death in 1400 . The castle was passed amongst a number of high @-@ status owners during the 15th century , but saw little use by the crown . Edmund of Langley and his son Edward of Norwich , the Dukes of York , used the castle in the early years , before passing it on to Humphrey of Lancaster , the Duke of Gloucester . Richard , Duke of York , used the castle next , before it passed to Edmund Tudor in the middle of the century . The tradition of the castle forming part of the queen 's property was then reinstated and it was granted to Elizabeth Woodville , the wife of Edward IV . Henry VIII made no known use of the castle himself , but it formed part of the dower of three of his wives - Catherine of Aragon , Anne of Cleves , and Catherine Parr - and the castle 's parks were used as sources of timbers for his navy .
After 1544 the estate began to be broken up ; first the parks were sold and then the castle itself , bought by Lord Richard Rich from Edward VI for £ 700 in 1551 . Rich dismantled the castle for the value of its stone , primarily between 1551 and 1575 , and the castle , now thoroughly ruined , passed through Rich 's descendants .
The English painter John Constable visited Hadleigh in 1814 and made a drawing of the castle as preparation for ten oil sketches and a single painting . The oil painting Hadleigh Castle was produced in 1829 and exhibited at the Royal Academy in the same year . One of the sketches is currently displayed at the Tate Gallery , London , while the painting now hangs in the Yale Center for British Art at New Haven , United States . Constable 's painting , " one of his most monumental works " according to the art historians Tammis Groft and Mary Mackay , depicts the early 19th @-@ century Hadleigh Castle as a decaying , man @-@ made structure , succumbing to the elemental power of nature .
William Booth purchased Hadleigh Castle and its surrounding site in 1891 for the use of the Salvation Army , which established a farm to train the English poor prior to them being sent overseas to the British colonies . Considerable subsidence and slippage on the ridge occurred between 1898 and 1923 , causing a collapse of the southern curtain wall .
= = = Today = = =
The Salvation Army gave the castle to the Ministry of Works in 1948 , and it is now owned by English Heritage , classed as a scheduled monument and a Grade I listed building . Subsidence and landslips have continued ; the north @-@ east tower largely collapsed in the 1950s , and further major slippages occurred in 1969 , 1970 , and 2002 . One of the three @-@ storey towers at the eastern side stands to nearly full height with narrow rectangular windows in the upper levels . The second tower has only about one @-@ third of its original form . Some sections of the curtain wall have survived , as well as the foundations of the great hall , solars , and the kitchen .
The castle is still surrounded by the 19th @-@ century Salvation Army farm , and beyond that by Hadleigh Country Park , owned and managed by Essex County Council and a Site of Special Scientific Interest with special regard for invertebrates . In 2008 , Hadleigh Farm , close to the castle , was announced as the venue for the mountain biking competition in the 2012 Summer Olympic Games .
= Pyrrhus ' invasion of the Peloponnese =
Pyrrhus ' invasion of the Peloponnese in 272 BC was an invasion of south Greece by Pyrrhus , King of Epirus . He was opposed by Macedon and a coalition of Greek city @-@ states ( poleis ) , most notably Sparta . The war ended in a joint victory by Macedonia and Sparta .
After being defeated by the Roman Republic in the Pyrrhic War in 275 BC , Pyrrhus ( r . 297 – 272 BC ) decided to turn his attention to Greece . He declared war on Antigonus Gonatas ( r . 283 – 239 BC ) of Macedon and in a rapid campaign , managed to defeat him and make himself king of Macedon . In 272 BC , Pyrrhus agreed to assist the disgruntled Spartan prince , Cleonymus , who requested his assistance in securing the Spartan throne .
Pyrrhus advanced with his army through central Greece and upon reaching the Peloponnese , he marched against Sparta . The city was sparsely defended at the time as the majority of its army had been taken to Crete by King Areus I ( r . 309 – 265 BC ) . The Spartans led by Crown Prince Acrotatus were able to withstand a series of Epiriote assaults until Macedonian reinforcements and Areus ' army arrived to relieve the defenders .
Following the arrival of the relieving force , Pyrrhus lifted the siege and prepared to winter in Laconia . However , he was approached by an Argive citizen who requested his assistance in overthrowing the government of Argos . Seeking to take advantage of the opportunity , Antigonus took his army to Argos , being harried along the way by the Spartans . Whilst attempting to seize Argos by night , Pyrrhus was set upon by his Argive opponents as well as the Spartans and Antigonus ' Macedonians . In the ensuing mêlée , Pyrrhus was slain . His death prompted the capitulation of his army and the reestablishment of a Macedonian hegemony over Greece .
= = Prelude = =
Following entreaties from the Greek polis of Tarentum in 281 BC , Pyrrhus , the king of Epirus in northern Greece , invaded Italy with an army of 25 @,@ 500 and 20 war elephants . The aim of the expedition was to combat the aggression of the Roman Republic , which was increasingly annexing the Greek cities of Magna Graecia . Upon arriving in Italy in 280 BC , Pyrrhus assumed command of an army consisting of the Greeks of Magna Graecia . Adding these forces to his own from Epirus , he engaged and defeated the Roman army at the Battle of Heraclea , near Tarentum in 280 BC . The Epiriote victory caused a number of native groups such as the Samnites and the Lucanians , who were also fearful of Roman expansionism to join Pyrrhus . Subsequently , Pyrrhus advanced towards Rome and at the Battle of Asculum he vanquished another Roman army .
Despite having bested the Romans in their battles , Pyrrhus had sustained heavy casualties . With his Italian allies wavering , Pyrrhus decided to abandon his campaign against Rome . At this point in time , Pyrrhus had two options available . Firstly , he could return to Greece where the throne of Macedon had been left vacant by the death of King Ptolemy Keraunos at the hands of the Gallic invaders of Greece . Pyrrhus had coveted the Macedonian throne and had briefly held it from 287 BC to 285 BC . Alternatively , he could respond to the appeal of the Greek poleis of Sicily which were requesting his assistance to combat Carthaginian aggression .
Ultimately , in 278 BC , Pyrrhus decided to direct his army against the Carthaginians in Sicily . Pyrrhus was highly successful in his campaign against Carthage and by 275 BC had managed to restrict them to the settlement of Lilybaeum in the far west of the island . Despite these victories , Pyrrhus ' despotic disposition and pretensions alienated his Sicilian allies who began to abandon him . In light of these developments , Pyrrhus decided to return to mainland Italy to continue his war against Rome . The Epiriotes attacked the Roman army but after the inconclusive Battle of Beneventum , he returned to Epirus . Despite Pyrrhus leaving a garrison there , Tarentum succumbed to Rome in 272 BC .
= = War against Macedon = =
On his return to his homeland , Pyrrhus found himself in a difficult position . His Italian sojourn had emptied his coffers and crippled his army , leaving him reliant on Sicilian mercenaries who required payment . In order to secure funds to pay his troops , Pyrrhus planned a war against Antigonus II Gonatas , the new king of Macedon . Citing Antigonus ' refusal to provide him with aid during his Italian expedition as a casus belli , Pyrrhus invaded Macedon in the spring of 274 BC . He was accompanied by an army consisting of 8 @,@ 000 infantry and 500 cavalry although their numbers were probably augmented by Gallic mercenaries . It has been speculated that by invading Macedon , Pyrrhus was acting as the agent of the monarchs of Ptolemaic Egypt , Ptolemy II and Arsinoe II , however N. G. L. Hammond posits that this is highly unlikely .
Initially , Pyrrhus had simply viewed his incursion into Macedon as an opportunity to plunder . However , the capture of numerous towns and the defection to his side of 2 @,@ 000 Macedonian soldiers caused him to make his objective the seizure of the Macedonian throne . Antignous marched with his army to western Macedon and was confronted by Pyrrhus at the Battle of the Aous . Pyrrhus began the engagements by slaughtering Antigonus ' Gallic rearguard before securing the surrender of the Macedonian war elephants . Demoralised by these sudden reverses , the Macedonian phalangites responded to Pyrrhus ' appeals and defected to the Epiriote side . Abandoned by his army , Antigonus managed to escape to Thessaloniki with a small force of cavalry . He was able to entrench himself there , protected by his strong navy which enabled him to maintain links with his possessions in southern Greece .
Antigonus ' flight left Pyrrhus in complete control of the Macedonian hinterland and Thessaly in central Greece . However , not all of Macedon surrendered to the Epiriote king and he was compelled to send his general , the Spartan Prince Cleonymus to capture Edessa . Despite initially being welcomed with enthusiasm by the Macedonians , he managed to alienate his new subjects when his Gallic troops ransacked the royal Macedonian tombs at Vergina . By late 274 BC or early 273 BC , Pyrrhus secured the occupation of Macedonia and returned to Epirus , leaving his son Ptolemy to govern the region .
= = Advance into the Peloponnese = =
Following his Macedonian triumph , Pyrrhus was approached by his officer Cleonymus . The Spartan convinced the Epiriote king to aid him in a scheme to seize control of his homeland . Cleonymus ' reasons for seeking to attack Sparta were twofold . Firstly , he was angry that he had been overlooked for the Agiad kingship of Sparta in favour of his nephew , Areus II . Plutarch ascribes Cleonymus ' failure to secure the throne to his arbitrariness and violent nature . Furthermore , Cleonymus had become a target of ridicule in Sparta by the fact that his new wife , Chilonis , was engaging in an affair with Acrotatus , the son of Areus .
Pyrrhus ' motivation for agreeing to assist Cleonymus is more complex . By installing Cleonymus on the throne , the Epiriote would secure Sparta as an ally . Additionally , by invading the Peloponnese , Pyrrhus would be able to subdue any cities which had remained loyal to Antigonus . In doing so , he could prevent Antigonus using the peninsula as a base from which to launch a counter @-@ attack on Macedon . The size of the force assembled by Pyrrhus is indicative of his intention to extend his hegemony into the Peloponnese . The Epiriote king mustered an army consisting of 25 @,@ 000 infantry and 2 @,@ 000 cavalry as well as 24 war elephants . In 272 BC , Pyrrhus marched his army through Central Greece to the city of Pleuron from where they were ferried across the Gulf of Corinth to the Peloponnese . This suggests that the invasion was supported by the Aetolian League , a powerful confederate in Central Greece which was allied with Pyrrhus and hostile to Antigonus .
Antigonus attempted to exploit Pyrrhus ' absence from Macedon by launching an invasion to reclaim his kingdom . However , his attack on Macedon was unsuccessful as he was defeated in battle by Pyrrhus ' son , Ptolemy . Unperturbed by Antigonus ' offensive , Pyrrhus advanced into the Peloponnese where he was welcomed in Achaia . The Epiriote army marched to Megalopolis , a central Peloponnesian city which lay on the border with Sparta . Several of Sparta 's neighbours , namely Megalopolis , Elis and many of the Achaians poleis , supported Pyrrhus invasion as they would profit from the reduction of Spartan influence in the region . While his force was camped at Megalopolis , Pyrrhus received ambassadors from Messene , Athens , the Achaian League and Sparta . In response to the Spartans ' inquires as to the reasons for his Peloponnesian incursion , Pyrrhus managed to dupe the envoys . He told the Spartans that he had come to liberate any cities still held by Antigonus and that he hoped to send his sons to Sparta to obtain a traditional education at the agoge . However , when the emissaries returned to Sparta , Pyrrhus advanced into Laconia . He advanced south , following the course of the Eurotas River and ravaging the lands of the Spartan perioeci . It may have been at this time that Pyrrhus assigned Cleonymus a series of independent commands as he is recorded as subjugating the city of Alifeira in Elis as well as sacking Zarax in the Parnon region of Laconia . Pyrrhus ' perfidy was met with anger in Sparta and ambassadors were immediately sent to Pyrrhus to rebuke him .
= = Siege of Sparta = =
The Spartans were caught unawares by Pyrrhus ' invasion . Areus had taken the majority of the Spartan army with him to Crete , where he was campaigning on behalf of Gortyn at the request of Ptolemaic Egypt . The result was that the settlement was lightly defended . Arriving at Sparta as night fell , Cleonymus advised Pyrrhus to attack the city immediately . However , the Epiriote declined to as he was fearful of the damage that would be wrought by Gallic troops if they entered the city at night and moreover expected the sparsely defended city to surrender in the morning .
The Spartan council of Elders , the gerousia , suggested that the Spartan women be sent to Crete for their protection . They were dissuaded from doing so by Arachidamia , the former queen and grandmother of the Eurypontid King Eudamidas II who convinced them that the women could assist in the city 's defence . In order to guarantee the fighting men some rest , the women and the elderly began bolstering defences . Aware that Pyrrhus had elephants with him , the defenders dug a large trench and sunk wagons into the ground at its flanks in order to hinder the Epiriote advance . Moreover , messengers were sent both to summon Areus back and to request aid from Antigonus , despite the fact the Sparta and Macedon had traditionally been hostile . Pausanias , the Greek geographer , claims that Sparta received some aid from Messene and the pro @-@ Spartan faction at Argos .
The Epiriotes launched their first assault against the city at daybreak . However , they were unable to get a firm footing because of the trench and were repulsed by the defenders , who were encouraged by the women . In order to circumvent this obstacle . Pyrrhus ordered a 2 @,@ 000 picked force of Gauls and Chaonians commanded by Ptolemy to attempt to go around the trench . Finding their path blocked by the wagons , they began to pulling them out of the ground . Aware of the danger , Acrotatus used a series of depressions to attack this force from the rear and managed to the push the Epiriote flanking group into the trench after inflicting heavy casualties upon them . Unable to make an impact on the defences , Pyrrhus ordered his troops to withdraw to their camp at nightfall .
After receiving a favourable omen during the night Pyrrhus renewed his assault . An effect of the shortage of warriors was that the Spartan women were active in providing the defenders with missiles and refreshments as well as taking away the wounded . In an attempt to nullify the Spartans ' advantage , the Epiriotes tried to fill up with trench with debris and bodies but were prevented from doing so by the Sparta . Responding to this Spartan counter @-@ attack , Pyrrhus personally led a charge against the Spartan lines and succeeded in entering the city , spreading panic amongst the defenders . However , at this point his horse threw him after it was wounded by a javelin in the belly . Pyrrhus ' fall threw his companions into a state of dismay , permitting the Spartans to rally and they managed to slay many of the companions in a barrage of missiles . Despite this , Pyrrhus was taken safely back to his camp .
Prompted by this unsuccessful foray , Pyrrhus order his army to return to its camp . He now expected the Spartans seek terms as the severity of their casualties would make the defence unsustainable . However , Sparta was saved by the arrival of unexpected reinforcements . In the interim , Antigonus had launched another offensive in northern Greece and succeeded in evicting Pyrrhus ' garrisons from Macedon ( this possibly accounts for the presence of Ptolemy in Pyrrhus ' army ) . Having reclaimed his kingdom , Antigonus moved south into the Peloponnese , probably using the sea route to avoid a confrontation with the Aetolian League . Upon his arrival in Corinth , he sent his general Ameinias the Phocian with a group of mercenaries to assist the Spartans . The arrival of the Macedonia mercenaries was closely followed by Areus ' return from Crete with 2 @,@ 000 men . Enheartened by the arrival of these reinforcements , the defenders prepared to face Pyrrhus ' next assault . The Epiriotes launched an attack in the morning but after this was repelled Pyrrhus became convinced of the futility of the situation and ordered his men to lift the siege .
= = March to Argos = =
Pyrrhus retreated with his army into the Laconian hinterland with the purpose of wintering there before making another attempt against Sparta . However , as his troops were ravaging the surrounding countryside , he received news that Antigonus was marching on Argos from Corinth on his way to trap Pyrrhus in Laconia . Pyrrhus was approached by Aristeas , the leader of the democratic faction in Argos , who sought Epiriote support to counter the pro @-@ Macedonian aristocratic party of Argos led by Aristippos . Accepting Aristeas ' proposal , Pyrrhus began his march north to the Argolis .
Pyrrhus ' advance on Argos did not go smoothly as his army was constantly harassed by vengeful Spartan troops led by Areus . By setting up ambushes and occupying strategic positions along the Epiriote line of retreat , the Spartans were able to inflict heavy casualties on Pyrrhus ' rearguard of Gauls and Molossians . In an attempt to restore the wavering morale of his rear , Pyrrhus sent Ptolemy to assume its command . Pyrrhus hoped that the presence of his son amongst the troops would stiffen their resolve and enable to him to extricate the remainder of his troops from the narrow pass through which they were passing . Ptolemy 's position was attacked by a picked Spartan war band under the command of Evaclus . In the ensuing struggle , Ptolemy was slain by the Spartans causing his remaining troops to rout . The victorious Spartans pursued the fleeing Epiriote rearguard until they were checked by some Epiriote infantry .
Upon hearing of his son 's death and the collapse of his rearguard , Pyrrhus summoned his Molossian cavalry and charged the Spartans . In the battle that followed , Pyrrhus killed the Spartan leader Evaclus with his own hand and succeeded in annihilating the pursuing Spartan troops . After this skirmish , the Epiriotes continued their march to Argos . However , upon reaching his destination , he found that Antigonus had arrived at Argos first and camped to the city 's north . The Macedonian presence compelled Pyrrhus to pitch camp at Nauplion to the south of Argos .
Pyrrhus attempted to goad Antigonus into fighting a pitched battle on the plain in front of Argos but the Macedonian king was unmoved . The Argives sent ambassadors to both kings , beseeching them to respect the city 's neutrality . Antigonus agreed to the Argives ' terms and gave his son as a hostage in order to demonstrate his sincerity . While Pyrrhus agreed to retreat from Argos , he failed to give a pledge and as a result was regarded with suspicion .
= = Battle of Argos = =
During the night , Pyrrhus was able to enter Argos . While Pausanias recounts that he did so by force , Plutarch asserts that Diamperes Gate had been left open for the Epiriotes by Aristeas . Hammond opines that it is more likely that Aristeas admitted Pyrrhus into the city . Although Pyrrhus ' Gauls were able to occupy the Argive agora , the rest of the army was delayed due to the war elephants being too large to pass through the gate . In order for them to enter , the towers need to be taken off their backs and reattached once they were inside the city . Furthermore , Pyrrhus left the majority of his army outside the city walls under the command of his son Helenus . This delay gave the Argives enough time to reach their citadel , the Aspis , and seek aid from Antigonus . The Macedonian king responded immediately , advancing towards the city walls and sending a relief force inside under the command of his son Halcyoneus .
The situation further deteriorated for Pyrrhus when Areus entered Argos with a force of 1 @,@ 000 lightly armed Cretans and Spartans . The Argives , assisted by their Spartan and Macedonian allies , launched a counter @-@ attack on Pyrrhus ' Gallic troops in the agora and threw them into a state of panic . Due to the labyrinthine layout of the city and the darkness , both Pyrrhus ' advancing troops and those of his opponents become scattered throughout Argos . The result was that Pyrrhus , entering the city at the head of his cavalry to assist the Gauls , was unable to effectively communicate his commands to his soldiers . Realising the difficulty of his situation , Pyrrhus ordered his army to retreat from Argos as day broke .
Understanding that the gates were too narrow for his army to exit in an orderly fashion , Pyrrhus ordered Helenus to tear down part of the wall and to be prepared to fend off any enemy counter @-@ attacks against the retreating troops . However , the instructions brought by the messenger were unclear and instead of organising the retreat , Helenus advanced with the rest of the army into Argos . With the majority of his troops streaming in through the gates , Pyrrhus ' line of retreat was blocked off . The disorder was exacerbated when Pyrrhus ' largest elephant fell and blocked the gateway and another elephant started running amok after his mahout was felled . The weight of the enemy 's assault pushed Pyrrhus and his troops from the agora and compelled them to fight in the narrow street leading to the Diamperes Gate . In the fighting which ensued , Pyrrhus was wounded by a spear wielded by an Argive . As Pyrrhus turned to strike down his assailant , he was hit on the head by a roof tile thrown by his attacker 's mother . Pyrrhus was either killed by the force of the tile 's impact or , alternately , having fallen dazed from his horse he was decapitated by one of Antigonus ' Macedonian soldiers , Zopyrus . Pyrrhus ' head was brought by Halcyoneus to Antigonus , who expressed dismay when he saw it and upbraided his son for acting in such a barbarous manner . Upon Pyrrhus ' death , Epiriote resistance crumbled and Antigonus accepted the surrender of Helenus , giving him Pyrrhus ' body for burial .
= = Aftermath = =
The expedition into the Peloponnese was a disaster for Epiriote ambitions . Although Helenus was permitted by Antigonus to return to his homeland with the remainder of his army , Epirus ceased to be a regional power . Pyrrhus ' son and successor , Alexander II of Epirus was granted generous terms by the Macedonian king . Epirus was able to keep Pyrrhus ' conquests of Tymphaea , Parauaea and Atintania in western Macedon . Antigonus realised that an independent Epirus was essential in order to act as a buffer against the Illyrians to the north .
Antigonus emerged from the conflict as the unchallenged ruler of Macedon and the leading power in Greece . After his victory in Argos , Antigonus was able to install his supporter Aristippos as tyrant of the city and appointed various pro @-@ Macedonian leaders as tyrants in other Greek cities . His support for tyrants over democratic rulers would lead to growing resentment amongst the Greek cities against Macedon . On his journey north to Macedon , Antigonus succeeded in placing garrisons in the cities of Chalcis and Eretria on the important island of Euboia with the outcome being that he further consolidated his power in Greece . The Spartan @-@ Macedon alliance proved to be transient . Angered by Macedon 's supremacy and full of ambition , Areus formed a coalition with several Greek poleis , most notably Athens . In the resulting Chremonidean War , Areus was slain by his former ally Antigonus in a battle on the Isthmus of Corinth in 265 BC . The war ended in a defeat that was so crushing for Sparta that it would not rise as a regional power again until the reign of Cleomenes III thirty years later .
= = = Ancient sources = = =
Pausanias ; Jones , W. H. S. ( translator ) ( 1918 ) . Description of Greece . New York : Harvard University Press .
Plutarch ; Scott @-@ Kilvert , Ian ( translator ) ( 1973 ) . Life of Pyrrhus . New York : Penguin Classics . ISBN 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 044286 @-@ 3 .
= = = Modern sources = = =
Cartledge , Paul ; Spawforth , Antony ( 1989 ) . Hellenistic and Roman Sparta : A tale of two cities . London : Routledge . ISBN 0 @-@ 415 @-@ 03290 @-@ 3 .
Cross , Geoffrey ( 2015 ) . Epirus . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 9781107458673 .
Fox , Robert Lane ( 2006 ) . The Classical World . Maryborough : Penguin Books . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 103761 @-@ 5 .
Green , Peter ( 1993 ) . Alexander to Actium : The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age . Los Angeles : University of California Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 500 @-@ 01485 @-@ X.
Hammond , N. G. L. ( 1988 ) . A History of Macedonia : 336 – 167 BC . Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0198148151 .
Pomeroy , Sarah ( 2002 ) . Spartan Women . Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 415 @-@ 03290 @-@ 3 .
Walbank , F. W. ( 1984 ) . The Cambridge Ancient History , Volume 7 , Part 1 : The Hellenistic World . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
Wylie , Graham ( 1999 ) . " Pyrrhus Πολεμιστής " . Latomus . 58 ( Societe d 'Etudes Latines de Bruxelles ) 2 .
= Hurricane Liza ( 1968 ) =
Hurricane Liza was the third hurricane of the 1968 Pacific hurricane season . Forming from an area of the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) on August 28 and reaching tropical storm strength in the same day , Liza meandered generally westward over the Pacific Ocean , reaching hurricane strength on August 29 while far from land . It maintained that intensity until September 2 , when the hurricane was downgraded to a tropical storm , but avoided tropical depression status despite the presentation seen by an Air Force reconnaissance plane . After weakening , the storm moved northwestward , weakening to a depression on September 4 , when it began a turn to the east . There is a possibility that the depression completed a small loop between the downgrade and its dissipation on September 6 .
Although it remained far from land , the waves triggered by Liza were able to reach California , where they combined with high tide , threatening beachfront homes that had weakened foundations after a previous tide . The hurricane was responsible for sweeping hundreds of Labor Day swimmers out into the ocean in Zuma Beach and Newport Beach , all of whom were saved by lifeguards . The waves also tore off a group of sundecks estimated at $ 5 @,@ 000 ( 1968 USD ) near Laguna Beach .
= = Meteorological history = =
For a period beginning on August 25 , the ITCZ was active near the border between Mexico and Guatemala . A report of 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) winds , a barometric pressure of 1010 @.@ 5 mbar , and heavy thundershowers was received from a Coast Guard cutter called the Androscoggin while the ship was 150 mi ( 240 km ) south of Tehuantepec . The report also mentioned that the thundershowers were generating 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) high swells . The conditions developed in a northward bend in the ITCZ that was moving westward . No activity other than clusters of rain were shown on satellite until August 28 , when a tropical disturbance suddenly developed along the bend , reaching tropical depression status as the day began . The depression became Tropical Storm Liza later that day , when the ship Jag Jawan reported winds of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) and 1003 @.@ 2 mbar . Another ship named Teverya , which was 60 mi ( 97 km ) northwest of the Jag Jawan , reported similar wind speeds , but a pressure of 998 mbar , the lowest barometric pressure recorded from the storm throughout its life . Satellite pictures showed a vortex arrangement consisting of three cloud masses and two arching bands of cumulonimbus clouds , all of which were producing cirrus outflow .
The tropical storm moved west @-@ northwest for 48 hours after being named , reaching hurricane intensity on August 29 , with satellite pictures showing an eye . Until September 1 , all ships kept out of range of the hurricane , leaving satellite imagery as the only method for obtaining information . The August 30 ESSA @-@ 6 satellite image of the hurricane showed a circular eye embedded in a nearly circular central dense overcast ( CDO ) spanning 5 ° of latitude in diameter . Inflow was apparent in feeder bands from the south , but a large area of dry air and clear skies spanned to the north and west of the hurricane . It was estimated that the hurricane was at its peak intensity at this time . On August 31 , the CDO had shrunk , but the cyclone still maintained intensity until September 1 , when the hurricane had moved over cooler water and began to weaken due to cold inflow . Around this time , an unnamed ship passing north of the center going eastward reported winds of 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) and 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) to 45 @-@ foot ( 14 m ) high seas . The weakening of the hurricane accelerated , becoming uncoupled from the warm waters and losing its cirrus cap , exposing the center . An Air Force reconnaissance plane sent to investigate the storm on September 2 showed that the hurricane had weakened into a tropical storm . However , the cyclone was so disorganized at this time that the observer remarked that there was a possibility that Liza was no longer even a tropical storm . The storm continued to evaporate and was downgraded to a depression on September 4 and drifted southwestward until it dissipated on September 6 .
= = = Disputes = = =
There are two disputes between the Joint Typhoon Warning Center , the best track data , and the post @-@ season report concerning the hurricane . The first involved the peak intensity of the hurricane . The post @-@ season report released by the Environmental Science Services Administration noted that the 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) winds recorded by the unknown ship on September 1 were received two days after cool inflow , and gave the hurricane a peak intensity estimate of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) on August 30 , making Liza a Category 3 hurricane and the most intense hurricane of the season . However , the JTWC and the best track data both gave peak intensities equivalent to the ship report on September 1 . Liza was the first of three hurricanes of the season that was thought to have reached Category 3 strength . The other two were Pauline and Rebecca .
Another dispute exists concerning the track the hurricane took , specifically between the downgrade to tropical depression and dissipation . The best track and ESSA report both showed that Liza went southwestward through the time period . However , the JTWC final report on Liza reported that Liza made a tiny loop that was entirely within 24 ° N to 25 ° N latitude and 125 ° W to 126 ° W longitude from September 4 to September 6 .
= = Impact and records = =
Despite never making landfall , the United States Weather Bureau warned that Liza could cause damage in California due to 4 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) to 6 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) swells it generated merging with high tide , creating 5 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) to 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) breaker waves which they reported could sweep over jetties and breakwaters as well as cause riptides on beaches . Officials at Long Beach were keeping an eye on breakwater activity and Laguna Beach lifeguards were prepared in case the swells reported there grew . At Newport Beach , the Corps of Engineers were brought in to create a buffer with sand and rock to protect homes between 41st Street and 46th Street , and concern in West Newport Beach was that the hurricane would cause more damage to oceanfront homes that were weakened by swirling seas the previous week . The waves were expected to be the only cause of damage from the hurricane , which forecaster Emii Kurtz remarked was " much too far away " to affect atmospheric weather conditions .
From September 2 to September 3 , large waves , some as high as 12 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) , impacted beaches throughout southern California , with Los Angeles and Orange Counties experiencing growing breakers , and Cabrillo Beach experiencing riptides for two days straight . Due to the Labor Day beach turnout , many reports of rescuing swimmers who were swept up by waves caused by the hurricane were received . On September 2 , forty @-@ seven swimmers in Zuma Beach had to be rescued despite warnings to stay out of deep water , and an additional 261 rescues were reported in Newport . More rescues were reported the next day , although no exact total from the second day is known . At the El Morro Beach Trailer Park near Laguna Beach , a group of sundecks estimated at $ 5 @,@ 000 ( 1968 USD ) were ripped from their supports by rough seas . Long Beach , in terms of damage , was particularly hit hard by Liza , with debris and sea foam from the heavy surf clogging storm drains .
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Haiti at this time was Captain Sir James Lucas Yeo in the frigate HMS Southampton , under strict orders to respect the flags of Christophe and Pétion , but not those of the minor warlords that had emerged along the coast . On 2 January word reached him at Port au Prince of Gaspard 's movements and he immediately sailed to intercept him , concerned that if Gaspard was allowed to take his powerful squadron out of Haitian waters he might begin attacks on merchant ships regardless of nationality .
At 06 : 00 on 3 February , Yeo discovered Gaspard 's ships at anchor to the south of the island of Guanaboa and demanded that Gaspard come aboard Southampton with his commissioning papers , to establish under whose authority Gaspard commanded the warship . The Haitian captain refused , but sent aboard his first lieutenant with a note purported to be from Borgella , signed " Borgellat , general in chief of the south of Hayti " . As Borgella had no authority to commission warships , Yeo ordered the lieutenant to tell Gaspard that his ships must submit to Southampton and be taken to Port Royal , Jamaica , where their ownership could be established by the naval authorities . He would have five minutes to consider the proposal . A British officer accompanied the Haitian lieutenant back to Heureuse Réunion for Gaspard 's answer , and was informed within three minutes that Gaspard had no intention of submitting to the British ship . He was also told that should Yeo be intent on fighting the Haitian ship then he should indicate it with a bow gun fired ahead of Heureuse Réunion . Returning to Southampton at 06 : 30 , the lieutenant relayed the message and the bow gun was fired , followed a few seconds later by a full broadside from Southampton .
Heureuse Réunion responded to the cannonade in kind . During the engagement , Gaspard repeatedly attempted to board Southampton , where his vastly superior numbers could overwhelm the British crew . Yeo was aware of his enemy 's intentions , and repeatedly manoeuvered out of the way , his more disciplined and agile vessel easily able to remain out of contact with the overloaded Haitian ship . Within half an hour the highly efficient gunners on Southampton had knocked down the main and mizen masts on Heureuse Réunion , leaving her unable to manoeuvre and vulnerable to repeated pounding at close range . Despite the severe damage the Haitian ship suffered , her crew continued to fire cannon at irregular intervals for 45 minutes , each shot prompting a broadside from the British ship . The two smaller Haitian vessels did not support the frigate , fleeing towards Maraguana near Petit Goâve to shelter under the batteries there . By 07 : 45 , after over an hour of heavy fire , Yeo hailed Heureuse Réunion to discover whether or not she had surrendered . Somebody aboard replied that they had , although Gaspard had been seriously wounded and was no longer in command , so the identity of the person who gave the surrender is not known .
= = Aftermath = =
As Southampton stopped firing , the remaining masts of the Haitian ship fell overboard . Casualties on Heureuse Réunion were immense : of the 600 – 700 crew , 105 were dead and 120 wounded , the latter including Gaspard , who subsequently died of his injuries . Yeo 's loss was one man killed and ten wounded , from a crew of 212 . Seeking to rid himself of so many prisoners , Yeo landed most of them at Maraguana before sailing to Port au Prince , where the rest were landed and temporary jury masts were fitted to Heureuse Réunion for the journey to Jamaica . The British retained 20 prisoners for trial at Port Royal . Heureuse Réunion was repaired at Jamaica and subsequently restored to Christophe under the name Améthyste , returning to Haitian service . Yeo 's action in attacking the Haitian ship , although not officially sanctioned by his commanding officer beforehand , was commended .
The Caribbean rose in importance again later in 1812 , with the outbreak of the War of 1812 between Britain and the United States . American privateers threatened British trade routes and Royal Navy ships were sent out to defeat them , including Southampton , which was wrecked in the Bahamas during an anti @-@ privateer patrol in November 1812 . There were no further significant actions in the region during the Napoleonic Wars , the presence of Royal Navy patrols deterred any large scale French or American operations in the Caribbean .
= Jessie Bonstelle =
Laura Justine " Jessie " Bonstelle ( c . 1870 – October 14 , 1932 ) was an American theater director , actress , and drama company manager . Encouraged by her mother , she sang and performed in the theater from a young age ; she went on to become a famous leading lady and made several performances on Broadway . Later she became a director , managing many stock companies , directing Broadway productions and training many young performers who went on to be famous actors . In 1925 she founded her own theater in Detroit . Reorganized in 1928 as the Detroit Civic Theatre , it was one of America 's first civic theaters , and her methods influenced community theater projects elsewhere . She has been described as " one of the pioneering women stage directors in the early twentieth century " .
= = Early life = =
Bonstelle was born to Helen and Joseph Bonesteel on her father 's farm near the town of Greece , New York , the youngest of their eight children . Her exact date of birth is unknown , and she kept it a secret , but it was sometime in November 1869 – 1871 . Originally named Bonesteel , later in life she changed it to Bonstelle after , according to legend , seeing it misspelled like that on a theater marquee .
Bonstelle 's mother , who herself had wanted to be an actress , home @-@ schooled her in reading , writing , singing , dancing , and even in reciting Shakespeare . Jessie 's first public performance was singing temperance songs in church at the age of two years . Helen gave her daughter a passion for acting by often taking her to theaters in nearby Rochester . Around the age of ten Jessie auditioned for critic Thomas Keane , and with his encouragement she left on tour with a production of Bertha , the Beautiful Sewing Machine Girl , a melodrama . After returning home from California she briefly studied at Nazareth Academy , a convent school in Rochester . In 1886 she returned to the stage , working for local opera house owner Edward D. Stair and touring in his productions .
= = Career = =
After the death of her parents in 1890 , Bonstelle went to New York City , and in 1891 she joined the company of Fanny Janauschek , with whom she toured for a season . In 1892 she worked as an understudy and chorus member in Augustin Daly 's company , but the season left her exhausted . However , in 1893 she married the actor Alexander Hamilton Stuart , who was twenty years older than her and Janauschek 's leading man . Happily married , together they worked in Philadelphia 's Forepaugh Stock Company for two years , before moving to Rochester , where Bonstelle played various roles and became an established leading lady . She was the leading lady of Philadelphia 's Standard Stock Company during the 1898 – 99 season . Stuart died in 1911 ; Bonstelle would never remarry .
Bonstelle performed in three productions on Broadway , including Elizabeth Jordan 's The Lady from Oklahoma , which Bonstelle herself produced in 1913 . Her acting received mixed or poor reception from New York Times critics , and according to some she " lacked creative depth " .
In 1899 , while playing with the Biancke Sisters , Bonstelle produced Heimat by Hermann Sudermann . This was its first performance in the United States , and only the second in English . Later she received a letter from Sudermann in which he thanked her for performing his work . Her career as a manager and director began around 1900 when Jacob J. Shubert offered her the management of a stock company in Rochester . This company , the Lyceum stock company , based at Rochester 's Lyceum Theater , included some prominent actors and future stars , such as Orrin Johnson , Margaret Wycherly and Charles Hutchison .
She spent the next five years managing , directing and acting there , but also appeared from time to time in Philadelphia and toured at least once in Canada . Moreover , she occasionally directed for the Shuberts in New York , and was associated with Frederick Freeman Proctor 's 125th Street Theater in Harlem . Bonstelle said that her dedication was partly inspired by the death of Janauschek in 1904 , realizing that what she did for the theater was lasting . From 1906 she managed stock companies at the Star Theater in Buffalo , and from 1910 also at Detroit 's Garrick Theater , moving weekly between the two cities . She usually put on plays which had recently been successful on Broadway , but not those which she saw as immoral . The most popular production she directed was an adaptation of Louisa May Alcott 's Little Women by Marian de Forest . Bonstelle researched the play herself , traveling to Boston to view personal papers provided by Alcott 's family and talking to her friends . The production toured nationally in 1911 , with four companies performing in different places at the same time , and had a " successful and lengthy run " on Broadway in 1912 . It was also performed in London after World War I. From 1912 to 1917 she was a director at the Northampton Municipal Theater in Massachusetts .
Bonstelle sold her stake in the Garrick Theater in 1924 . She and her company founded the Bonstelle Playhouse in Detroit , which opened on January 1 , 1925 . Backed by a syndicate led by a patron of hers , she bought a former synagogue on Woodward Avenue , Temple Beth El , for $ 500 @,@ 000 and commissioned C. Howard Crane to renovate it . At first she carried on producing mostly Broadway @-@ style plays . However , the company did perform classics , including modern @-@ dress productions of Romeo and Juliet in 1926 and Hamlet in 1927 , among the first to put on such performances . In February 1928 Bonstelle began a campaign to gain community support for the theater . A fund of over $ 200 @,@ 000 was raised by donations from the public and Bonstelle made an agreement with local authorities to make the playhouse the city 's unofficial premier theater . Later that year the group became known as the Detroit Civic Theater . In her plan for the theater she emphasized the importance of providing the public with the best drama , including both classics and modern works , and improving young people 's knowledge of dramatic literature . Funded by public subscription , it had ticket prices as low as $ 1 @.@ 50 . Performances included works by Shakespeare , Henrik Ibsen and Richard Brinsley Sheridan . The theater also played a religious role . Bonstelle used it in an effort to improve understanding and co @-@ operation between the church and the theater , holding multi @-@ denominational religious services there during Lent , and she stated that her plays , while avoiding being preachy , were intended to have a positive moral influence on the audience . Local clergy publicly praised her work with the theater .
In June 1932 Bonstelle went to Hollywood ; possible reasons include a desire to direct films , to found an acting school , or to explore the possibility of a new stock company . She returned to Detroit after falling ill and learning she had cancer . There she began a campaign to keep open the Civic Theatre , which was adversely affected by the Great Depression , but became seriously ill . Aided by her secretary , she continued to campaign for and run the theater until her death on October 14 , 1932 , when she suffered a heart attack at the home of relatives in Detroit . On October 16 her body lay in state at the theater and the New York Times reported that twenty @-@ five thousand people went to see her bier . A memorial service was held there which thousands attended and at which mayor Frank Murphy spoke . She was buried in Rochester next to her husband .
= = Character = =
Bonstelle was a perfectionist who was passionate about her work . She ran grueling rehearsals and kept control over the direction , even on productions she was not directing . However , she was willing to help actors if they were struggling , and was respected for her passion and drive .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Bonstelle had a wide reputation ; according to Brooks Atkinson her " industry in the theater [ was ] famous throughout Eastern America " . However , Broadway critics did not rate her directing highly . In Detroit , though , drama critics praised her greatly , and few of her 165 plays were poorly reviewed ; however most of these critics were in fact either friends of Bonstelle or employees of Stair .
Bonstelle 's Playhouse was one of America 's first civic theaters and , uniquely in the 1920s , a profitable one . Though it closed in 1933 , a year after her death , due to the rise of the movie industry and the Depression , Wayne State University bought the premises in 1956 for the use of its theater department , and in 1963 renamed it the Bonstelle Theatre in her memory . Bonstelle 's approach gained nationwide attention and she was interviewed by authorities from other cities which wanted information about her plan . Her theater influenced the future Federal Theater Project .
She was well known for spotting talent in young actors and was skilled at developing that talent . She trained many actors and actresses who later became well known , including Katharine Cornell and William Powell .
= The Kids in the Hall : Death Comes to Town =
The Kids in the Hall : Death Comes to Town ( or simply Death Comes to Town ) is an eight @-@ episode Canadian mini @-@ series that aired on CBC Television on Tuesdays between January 12 and March 16 , 2010 . The show takes place in a fictional Ontario town called Shuckton where their mayor has been murdered . As the Shuckton residents cope with the loss , a new lawyer moves in to prosecute a suspect – though another resident , unsatisfied with the evidence , tries to find the real killer . At the same time , a character who is a personification of death waits at a motel room for the latest Shuckton residents to die .
The series was proposed by Bruce McCulloch during a 2008 The Kids in the Hall comedy tour and developed by the ensemble into a dark @-@ comedy murder mystery , a departure from their typical sketch comedy format . Inspiration for the series came in part from the British comedy series The League of Gentlemen . While the members of The Kids in the Hall play all of the major adult characters , a number of other comedic actors appear in supporting roles , including Dan Redican , Colin Mochrie , Wayne Robson , Susan Kent and Mike Beaver . The series was filmed in North Bay , Mattawa and Sturgeon Falls , Ontario in the summer of 2009 .
= = Premise = =
The mayor of Shuckton , Ontario ( population 27 @,@ 063 ) is murdered several hours after announcing that the town 's bid for the 2028 Summer Olympics was rejected . A small @-@ time criminal , Crim , is found with blood on him and is put on trial for the murder . However , an obese man named Ricky suspects the real murderer is still at large and , with the help of his friend Marnie , he investigates the crime . Meanwhile , the mayor 's widow takes over mayoral duties , women on a local news team compete for attention , the coroner steals the mayor 's body , Crim 's lawyer does everything he can to keep his cat alive , and Death waits in a motel room to collect the souls of dead Shuckton citizens .
= = Characters = =
All major characters in the miniseries were played by the five members of The Kids in the Hall , except for the mayor 's son , who was played by young actor Landon Reynolds @-@ Trudel . Several of the original The Kids in the Hall characters appear in cameo roles , including Mark McKinney 's Chicken Lady as a candidate juror and Paul Bellini clad only in his towel at an ATM ; in addition , McCulloch and McKinney 's police officers are tweaked variations of their OPP officer characters of the original series .
Other actors who appeared in supporting roles include Dan Redican , Colin Mochrie , Wayne Robson , Jesse Camacho and Mike Beaver .
Larry Bowman ( Bruce McCulloch ) , a former US draft dodger , mayor and former hockey coach of Shuckton . Although shown abusing the powers of his office , he is beloved by the townspeople .
Marilyn Bowman ( Dave Foley ) is Larry 's unhappy alcoholic wife . As requested in the mayor 's will , Marilyn becomes mayor and seeks economic development opportunities for the town .
Rampop ( Landon Reynolds @-@ Trudel ) is Larry and Marilyn 's adopted son . He responds to questions with screeches and chirps , he flails his arms when he runs , and he sees all humans as large animated butterflies . His mother calls him " special " but Rampop is the only member of his family who knows which remote control turns on the TV and is the only one who can see Death in his true form and communicate with him .
Marnie ( Kevin McDonald ) is a middle @-@ aged delivery driver for the local pizzeria who is prone to frequent spells of forgetfulness she refers to as " the Fuzzies . "
Ricky Jarvis ( McCulloch ) is an obese man who has not left his house since he lost a hockey tournament ; as the captain of the town 's hockey team , he lost all his stamina in sex with a rival team 's cheerleader the night before the final game .
Crimson " Crim " Hollingsworth ( Scott Thompson ) is a small @-@ time criminal who self @-@ identifies as one @-@ sixteenth Ojibwe . He is the prime suspect of Larry 's murder .
Corrinda Gablechuck ( Mark McKinney ) is the field reporter for the local TV news . After becoming pregnant with Shaye 's child , she becomes conflicted on whether to stay pregnant or have an abortion .
Heather Weather ( Thompson ) is the weather reporter for the local TV news . She battles Corrinda for the spotlight . She is suspected of the murder when Marilyn learns Heather may have had an affair with Larry .
Levon Blanchard ( Foley ) is the news producer , visibly frustrated by Corrinda and Heather 's rivalry .
Shaye ( McDonald ) is the news team 's boom microphone operator . He sleeps with Corrinda only after being rejected by other women at the local bar .
Dusty Diamond ( Thompson ) is the town coroner who secretly harboured feelings for Mayor Bowman .
" Big City " ( McCulloch ) is a lawyer who is prosecuting Crim for the murder of Larry Bowman . He uses showmanship to dazzle judge and jury .
Sam Murray ( McDonald ) is the inexperienced local public defense attorney . Not understanding quality of life , he incurs expensive veterinarian bills keeping his sick 32 @-@ year @-@ old cat , Buttonhole , alive .
Death ( McKinney ) is a grim reaper assigned to collects souls from Shuckton . He has personal vendetta against Ricky – who was supposed to be aborted before he was born , but who survived the procedure because Death was late to collect his soul . When off duty , he hangs out at the tavern , drinking owl 's blood and flirting with voluptuous red @-@ headed women .
Dr. " Doc " Porterhouse ( Foley ) is the kindly town abortionist . He is a talented doctor but uses odd tools and methods .
The Judge ( McKinney ) presides over Crim 's murder trial . He is shown to be frustrated by the disappearance of his gavel and the gavel 's replacements .
The Police Officers ( McCulloch and McKinney ) are investigating Mayor Bowman 's murder .
= = Episodes = =
= = Production and style = =
During a reunion tour in summer 2008 , The Kids in the Hall comedy troupe decided they would like to work together again . Since their 1996 movie Brain Candy , during which they had a falling out over creative differences , they had only worked together on live comedy tours and had not appeared on television together since the end of their show in 1995 . Bruce McCulloch pitched a television story idea which the rest of the group liked . They spent a couple days together brainstorming and developing characters . The storyline resolved into a murder mystery miniseries – partly inspired by the British comedy series The League of Gentlemen . McCulloch described it as Corner Gas meets Twin Peaks . The format diverged from their typical sketch comedy style by following a continuous narrative – though side @-@ stories explore characters further . Along with producer Susan Cavin in fall 2008 , they pitched the concept to CBC executive Fred Fuchs who greenlit the project .
The troupe hired several of the people they had worked with on Brain Candy , including Craig Northey and director Kelly Makin . They shot the series in North Bay , along with locations in Mattawa and Sturgeon Falls , Ontario , which allowed them to access federal and provincial funding incentives for economic development in Northern Ontario . For example , the courtroom scenes were filmed in North Bay 's Trinity United Church and the graveyard site was filmed on Mattawa 's Explorer 's Point . McKinney has claimed in interviews that the red vest worn by Death was found in a storehouse of old CBC props and costumes , and was previously worn by Bob Homme in The Friendly Giant . While drafting the script , cast member Scott Thompson was diagnosed with stage one non @-@ Hodgkin lymphoma . He began chemotherapy sessions shortly before the August – September 2009 shooting dates and started four weeks of radiation treatment once shooting wrapped .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
The series was aired on CBC Television as eight 30 @-@ minute shows . It was broadcast between January 12 and March 16 , 2010 , on Tuesdays at 9 pm following news @-@ comedy shows Rick Mercer Report and This Hour Has 22 Minutes . Death Comes to Town was one of three new prime @-@ time shows that CBC launched in the second week of January ; the others were a detective comedy @-@ drama Republic of Doyle and a family @-@ oriented situation comedy 18 to Life . The debut of Death Comes to Town was watched by approximately 1 @.@ 054 million viewers ( 60 % in the 25 @-@ 54 age demographic ) , higher than both Republic of Doyle and 18 to Life . The American cable network Independent Film Channel purchased the US broadcast rights and began broadcasting it on August 20 , 2010 .
In the Winnipeg Free Press , Brad Oswald reviewed the show cautiously , writing it that is " decidedly different , distinctly weird and definitely @-@ an @-@ acquired @-@ taste kind of great " and that some characters and scenes " are edgy and uncompromising and sure to shock and offend nearly as many viewers as they amuse . " In the Toronto Star Raju Mudhar wrote that the " humour is classic Kids , with plenty of visual gags mixed with off @-@ colour , politically incorrect jokes " and that " the troupe 's eye for satire remains sharp as ever " . John Doyle in the The Globe and Mail wrote a negative review concluding it was " a dismal coda to the comedy troupe 's outstanding career " . Doyle identified himself as a fan of the original The Kids in the Hall series but found that this show had " excruciatingly awful attempts at humour " and " no comic rhythm " . Doyle called it " appallingly slow @-@ witted TV " , " mediocre and maddeningly pointless " . In the Times @-@ Colonist , Alex Strachan provided a qualified positive review writing that it was " juvenile , sophomoric and deliberately unsophisticated " but " a joy to watch " . Strachan concludes that " Death Comes to Town is easy to dismiss as being lightweight , which it is , and scattershot , which it is . There 's a genuine joie de vivre at work , though . Death Comes to Town is silly comedy for smart people . "
= = Home media = =
The complete mini @-@ series was released on Region 1 DVD by Alliance Home Entertainment on August 3 , 2010 .
= Gilbert Perreault =
Gilbert Perreault ( born November 13 , 1950 ) is a Canadian retired professional ice hockey centre who played for 17 seasons with the National Hockey League 's Buffalo Sabres . He was inducted to the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1990 . Known for his ability to stickhandle in close quarters , he is regarded as one of the most skillful play @-@ making centres of all time . He was the first draft pick of the Sabres in their inaugural season in the NHL . He is well known as the centre man for the prolific trio of Sabres forwards known as The French Connection .
Perreault was a standout junior hockey player who went on to become a nine @-@ time NHL ALL @-@ Star , two @-@ time official NHL All @-@ Star Team ( second team centre ) selection , a Calder Trophy winner , a Lady Byng Trophy winner and a Hockey Hall of Famer . He played his entire 17 year career with the Buffalo Sabres and continues to be the all @-@ time franchise leader in career regular season games played , goals , assists , points , game @-@ winning goals , and shots on goal , serving as the team 's captain from 1981 until his initial retirement in November 1986 . He led the team to 11 consecutive playoff appearances ending with the 1984 – 85 season .
Over the course of his 17 season career he accumulated 512 goals and 814 assists in 1191 games . Among his career highlights was the game @-@ winning goal in overtime of the 1978 National Hockey League All @-@ Star Game played at the Buffalo Memorial Auditorium . Perreault once totaled seven points in a single game which remains a Sabres record . He also recorded the first power play goal and the first hat trick in the team 's history . He is the only Buffalo Sabre to wear number 11 , with the number being retired in his honor .
= = Early life = =
Perreault began playing organized hockey at about age six . He preferred street hockey to playing on the ice and did not skate until he was eight . At age nine , he made his first appearance at Peewee hockey tournament in Quebec City . He left home at the age of 16 to join his first junior hockey team . His first year ( 1966 – 67 ) of junior hockey was spent with Thetford Mines in the Quebec Junior A League . His teammates included Rick Kehoe and Marc Tardif . The team won the league championships .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Amateur career = = =
After the Quebec Junior A League shut down , Perreault joined the Montreal Junior Canadiens of the Ontario Hockey Association ( OHA ) for the 1967 – 68 season , the first of three years with the Junior Canadiens . His 49 points in 47 games helped the Junior Canadiens to a second place finish . During his second year on the team , one that included future NHL talents Réjean Houle and André Dupont as well as future professional teammates Jocelyn Guevremont and Richard Martin , Perreault blossomed . His 97 points were second on the team to Houle 's 108 points , and they earned him OHA First All @-@ Star Team honours . As Perreault blossomed , the team excelled . In his second season , the team finished first in the OHA and won the 1969 Memorial Cup Canadian Junior championship . It was the first Memorial Cup win for Montreal since 1950 .
After Houle moved on to become the NHL 's first overall pick , Perreault assumed the leadership role and compiled a 51 goal , 71 assist season , which led the team in both categories and place second in the league to Marcel Dionne 's 132 points . The Canadiens defeated the Weyburn Red Wings to become the third junior team to successfully defend their championship and the Memorial Cup . Perreault was named the Ontario Hockey Association most valuable player .
The record of the 1969 and 1970 Montreal Junior Canadiens in the playoffs was so outstanding it caused a change in Memorial Cup eligibility rules . Previously , all Junior clubs in Canada were eligible for the cup , but the Junior Canadiens beat a club from Prince Edward Island so badly in the playoffs that ' Junior A ' was re @-@ organized into ' Major Junior ' and ' Junior A ' . Since then , only Major Junior clubs are eligible for the Cup .
= = = Professional career = = =
In 1970 , two new franchises were awarded in the NHL — the Buffalo Sabres and the Vancouver Canucks . It was a foregone conclusion Perreault would be the first selection in the 1970 Entry Draft . The two new teams took part in a roulette wheel spin to determine who would get the first pick . Ultimately , the Canucks were allocated numbers 1 @-@ 10 on the wheel , while the Sabres had 11 @-@ 20 . When league president Clarence Campbell spun the wheel , he initially thought the pointer landed on 1 and started to congratulate the Vancouver delegation . However , Sabres coach / general manager Punch Imlach asked Campbell to check again . As it turned out , the pointer was on 11 . Imlach had chosen 11 for the roulette wheel spin because it was his favourite number . This was the first year the Montreal Canadiens did not have a priority right to draft Québécois junior players . Consequently , Perreault was available and taken first overall by the Sabres .
Coincidentally , Perreault had worn # 11 throughout his junior career , and kept it in Buffalo in honour of the roulette wheel choice . As expected , he became an immediate star . He scored a goal in the franchise 's very first game , which was a 2 @-@ 1 victory on October 10 , 1970 , against the Pittsburgh Penguins . During his first season , he led the Sabres in scoring ( with 38 goals and added 34 assists ) — a feat he would never fail to accomplish in any season in which he did not miss significant time to injury before his penultimate year — and won the Calder Trophy as rookie of the year .
Perreault developed a reputation as a superb stickhandler , and scored a goal on his first shift in a professional scrimmage . Bobby Orr once said of Perreault : " His head and shoulders go one way , his legs go the other way , and the puck is doing something else . When I first saw it I couldn 't believe it . " His popularity and respect surpassed O. J. Simpson in a poll of Buffalonians about the best Buffalo athlete . Phil Esposito once said if anyone was to break his 76 goal , 152 point season records " It will be Gilbert Perreault . "
Before the 1971 – 72 NHL season the Sabres drafted Perreault 's Junior Canadiens teammate , Rick Martin , with their first pick . The two gelled as a tandem with each scoring 74 points . Late in the season the Sabres traded Eddie Shack for Rene Robert . The trio formed one of the decade 's most memorable and exciting lines , known as " The French Connection " with Robert on right wing and Martin on left wing . They ended the following 1972 – 73 season sweeping the top three scoring positions for the team and leading the franchise to its first playoff appearance with Perreault winning the Lady Byng Trophy as the most gentlemanly player . In 1973 – 74 , Perreault endured a broken leg that limited him to 55 games .
The 1974 – 75 NHL season was memorable for the Sabres ' Stanley Cup Finals appearance . The Sabres finished first in the newly reformatted league 's Adams Division , and the French Connection members each finished in the top ten in league scoring . The Sabres defeated original six teams Chicago Black Hawks and Montreal Canadiens on their way to a Finals appearance against the Philadelphia Flyers . The Sabres lost the series four games to two . 1975 was the closest Perreault would come to winning the Stanley Cup .
= = = International career = = =
Perreault was named to the Canadian national team ( " Team Canada " ) that participated in the 1972 Summit Series against the Soviet Union . He managed to contribute two points in two games but left the team after game five .
In 1976 , Canada hosted the first Canada Cup series . Perreault played with future Hockey Hall of Fame members such as Bobby Orr , Darryl Sittler , Bobby Hull , Guy Lafleur and Marcel Dionne . Perreault often played on a line with fellow Québécois Lafleur and Dionne . Canada won the series after beating Czechoslovakia in a best two out of three . He later played in the 1981 Canada Cup on a line with Wayne Gretzky and Lafleur . He was playing some of the best hockey of his career , leading all scorers with nine points in four games , when he was forced out of the tournament with a broken ankle . Canada lost the final to the USSR 8 – 1 . Perreault was named to the All Tournament Team , despite playing in only four of Canada 's seven games .
= = Retirement = =
Perreault retired at the end of the 1985 @-@ 86 season . Thereafter , pension changes came into effect significantly boosting the pensions of retired players who played at least 20 games in the 1986 @-@ 87 season . He duly came out of retirement and still played effectively , scoring 9 goals in the first 14 games . He retired for good on November 24 , 1986 after his 20th game .
He finished his career with scoring totals of 512 goals and 814 assists for 1326 points in 1191 games . At the time of his retirement , Perreault was the sixth leading scorer in NHL history . Along with the other two members of the French Connection , Perreault was inducted into the Buffalo Sabres Hall of Fame in 1989 . He was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1990 , and the Sabres retired his number 11 in the same year , having been the only player to ever wear number 11 for the Buffalo Sabres ; his # 11 was the first number retired by the Sabres . When his French Connection linemates ' numbers were retired , Perreault 's # 11 was lowered and raised back between Martin 's # 7 and Robert 's # 14 , as the Buffalo Sabres retired the French Connection line as a group , marking the first three players to have their numbers retired by the Sabres .
Since his retirement from hockey , Perreault has remained active in the game , coaching Junior teams in the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League . In addition , he also plays on occasion with the Buffalo Sabres Alumni Hockey Team for charity events .
= = Personal life = =
Perreault is married to Carmen , has two sons , Marc @-@ André ( born 1978 ) and Sean ( born 1986 ) , and still resides in his hometown of Victoriaville , Quebec . After retiring from playing , Perreault coached junior ice hockey , and invested in real estate . In his spare time , Perreault enjoys golfing , listening to music , and going to the movies .
= = Career achievements = =
Holds franchise record for most games ( 1191 ) , goals ( 512 ) , assists ( 814 ) and points ( 1326 ) with the Buffalo Sabres .
Won the Calder Memorial Trophy in 1971 .
Won the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy in 1973 .
Named an NHL Second Team All @-@ Star in 1976 and 1977 .
Chosen to play in eight NHL All @-@ Star Games in 1970 – 71 , 1971 – 72 , 1973 – 74 , 1974 – 75 , 1976 – 77 , 1977 – 78 , 1979 – 80 , and 1983 – 84 , as well as the 1979 Challenge Cup , which pitted NHL players against a team representing the Soviet Union , in place of an all @-@ star game in 1979 .
In 1998 , he was ranked number 47 on The Hockey News ' list of the 100 Greatest Hockey Players .
= = Career statistics = =
= Billy Pierce =
Walter William Pierce ( April 2 , 1927 – July 31 , 2015 ) was an American starting pitcher in Major League Baseball between 1945 and 1964 who played most of his career for the Chicago White Sox . He was the team 's star pitcher in the decade from 1952 to 1961 , when they posted the third best record in the major leagues , and received the Sporting News Pitcher of the Year Award for the American League ( AL ) in 1956 and 1957 after being runner @-@ up in both 1953 and 1955 . A seven @-@ time All @-@ Star , he led the American League ( AL ) in complete games three times despite his slight build , and in wins , earned run average ( ERA ) and strikeouts once each . He pitched four one @-@ hitters and seven two @-@ hitters in his career , and on June 27 , 1958 came within one batter of becoming the first left @-@ hander in 78 years to throw a perfect game .
He was one of the principal figures in Chicago 's fierce rivalry with the New York Yankees ; particularly notable were his matchups with Whitey Ford , with the two left @-@ handers opposing one another as starters 14 times from 1955 to 1960 . Pierce 's record suffered from pitching so much against New York – who he faced more often than any other team – when the Yankees dynasty was at its peak ; but although his career record against New York was only 25 – 37 , that was still slightly better than the 27 – 41 mark compiled by National League ( NL ) championship teams over 11 World Series against the Yankees during the same period .
After joining the San Francisco Giants in 1962 , Pierce played a pivotal role in helping them win the NL pennant , going 12 – 0 in home games and getting a three @-@ hit shutout and a save in a three @-@ game playoff against the Los Angeles Dodgers to clinch the title . His 1 @,@ 999 career strikeouts were the fifth most by a left @-@ hander when he retired , and his AL total of 1 @,@ 842 ranked ninth in league history . He also ranked tenth among left @-@ handers in career wins ( 211 ) , sixth in games started ( 432 ) and games pitched ( 585 ) , eighth in shutouts ( 38 ) and ninth in innings pitched ( 3 @,@ 306 ⅔ ) . He holds the White Sox franchise record for career strikeouts ( 1 @,@ 796 ) , and his club marks of 186 wins , 2 @,@ 931 innings and 390 starts are team records for a left @-@ hander . The White Sox retired his number 19 in 1987 , and unveiled a statue in his honor at U.S. Cellular Field in 2007 ; he was selected to the White Sox All @-@ Century Team in 2000 .
= = Early baseball career = =
= = = Youth baseball = = =
The son of pharmacist Walter Pierce and his wife Julia , Billy Pierce grew up in Highland Park , Michigan , and showed his first interest in baseball at age ten . He recalled : " I refused to have my tonsils removed . My folks offered me a major league baseball and a good glove if I 'd have the operation . I took the payola . It really was a thrill to throw around that ' league ' ball . " After starting out as a first baseman , he switched to pitching to emulate his hero , Detroit Tigers star Tommy Bridges , who like Pierce had a slight build . He attended Highland Park Community High School where his teammates included future major league pitcher Ted Gray , and pitched six shutouts as a junior in 1944 , earning the nickname " Mr. Zero " . He was the starting and winning pitcher in an East @-@ West All @-@ American Boys ' Game sponsored by Esquire magazine , held on August 7 , 1944 at the Polo Grounds in New York , with Connie Mack managing Pierce 's East All @-@ Stars ; one reporter wrote , " His fast ball was amazing when one considers that he only weighs 140 pounds . In civilian attire he seemed very slender . " The West team included catcher and future Hall of Fame center fielder Richie Ashburn , who was hitless in two at bats against Pierce . The game was held as a benefit for World War II community memorials , and two days prior to the event the participating players were guests of Babe Ruth on his weekly radio program . Pierce was voted the game 's outstanding player , winning a four @-@ year scholarship to the college of his choice . Detroit Free Press sports editor Dale Stafford , who chaperoned him to New York , later told a fellow writer , " I never saw such a clean @-@ living youngster . On our trip to New York for the East @-@ West game , Billy kept a diary . One morning I found it open to this entry : ' Here it is ten o 'clock and Mr. Stafford still hasn 't gone to bed . ' " Pierce downplayed the experience of pitching in a major league stadium , stating , " I was not nervous at the Polo Grounds , as I 've pitched several games in Briggs Stadium back home . I 've worked out there with the Tigers , and they , the Red Sox and the Phillies have been interested in me . But my folks and I decided that I 'd make up my mind about playing pro ball after I graduated from high school . " After considering studying medicine at the University of Michigan , he signed with his hometown Tigers for a bonus of $ 15 @,@ 000 .
= = Major League Baseball = =
= = = Detroit Tigers ( 1945 , 1948 ) = = =
He made the Tigers team in spring training 1945 before finishing high school and without having played in the minor leagues , but sat on the bench before making his major league debut in June 1945 , just a few weeks after his 18th birthday . He made three relief appearances that month and two more in September after a two @-@ month stint with the Buffalo Bisons of the International League under manager Bucky Harris , and was on the Detroit roster for the team 's victory in the 1945 World Series although he did not appear in any games . He had a remarkably unassuming presence ; Paul Richards , then a catcher for the Tigers , later recalled occasionally going to his neighborhood drugstore . One day , Pierce went up to him at practice and asked why Richards never talked to him at the store , with Richards replying that he didn 't know what Pierce was talking about ; Pierce answered that the drugstore was his family 's , and Richards slowly realized that Pierce had been the clerk behind the counter each time he went in .
Pierce was sent back to Buffalo for the 1946 season , now with Gabby Hartnett as his manager ( Harris having moved to the team 's front office ) , but missed most of the year with a back injury which was attributed to overwork . After the 1947 season in Buffalo , where Richards was now his manager , he returned to Detroit in 1948 , spending most of the season in the bullpen but making five starts and posting a 3 – 0 record ; he had yet added very little weight since his high school days , being still at 148 pounds . He made his first start , and earned his first major league victory , on August 8 against the Washington Senators , pitching 7 ⅔ innings and striking out six in a 6 – 5 victory in which he also drove in a run with a triple and scored . However , Pierce also issued 51 walks in 55 ⅓ innings that year , and concerns about his pitching control led the Tigers to trade him to the White Sox on November 10 for catcher Aaron Robinson and $ 10 @,@ 000 , in what most baseball historians consider to be one of the most one @-@ sided trades in baseball history . Talks had initially centered on Chicago acquiring Pierce 's high school teammate Ted Gray , although sources differ as to whether it was White Sox general manager Frank Lane or his Detroit counterpart Billy Evans who switched the focus to Pierce ; the Tigers tried to call off the deal one day after it was completed upon fully realizing what they had given up , even offering $ 50 @,@ 000 to get Pierce back , but Lane had no intention of giving up the steal he had accomplished in his first trade as general manager .
= = = Chicago White Sox ( 1949 – 1961 ) = = =
In his first seasons with White Sox , Pierce 's control problems continued ; his 137 walks in 1950 tied him for the fourth most ever by an AL left @-@ hander . But those seasons also included indications of his developing excellence , as well as the struggles he would face in gaining run support . On May 29 , 1949 , in just his sixth start with Chicago ( and the 11th of his career ) , the 22 @-@ year @-@ old Pierce was matched against 42 @-@ year @-@ old Negro league legend Satchel Paige in a road game against the defending World Series champion Cleveland Indians . The pitchers ' duel went into the 11th inning , when Pierce walked leadoff hitter Ken Keltner , followed by two bunt singles . After Pierce was replaced by a reliever and the next batter lined to shortstop Luke Appling , Lou Boudreau singled to give Cleveland a 2 – 1 win ; Pierce had himself scored Chicago 's only run after singling in the eighth inning . And on June 15 , 1950 against the World Series champion Yankees , Pierce got his first career shutout – a 5 – 0 one @-@ hitter , interrupted by rain delays in the second , fourth and fifth innings totaling over an hour and a half , with the only hit being Billy Johnson 's single in the fifth inning .
= = Early 1950s = =
= = = Development of style = = =
Over 13 seasons with the White Sox , Pierce was the ace of the pitching staff , leading the team in wins nine times and in strikeouts eight times . He was Chicago 's Opening Day starter seven times ( 1951 – 52 , 1954 , 1956 – 59 ) , and started the home opener in 1953 and 1961 . He had an outstanding fastball and an excellent curveball , and in 1951 added the slider ( for which he used his motion for the curve rather than the fastball ) as a third strong pitch , as well as a changeup . He worked quickly with an over @-@ the @-@ top motion , dropping his back shoulder in a style similar to that later used by Sandy Koufax . In 1957 , Paul Richards noted of Pierce 's early style : " He had a tendency to windmill in his delivery , which makes the ball spin too much and takes the life out of it . He flashed his curve @-@ the Yankees always knew when he was throwing a curve . But mainly Bill didn 't want to throw anything but fast balls in the old days . He laughed at the change @-@ of @-@ pace and the slider , so most of the strong right @-@ hand hitters were laying back for him , waiting for a fast ball down the middle . " After Pierce finally tried the slider against the Yankees , to great effect , Richards noted , " Then , for a while there , he began throwing nothing but sliders . He finally learned about that , too . Even today Pierce will pitch a whole ball game and almost never throw anything but fast balls . But only on certain days . " Yankees star Joe DiMaggio was among those praising Pierce 's ability , reportedly remarking , " That little so @-@ and @-@ so is a marvel . So little – and all that speed . And I mean speed ! He got me out of there on a fastball in the ninth that I 'd have needed a telescope to see . " Richards became Chicago 's manager in 1951 , and worked with Pierce to develop his two new pitches and slow down his pace , as well as significantly improve his control ; Pierce later recalled , " I learned to control my fastball better [ ... ] Developing the slider helped me tremendously because it gave me a third out pitch . I threw it almost as hard as my fastball , but I could throw it for strikes better than the fast ball or good curve ... Richards made me work on it , and it took me about two years before it was consistent . " After issuing 249 walks in 391 innings in 1949 – 1950 , Pierce gave up only 73 walks in 240 innings in 1951 , and averaged more than 3 walks per 9 innings in three seasons afterward . His 1951 ERA of 3 @.@ 03 was fourth best in the league , and he ranked sixth in 1952 with a mark of 2 @.@ 57 . On September 21 , 1952 he broke Doc White 's 1907 club record of 141 strikeouts by a left @-@ hander , ending the season with 144 .
On April 16 , 1953 against the St. Louis Browns ( the second game of the season , and Chicago 's home opener ) Pierce pitched his second one @-@ hitter , a 1 – 0 victory in which he allowed only a seventh @-@ inning double by Bobby Young ; the White Sox gained only two singles in the contest , and scored on a walk , sacrifice hit , error and sacrifice fly . Pierce was chosen to start the All @-@ Star Game for the AL – the first White Sox pitcher ever to do so – and allowed only one hit through three innings ( a single by Stan Musial ) . Boston Red Sox star Ted Williams recalled of the game : " It was a hot day at Crosley Field and I remember being so concerned for little Billy Pierce of the White Sox . Billy probably threw harder than anybody for a guy his size , he had a real big delivery , nice to look at , and he had overcome a lot . I understand he had had epilepsy , and I was really pulling for him . He was a nervous little guy , and here he was starting his first All @-@ Star game in a bandbox park that 's tough to pitch in , and against Robin Roberts to boot . Pierce held them in the palm of his hand that day . He threw the ball right by everybody . "
During the early 1950s , Richards preferred to arrange his rotation so that Pierce started only every fifth or sixth day , holding him back against weaker teams but using him more often for big games against the powerful Yankees and Indians . Catcher Sherm Lollar later observed that although it was essentially a compliment to Pierce 's ability , he might have picked up more victories and won 20 games sooner in his career had he faced each opponent more equally . With a 1 – 0 two @-@ hitter at Washington on August 3 , in which the White Sox won on an unearned run in the ninth inning with a hit batter , error and sacrifice fly , Pierce began a streak of 39 ⅔ consecutive scoreless innings – the longest such streak in the AL between 1926 , when Ted Lyons had a 41 @-@ inning streak for the White Sox , and 1968 ; it remains the fifth longest ever by a left @-@ hander , and the longest by an AL southpaw since 1905 . The streak ended when he allowed two unearned runs against the Browns in the sixth inning on August 19 ; two additional earned runs in the tenth inning ended his streak , dating to July 29 , of 49 ⅔ innings without an earned run , and gave him a 4 – 3 loss . He led the league in strikeouts ( 186 ) and was second in ERA ( 2 @.@ 72 ) , and on September 27 started for the White Sox in the final game in Browns history , winning 2 – 1 in 11 innings at St. Louis . His seven shutouts that season were the second most by an AL left @-@ hander since 1916 , matched only by Hal Newhouser 's 1945 total of eight .
= = = = Progress interrupted = = = =
Pierce 's 1954 season was interrupted when he reported pain in his left arm in a May 25 win over Cleveland ; after several days of difficulty in determining the problem , he had oral surgery to remove an infected wisdom tooth and adjacent molar on June 3 . He did not pitch again until June 20 , but a lack of arm strength caused him to be ineffective in that start before slowly coming back with two relief appearances and another poor start , finally picking up wins with consecutive 3 – 0 shutouts on July 5 and 11 , the latter being his fourth career two @-@ hitter . It was later reported that the tooth problem had possibly existed as early as spring training , when Pierce initially suffered arm problems . But although he recorded only nine wins that season , he was one of just four pitchers to defeat the Indians three times as they racked up a league @-@ record 111 victories , after also having been one of four pitchers to defeat the champion Yankees four times in 1953 .
Playing the Yankees on June 25 , 1953 , he was part of a rare defensive shift ; leading 4 – 2 in the ninth inning , he was moved to first base , with Harry Dorish entering in relief . Pinch hitter Don Bollweg barely beat out a bunt single to first base , but Pierce than recorded a putout on Gil McDougald 's grounder to third base . He then retook the mound , and after issuing a walk , gained the final two outs to finish the victory ; the White Sox set an AL record by using five first basemen in the game . Pierce was also an excellent baserunner , and was used as a pinch runner 30 times between 1949 and 1957 – even scoring as a substitute for three @-@ time stolen base champion Minnie Miñoso in a 5 – 4 victory over the Yankees on June 22 , 1956 .
= = Late 1950s = =
= = = Peak years = = =
In 1955 Pierce again started the All @-@ Star Game , going into the All @-@ Star break with a record of just 5 – 6 in spite of his 2 @.@ 11 ERA ; in his last two starts before the break , he suffered back @-@ to @-@ back 1 – 0 losses to Early Wynn and Bob Lemon of the Indians . In the All @-@ Star Game he allowed only one baserunner through three innings ( a leadoff single by Red Schoendienst , who was thrown out on a steal attempt ) ; he staked the AL to a 4 – 0 lead , but the National League came back for a 6 – 5 win in 10 innings after scoring five runs off Whitey Ford in the seventh and eighth innings . Pierce ended the season with the league lead in ERA ( although his record was just 15 – 10 ) , with his mark of 1 @.@ 97 being the lowest by a major league pitcher between Hal Newhouser in 1946 ( 1 @.@ 94 ) and Sandy Koufax in 1963 ( 1 @.@ 88 ) ; he led the major leagues by nearly two thirds of a run , with Ford having the next best mark at 2 @.@ 63 . Total Baseball has rated Pierce as the best pitcher in the major leagues in 1955 , after having placed him among the AL 's top five pitchers each year from 1951 to 1953 .
In 1956 he started his third All @-@ Star Game , but was charged with the loss despite allowing only one run in three innings . Buoyed by the arrival of rookie shortstop Luis Aparicio , who sparked the team in leading the league in stolen bases , the White Sox enjoyed a two @-@ month offensive surge from June 4 to August 3 in which they averaged eight runs in Pierce 's 13 starts ; he won 11 of the games , losing only those immediately before and after the All @-@ Star break , the latter being a 2 – 1 loss to Ford and the Yankees . He became the first White Sox pitcher since 1941 to win 20 games , was second in the AL with a career @-@ high 192 strikeouts ( a team record for left @-@ handers until Gary Peters had 205 in 1964 ) , and was named AL Pitcher of the Year by The Sporting News , outpolling Ford ( who had edged him in a close 1955 vote ) by a margin of 117 to 52 ; he also finished fifth in voting for the AL Most Valuable Player Award . In 1957 Pierce became the first White Sox pitcher since Red Faber ( 1920 – 1922 ) to earn 20 victories in consecutive seasons ; he tied Jim Bunning for the league lead , and bested him in voting for AL Pitcher of the Year . He had six consecutive complete game victories from May 16 to June 8 in which his total ERA was 0 @.@ 64 , with two 1 – 0 victories in ten innings including his sixth career two @-@ hitter on June 4 against the Red Sox ; the White Sox scored just nine total runs over the last five games in that stretch . Despite the presence of such popular players as Miñoso , Aparicio and second baseman Nellie Fox , Pierce was chosen as the player most popular with White Sox fans in a 1957 spring training poll of sportswriters . A separate poll of managers , coaches , writers and broadcasters named him Chicago 's best fielding pitcher , best pitcher at holding runners to first base , and best pitcher for crucial games , as well as the team 's most nervous player on the field .
= = = = End of peak = = = =
In 1958 he was second in the league in both wins ( 17 ) and ERA ( 2 @.@ 68 ) ; his seventh two @-@ hitter , a 1 – 0 win on June 21 against the Baltimore Orioles in which the White Sox scored only an unearned run in the first inning , was followed by the greatest game of his career . On June 27 against the Senators , he retired the first 26 batters before pinch hitter Ed Fitz Gerald lined Pierce 's first pitch down the first base line for an opposite @-@ field double that landed about a foot from the foul line . Pierce then struck out Albie Pearson on three pitches to end the game ; only twice did he go to a three @-@ ball count . The lone hit marred what would have been a remarkable accomplishment ; not only had no left @-@ hander pitched a perfect game since Lee Richmond in 1880 , but only one AL left @-@ hander ( Mel Parnell in 1956 ) pitched even a no @-@ hitter between 1931 and 1962 . Although disappointed by the near miss , Pierce praised his teammates for their defensive work , saying , " Give Luis plenty of credit . And Sherm really mixed ' em up beautifully . The big thing is that we won . " At a Capitol lunch with several White Sox players during the following year 's pennant race , Vice President Richard Nixon told Pierce that he had watched the game on television , saying , " I 'm a Washington fan , but that was one night I was rooting for the White Sox . " In a 1982 interview , Pierce said , " The book on Fitz Gerald was that he was a fastball hitter on the first ball and liked it inside where he could pull it . So we threw him a curve away and he hit into right for a solid hit . I didn 't feel that badly about it , really . It didn 't mean that much at the moment . But now ... well , now I wish I had got it . It would have been nice . " His streak of 33 consecutive scoreless innings was ended with an unearned run in the seventh inning on July 1 .
Pierce tied for the league lead in complete games each year from 1956 to 1958 , and was again selected for the All @-@ Star team each year from 1957 to 1959 and again in 1961 , although he only appeared in the 1957 game in which he retired his first five batters before allowing three runs . On June 11 , 1959 he pitched his fourth and final one @-@ hitter , a 3 – 1 victory at Washington in which he allowed only a third @-@ inning double by Ron Samford , who scored after three two @-@ out walks , the last to Harmon Killebrew ; the White Sox won on a two @-@ run double in the ninth inning by Jim Landis off Senators starter Camilo Pascual . Pierce had the longest outing of his career on August 6 in a road game against the Orioles , pitching 16 innings in a contest that ended in a 1 – 1 tie after 18 frames ; it proved to be the last time in his career that he pitched into extra innings . After losing his next two starts , pulling a back muscle and straining the ligaments in his right hip against the Kansas City Athletics in the third inning on August 15 , he was out of action until a 2 – 1 win over Kansas City on September 7 .
Manager Al López ' decision not to start Pierce in the 1959 World Series against the Los Angeles Dodgers was highly controversial . After Cy Young Award winner Early Wynn started for Chicago in Game 1 , Lopez chose to start Bob Shaw ( 18 – 6 in the regular season ) and Dick Donovan ( 9 – 10 ) in the next two contests , which the White Sox lost by scores of 4 – 3 and 3 – 1 . Pierce was held back until Game 4 , and relieved in each of the final three games of the Series , allowing only two hits and no runs in four innings of work . In Game 4 he entered in the fourth inning with Chicago trailing 4 – 0 , and pitched a hitless three innings before being pulled for a pinch hitter in the seventh inning , when the Sox tied the game ; the Dodgers went on to win 5 – 4 . In Game 5 he entered in the eighth inning to protect a 1 – 0 lead , but only issued an intentional walk before Lopez again changed pitchers ; the White Sox held on for the 1 – 0 win . Lopez even chose to start Wynn in Game 6 on two days ' rest , but he was ineffective , and Chicago was behind 8 – 3 by the time Pierce was brought in to start the eighth inning ; the Dodgers later added a run in the ninth inning to complete the 9 – 3 win and capture the Series championship . Being used out of the bullpen was a deep letdown for Pierce , who said in a 1982 interview , " Other guys , Early Wynn and Bob Shaw , had better years than I did that year . And against the left @-@ handed @-@ heavy lineup the Dodgers threw at us , Al wanted his right @-@ handers like Dick Donovan . There was no question I was disappointed , but I understood . " However , there have been suggestions that Lopez ' decision had other , undisclosed motivations ; noting his surprise that Lopez chose to use Pierce out of the bullpen , outfielder Al Smith recalled , " We all knew why Al López didn 't pitch him , but we never told anyone and I won 't say now . I will say that I thought he should have pitched . He 'd been pitching all year , hadn 't he ? "
= = Offensive support = =
Although they never finished below third place from 1952 through 1960 , the " Go @-@ Go White Sox " were a team which thrived on speed , defense and pitching rather than hitting , and Pierce struggled for offensive support throughout his time with the club . Both Richards and Lopez – who became Chicago 's manager in 1957 – placed a low emphasis on offense , with Lopez expressing his philosophy that " all a team really needed was pitching and defense , because if you didn 't allow the other team to score , eventually they would give you a run , and you 'd win the game . " Nellie Fox , who was also Pierce 's roommate , turned to him on one occasion when the White Sox picked up a run following a scoring drought and said , " Here 's your run . Now go out there and hold it . " Although AL teams averaged 4 @.@ 46 runs per game from 1949 through 1961 , and the White Sox averaged 4 @.@
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Bridge . During the 1960s an additional tube was bored at four of the two @-@ lane tunnels , while the other three tunnels were bypassed ; these improvements made the entire length of the highway four lanes wide . Improvements continue to be made to the road : rebuilding the original section to modern standards , widening portions of the turnpike to six lanes , and adding interchanges .
= = Route description = =
The turnpike runs east @-@ west across Pennsylvania , from the Ohio state line in Lawrence County to the New Jersey state line in Bucks County . It passes through the Pittsburgh , Harrisburg , and Philadelphia areas , along with farmland and woodland . The highway crosses the Appalachian Mountains , in the central part of the state , through four tunnels . The Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission , created in 1937 to construct , finance , operate , and maintain the road , controls the highway . Five members comprise the commission , including the secretary of the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation and four other members appointed by the governor of Pennsylvania . In 2014 , the roadway had an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 117 @,@ 000 vehicles between Norristown and I @-@ 476 to a low of 12 @,@ 000 vehicles between the Ohio border and Pennsylvania Route 18 ( PA 18 ) . As part of the Interstate Highway System , the turnpike is part of the National Highway System . The Pennsylvania Turnpike is designated a Blue Star Memorial Highway honoring those who have served in the United States Armed Forces ; the Garden Club Federation of Pennsylvania has placed Blue Star Memorial Highway markers at service plazas along the turnpike .
In addition to the east @-@ west Pennsylvania Turnpike , the Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission also operates the Northeast Extension of the Pennsylvania Turnpike ( I @-@ 476 ) , the Beaver Valley Expressway ( I @-@ 376 ) , the Mon @-@ Fayette Expressway ( PA 43 ) , the Amos K. Hutchinson Bypass ( PA 66 ) , and the Southern Beltway ( PA 576 ) .
= = = Western extension = = =
The Pennsylvania Turnpike begins at the Ohio state line in Lawrence County ( beyond which it continues west as the Ohio Turnpike ) . From the state line , the turnpike heads southeast as a four @-@ lane freeway designated as I @-@ 76 through the rural area south of New Castle . A short distance from the Ohio border , the eastbound lanes come to the Gateway toll plaza . The highway then crosses into Beaver County , where it reaches its first interchange with I @-@ 376 ( the Beaver Valley Expressway ) in Big Beaver .
After this interchange , the turnpike reaches the exit for PA 18 in Homewood before crossing the Beaver River on the Beaver River Bridge . The road then enters Butler County , where it comes to Cranberry Township . Here , an interchange accesses U.S. Route 19 ( US 19 ) and I @-@ 79 . The turnpike continues through a mix of rural land and suburban residential development north of Pittsburgh into Allegheny County .
The road then approaches the Warrendale toll plaza ( where toll ticketing begins ) , and continues southeast to an interchange with PA 8 in Hampton Township . The turnpike then comes to the Allegheny Valley exit in Harmar Township , which provides access to PA 28 via Freeport Road . East of this interchange , the road heads south and crosses the Allegheny River on the six @-@ lane Allegheny River Turnpike Bridge .
After the Allegheny River crossing the turnpike returns to four lanes , passing through the Oakmont Country Club . The highway heads southeast to Monroeville , an eastern suburb of Pittsburgh ; an interchange with I @-@ 376 / US 22 ( Penn – Lincoln Parkway ) provides access to Pittsburgh . East of Monroeville , the turnpike continues through eastern Allegheny County before crossing into Westmoreland County . Here , it heads south to the exit for US 30 in Irwin .
= = = Irwin to Carlisle = = =
After the Irwin interchange , the Pennsylvania Turnpike widens to six lanes and heads into the rural area west of Greensburg . Curving southeast , it reaches New Stanton ; an interchange provides access to I @-@ 70 , US 119 and the southern terminus of PA 66 ( the Amos K. Hutchinson Bypass ) . The road narrows back to four lanes at this interchange , and I @-@ 70 forms a concurrency with I @-@ 76 on the turnpike . After New Stanton , the road winds southeast to the exit for PA 31 / PA 711 in Donegal . Continuing east past Donegal , the turnpike crosses Laurel Hill into Somerset County .
In this county , the road continues southeast to Somerset and an interchange with PA 601 accessing US 219 and Johnstown . East of Somerset the highway reaches Allegheny Mountain , going under it in the Allegheny Mountain Tunnel . Exiting the tunnel , the turnpike winds down the mountain at a three @-@ percent grade ( the steepest grade on the turnpike ) into a Bedford County valley . At Bedford , an exit for US 220 Business ( US 220 Bus . ) provides access to US 220 and the southern terminus of I @-@ 99 ; this exit also serves Altoona to the north .
East of Bedford the turnpike passes through the Bedford Narrows , a gap in Evitts Mountain . The turnpike , US 30 and the Raystown Branch of the Juniata River all pass through the 650 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 200 m ) narrows . The road winds through a valley south of the river , before traversing Clear Ridge Cut near Everett . Further east , at Breezewood , I @-@ 70 leaves the turnpike .
After Breezewood I @-@ 76 continues along the turnpike , heading northeast across Rays Hill into Fulton County . The turnpike continues east across Sideling Hill , before reaching an interchange with US 522 in Fort Littleton . After this interchange the highway parallels US 522 before curving east into Huntingdon County . The turnpike goes under Tuscarora Mountain through the Tuscarora Mountain Tunnel , entering Franklin County . It then curves northeast into a valley to the exit for PA 75 in Willow Hill .
Again heading east , the road passes under Kittatinny Mountain through the Kittatinny Mountain Tunnel . Shortly after exiting the tunnel , the highway enters the Blue Mountain Tunnel under Blue Mountain . Leaving that tunnel , the turnpike heads northeast along the base of Blue Mountain to an exit for PA 997 . East of this interchange the road enters Cumberland County , heading east through the Cumberland Valley on a stretch known as " the straightaway " . Further east , the turnpike reaches Carlisle and an interchange with US 11 providing access to I @-@ 81 .
= = = Philadelphia extension = = =
Approaching Harrisburg , the Pennsylvania Turnpike heads east through a mixture of rural land and suburban development . In Upper Allen Township , the highway reaches the US 15 interchange accessing Gettysburg to the south . The road continues east into York County , where it reaches the interchange with I @-@ 83 serving Harrisburg , its western suburbs and York to the south . East of I @-@ 83 it widens to six lanes , crossing the Susquehanna River into Dauphin County on the Susquehanna River Bridge and bypassing Harrisburg to the south .
In Lower Swatara Township the turnpike reaches an interchange with the southern end of I @-@ 283 , serving Harrisburg and its eastern suburbs . Here , the road narrows back to four lanes through suburban development near Middletown before continuing into rural areas . The turnpike crosses a corner of Lebanon County before entering Lancaster County .
In Lancaster County the highway passes through Pennsylvania Dutch Country to an interchange with PA 72 accessing Lebanon to the north and Lancaster to the south . Further east , the turnpike reaches an interchange with US 222 and PA 272 near Denver which serves the cities of Reading and Lancaster . The route continues into Berks County and an interchange with I @-@ 176 ( a freeway to Reading ) and PA 10 in Morgantown .
The turnpike then enters Chester County , running southeast to an exit for PA 100 north of Downingtown and the western suburbs of Philadelphia . Continuing east , it reaches an E @-@ ZPass @-@ only interchange with PA 29 near Malvern . The highway crosses Montgomery County to the Valley Forge interchange in King of Prussia , where I @-@ 76 splits from the turnpike and heads southeast ( as the Schuylkill Expressway ) toward Philadelphia .
= = = Delaware River extension = = =
After the Valley Forge interchange the turnpike is designated as I @-@ 276 and becomes a six @-@ lane road serving as a suburban commuter highway , crossing the Schuylkill River on the Schuylkill River Bridge near Norristown . In Plymouth Meeting , an interchange with Germantown Pike provides access to Norristown before the roadway reaches the Mid @-@ County Interchange . This interchange connects to I @-@ 476 , which heads south as the Blue Route and north as the Northeast Extension of the turnpike ; connecting the mainline turnpike to the Lehigh Valley and the Pocono Mountains .
After the Mid @-@ County Interchange , the main turnpike heads east through the northern suburbs of Philadelphia to Fort Washington and an interchange with PA 309 . One mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) later , the road has a westbound exit and entrance for Virginia Drive accessible only by E @-@ ZPass tagholders . In Willow Grove the highway reaches the PA 611 exit , crossing more suburban areas into Bucks County . In Bensalem , an interchange with US 1 provides access to Philadelphia .
The highway narrows back to four lanes before another E @-@ ZPass @-@ only exit for PA 132 , with an eastbound exit and entrance . A short distance later , the turnpike arrives at the east end of the ticket system at the Neshaminy Falls toll plaza . The road passes through more suburbs , crossing under I @-@ 95 where an interchange is currently under construction . Further east the turnpike reaches the final interchange , providing access to US 13 in Bristol , before coming to the westbound all @-@ electronic Delaware River Bridge toll plaza , where tolls can be paid with E @-@ ZPass or toll @-@ by @-@ plate at highway speeds . After this , the highway crosses the Delaware River into New Jersey on the Delaware River – Turnpike Toll Bridge . At this point , the I @-@ 276 designation and the Pennsylvania Turnpike end ; the road continues east as the Pearl Harbor Memorial Extension of the New Jersey Turnpike , which connects to the New Jersey Turnpike ( the Pearl Harbor Memorial Extension is an unsigned portion of I @-@ 95 ) . However , exit signs on the New Jersey Turnpike indicate I @-@ 276 / Pennsylvania Turnpike .
= = = Major bridges and tunnels = = =
The Pennsylvania Turnpike incorporates several major bridges and tunnels along its route . Four tunnels cross central Pennsylvania 's Appalachian Mountains . The 6 @,@ 070 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 850 m ) Allegheny Mountain Tunnel passes under Allegheny Mountain in Somerset County . The Tuscarora Mountain Tunnel runs beneath Tuscarora Mountain ( at the border of Huntingdon and Franklin Counties ) , and is 5 @,@ 236 feet ( 1 @,@ 596 m ) long . The Kittatinny Mountain and Blue Mountain Tunnels are adjacent to each other in Franklin County and are 4 @,@ 727 feet ( 1 @,@ 441 m ) and 4 @,@ 339 feet ( 1 @,@ 323 m ) long , respectively .
Five bridges carry the turnpike over major rivers in the state . The 1 @,@ 545 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 471 m ) Beaver River Bridge crosses the Beaver River in Beaver County . The highway crosses the Allegheny River in Allegheny County on the 2 @,@ 350 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 720 m ) Allegheny River Turnpike Bridge , and crosses the Susquehanna River between York and Dauphin Counties on the 5 @,@ 910 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) Susquehanna River Bridge . In Montgomery County , the turnpike crosses the Schuylkill River on the 1 @,@ 224 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 373 m ) Schuylkill River Bridge . At the New Jersey border in Bucks County , the highway is connected to the Pearl Harbor Memorial Extension of the New Jersey Turnpike by the 6 @,@ 571 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 2 @,@ 003 m ) Delaware River – Turnpike Toll Bridge over the Delaware River .
= = = Speed limits = = =
The turnpike had no enforced speed limit when it opened except for the tunnels , which had a 35 @-@ mile @-@ per @-@ hour ( 55 km / h ) speed limit . Some drivers traveled as fast as 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) on the road . In 1941 , speed limits of 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) for cars and 50 – 65 mph ( 80 – 105 km / h ) for trucks were enacted . During World War II , the turnpike adopted the national speed limit of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) ; after the war , the limit returned to 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) .
In 1953 , the speed limit on the portion of the highway between the Ohio border and Breezewood was lowered to 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) to reduce the number of accidents , but returned to 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) when the measure proved ineffective . The limit on the turnpike was reduced to 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) in 1956 for cars , buses and motorcycles , with other vehicles limited to 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . A minimum speed of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) was established in 1959 ; it was raised to 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) in 1965 .
With the passage of the 1974 National Maximum Speed Law , the speed limit on the turnpike was reduced to 55 mph ( 90 km / h ) . It was again raised to 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) in 1995 , except for urban areas with a population greater than 50 @,@ 000 ; the latter retained the 55 mph ( 90 km / h ) speed limit . In 2005 , the turnpike commission approved raising the speed limit to 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) for the entire length of the turnpike ( except the tunnels , mainline toll plazas and the winding portion near the Allegheny Mountain Tunnel , which retained the 55 mph ( 90 km / h ) limit ) . In 2014 , the speed limit on a portion of the turnpike was restored at 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) . On July 22 , 2014 , the speed limit increased to 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) between the Blue Mountain and Morgantown interchanges . On March 15 , 2016 , the Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission approved raising the speed limit on the remainder of the turnpike to 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) , excluding sections that are posted with a 55 mph ( 90 km / h ) speed limit . On May 3 , 2016 , the speed limit increased to 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) on the 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) sections of the toll road . The speed limit remains 55 mph ( 90 km / h ) at construction zones , the tunnels , mainline toll plazas , the winding portion near the Allegheny Mountain Tunnel , and the section between Bensalem and the Delaware River Bridge .
= = Tolls = =
The Pennsylvania Turnpike uses the ticket system of tolling between the Warrendale and Neshaminy Falls toll plazas , as well as on the Northeast Extension to Wyoming Valley . When entering the turnpike , motorists receive a ticket listing the toll for each exit ; the ticket is surrendered when exiting , and the applicable toll is paid . If the ticket is lost , motorists are charged the maximum toll for that exit . An eastbound mainline toll plaza is located at Gateway near the Ohio border , charging a flat toll using cash or E @-@ ZPass , and an all @-@ electronic westbound mainline toll plaza is located at the Delaware River Bridge near the New Jersey border , charging a flat toll using toll @-@ by @-@ plate ( which uses license plate recognition to take a photo of the vehicle 's license plate and mail a bill to the vehicle owner ) or E @-@ ZPass at highway speeds . There is no toll between Gateway and Warrendale and between Neshaminy Falls and the Delaware River Bridge . E @-@ ZPass is accepted at all toll plazas . The PA 29 interchange and the westbound Virginia Drive and eastbound Street Road interchanges only accept E @-@ ZPass .
As of 2016 it costs a passenger vehicle $ 42 @.@ 30 to travel the length of the mainline turnpike between Warrendale and Neshaminy Falls using cash , and $ 30 @.@ 32 using E @-@ ZPass ; the eastbound Gateway toll plaza costs $ 6 @.@ 60 cash and $ 4 @.@ 61 with E @-@ ZPass for passenger vehicles while the westbound Delaware River Bridge toll plaza costs $ 6 @.@ 75 using toll @-@ by @-@ plate and $ 5 @.@ 00 using E @-@ ZPass . The average toll rate for the turnpike is $ 0 @.@ 13 per mile ( $ 0 @.@ 081 / km ) using cash and $ 0 @.@ 09 per mile ( $ 0 @.@ 056 / km ) using E @-@ ZPass . Since 2009 , the turnpike has raised tolls once a year , starting on January 1 , to provide funding for increasing annual payments to PennDOT , as mandated by Act 44 . As part of Act 89 signed in 2013 , the annual payments to PennDOT will end after 2022 ( 35 years earlier than the original proposal under Act 44 ) , but it is not known if the annual toll increases will continue after 2022 . With the annual rise in tolls , traffic has been shifting from the turnpike to local roads .
The turnpike commission announced plans to consider eliminating manned toll booths in favor of all @-@ electronic tolls . With this system , tolls will be paid with E @-@ ZPass or credit cards . Drivers unable to pay by either method will be billed by mail ( using license plate recognition ) , and a surcharge will be imposed . In addition to E @-@ ZPass , the turnpike commission offered other automated options to pay for tolls such as using a prepaid account that utilizes license plate recognition . McCormick Taylor and Wilbur Smith Associates have been hired to conduct a feasibility study on converting the road to all @-@ electronic tolls . On March 6 , 2012 , the turnpike commission announced that it was implementing an all @-@ electronic tolling plan . The turnpike commission will save $ 65 million annually on labor costs by eliminating toll collectors . Plans call for a 76 @-@ percent surcharge on motorists without E @-@ ZPass who are billed by mail ; this surcharge could raise the toll for a motorist without E @-@ ZPass to well over $ 50 to travel the entire turnpike . On January 3 , 2016 , all @-@ electronic tolling was introduced in the westbound direction at the Delaware River Bridge mainline toll plaza , while the eastern terminus of the ticket system was moved from the Delaware River Bridge to Neshaminy Falls .
= = Services = =
= = = Emergency assistance and information = = =
The turnpike has a callbox every mile for its entire length . Callboxes were first installed between New Stanton and New Baltimore in December 1988 , and in 1989 callboxes were extended along the length of the highway . Motorists may also dial * 11 on mobile phones . First @-@ responder service is available to all turnpike users via the State Farm Safety Patrol program . The free program checks for disabled motorists , debris and accidents along the road and provides assistance 24 hours daily year @-@ round . Each patrol vehicle covers a 20 @-@ to @-@ 25 @-@ mile ( 32 to 40 km ) stretch of the turnpike . Towing service is available from authorized service stations near the highway , and Pennsylvania State Police Troop T patrols the turnpike . The troop 's headquarters is in Highspire ; its turnpike substations are grouped into three sections : the western section has substations in Gibsonia , Somerset , and New Stanton ; the central section 's substations are in Bowmansville , Everett and Newville , and the eastern section 's substation is in King of Prussia .
The Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission broadcasts road , traffic , and weather conditions over highway advisory radio transmitters at each exit on 1640 kHz AM , with a range of approximately two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) . Motorists can also receive alerts and information via the internet , mobile phone , a hotline and message boards at service plazas through the Turnpike Roadway Information Program ( TRIP ) .
= = = Service plazas = = =
The Pennsylvania Turnpike has 15 service plazas on the main highway throughout the state , as well as 2 on the northeastern extension . Each plaza has a gift shop , food franchises ( such as Burger King , Subway , Sbarro , Roy Rogers , Famous Famiglia Pizzeria , Auntie Anne 's , Hershey 's Ice Cream , Popeye 's , and Starbucks ) , a Sunoco gas station and an A @-@ Plus convenience store . Other amenities include ATMs , pay phones , picnic areas , restrooms , tourist information and Wi @-@ Fi . The King of Prussia plaza has a welcome center , and the New Stanton and Sideling Hill plazas feature seasonal farmers ' markets . A few plazas offer E85 while New Stanton offers compressed natural gas ; all of them offer conventional gasoline and diesel fuel . The Sunoco and A @-@ Plus locations as well as the Subway at North Midway are operated by Energy Transfer Partners ( who bought Pennsylvania @-@ based Sunoco in 2012 ) while the remaining restaurants and general upkeep of the service plazas are operated by HMSHost .
Throughout the Turnpike 's history , various plazas have been added or eliminated . Two of the original plazas ( at Laurel Hill and New Baltimore ) were closed in the 1950s while the bypassing of what is now the Abandoned Turnpike led to the closure of the Cove Valley Plaza and opening of the Sideling Hill plaza , which serves both westbound and eastbound traffic . In 1980 , the plazas at Denver , Pleasant Valley and Mechanicsburg were sold to outside bidders and in 1983 the Path Valley plaza closed due to declining business , as it was only 15 miles ( 24 km ) east of the dual @-@ access Sideling Hill plaza . Throughout the decade , the former Howard Johnson restaurants were converted to a variety of fast food outlets and sit @-@ down restaurants at some locations . In 1990 the Brandywine ( now Peter J. Camiel ) plaza was demolished and reconstructed , and in 2002 the Butler plaza closed to make room for the Warrendale Toll Plaza .
Starting in 2006 , the Turnpike Commission and HMSHost worked to rebuild the service plazas starting with Oakmont , which closed in 2006 and reopened in 2007 . This was followed by the reconstruction of the North Somerset and Sideling Hill plazas from 2007 @-@ 2008 , New Stanton from 2008 @-@ 2009 , King of Prussia from 2009 @-@ 2010 , Lawn and Bowmansville from 2010 @-@ 2011 , South Somerset , Blue Mountain and Plainfield from 2011 @-@ 2012 , South Midway and Highspire from 2012 @-@ 2013 , Peter J. Camiel from 2013 @-@ 2014 , and Valley Forge and North Midway from 2014 @-@ 2015 . During this process , four plazas were eliminated altogether : the Hempfield and South Neshaminy plazas were demolished in 2007 for additional lanes and a new slip ramp , respectively , the Zelienople plaza closed in 2008 due to a lack of business since is located on the free stretch of the turnpike from Ohio to Warrendale , and the North Neshaminy plaza shut down in 2010 for an upcoming construction project .
= = History = =
The Pennsylvania Turnpike was planned in the 1930s to improve transportation across the Appalachian Mountains of central Pennsylvania . It used seven tunnels bored for the abandoned South Pennsylvania Railroad project during the 1880s . The highway opened on October 1 , 1940 between Irwin and Carlisle as the first long @-@ distance controlled @-@ access highway in the United States . Following its completion , other toll roads and the Interstate Highway System were built . The highway was extended east to Valley Forge in 1950 , and west to the Ohio border in 1951 . It was completed at the New Jersey border ( the Delaware River ) in 1954 ; the Delaware River Bridge opened two years later . During the 1960s , the entire highway was expanded to four lanes by adding a second tube at four of the tunnels and bypassing the other three . Other improvements have been made , including the addition of interchanges , the widening of portions of the highway to six lanes and the reconstruction of the original section . An interchange is planned at I @-@ 95 to meet a need on that route .
= = = Planning = = =
Before the turnpike , there were other forms of transportation across the Appalachians . Native Americans traveled across the mountains along wilderness trails ; later , European settlers followed wagon roads to cross the state . The Philadelphia and Lancaster Turnpike opened between Lancaster and Philadelphia in 1794 , the first successful turnpike in the United States . The road was paved with logs , an improvement on the dirt Native American trails . In 1834 , the Main Line of Public Works opened as a system of canals , railroads and cable railways across Pennsylvania to compete with the Erie Canal in New York .
The Pennsylvania Railroad was completed between Pittsburgh and Philadelphia in 1854 . During the 1880s , the South Pennsylvania Railroad was proposed to compete with the Pennsylvania . It received the backing of William Henry Vanderbilt , head of the New York Central Railroad ( the Pennsylvania 's chief rival ) . Andrew Carnegie also provided financial support , since he was unhappy with rates charged by the Pennsylvania Railroad . Construction began on the rival line in 1883 , but stopped when the railroads reached an agreement in 1885 . After construction halted , the only vestiges of the South Pennsylvania were nine tunnels , some roadbed and piers for a bridge over the Susquehanna River in Harrisburg .
During the early 20th century , the automobile gradually became the primary form of transportation . Motorists crossing the Pennsylvania mountains during the 1930s were limited to hilly , winding roads such as the Lincoln Highway ( US 30 ) or the William Penn Highway ( US 22 ) , which had grades exceeding nine percent . Due to their sharp curves and steep grades , the roads were dangerous and caused many fatal accidents from skids .
As a result of the challenge of crossing the Pennsylvania mountains by automobile , William Sutherland of the Pennsylvania Motor Truck Association and Victor Lecoq of the Pennsylvania State Planning Commission proposed a toll highway in 1934 . This highway would be a four @-@ lane limited @-@ access road modeled after the German autobahns and Connecticut 's Merritt Parkway . The turnpike could also serve as a defense road , using the abandoned tunnels of the South Pennsylvania Railroad project .
In 1935 Sutherland and Lecoq introduced their turnpike idea to state legislator Cliff Patterson , who proposed a feasibility study on April 23 , 1935 . The proposal passed , and the Works Progress Administration ( WPA ) explored the possibility of building the road . Its study estimated a cost of between $ 60 and $ 70 million ( between $ 1 @.@ 04 billion and $ 1 @.@ 21 billion in 2016 dollars ) to build the turnpike . Patterson introduced Bill 211 to the legislature , calling for the establishment of the Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission . The bill was signed into law by Governor George Howard Earle III on May 21 , 1937 and on June 4 , the first commissioners were appointed . The highway was planned to run from US 30 in Irwin ( east of Pittsburgh ) east to US 11 in Middlesex ( west of Harrisburg ) , a length of about 162 miles ( 261 km ) . It would pass through nine tunnels along the way .
The road would have four lanes , with a median and no grade steeper than three percent . Access to the highway would be controlled by entrance and exit ramps . There would be no at @-@ grade intersections , driveways , traffic lights , crosswalks or at @-@ grade railroad crossings . Curves would be wide , and road signage large . The right @-@ of @-@ way for the turnpike would be 200 feet ( 61 m ) ; the road would be 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) wide , with 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) shoulders and a 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) median . Through the tunnels the road would have two lanes , a 14 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) clearance and a 23 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 7 @.@ 0 m ) roadway . The turnpike 's design would be uniform for its entire length .
In February 1938 , the commission began investigating proposals for $ 55 million in bonds to be issued for construction of the turnpike . A month later , Van Ingen and Company purchased $ 60 million ( about $ 1 @.@ 01 billion in 2016 dollars ) in bonds they would offer to the public . President Franklin D. Roosevelt approved a $ 24 million ( about $ 403 million in 2016 dollars ) grant from the WPA in April 1938 for construction of the road ; the commonwealth also contributed $ 29 million towards the project . The WPA grant received final approval , but plans were still made to sell bonds ; the first issue was planned for about $ 20 million ( about $ 336 million in 2016 dollars ) . The reduced bond issue was due to the grant from the WPA .
In June , the Reconstruction Finance Corporation ( RFC ) announced they would lend the commission sufficient funds to build the road . The RFC loan totaled $ 32 million ( about $ 538 million in 2016 dollars ) , with a $ 26 million ( about $ 437 million in 2016 dollars ) grant from the Public Works Administration ( PWA ) , providing $ 58 million for the turnpike 's construction ; highway tolls would repay the RFC . In October 1938 the turnpike commission agreed with the RFC and PWA that the RFC would purchase $ 35 million in bonds , in addition to the PWA grant . That month , a banking syndicate purchased the entire bond amount from the RFC . The previous month , a proposed railroad from Pittsburgh to Harrisburg ( on the former South Pennsylvania Railroad right @-@ of @-@ way designated for the turnpike ) was turned down .
= = = Design = = =
In building the turnpike , boring the former railroad tunnels was completed . Since the Allegheny Mountain Tunnel bore was in poor condition , a new bore was drilled 85 feet ( 26 m ) to the south . The commission considered bypassing the Rays Hill and Sideling Hill Tunnels , but the cost of a bypass was considered too high . Crews used steam shovels to widen the tunnels ' portals , and temporary railroad tracks transported construction equipment in and out . Concrete was used in lining the tunnel portals . The tunnels include ventilation ducts , drainage structures , sidewalks , lighting , telephone and signal systems . Lighting was installed along the roadway approaching the tunnel portals .
A total of 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) of tunnel was bored through the seven mountains . The tunnels were Laurel Hill Tunnel , Allegheny Mountain Tunnel , Rays Hill Tunnel , Sideling Hill Tunnel , Tuscarora Mountain Tunnel , Kittatinny Mountain Tunnel and Blue Mountain Tunnel , and the road became known as the " tunnel highway " .
Many bridge designs were used for roads over the highway , including the concrete arch bridge , the through plate girder bridge and the concrete T @-@ beam bridge . Bridges used to carry the turnpike over other roads and streams included a concrete arch viaduct in New Stanton . At 600 feet ( 180 m ) , the New Stanton viaduct was the longest bridge along the original section of the turnpike . Other turnpike bridges included plate girder bridges like the bridge over Dunnings Creek in the Bedford Narrows . Smaller concrete T @-@ beam bridges were also built ; a total of 307 bridges were constructed along the original section of the turnpike .
Eleven interchanges were built along the turnpike , most of which were trumpet interchanges where all ramps merge at the toll booths ; only the New Stanton , Carlisle and Middlesex interchanges did not follow this design . Lighting was installed approaching interchanges , along with acceleration and deceleration lanes . The road also featured guardrails , consisting of steel panels attached to I @-@ beams . Large exit signs were used , and road signs had cat 's @-@ eye reflectors to increase visibility at night ; billboards were prohibited . In September 1940 , the Pennsylvania Public Utility Commission ruled that trucks and buses would be allowed to use the highway .
Since the first section of the highway was built through a rural part of the state , food or gasoline was not easily available to motorists . Because of this , the commission decided to provide service plazas at 30 @-@ mile ( 48 km ) intervals . The plazas would be constructed of native fieldstone , resembling Colonial @-@ era architecture . In 1940 , Standard Oil of Pennsylvania was awarded a contract for ten Esso service stations along the turnpike . Eight of the service plazas would consist of service stations and a restaurant , while the plazas at the halfway point ( in Bedford ) would be larger . The South Midway service plaza ( the largest ) contained a dining room , lunch counter , lounge and lodging for truckers ; a tunnel connected it to the smaller North Midway plaza . The remaining service plazas were smaller , with a lunch counter . Food service at the plazas was provided by Howard Johnson 's . After World War II , the food facilities were enlarged ; service stations sold gasoline , repaired cars and provided towing service .
= = = Construction of first section = = =
Before the first @-@ section groundbreaking , in 1937 the turnpike commission sent workers to assess the former railroad tunnels . In September of that year , a contract was awarded to drain water from the tunnels . After this , workers cleared rock slides and vegetation from the tunnel portals before evaluating the nine tunnels ' condition . It was decided that six of the nine former South Pennsylvania Railroad tunnels could be used for the roadway . The Allegheny Mountain Tunnel was in too poor a condition for use , and the Quemahoning and Negro Mountain tunnels would be bypassed with rock cuts through the mountains ; The Quemahoning Tunnel had been completed and used by the Pittsburgh , Westmoreland and Somerset Railroad .
The Pennsylvania Turnpike groundbreaking was held on October 27 , 1938 , near Carlisle ; Commission Chairman Walter A. Jones thrust the first shovel into the earth . Turnpike construction was on a tight schedule , since completion of the road was originally planned by May 1 , 1940 . After the groundbreaking , contracts for finishing the former South Pennsylvania Railroad tunnels , grading the turnpike 's right @-@ of @-@ way , constructing bridges and paving were awarded . By July 1939 , the entire length of the turnpike was under contract .
The first work to begin on the road was grading its right @-@ of @-@ way , which involved a great deal of earthwork because of the mountainous terrain . Building the highway required the acquisition of homes , farms , and a coal mine through eminent domain . A tunnel was originally planned across Clear Ridge near Everett , but the turnpike commission decided to build a cut into the ridge . Building the cut involved bulldozers excavating the mountain and explosives blasting the rock . Concrete culverts were built to carry streams and roads under the highway in the valley floor . The Clear Ridge cut was 153 feet ( 47 m ) deep ( the deepest highway cut at the time ) , and was known as " Little Panama " after the Panama Canal . West of Clear Ridge , cuts
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have been several incidents of train guards being attacked by passengers who refused to pay their fares , including one incident where the guard was dragged from the train and knocked to the ground . Vandals have also damaged the station 's ticket machines , attacked passengers and slashed the tyres of cars parked at the station .
= = Future = =
First Great Western declined a contractual option to continue the Greater Western passenger franchise ( of which services at Worle are a part ) beyond 2013 , citing a desire for a longer @-@ term contract due to the impending upgrade to the Great Western Main Line . The franchise was put out to tender , but the process was halted and later scrapped due to the fallout from the collapse of the InterCity West Coast franchise competition . A two @-@ year franchise extension until September 2015 was agreed in October 2013 , and subsequently extended until March 2019 .
With the impending upgrade , the main line from London to Bristol is due to be electrified . However , the electrification will not extend beyond Bristol to Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare , so Worle will continue to be served by diesel trains . This could entail the removal of direct London services , as electric trains would not be able to operate beyond Bristol . Services could however continue using bi @-@ mode trains . The group Friends of Suburban Bristol Railways supports the electrification continuing to Weston , as does MP for Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare John Penrose . Local services will still be diesel @-@ operated , with " Sprinter " units expected to be replaced by Class 165 and 166 " Turbo " units .
Worle is on the Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare / Yate corridor , one of the main axes of the Greater Bristol Metro , a rail transport plan which aims to enhance capacity in the Bristol area . The plan calls for longer and newer trains to prevent overcrowding .
= Secret Mountain Fort Awesome =
Secret Mountain Fort Awesome is an American animated television series created by Peter Browngardt that debuted in 2011 on Cartoon Network . The show revolves around a fraternity of five monsters who unleash wild stunts upon the public from their eponymous mountain fort . The show is loosely based on the antagonists that appeared in Browngardt 's animated short , Uncle Grandpa , and employs Mike Conte of the heavy metal band Early Man as composer .
The show premiered as a sneak peek on Cartoon Network on August 1 , 2011 , and had a formal premiere September 26 , 2011 . The show has been well received , and designers Robertryan Cory and Chris Tsirgiotis both won awards for " Outstanding Individual in Animation " at the 64th Primetime Emmy Awards ceremony . The Uncle Grandpa short that Browngardt had produced was eventually adapted as a full series of the same name , which he felt was a more lighthearted adaptation for children .
= = Plot = =
A fivesome of monsters known as the Disgustoids are banished from society due to their unruly behavior and ghastly appearances . From their sentient and eponymous mountain fort , they unleash crazy stunts on the public . Their leader , a purple , tusked creature named Festro ( voiced by Peter Browngardt ) , is a macho party animal willing to do anything to help out his group , even when his help is less than desired . Dingle ( also voiced by Browngardt ) , scrawny and blue , acts as their faithful pet , intelligible only to the group . Slog ( Steve Little ) , a black @-@ furred monster , is likewise blindly loyal , but lacks critical judgement skills — the more hazardous something is , the more likely he will be to follow it . Gweelok ( Paul Rugg ) , an acned green ball , has a demanding attitude and an obsession with technology . The Fart ( Pat Duke ) — a monster made of buttocks who flatulates when touched — is the most sensitive and levelheaded of the group .
= = Production = =
At their 2011 upfront , Cartoon Network announced Secret Mountain Fort Awesome , along with various other series . Billed as a comedy , the show was created by Browngardt and based on his animated short Uncle Grandpa , which garnered praise , a cult following and an Emmy Award nomination . Both were produced at Cartoon Network Studios . Before landing his own show , Browngardt had worked at Augenblick Studios and MTV , as well as on individual programs , such as Futurama , The Marvelous Misadventures of Flapjack and Chowder . Browngardt 's work on the lattermost series began when its creator C.H. Greenblatt looked through one of his pitch bibles that he left at the studio .
The show borrows elements and its design style from his Uncle Grandpa short , which was pitched to the network as a pilot . According to Browngardt , they were unsure about having a series centered on the title character , and felt the monster characters from the pilot had more potential . Character designer Robertryan Cory and David P. Smith ( a director and storyboard artist on Dexter 's Laboratory and The Powerpuff Girls ) were brought on board to help shape the project 's development .
In an interview with Cartoon Brew , Browngardt called the process of pitching his pilot an " amazing learning experience " because it allowed him to propose an idea to the network and see " how it can manipulate and change while you 're working on it " . On the show , animation veteran Chris Reccardi served as creative director , whilst Sue Mondt ( who had previously art directed Cartoon Network 's Camp Lazlo ) handled art direction and Robert Alvarez and Larry Leichliter directed the animation . Browngardt depicted the production schedule as " really tight " , which called for them to manage their time and to pick their battles with the network .
In the United States , the show is rated TV @-@ PG . Referring to his encounters with the network regarding content , Browngardt learned to let go and find the " right balance " , as well as to ask himself , " Is my grandma going to notice this ? " For the music , Mike Conte of the heavy metal band Early Man was employed as composer . The score , which incorporates heavy metal elements and " lots of riffage " , was originally added to the animatics as a rough draft . Browngardt found that it harmonized with the imagery and what he envisioned for the design . Conte noted Browngardt 's inspirations from Garbage Pail Kids and Don Martin of Mad magazine , but called the result " definitely its own thing " .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
Secret Mountain premiered on August 1 , 2011 on Cartoon Network as part of a sneak preview ; this broadcast was seen by 1 @.@ 8 million viewers . It premiered formally on September 26 as part of their Monday night programming block , where it was seen by 1 @.@ 3 million viewers , marking a slight decrease from the previous broadcast . The show was moved to Thursdays upon its second season premiere on December 30 , 2011 . Following the premiere of the eighth episode of the season on February 17 , 2012 , the show was pulled from broadcast . The network published the remaining eight episodes through iTunes a month later , from March 8 to March 29 , thus concluding the show .
Many critics were complimentary in regards to the series ' art style . In his website Lineboil , Aaron Simpson compared it to Garbage Pail Kids and the works of Don Martin , two elements of his childhood . Amid Amidi of Cartoon Brew called Robertryan Cory 's character designs " impressive " and " distinctively styled " , though he felt the art style 's complexity made the animation quality suffer as a result . Abby Koenig of Houston Press compared its " ridiculous " nature to the film Little Monsters , and proposed that Howie Mandel ( featured in the latter work ) guest voice a monster on the show . Shannon O 'Leary of Publishers Weekly wrote that the show , along with others on the network such as Adventure Time and Superjail ! , bore resemblance to the aesthetics of established independent comics artists . Meanwhile , Jason Krell of io9 considered it a failure despite its influences from Adventure Time , which made way for many successful original series on the network .
The episode " Nightmare Sauce " received multiple accolades , including at the 2012 Annecy International Animated Film Festival for " Best TV Production " ( of which Browngardt was the recipient ) , and at the 64th Primetime Emmy Awards , where Cory and Chris Tsirgiotis were awarded " Outstanding Individual in Animation " . Cory also won at the 39th Annie Awards for " Character Design in a Television Production " , while Tsirgiotis , Sue Mondt , Daniel Elson and Mark Bodnar were collectively awarded " Production Design in a Television Production " . At the 40th Annie Awards , Thaddeus Paul Couldron was nominated for " Character Design in an Animated Television or Other Broadcast Venue Production " for his work on the episode " Secret Mountain Uncle Grandpa " .
= = Spin @-@ off = =
After Secret Mountain Fort Awesome got axed , the original Uncle Grandpa short that Browngardt produced was adapted as a full series of the same name , developed as part of Cartoon Network 's shorts development initiative . The series revolves around the title character , who is simultaneously the grandfather and uncle of everyone in the world . Browngardt explained that while the new series would retain some aspects of Secret Mountain , it would be a more lighthearted adaption for children . He ultimately expressed that he wanted " more variety in the music and be able to go [ sic ] sort of a happier place , though it does go dark and heavy at times " .
= = Work cited = =
= Phallus impudicus =
Phallus impudicus , known colloquially as the common stinkhorn , is a widespread fungus recognizable for its foul odor and its phallic shape when mature , the latter feature giving rise to several names in 17th @-@ century England . It is a common mushroom in Europe and western North America , where it occurs in habitats rich in wood debris such as forests and mulched gardens . It appears from summer to late autumn . The fruiting structure is tall and white with a slimy , dark olive colored conical head . Known as the gleba , this material contains the spores , and is transported by insects which are attracted by the odor — described as resembling carrion . Despite its foul smell , it is not poisonous and immature mushrooms are consumed in parts of France and Germany .
= = Taxonomy = =
Botanist John Gerard called it the " pricke mushroom " or " fungus virilis penis effigie " in his General Historie of Plants of 1597 , and John Parkinson referred to it as " Hollanders workingtoole " or " phallus hollandicus " in his Theatrum botanicum of 1640 . Linnaeus described it in his 1753 Species Plantarum , and it still bears its original binomial name . Its specific epithet , impudicus , is derived from the Latin for " shameless " or " immodest " .
= = Description = =
Sometimes called the witch 's egg , the immature stinkhorn is whitish or pinkish , egg @-@ shaped , and typically 4 to 6 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 4 in ) by 3 to 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) .
On the outside is a thick whitish volva , also known as the peridium , covering the olive @-@ colored gelatinous gleba . It is the latter that contains the spores and later stinks and attracts the flies ; within this layer is a green layer which will become the ' head ' of the expanded fruit body ; and inside this is a white structure called the receptaculum ( the stalk when expanded ) , that is hard , but has an airy structure like a sponge . The eggs become fully grown stinkhorns very rapidly , over a day or two . The mature stinkhorn is 10 to 30 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 to 11 @.@ 8 in ) tall and 4 to 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) in diameter , topped with a conical cap 2 to 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 to 1 @.@ 6 in ) high that is covered with the greenish @-@ brown slimy gleba . In older fungi the slime is eventually removed , exposing a bare yellowish pitted and ridged ( reticulate ) surface . This has a passing resemblance to the common morel ( Morchella esculenta ) , with which it is sometimes mistaken . The rate of growth of Phallus impudicus has been measured at 10 – 15 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 – 5 @.@ 9 in ) per hour . The growing fruit body is able to exert up to 1 @.@ 33 kPa of pressure — a force sufficient to push up through asphalt . The spores have an elliptical to oblong shape , with dimensions of 3 – 5 to 1 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 5 µm .
In North America , Phallus impudicus can be distinguished from the very similar P. hadriani by the latter 's purplish @-@ tinted volva .
= = Spore dispersal = =
The dispersal of spores is different from most " typical " mushrooms that spread their spores through the air . Stinkhorns instead produce a sticky spore mass on their tip which has a sharp , sickly @-@ sweet odor of carrion to attract flies and other insects . Odorous chemicals in the gleba include methanethiol , hydrogen sulfide , linalool , trans @-@ ocimene , phenylacetaldehyde , dimethyl sulfide , and dimethyl trisulfide . The latter compound has been found to be emitted from fungating cancerous wounds . The mature fruiting bodies can be smelled from a considerable distance in the woods , and at close quarters most people find the cloying stink extremely repulsive . The flies land in the gleba and in doing so collect the spore mass on their legs and carry it to other locations . An Austrian study demonstrated that blow @-@ flies ( species Calliphora vicina , Lucilia caesar , Lucilia ampullacea and Dryomyza anilis ) also feed on the slime , and soon after leaving the fruit body , they deposit liquid feces that contain a dense suspension of spores . The study also showed that beetles ( Oecoptoma thoracica and Meligethes viridescena ) are attracted to the fungus , but seem to have less of a role in spore dispersal as they tend to feed on the hyphal tissue of the fruiting body .
There is also a possible ecological association between the P. impudicus and badger ( Meles meles ) setts . Fruiting bodies are commonly clustered in a zone 24 to 39 metres ( 79 to 128 ft ) from the entrances ; the setts typically harbor a regularly @-@ available supply of badger cadavers – the mortality rate of cubs is high , and death is more likely to occur within the sett . The fruiting of large numbers of stinkhorns attracts a high population of blowflies ( Calliphora and Lucilla breed on carrion ) ; this ensures the rapid elimination of badger carcasses , removing a potential source of disease to the badger colony . The laxative effect of the gleba reduces the distance from the fruiting body to where the spores are deposited , ensuring the continued production of high densities of stinkhorns .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The common stinkhorn can be found throughout much of Europe and North America , and it has also been collected in Asia ( including China , Taiwan , and India ) , Costa Rica , Iceland , Tanzania , and southeast Australia . In North America , it is most common west of the Mississippi River ; Ravenel 's stinkhorn ( Phallus ravenelii ) is more common to the east . The fungus is associated with rotting wood , and as such it is most commonly encountered in deciduous woods where it fruits from summer to late autumn , though it may also be found in conifer woods or even grassy areas such as parks and gardens . It may also form mycorrhizal associations with certain trees .
= = Uses = =
= = = Edibility = = =
At the egg stage , pieces of the inner layer ( the receptaculum ) can be cut out with a knife and eaten raw . They are crisp and crunchy with an attractive radishy taste . The fungus is enjoyed and eaten in France and parts of Germany , where it may be sold fresh or pickled and used in sausages . Similar species are consumed in China .
= = = Medicinal properties = = =
Venous thrombosis , the formation of a blood clot in a vein , is a common cause of death in breast cancer patients ; patients with recurrent disease are typically maintained on anticoagulants for their lifetimes . A research study has suggested that extracts from P. impudicus can reduce the risk of this condition by reducing the incidence of platelet aggregation , and may have potential as a supportive preventative nutrition . It was used in medieval times as a cure for gout and as a love potion .
= = = Folk uses = = =
In Northern Montenegro , peasants rub Phallus impudicus on the necks of bulls before bull fighting contests in an attempt to make them stronger . They are also fed to young bulls as they are thought to be a potent aphrodisiac .
= = In culture = =
Writing about life in Victorian Cambridge , Gwen Raverat ( granddaughter of Charles Darwin ) describes the ' sport ' of Stinkhorn hunting :
In our native woods there grows a kind of toadstool , called in the vernacular The Stinkhorn , though in Latin it bears a grosser name . The name is justified , for the fungus can be hunted by the scent alone ; and this was Aunt Etty 's great invention . Armed with a basket and a pointed stick , and wearing special hunting cloak and gloves , she would sniff her way round the wood , pausing here and there , her nostrils twitching , when she caught a whiff of her prey ; then at last , with a deadly pounce , she would fall upon her victim , and poke his putrid carcass into her basket . At the end of the day 's sport , the catch was brought back and burnt in the deepest secrecy on the drawing @-@ room fire , with the door locked ; because of the morals of the maids .
In Thomas Mann 's novel The Magic Mountain ( Der Zauberberg ) , the psychologist Dr. Krokowski gives a lecture on the phallus impudicus :
And Dr. Krokowski had spoken about one fungus , famous since classical antiquity for its form and the powers ascribed to it -- a morel , its Latin name ending in the adjective impudicus , its form reminiscent of love , and its odor , of death . For the stench given off by the impudicus was strikingly like that of a decaying corpse , the odor coming from greenish , viscous slime that carried its spores and dripped from the bell @-@ shaped cap . And even today , among the uneducated , this morel was thought to be an aphrodisiac .
= Maryland Route 23 =
Maryland Route 23 ( MD 23 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . The state highway runs 20 @.@ 58 miles ( 33 @.@ 12 km ) from U.S. Route 1 ( US 1 ) in Hickory north and west to the Pennsylvania state line near Norrisville , where the highway continues as Pennsylvania Route 24 ( PA 24 ) . MD 23 is an L @-@ shaped highway in northwestern Harford County that consists of two major sections . Between US 1 and MD 165 in Jarrettsville , MD 23 is marked east – west along a two @-@ lane controlled access road named East – West Highway . From MD 165 to the state line , the state highway is marked north – south along Norrisville Road , a rural two @-@ lane highway that passes through the villages of Madonna and Shawsville . The two sections of MD 23 are connected by a short concurrency with MD 165 .
MD 23 from Hickory to Jarrettsville was one of the original state highways marked for improvement by the Maryland State Roads Commission in 1909 and one of the original state @-@ numbered highways in 1927 . The state road was constructed from Hickory to Jarrettsville and from Norrisville to the state line in the early to mid @-@ 1910s . The gaps between Jarrettsville and Shawsville and from Shawsville to Norrisville were filled in the early 1920s . East – West Highway was constructed in the early 1960s to replace the parallel Jarrettsville Road . MD 23 's eastern terminus was moved to US 1 's new bypass of Hickory in 2000 .
= = Route description = =
MD 23 begins at an intersection with US 1 ( Hickory Bypass ) in Hickory . The state highway heads west as two @-@ lane East – West Highway . MD 23 passes through a commercial area where the highway intersects US 1 Business ( Conowingo Road ) and Water Tower Way before the road passes through a narrow forested corridor . The state highway intersects Commerce Road at a roundabout ; Commerce Road heads north into an industrial park surrounding Forest Hill Airport . After crossing over Bynum Run and the Ma and Pa Trail , a rail trail along the abandoned right @-@ of @-@ way of the Maryland and Pennsylvania Railroad , MD 23 intersects MD 24 ( Rocks Road / Rock Spring Road ) just south of Forest Hill . MD 23 continues west through a mix of farmland and forest , passing south of the hamlet of Fairview and crossing over Phillips Mill Road and Morse Road before East – West Highway reaches its western terminus at MD 165 ( Baldwin Mill Road ) south of Jarrettsville .
MD 23 turns north and joins MD 165 in a concurrency to the center of Jarrettsville . MD 165 continues north as Federal Hill Road and MD 23 turns west onto Norrisville Road ; the east leg of the intersection is Jarrettsville Road . MD 23 heads west through farmland and intersects MD 146 ( Jarrettsville Pike ) and Madonna Road in the village of Madonna . The state highway gradually curves to the north through Shawsville , where MD 23 intersects two highways that head west into Baltimore County , MD 138 ( Troyer Road ) and MD 439 ( Old York Road ) . The state highway makes a sharp , curvaceous descent to a crossing of Deer Creek , next to which is the historic Ivory Mills complex . MD 23 ascends out of the forested creek valley into Norrisville and meets the north end of MD 136 ( Harkins Road ) . The state highway continues north to just south of the Pennsylvania state line . MD 23 turns west and closely parallels the state line for about 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) before the highway veers northwest to cross the border . The highway continues north as PA 24 ( Barrens Road ) toward Stewartstown .
MD 23 is a part of the National Highway System as a principal arterial from US 1 in Hickory west to High Point Road west of Forest Hill .
= = History = =
The first section of MD 23 to be paved was the part of the Old York Turnpike from MD 138 to MD 439 , which was improved as a 12 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) macadam state @-@ aid road by 1910 . The portion of MD 23 from Hickory to Jarrettsville was designated one of the original state roads by the Maryland State Roads Commission in 1909 . The state road was constructed with a 14 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) macadam surface from Hickory to Grafton Shop Road in 1910 , from Morse Road to Jarrettsville in 1914 , and between Grafton Shop Road and Morse Road in 1915 . Another section of 12 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) macadam road was constructed under state aid from south of Norrisville to the Pennsylvania state line by 1915 . The highway from Jarrettsville to MD 138 was under construction as a concrete road by 1919 and completed in 1921 . The final portion of MD 23 , also paved in concrete , was completed from MD 439 to south of Norrisville in 1923 . MD 23 was one of the original state @-@ numbered highways designated by the roads commission in 1927 . The state highway was widened to a width of 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) from Hickory to Jarrettsville by 1930 .
Jarrettsville Road was replaced by East – West Highway , which was under construction by 1961 and completed in 1963 . The MD 23 designation was moved to the new highway and Jarrettsville Road was immediately transferred to county maintenance . At its eastern end , East – West Highway was constructed to tie into the Bel Air Bypass that was completed in 1965 and was proposed to continue to east of Hickory . Close to its eastern end , MD 23 curved south to an intersection with Granary Road . MD 23 turned east onto Granary Road for its eastern terminus at US 1 ( now US 1 Business ) . East – West Highway continued south as MD 23A ; at Bynum Road , MD 23A became a one @-@ lane ramp that joined the Bel Air Bypass . In 2000 , the Hickory Bypass was completed ; US 1 was moved to the new bypass and US 1 Business was extended along US 1 's old route through Hickory . As part of the same project , MD 23 was extended east to an new terminus at the Hickory Bypass . East – West Highway 's curve to the south was replaced with a perpendicular intersection with MD 23A , which was renamed Water Tower Way , extended north to new MD 23 , and gained a ramp from northbound US 1 at its southern end . The portion of Granary Road that formed MD 23 's terminus was designated MD 23B . Both MD 23A and MD 23B were transferred to Harford County maintenance in 2002 . MD 23 's roundabout at Commerce Road in Forest Hill was constructed in 2008 .
= = Junction list = =
MD 23 is signed east – west east of MD 165 and north – south west of MD 165 . The entire route is in Harford County .
= = Auxiliary routes = =
MD 23 previously had two auxiliary routes .
MD 23A was the designation for the portion of East – West Highway between Granary Road and the ramp to southbound US 1 ( Bel Air Bypass ) . The 0 @.@ 38 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 61 km ) state highway was constructed in 1963 as a connection between MD 23 and southbound US 1 . In 2000 , MD 23A was extended north to the new MD 23 and a ramp from northbound US 1 to MD 23A was added . The highway had a new length of 0 @.@ 53 miles ( 0 @.@ 85 km ) and was renamed Water Tower Way . MD 23A was removed from the state highway system in 2002 .
MD 23B was the designation for the 0 @.@ 16 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 26 km ) section of Granary Road between US 1 Business and MD 23A ( Water Tower Way ) that was part of MD 23 from the construction of East – West Highway in 1963 until 2000 . MD 23B was assigned in 2000 and removed from the state system in 2002 .
= Alfred North Whitehead =
Alfred North Whitehead OM FRS ( 15 February 1861 – 30 December 1947 ) was an English mathematician and philosopher . He is best known as the defining figure of the philosophical school known as process philosophy , which today has found application to a wide variety of disciplines , including ecology , theology , education , physics , biology , economics , and psychology , among other areas .
In his early career Whitehead wrote primarily on mathematics , logic , and physics . His most notable work in these fields is the three @-@ volume Principia Mathematica ( 1910 – 13 ) , which he wrote with former student Bertrand Russell . Principia Mathematica is considered one of the twentieth century 's most important works in mathematical logic , and placed 23rd in a list of the top 100 English @-@ language nonfiction books of the twentieth century by Modern Library .
Beginning in the late 1910s and early 1920s , Whitehead gradually turned his attention from mathematics to philosophy of science , and finally to metaphysics . He developed a comprehensive metaphysical system which radically departed from most of western philosophy . Whitehead argued that reality consists of processes rather than material objects , and that processes are best defined by their relations with other processes , thus rejecting the theory that reality is fundamentally constructed by bits of matter that exist independently of one another . Today Whitehead 's philosophical works – particularly Process and Reality – are regarded as the foundational texts of process philosophy .
Whitehead 's process philosophy argues that " there is urgency in coming to see the world as a web of interrelated processes of which we are integral parts , so that all of our choices and actions have consequences for the world around us . " For this reason , one of the most promising applications of Whitehead 's thought in recent years has been in the area of ecological civilization and environmental ethics pioneered by John B. Cobb , Jr .
= = Life = =
Alfred North Whitehead was born in Ramsgate , Kent , England , in 1861 . His father , Alfred Whitehead , was a minister and schoolmaster of Chatham House Academy , a successful school for boys established by Thomas Whitehead , Alfred North 's grandfather . Whitehead himself recalled both of them as being very successful schoolmasters , but that his grandfather was the more extraordinary man . Whitehead 's mother was Maria Sarah Whitehead , formerly Maria Sarah Buckmaster . Whitehead was apparently not particularly close with his mother , as he never mentioned her in any of his writings , and there is evidence that Whitehead 's wife , Evelyn , had a low opinion of her .
Whitehead was educated at Sherborne School , Dorset , then considered one of the best public schools in the country . His childhood was described as over @-@ protected , but when at school he excelled in sports and mathematics and was head prefect of his class .
In 1880 , Whitehead began attending Trinity College , Cambridge , and studied mathematics . His academic advisor was Edward John Routh . He earned his BA from Trinity in 1884 , and graduated as fourth wrangler . Elected a fellow of Trinity in 1884 , Whitehead would teach and write on mathematics and physics at the college until 1910 , spending the 1890s writing his Treatise on Universal Algebra ( 1898 ) , and the 1900s collaborating with his former pupil , Bertrand Russell , on the first edition of Principia Mathematica . He was a Cambridge Apostle .
In 1890 , Whitehead married Evelyn Wade , an Irish woman raised in France ; they had a daughter , Jessie Whitehead , and two sons , Thomas North Whitehead and Eric Whitehead . Eric Whitehead died in action while serving in the Royal Flying Corps during World War I at the age of 19 .
In 1910 , Whitehead resigned his Senior Lectureship in Mathematics at Trinity and moved to London without first lining up another job . After being unemployed for a year , Whitehead accepted a position as Lecturer in Applied Mathematics and Mechanics at University College London , but was passed over a year later for the Goldsmid Chair of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics , a position for which he had hoped to be seriously considered .
In 1914 Whitehead accepted a position as Professor of Applied Mathematics at the newly chartered Imperial College London , where his old friend Andrew Forsyth had recently been appointed Chief Professor of Mathematics .
In 1918 Whitehead 's academic responsibilities began to seriously expand as he accepted a number of high administrative positions within the University of London system , of which Imperial College London was a member at the time . He was elected Dean of the Faculty of Science at the University of London in late 1918 ( a post he held for four years ) , a member of the University of London 's Senate in 1919 , and chairman of the Senate 's Academic ( leadership ) Council in 1920 , a post which he held until he departed for America in 1924 . Whitehead was able to exert his newfound influence to successfully lobby for a new history of science department , help establish a Bachelor of Science degree ( previously only Bachelor of Arts degrees had been offered ) , and make the school more accessible to less wealthy students .
Toward the end of his time in England , Whitehead turned his attention to philosophy . Though he had no advanced training in philosophy , his philosophical work soon became highly regarded . After publishing The Concept of Nature in 1920 , he served as president of the Aristotelian Society from 1922 to 1923 . In 1924 , Henry Osborn Taylor invited the 63 @-@ year @-@ old Whitehead to join the faculty at Harvard University as a professor of philosophy .
During his time at Harvard , Whitehead produced his most important philosophical contributions . In 1925 , he wrote Science and the Modern World , which was immediately hailed as an alternative to the Cartesian dualism that plagued popular science . A few years later , he published his seminal work Process and Reality , which has been compared ( both in importance and difficulty ) to Kant 's Critique of Pure Reason .
The Whiteheads spent the rest of their lives in the United States . Alfred North retired from Harvard in 1937 and remained in Cambridge , Massachusetts until his death on 30 December 1947 .
The two volume biography of Whitehead by Victor Lowe is the most definitive presentation of the life of Whitehead . However , many details of Whitehead 's life remain obscure because he left no Nachlass ; his family carried out his instructions that all of his papers be destroyed after his death . Additionally , Whitehead was known for his " almost fanatical belief in the right to privacy " , and for writing very few personal letters of the kind that would help to gain insight on his life . This led to Lowe himself remarking on the first page of Whitehead 's biography , " No professional biographer in his right mind would touch him . "
Currently , there is also no critical edition of Whitehead 's writings , though the Whitehead Research Project of the Center for Process Studies is currently working on one such edition .
= = Mathematics and logic = =
In addition to numerous articles on mathematics , Whitehead wrote three major books on the subject : A Treatise on Universal Algebra ( 1898 ) , Principia Mathematica ( co @-@ written with Bertrand Russell and published in three volumes between 1910 and 1913 ) , and An Introduction to Mathematics ( 1911 ) . The former two books were aimed exclusively at professional mathematicians , while the latter book was intended for a larger audience , covering the history of mathematics and its philosophical foundations . Principia Mathematica in particular is regarded as one of the most important works in mathematical logic of the 20th century .
In addition to his legacy as a co @-@ writer of Principia Mathematica , Whitehead 's theory of " extensive abstraction " is considered foundational for the branch of ontology and computer science known as " mereotopology " , a theory describing spatial relations among wholes , parts , parts of parts , and the boundaries between parts .
= = = A Treatise on Universal Algebra = = =
In A Treatise on Universal Algebra ( 1898 ) the term " universal algebra " had essentially the same meaning that it has today : the study of algebraic structures themselves , rather than examples ( " models " ) of algebraic structures . Whitehead credits William Rowan Hamilton and Augustus De Morgan as originators of the subject matter , and James Joseph Sylvester with coining the term itself .
At the time structures such as Lie algebras and hyperbolic quaternions drew attention to the need to expand algebraic structures beyond the associatively multiplicative class . In a review Alexander Macfarlane wrote : " The main idea of the work is not unification of the several methods , nor generalization of ordinary algebra so as to include them , but rather the comparative study of their several structures . " In a separate review , G. B. Mathews wrote , " It possesses a unity of design which is really remarkable , considering the variety of its themes . "
A Treatise on Universal Algebra sought to examine Hermann Grassmann 's theory of extension ( " Ausdehnungslehre " ) , Boole 's algebra of logic , and Hamilton 's quaternions ( this last number system was to be taken up in Volume II , which was never finished due to Whitehead 's work on Principia Mathematica ) . Whitehead wrote in the preface :
" Such algebras have an intrinsic value for separate detailed study ; also they are worthy of comparative study , for the sake of the light thereby thrown on the general theory of symbolic reasoning , and on algebraic symbolism in particular ... The idea of a generalized conception of space has been made prominent , in the belief that the properties and operations involved in it can be made to form a uniform method of interpretation of the various algebras . "
Whitehead , however , had no results of a general nature . His hope of " form [ ing ] a uniform method of interpretation of the various algebras " presumably would have been developed in Volume II , had Whitehead completed it . Further work on the subject was minimal until the early 1930s , when Garrett Birkhoff and Øystein Ore began publishing on universal algebras .
= = = Principia Mathematica = = =
Principia Mathematica ( 1910 – 1913 ) is Whitehead 's most famous mathematical work . Co @-@ written with former student Bertrand Russell , Principia Mathematica is considered one of the twentieth century 's most important works in mathematics , and placed 23rd in a list of the top 100 English @-@ language nonfiction books of the twentieth century by Modern Library .
Principia Mathematica 's purpose was to describe a set of axioms and inference rules in symbolic logic from which all mathematical truths could in principle be proven . Whitehead and Russell were working on such a foundational level of mathematics and logic that it took them until page 86 of Volume II to prove that 1 + 1 = 2 , a proof humorously accompanied by the comment , " The above proposition is occasionally useful . "
Whitehead and Russell had thought originally that Principia Mathematica would take a year to complete ; it ended up taking them ten years . To add insult to injury , when it came time for publication , the three @-@ volume work was so long ( more than 2 @,@ 000 pages ) and its audience so narrow ( professional mathematicians ) that it was initially published at a loss of 600 pounds , 300 of which was paid by Cambridge University Press , 200 by the Royal Society of London , and 50 apiece by Whitehead and Russell themselves . Despite the initial loss , today there is likely no major academic library in the world which does not hold a copy of Principia Mathematica .
The ultimate substantive legacy of Principia Mathematica is mixed . It is generally accepted that Kurt Gödel 's incompleteness theorem of 1931 definitively demonstrated that for any set of axioms and inference rules proposed to encapsulate mathematics , there would in fact be some truths of mathematics which could not be deduced from them , and hence that Principia Mathematica could never achieve its aims . However , Gödel could not have come to this conclusion without Whitehead and Russell 's book . In this way , Principia Mathematica 's legacy might be described as its key role in disproving the possibility of achieving its own stated goals . But beyond this somewhat ironic legacy , the book popularized modern mathematical logic and drew important connections between logic , epistemology , and metaphysics .
= = = An Introduction to Mathematics = = =
Unlike Whitehead 's previous two books on mathematics , An Introduction to Mathematics ( 1911 ) was not aimed exclusively at professional mathematicians , but was intended for a larger audience . The book covered the nature of mathematics , its unity and internal structure , and its applicability to nature . Whitehead wrote in the opening chapter :
" The object of the following Chapters is not to teach mathematics , but to enable students from the very beginning of their course to know what the science is about , and why it is necessarily the foundation of exact thought as applied to natural phenomena . "
The book can be seen as an attempt to understand the growth in unity and interconnection of mathematics as a whole , as well as an examination of the mutual influence of mathematics and philosophy , language , and physics . Although the book is little @-@ read , in some ways it prefigures certain points of Whitehead 's later work in philosophy and metaphysics .
= = Views on education = =
Whitehead showed a deep concern for educational reform at all levels . In addition to his numerous individually written works on the subject , Whitehead was appointed by Britain 's Prime Minister David Lloyd George as part of a 20 @-@ person committee to investigate the educational systems and practices of the UK in 1921 and recommend reform .
Whitehead 's most complete work on education is the 1929 book The Aims of Education and Other Essays , which collected numerous essays and addresses by Whitehead on the subject published between 1912 and 1927 . The essay from which Aims of Education derived its name was delivered as an address in 1916 when Whitehead was president of the London Branch of the Mathematical Association . In it , he cautioned against the teaching of what he called " inert ideas " – ideas that are disconnected scraps of information , with no application to real life or culture . He opined that " education with inert ideas is not only useless : it is , above all things , harmful . "
Rather than teach small parts of a large number of subjects , Whitehead advocated teaching a relatively few important concepts that the student could organically link to many different areas of knowledge , discovering their application in actual life . For Whitehead , education should be the exact opposite of the multidisciplinary , value @-@ free school model – it should be transdisciplinary , and laden with values and general principles that provide students with a bedrock of wisdom and help them to make connections between areas of knowledge that are usually regarded as separate .
In order to make this sort of teaching a reality , however , Whitehead pointed to the need to minimize the importance of ( or radically alter ) standard examinations for school entrance . Whitehead writes :
" Every school is bound on pain of extinction to train its boys for a small set of definite examinations . No headmaster has a free hand to develop his general education or his specialist studies in accordance with the opportunities of his school , which are created by its staff , its environment , its class of boys , and its endowments . I suggest that no system of external tests which aims primarily at examining individual scholars can result in anything but educational waste . "
Whitehead argued that curriculum should be developed specifically for its own students by its own staff , or else risk total stagnation , interrupted only by occasional movements from one group of inert ideas to another .
Above all else in his educational writings , Whitehead emphasized the importance of imagination and the free play of ideas . In his essay " Universities and Their Function " , Whitehead writes provocatively on imagination :
" Imagination is not to be divorced from the facts : it is a way of illuminating the facts . It works by eliciting the general principles which apply to the facts , as they exist , and then by an intellectual survey of alternative possibilities which are consistent with those principles . It enables men to construct an intellectual vision of a new world . "
Whitehead 's philosophy of education might adequately be summarized in his statement that " knowledge does not keep any better than fish . " In other words , bits of disconnected knowledge are meaningless ; all knowledge must find some imaginative application to the students ' own lives , or else it becomes so much useless trivia , and the students themselves become good at parroting facts but not thinking for themselves .
= = Philosophy and metaphysics = =
Whitehead did not begin his career as a philosopher . In fact , he never had any formal training in philosophy beyond his undergraduate education . Early in his life he showed great interest in and respect for philosophy and metaphysics , but it is evident that he considered himself a rank amateur . In one letter to his friend and former student Bertrand Russell , after discussing whether science aimed to be explanatory or merely descriptive , he wrote : " This further question lands us in the ocean of metaphysic , onto which my profound ignorance of that science forbids me to enter . " Ironically , in later life Whitehead would become one of the 20th century 's foremost metaphysicians .
However , interest in metaphysics – the philosophical investigation of the nature of the universe and existence – had become unfashionable by the time Whitehead began writing in earnest about it in the 1920s . The ever @-@ more impressive accomplishments of empirical science had led to a general consensus in academia that the development of comprehensive metaphysical systems was a waste of time because they were not subject to empirical testing .
Whitehead was unimpressed by this objection . In the notes of one his students for a 1927 class , Whitehead was quoted as saying : " Every scientific man in order to preserve his reputation has to say he dislikes metaphysics . What he means is he dislikes having his metaphysics criticized . " In Whitehead 's view , scientists and philosophers make metaphysical assumptions about how the universe works all the time , but such assumptions are not easily seen precisely because they remain unexamined and unquestioned . While Whitehead acknowledged that " philosophers can never hope finally to formulate these metaphysical first principles , " he argued that people need to continually re @-@ imagine their basic assumptions about how the universe works if philosophy and science are to make any real progress , even if that progress remains permanently asymptotic . For this reason Whitehead regarded metaphysical investigations as essential to both good science and good philosophy .
Perhaps foremost among what Whitehead considered faulty metaphysical assumptions was the Cartesian idea that reality is fundamentally constructed of bits of matter that exist totally independently of one another , which he rejected in favor of an event @-@ based or " process " ontology in which events are primary and are fundamentally interrelated and dependent on one another . He also argued that the most basic elements of reality can all be regarded as experiential , indeed that everything is constituted by its experience . He used the term " experience " very broadly , so that even inanimate processes such as electron collisions are said to manifest some degree of experience . In this , he went against Descartes ' separation of two different kinds of real existence , either exclusively material or else exclusively mental . Whitehead referred to his metaphysical system as " philosophy of organism " , but it would become known more widely as " process philosophy . "
Whitehead 's philosophy was highly original , and soon garnered interest in philosophical circles . After publishing The Concept of Nature in 1920 , he served as president of the Aristotelian Society from 1922 to 1923 , and Henri Bergson was quoted as saying that Whitehead was " the best philosopher writing in English . " So impressive and different was Whitehead 's philosophy that in 1924 he was invited to join the faculty at Harvard University as a professor of philosophy at 63 years of age .
This is not to say that Whitehead 's thought was widely accepted or even well @-@ understood . His philosophical work is generally considered to be among the most difficult to understand in all of the western canon . Even professional philosophers struggled to follow Whitehead 's writings . One famous story illustrating the level of difficulty of Whitehead 's philosophy centers around the delivery of Whitehead 's Gifford lectures in 1927 – 28 – following Arthur Eddington 's lectures of the year previous – which Whitehead would later publish as Process and Reality :
Eddington was a marvellous popular lecturer who had enthralled an audience of 600 for his entire course . The same audience turned up to Whitehead 's first lecture but it was completely unintelligible , not merely to the world at large but to the elect . My father remarked to me afterwards that if he had not known Whitehead well he would have suspected that it was an imposter making it up as he went along ... The audience at subsequent lectures was only about half a dozen in all .
Indeed , it may not be inappropriate to speculate that some fair portion of the respect generally shown to Whitehead by his philosophical peers at the time arose from their sheer bafflement . Distinguished University of Chicago Divinity School theologian Shailer Mathews once remarked of Whitehead 's 1926 book Religion in the Making : " It is infuriating , and I must say embarrassing as well , to read page after page of relatively familiar words without understanding a single sentence . "
However , Mathews ' frustration with Whitehead 's books did not negatively affect his interest . In fact , there were numerous philosophers and theologians at Chicago 's Divinity School that perceived the importance of what Whitehead was doing without fully grasping all of the details and implications . In 1927 they invited one of America 's only Whitehead experts – Henry Nelson Wieman – to Chicago to give a lecture explaining Whitehead 's thought . Wieman 's lecture was so brilliant that he was promptly hired to the faculty and taught there for twenty years , and for at least thirty years afterward Chicago 's Divinity School was closely associated with Whitehead 's thought .
Shortly after Whitehead 's book Process and Reality appeared in 1929 , Wieman famously wrote in his 1930 review :
" Not many people will read Whitehead 's recent book in this generation ; not many will read it in any generation . But its influence will radiate through concentric circles of popularization until the common man will think and work in the light of it , not knowing whence the light came . After a few decades of discussion and analysis one will be able to understand it more readily than can now be done . "
Wieman 's words proved prophetic . Though Process and Reality has been called " arguably the most impressive single metaphysical text of the twentieth century , " it has been little @-@ read and little @-@ understood , partly because it demands – as Isabelle Stengers puts it – " that its readers accept the adventure of the questions that will separate them from every consensus . " Whitehead questioned western philosophy 's most dearly held assumptions about how the universe works , but in doing so he managed to anticipate a number of 21st century scientific and philosophical problems and provide novel solutions .
= = = Whitehead 's conception of reality = = =
Whitehead was convinced that the scientific notion of matter was misleading as a way of describing the ultimate nature of things . In his 1925 book Science and the Modern World , he wrote that
" There persists ... [ a ] fixed scientific cosmology which presupposes the ultimate fact of an irreducible brute matter , or material , spread through space in a flux of configurations . In itself such a material is senseless , valueless , purposeless . It just does what it does do , following a fixed routine imposed by external relations which do not spring from the nature of its being . It is this assumption that I call ' scientific materialism . ' Also it is an assumption which I shall challenge as being entirely unsuited to the scientific situation at which we have now arrived . "
In Whitehead 's view , there are a number of problems with this notion of " irreducible brute matter . " First , it obscures and minimizes the importance of change . By thinking of any material thing ( like a rock , or a person ) as being fundamentally the same thing throughout time , with any changes to it being secondary to its " nature " , scientific materialism hides the fact that nothing ever stays the same . For Whitehead , change is fundamental and inescapable ; he emphasizes that " all things flow . "
In Whitehead 's view , then , concepts such as " quality " , " matter " , and " form " are problematic . These " classical " concepts fail to adequately account for change , and overlook the active and experiential nature of the most basic elements of the world . They are useful abstractions , but are not the world 's basic building blocks . What is ordinarily conceived of as a single person , for instance , is philosophically described as a continuum of overlapping events . After all , people change all the time , if only because they have aged by another second and had some further experience . These occasions of experience are logically distinct , but are progressively connected in what Whitehead calls a " society " of events . By assuming that enduring objects are the most real and fundamental things in the universe , materialists have mistaken the abstract for the concrete ( what Whitehead calls the " fallacy of misplaced concreteness " ) .
To put it another way , a thing or person is often seen as having a " defining essence " or a " core identity " that is unchanging , and describes what the thing or person really is . In this way of thinking , things and people are seen as fundamentally the same through time , with any changes being qualitative and secondary to their core identity ( e.g. " Mark 's hair has turned gray as he has gotten older , but he is still the same person " ) . But in Whitehead 's cosmology , the only fundamentally existent things are discrete " occasions of experience " that overlap one another in time and space , and jointly make up the enduring person or thing . On the other hand , what ordinary thinking often regards as " the essence of a thing " or " the identity / core of a person " is an abstract generalization of what is regarded as that person or thing 's most important or salient features across time . Identities do not define people , people define identities . Everything changes from moment to moment , and to think of anything as having an " enduring essence " misses the fact that " all things flow " , though it is often a useful way of speaking .
Whitehead pointed to the limitations of language as one of the main culprits in maintaining a materialistic way of thinking , and acknowledged that it may be difficult to ever wholly move past such ideas in everyday speech . After all , each moment of each person 's life can hardly be given a different proper name , and it is easy and convenient to think of people and objects as remaining fundamentally the same things , rather than constantly keeping in mind that each thing is a different thing from what it was a moment ago . Yet the limitations of everyday living and everyday speech should not prevent people from realizing that " material substances " or " essences " are a convenient generalized description of a continuum of particular , concrete processes . No one questions that a ten @-@ year @-@ old person is quite different by the time he or she turns thirty years old , and in many ways is not the same person at all ; Whitehead points out that it is not philosophically or ontologically sound to think that a person is the same from one second to the next .
A second problem with materialism is that it obscures the importance of relations . It sees every object as distinct and discrete from all other objects . Each object is simply an inert clump of matter that is only externally related to other things . The idea of matter as primary makes people think of objects as being fundamentally separate in time and space , and not necessarily related to anything . But in Whitehead 's view , relations take a primary role , perhaps even more important than the relata themselves . A student taking notes in one of Whitehead 's fall 1924 classes wrote that :
" Reality applies to connections , and only relatively to the things connected . ( A ) is real for ( B ) , and ( B ) is real for ( A ) , but [ they are ] not absolutely real independent of each other . "
In fact , Whitehead describes any entity as in some sense nothing more and nothing less than the sum of its relations to other entities – its synthesis of and reaction to the world around it . A real thing is just that which forces the rest of the universe to in some way conform to it ; that is to say , if theoretically a thing made strictly no difference to any other entity ( i.e. it was not related to any other entity ) , it could not be said to really exist . Relations are not secondary to what a thing is , they are what the thing is .
It must be emphasized , however , that an entity is not merely a sum of its relations , but also a valuation of them and reaction to them . For Whitehead , creativity is the absolute principle of existence , and every entity ( whether it is a human being , a tree , or an electron ) has some degree of novelty in how it responds to other entities , and is not fully determined by causal or mechanistic laws . Of course , most entities do not have consciousness . As a human being 's actions cannot always be predicted , the same can be said of where a tree 's roots will grow , or how an electron will move , or whether it will rain tomorrow . Moreover , inability to predict an electron 's movement ( for instance ) is not due to faulty understanding or inadequate technology ; rather , the fundamental creativity / freedom of all entities means that there will always remain phenomena that are unpredictable .
The other side of creativity / freedom as the absolute principle is that every entity is constrained by the social structure of existence ( i.e. , its relations ) – each actual entity must conform to the settled conditions of the world around it . Freedom always exists within limits . But an entity 's uniqueness and individuality
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neglect of the diverse categories of existence . In each antithesis there is a shift of meaning which converts the opposition into a contrast .
" It is as true to say that God is permanent and the World fluent , as that the World is permanent and God is fluent .
" It is as true to say that God is one and the World many , as that the World is one and God many .
" It is as true to say that , in comparison with the World , God is actual eminently , as that , in comparison with God , the World is actual eminently .
" It is as true to say that the World is immanent in God , as that God is immanent in the World .
" It is as true to say that God transcends the World , as that the World transcends God .
" It is as true to say that God creates the World , as that the World creates God ...
" What is done in the world is transformed into a reality in heaven , and the reality in heaven passes back into the world ... In this sense , God is the great companion – the fellow @-@ sufferer who understands . "
The above is some of Whitehead 's most evocative writing about God , and was powerful enough to inspire the movement known as process theology , a vibrant theological school of thought that continues to thrive today .
= = = Religion = = =
For Whitehead the core of religion was individual . While he acknowledged that individuals cannot ever be fully separated from their society , he argued that life is an internal fact for its own sake before it is an external fact relating to others . His most famous remark on religion is that " religion is what the individual does with his own solitariness ... and if you are never solitary , you are never religious . " Whitehead saw religion as a system of general truths that transformed a person 's character . He took special care to note that while religion is often a good influence , it is not necessarily good – an idea which he called a " dangerous delusion " ( e.g. , a religion might encourage the violent extermination of a rival religion 's adherents ) .
However , while Whitehead saw religion as beginning in solitariness , he also saw religion as necessarily expanding beyond the individual . In keeping with his process metaphysics in which relations are primary , he wrote that religion necessitates the realization of " the value of the objective world which is a community derivative from the interrelations of its component individuals . " In other words , the universe is a community which makes itself whole through the relatedness of each individual entity to all the others – meaning and value do not exist for the individual alone , but only in the context of the universal community . Whitehead writes further that each entity " can find no such value till it has merged its individual claim with that of the objective universe . Religion is world @-@ loyalty . The spirit at once surrenders itself to this universal claim and appropriates it for itself . " In this way the individual and universal / social aspects of religion are mutually dependent .
Whitehead also described religion more technically as " an ultimate craving to infuse into the insistent particularity of emotion that non @-@ temporal generality which primarily belongs to conceptual thought alone . " In other words , religion takes deeply felt emotions and contextualizes them within a system of general truths about the world , helping people to identify their wider meaning and significance . For Whitehead , religion served as a kind of bridge between philosophy and the emotions and purposes of a particular society . It is the task of religion to make philosophy applicable to the everyday lives of ordinary people .
= = Influence and legacy = =
Isabelle Stengers wrote that " Whiteheadians are recruited among both philosophers and theologians , and the palette has been enriched by practitioners from the most diverse horizons , from ecology to feminism , practices that unite political struggle and spirituality with the sciences of education . " Indeed , in recent decades attention to Whitehead 's work has become more widespread , with interest extending to intellectuals in Europe and China , and coming from such diverse fields as ecology , physics , biology , education , economics , and psychology . One of the first theologians to attempt to interact with Whitehead 's thought was the future Archbishop of Canterbury , William Temple . In Temple 's Gifford Lectures of 1932 @-@ 1934 ( subsequently published as " Nature , Man and God " ) , Whitehead is one of a number of philosophers of the emergent evolution approach Temple interacts with . However , it was not until the 1970s and 1980s that Whitehead 's thought drew much attention outside of a small group of philosophers and theologians , primarily Americans , and even today he is not considered especially influential outside of relatively specialized circles .
Early followers of Whitehead were found primarily at the University of Chicago 's Divinity School , where Henry Nelson Wieman initiated an interest in Whitehead 's work that would last for about thirty years . Professors such as Wieman , Charles Hartshorne , Bernard Loomer , Bernard Meland , and Daniel Day Williams made Whitehead 's philosophy arguably the most important intellectual thread running through the Divinity School . They taught generations of Whitehead scholars , the most notable of which is John B. Cobb , Jr .
Although interest in Whitehead has since faded at Chicago 's Divinity School , Cobb effectively grabbed the torch and planted it firmly in Claremont , California , where he began teaching at Claremont School of Theology in 1958 and founded the Center for Process Studies with David Ray Griffin in 1973 . Largely due to Cobb 's influence , today Claremont remains strongly identified with Whitehead 's process thought .
But while Claremont remains the most concentrated hub of Whiteheadian activity , the place where Whitehead 's thought currently seems to be growing the most quickly is in China . In order to address the challenges of modernization and industrialization , China has begun to blend traditions of Taoism , Buddhism , and Confucianism with Whitehead 's " constructive post @-@ modern " philosophy in order to create an " ecological civilization . " To date , the Chinese government has encouraged the building of twenty @-@ three university @-@ based centers for the study of Whitehead 's philosophy , and books by process philosophers John Cobb and David Ray Griffin are becoming required reading for Chinese graduate students . Cobb has attributed China 's interest in process philosophy partly to Whitehead 's stress on the mutual interdependence of humanity and nature , as well as his emphasis on an educational system that includes the teaching of values rather than simply bare facts .
Overall , however , Whitehead 's influence is very difficult to characterize . In English @-@ speaking countries , his primary works are little @-@ studied outside of Claremont and a select number of liberal graduate @-@ level theology and philosophy programs . Outside of these circles his influence is relatively small and diffuse , and has tended to come chiefly through the work of his students and admirers rather than Whitehead himself . For instance , Whitehead was a teacher and long @-@ time friend and collaborator of Bertrand Russell , and he also taught and supervised the dissertation of Willard Van Orman Quine , both of whom are important figures in analytic philosophy – the dominant strain of philosophy in English @-@ speaking countries in the 20th century . Whitehead has also had high @-@ profile admirers in the continental tradition , such as French post @-@ structuralist philosopher Gilles Deleuze , who once dryly remarked of Whitehead that " he stands provisionally as the last great Anglo @-@ American philosopher before Wittgenstein 's disciples spread their misty confusion , sufficiency , and terror . " French sociologist and anthropologist Bruno Latour even went so far as to call Whitehead " the greatest philosopher of the 20th century . "
Deleuze 's and Latour 's opinions , however , are minority ones , as Whitehead has not been recognized as particularly influential within the most dominant philosophical schools . It is impossible to say exactly why Whitehead 's influence has not been more widespread , but it may be partly due to his metaphysical ideas seeming somewhat counter @-@ intuitive ( such as his assertion that matter is an abstraction ) , or his inclusion of theistic elements in his philosophy , or the perception of metaphysics itself as passé , or simply the sheer difficulty and density of his prose .
= = = Process philosophy and theology = = =
Historically Whitehead 's work has been most influential in the field of American progressive theology . The most important early proponent of Whitehead 's thought in a theological context was Charles Hartshorne , who spent a semester at Harvard as Whitehead 's teaching assistant in 1925 , and is widely credited with developing Whitehead 's process philosophy into a full @-@ blown process theology . Other notable process theologians include John B. Cobb , Jr . , David Ray Griffin , Marjorie Hewitt Suchocki , C. Robert Mesle , Roland Faber , and Catherine Keller .
Process theology typically stresses God 's relational nature . Rather than seeing God as impassive or emotionless , process theologians view God as " the fellow sufferer who understands " , and as the being who is supremely affected by temporal events . Hartshorne points out that people would not praise a human ruler who was unaffected by either the joys or sorrows of his followers – so why would this be a praise @-@ worthy quality in God ? Instead , as the being who is most affected by the world , God is the being who can most appropriately respond to the world . However , process theology has been formulated in a wide variety of ways . C. Robert Mesle , for instance , advocates a " process naturalism " , i.e. a process theology without God .
In fact , process theology is difficult to define because process theologians are so diverse and transdisciplinary in their views and interests . John B. Cobb , Jr. is a process theologian who has also written books on biology and economics . Roland Faber and Catherine Keller integrate Whitehead with poststructuralist , postcolonialist , and feminist theory . Charles Birch was both a theologian and a geneticist . Franklin I. Gamwell writes on theology and political theory . In Syntheism - Creating God in The Internet Age , futurologists Alexander Bard and Jan Söderqvist repeatedly credit Whitehead for the process theology they see rising out of the participatory culture expected to dominate the digital era .
Process philosophy is even more difficult to pin down than process theology . In practice , the two fields cannot be neatly separated . The 32 @-@ volume State University of New York series in constructive postmodern thought edited by process philosopher and theologian David Ray Griffin displays the range of areas in which different process philosophers work , including physics , ecology , medicine , public policy , nonviolence , politics , and psychology .
One philosophical school which has historically had a close relationship with process philosophy is American pragmatism . Whitehead himself thought highly of William James and John Dewey , and acknowledged his indebtedness to them in the preface to Process and Reality . Charles Hartshorne ( along with Paul Weiss ) edited the collected papers of Charles Sanders Peirce , one of the founders of pragmatism . Noted neopragmatist Richard Rorty was in turn a student of Hartshorne . Today , Nicholas Rescher is one example of a philosopher who advocates both process philosophy and pragmatism .
In addition , while they might not properly be called process philosophers , Whitehead has been influential in the philosophy of Gilles Deleuze , Milič Čapek , Isabelle Stengers , Bruno Latour , Susanne Langer , and Maurice Merleau @-@ Ponty .
= = = Science = = =
In recent years , Whiteheadian thought has become a stimulating influence in scientific research . Timothy E. Eastman and Hank Keeton 's Physics and Whitehead ( 2004 ) and Michael Epperson 's Quantum Mechanics and the Philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead ( 2004 ) aim to offer Whiteheadian approaches to physics , while Brian G. Henning , Adam Scarfe , and Dorion Sagan 's Beyond Mechanism ( 2013 ) and Rupert Sheldrake 's Science Set Free ( 2012 ) are recent examples of Whiteheadian approaches to biology .
In physics , Whitehead 's thought has had some influence . He articulated a view that might perhaps be regarded as dual to Einstein 's general relativity , see Whitehead 's theory of gravitation . It has been severely criticized . Yutaka Tanaka , who suggests that the gravitational constant disagrees with experimental findings , proposes that Einstein 's work does not actually refute Whitehead 's formulation . Whitehead 's view has now been rendered obsolete , with the discovery of gravitational waves . They are phenonena observed locally that largely violate the kind of local flatness of space that Whitehead assumes . Consequently , Whitehead 's cosmology must be regarded as a local approximation , and his assumption of a uniform spatio @-@ temporal geometry , Minkowskian in particular , as an often @-@ locally @-@ adequate approximation . An exact replacement of Whitehead 's cosmology would need to admit a Riemannian geometry . Also , although Whitehead himself gave only secondary consideration to quantum theory , his metaphysics of processes has proved attractive to some physicists in that field . Henry Stapp and David Bohm are among those whose work has been influenced by Whitehead .
Other scientists for whom Whitehead 's work has been influential include physical chemist Ilya Prigogine , biologist Conrad Hal Waddington , and geneticists Charles Birch and Sewall Wright .
= = = Ecology , economy , and sustainability = = =
One of the most promising applications of Whitehead 's thought in recent years has been in the area of ecological civilization , sustainability , and environmental ethics .
" Because Whitehead 's holistic metaphysics of value lends itself so readily to an ecological point of view , many see his work as a promising alternative to the traditional mechanistic worldview , providing a detailed metaphysical picture of a world constituted by a web of interdependent relations . "
This work has been pioneered by John B. Cobb , Jr . , whose book Is It Too Late ? A Theology of Ecology ( 1971 ) was the first single @-@ authored book in environmental ethics . Cobb also co @-@ authored a book with leading ecological economist and steady @-@ state theorist Herman Daly entitled For the Common Good : Redirecting the Economy toward Community , the Environment , and a Sustainable Future ( 1989 ) , which applied Whitehead 's thought to economics , and received the Grawemeyer Award for Ideas Improving World Order . Cobb followed this with a second book , Sustaining the Common Good : A Christian Perspective on the Global Economy ( 1994 ) , which aimed to challenge " economists ' zealous faith in the great god of growth . "
= = = Education = = =
Whitehead is widely known for his influence in education theory . His philosophy inspired the formation of the Association for Process Philosophy of Education ( APPE ) , which published eleven volumes of a journal titled Process Papers on process philosophy and education from 1996 to 2008 . Whitehead 's theories on education also led to the formation of new modes of learning and new models of teaching .
One such model is the ANISA model developed by Daniel C. Jordan , which sought to address a lack of understanding of the nature of people in current education systems . As Jordan and Raymond P. Shepard put it : " Because it has not defined the nature of man , education is in the untenable position of having to devote its energies to the development of curricula without any coherent ideas about the nature of the creature for whom they are intended . "
Another model is the FEELS model developed by Xie Bangxiu and deployed successfully in China . " FEELS " stands for five things in curriculum and education : Flexible @-@ goals , Engaged @-@ learner , Embodied @-@ knowledge , Learning @-@ through @-@ interactions , and Supportive @-@ teacher . It is used for understanding and evaluating educational curriculum under the assumption that the purpose of education is to " help a person become whole . " This work is in part the product of cooperation between Chinese government organizations and the Institute for the Postmodern Development of China .
Whitehead 's philosophy of education has also found institutional support in Canada , where the University of Saskatchewan created a Process Philosophy Research Unit and sponsored several conferences on process philosophy and education . Dr. Howard Woodhouse at the University of Saskatchewan remains a strong proponent of Whiteheadian education .
Two recent books which further develop Whitehead 's philosophy of education include : Modes of Learning : Whitehead 's Metaphysics and the Stages of Education ( 2012 ) by George Allan ; and The Adventure of Education : Process Philosophers on Learning , Teaching , and Research ( 2009 ) by Adam Scarfe .
= = = Business administration = = =
Whitehead has had some influence on philosophy of business administration and organizational theory . This has led in part to a focus on identifying and investigating the effect of temporal events ( as opposed to static things ) within organizations through an “ organization studies ” discourse that accommodates a variety of ' weak ' and ' strong ' process perspectives from a number of philosophers . One of the leading figures having an explicitly Whiteheadian and panexperientialist stance towards management is Mark Dibben , who works in what he calls " applied process thought " to articulate a philosophy of management and business administration as part of a wider examination of the social sciences through the lens of process metaphysics . For Dibben , this allows " a comprehensive exploration of life as perpetually active experiencing , as opposed to occasional – and thoroughly passive – happening . " Dibben has published two books on applied process thought , Applied Process Thought I : Initial Explorations in Theory and Research ( 2008 ) , and Applied Process Thought II : Following a Trail Ablaze ( 2009 ) , as well as other papers in this vein in the fields of philosophy of management and business ethics .
Margaret Stout and Carrie M. Staton have also written recently on the mutual influence of Whitehead and Mary Parker Follett , a pioneer in the fields of organizational theory and organizational behavior . Stout and Staton see both Whitehead and Follett as sharing an ontology that " understands becoming as a relational process ; difference as being related , yet unique ; and the purpose of becoming as harmonizing difference . " This connection is further analyzed by Stout and Jeannine M. Love in Integrative Process : Follettian Thinking from Ontology to Administration
= = Primary works = =
Books written by Whitehead , listed by date of publication .
A Treatise on Universal Algebra . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , 1898 . ISBN 1 @-@ 4297 @-@ 0032 @-@ 7 . Available online at http : / / projecteuclid.org / euclid.chmm / 1263316509 .
The Axioms of Descriptive Geometry . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , 1907 . Available online at http : / / quod.lib.umich.edu / u / umhistmath / ABN2643.0001.001.
with Bertrand Russell . Principia Mathematica , Volume I. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , 1910 . Available online at http : / / www.hti.umich.edu / cgi / b / bib / bibperm ? q1 = AAT3201.0001.001. Vol . 1 to * 56 is available as a CUP paperback .
An Introduction to Mathematics . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , 1911 . Available online at http : / / quod.lib.umich.edu / u / umhistmath / AAW5995.0001.001. Vol . 56 of the Great Books of the Western World series .
with Bertrand Russell . Principia Mathematica , Volume II . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , 1912 . Available online at http : / / www.hti.umich.edu / cgi / b / bib / bibperm ? q1 = AAT3201.0002.001.
with Bertrand Russell . Principia Mathematica , Volume III . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , 1913 . Available online at http : / / www.hti.umich.edu / cgi / b / bib / bibperm ? q1 = AAT3201.0003.001.
The Organization of Thought Educational and Scientific . London : Williams & Norgate , 1917 . Available online at https : / / archive.org / details / organisationofth00whit .
An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Natural Knowledge . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , 1919 . Available online at https : / / archive.org / details / enquiryconcernpr00whitrich .
The Concept of Nature . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , 1920 . Based on the November 1919 Tarner Lectures delivered at Trinity College . Available online at https : / / archive.org / details / cu31924012068593 .
The Principle of Relativity with Applications to Physical Science . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , 1922 . Available online at https : / / archive.org / details / theprincipleofre00whituoft .
Science and the Modern World . New York : Macmillan Company , 1925 . Vol . 55 of the Great Books of the Western World series .
Religion in the Making . New York : Macmillan Company , 1926 . Based on the 1926 Lowell Lectures .
Symbolism , Its Meaning and Effect . New York : Macmillan Co . , 1927 . Based on the 1927 Barbour @-@ Page Lectures delivered at the University of Virginia .
Process and Reality : An Essay in Cosmology . New York : Macmillan Company , 1929 . Based on the 1927 – 28 Gifford Lectures delivered at the University of Edinburgh . The 1978 Free Press " corrected edition " edited by David Ray Griffin and Donald W. Sherburne corrects many errors in both the British and American editions , and also provides a comprehensive index .
The Aims of Education and Other Essays . New York : Macmillan Company , 1929 .
The Function of Reason . Princeton : Princeton University Press , 1929 . Based on the March 1929 Louis Clark Vanuxem Foundation Lectures delivered at Princeton University .
Adventures of Ideas . New York : Macmillan Company , 1933 . Also published by Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , 1933 .
Nature and Life . Chicago : University of Chicago Press , 1934 .
Modes of Thought . New York : MacMillan Company , 1938 .
" Mathematics and the Good . " In The Philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead , edited by Paul Arthur Schilpp , 666 – 681 . Evanston and Chicago : Northwestern University Press , 1941 .
" Immortality . " In The Philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead , edited by Paul Arthur Schilpp , 682 – 700 . Evanston and Chicago : Northwestern University Press , 1941 .
Essays in Science and Philosophy . London : Philosophical Library , 1947 .
with Allison Heartz Johnson , ed . The Wit and Wisdom of Whitehead . Boston : Beacon Press , 1947 .
= Kyle Kendrick =
Kyle Rodney Kendrick ( born August 26 , 1984 ) is an American professional baseball pitcher in the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim organization . He has played in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) for the Philadelphia Phillies and Colorado Rockies . He was born in Houston , Texas , but attended high school in Mount Vernon , Washington . While growing up , he was greatly influenced by his father , from whom he developed his composure when pitching . Upon graduation , he turned down a scholarship to play college football , instead signing a contract to begin his professional baseball career in the Phillies ' organization . After a slow ascent through the lower levels of the Phillies ' minor league system , he made his MLB debut in 2007 , and was a member of the starting rotation of the 2008 World Series Champion team .
Subsequently , he was demoted to the minor leagues to develop secondary pitches . From 2010 until 2012 , his role on the big @-@ league squad frequently fluctuated , but overall , was an underrated member of the pitching staff , according to several writers . Nevertheless , he drew the ire of Phillies fans , who were tired of his inconsistency during the course of his career . After a successful 2012 campaign , however , he firmly implanted himself in the Phillies ' starting rotation before the 2013 season . Again in 2013 , though , he was inconsistent , and entering 2014 , some suggested he should be traded to another team .
His pitching style is characterized by his poise on the mound that allows him to " go with the flow " of the game . He predominantly throws a sinker , and mixes in some secondary pitches in which he lacks confidence . He is married , has two children , and lives in Snohomish County , Washington during the offseason .
= = Early life = =
Born in Houston , Texas , Kendrick was a three @-@ sport standout in football , basketball , and baseball at Mount Vernon High School in Mount Vernon , Washington . Throughout his adolescent athletic career , it was Kendrick 's father Maury from whom Kendrick drew guidance and direction , particularly on how to conduct oneself during a game . Maury advised Kendrick to show as little emotion as possible when pitching , and is the one from whom Kendrick draws his composure while pitching . Kendrick and his father discuss pitching before and after every one of Kendrick 's starts , which Maury watches from Seattle , Washington , and in 2013 , Maury was part of the Phillies ' Fathers Day celebration , a celebration of his guidance of Kendrick .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Philadelphia Phillies = = =
= = = = Minor leagues : 2003 – 2006 = = = =
The Phillies drafted Kendrick in the seventh round of the 2003 Major League Baseball Draft , which made Kendrick reject a football scholarship offer to Washington State University . He began his career in the lower levels of the minor league system , and struggled mightily . A feature article in Phillies magazine noted ,
His first three seasons , in the Gulf Coast League , and various Class A stops , weren 't encouraging . He was a combined 10 – 28 with a 5 @.@ 27 ERA ( earned run average ) . He allowed 356 hits in 286 @.@ 2 innings . There were some steps forward , some steps back
Early in his career , many within the organization questioned his work ethic and maturity , which they thought may have contributed to his underachievement . In 2006 , however , the Phillies " patience was ... rewarded " ; pitching for the Lakewood BlueClaws for the third consecutive season , he earned Phillies Minor League Pitcher of the Month accolades for May , thus warranting a promotion to the Clearwater Threshers . In 20 starts with Clearwater , he posted a 3 @.@ 53 ERA , among the best in the Florida State League . This performance as well as the fact that he spent significant time working out and focusing on mechanical improvement allayed the previous fears of poor work ethic . Ultimately , 2007 would be his last in the low levels of the Phillies ' minor leagues , as he began the season with the Double @-@ A ( AA ) Reading Phillies , and finished it with the big league club .
= = = = Breaking through : 2007 – 2009 = = = =
Despite several options at Triple @-@ A ( AAA ) , when Freddy García got hurt , Pat Gillick promoted Kendrick to the major leagues , which drew skepticism , as Kendrick was just 22 years old , and had not pitched particularly well for Reading . However , according to Steve Noworyta , Phillies assistant director of player development , Kendrick 's " mound presence and his maturity " , as well as the fact that " nothing really seemed to bother him " contributed to his promotion . His MLB debut came on June 13 against the Chicago White Sox at Citizens Bank Park . He pitched six innings and gave up three runs , receiving a no @-@ decision in an 8 – 4 Phillies ' victory . He pitched the second game of the 2007 National League Division Series against the Colorado Rockies , which the Phillies lost , en route to being swept in the series . He finished the season with a 10 – 4 win – loss record and a 3 @.@ 87 ERA in 121 MLB innings pitched . He came in fifth place , ultimately losing to Ryan Braun , in 2007 National League Rookie of the Year Award voting .
Before the 2008 season , Kendrick was a victim of an " elaborate practical joke " executed by Brett Myers that had Kendrick convinced he had been traded away to Japan . During the season , Kendrick 's performance slipped ; he posted a 5 @.@ 49 ERA in 30 starts . Despite his relative ineffectiveness , the Phillies won the 2008 World Series , and though he was left off the postseason roster , Kendrick received a World Series ring and co @-@ authored a diary from the series . Phillies pitching coach Rich Dubee attributed the decline to hitters discerning that Kendrick threw predominantly a sinker , and almost always in the strike zone , thus fostering predictability for hitters . As such , he spent the majority of the 2009 season in the minor leagues , working on developing his change up , which proved to be an arduous process . Ultimately , after learning a new grip from Justin Lehr , he had a eureka moment during a bullpen session in 2009 ; he developed the pitch , and made it back to the major leagues " for good " near the conclusion of the season .
= = = = An undefined role : 2010 – 2012 = = = =
The Phillies acquired Roy Halladay prior to the 2010 season , and during spring training , Kendrick sought the mentorship of Halladay , whom he aspired to emulate during his high school career . Halladay willingly obliged , and teammates endearingly referred to Kendrick as " Little Roy " due to the amount of time he spent working with Halladay . Despite initially losing a competition for the fifth spot in the Phillies starting rotation during spring training to Jamie Moyer , an injury to Joe Blanton thrust Kendrick into the fifth spot in the Phillies rotation , the fourth consecutive year during which he had held that role for at least a short time . After a decent first half of the 2010 season ( at the end of June , he had a 4 – 4 record with a 3 @.@ 23 ERA ) . Kendrick was briefly demoted to the Lehigh Valley IronPigs ( AAA ) , but did not make any starts there , as Moyer 's season ended due to injury , causing Kendrick 's recall . Overall , he earned 11 wins , which tied a career high , and started 31 games , which set a new career high , while , in total , posting an 11 – 10 record with a 4 @.@ 73 ERA in 1802 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . Pat Gallen , editor in chief of Phillies Nation , opined that Kendrick 's performance indicated he would never exceed being an average , " run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill starting pitcher " , who would never exceed that role . At the conclusion of the season , Kendrick and the Phillies avoided salary arbitration by agreeing to a one @-@ year , US $ 2 @,@ 450 @,@ 000 contract .
Kendrick 's inconsistency continued in 2011 , when he " flip @-@ flopped between the rotation and the bullpen all season " , performing as a spot starter and long reliever . His starts came during injuries to Blanton and Roy Oswalt , the latter of whom was a member of the " phour aces " that comprised the front @-@ end of the Phillies ' starting rotation ( Oswalt , Cliff Lee , Roy Halladay , and Cole Hamels ) . When making those spot starts , he was able to " keep the team in the game " . During the season , he improved against left @-@ handed hitters , performed strongly against divisional opponents , and posted a career @-@ best 3 @.@ 22 ERA . Overall , he totaled 34 appearances , 15 of which were starts , and recorded an 8 – 6 record in 1142 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . Again eligible for arbitration , this year , he signed a one @-@ year , US $ 3 @,@ 585 @,@ 000 pact with Philadelphia .
Once again , Kendrick was not a member of the opening day starting rotation , as Blanton and Vance Worley rounded out the final two spots after Hamels , Halladay , and Lee . However , once again , he joined the rotation due to injury , this season to Worley . He was a member of the rotation from the end of April to the beginning of July , in a relief role until the beginning of August , and then in the rotation for the remainder of the season . Ultimately , Kendrick started 25 games of a career @-@ high 37 appearances . He was especially strong after the all @-@ star game , posting a 3 @.@ 15 ERA and nine wins , the latter of which was tied for first in the National League . He also continued his success against NL East teams , posting a 3 @.@ 25 ERA against them . Though he had much success , he remained inconsistent , playing " the role Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde personified " – in 17 of his starts , he allowed two or fewer earned runs , and posted a combined 1 @.@ 73 ERA in those starts , while in the eight starts during which he surrendered more than two earned runs , he posted a 10 @.@ 40 ERA .
= = = = Middle @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rotation starter : 2013 – 14 = = = =
Thanks to his strong finish in 2012 , Kendrick entered spring training assured of a spot in the Phillies ' Opening Day starting rotation for the first time in five years and spent his first full season exclusively a member of the major league starting rotation . His 2013 season took the opposite trajectory of his 2012 campaign ; he held a 4 – 1 record with a 2 @.@ 47 ERA in his first eight starts , while he posted a 6 – 12 record with a 5 @.@ 65 ERA in his final 22 starts . Some suggested that because Kendrick is a contact pitcher ( i.e. , he focuses on getting outs via batters hitting the ball rather than striking out ) , his career @-@ worst batting average on balls in play indicated horrendous defense was the primary reason for his downturn , not necessarily poor pitching . However , both were likely contributing factors . On September 18 , he was scratched from his scheduled start due to right rotator cuff tendinitis , which may have contributed to his poor pitching down the stretch . It was the first time in Kendrick 's career he missed a start due to injury . He had initially planned on making his next start , but the Phillies announced on September 20 that Kendrick had been shut down for the remainder of the season after receiving a second opinion on the injury . The team placed him on the disabled list for his first career stint and Zach Miner took his spot in the rotation . Overall , he posted 10 – 13 with a 4 @.@ 70 ERA in 182 innings pitched .
At the conclusion of the 2013 season , there was suggestion that the Phillies should re @-@ sign Kendrick insofar as he would serve as a useful player to trade around the trade deadline for a prospect or two , as durable , mediocre starters are always in demand around that time . Contradictorily , one scout suggested that because he throws strikes with great frequency and has a propensity to induce groundballs , he would be a strong value option for the Phillies . Ultimately , the Phillies agreed with the latter , and signed him to a one @-@ year , US $ 7 @,@ 675 @,@ 000 contract in the final year before he is eligible to be a free agent . Kendrick preposterously struggled all season in the first inning , entering his final home start of the season with a 9 @.@ 31 ERA in the first inning . Overall , he pitched a career @-@ high 199 innings , but posted a 4 @.@ 61 ERA , second @-@ worst among qualifying NL starting pitchers . The prevailing consensus was that despite a sentimental attachment to Philadelphia , generally being liked by Phillies ' fans , and solid contributions to the back of the Phillies ' rotation since arriving in the major leagues , he was unlikely to return to Philadelphia for 2015 , but would be a " smart pickup " by a contending team .
= = = Colorado Rockies = = =
Kendrick signed a one @-@ year deal with the Colorado Rockies on February 4 , 2015 . He was later named the Rockies ' opening @-@ day starter for the 2015 season .
= = = Atlanta Braves = = =
On December 31 , 2015 , Kendrick signed a minor league contract with the Atlanta Braves . In addition , Kendrick received a non @-@ roster invite to spring training . He was released on March 12 , 2016 .
= = Pitching style = =
When Kendrick was first promoted to the major leagues , he relied almost exclusively on a sinker , but as he became more predictable , he had to adjust by adding pitches , including the changeup , cutter , and curveball that now comprise his repertoire . He throws from a slightly deceptive , deliberate windup , and his sinker ranges anywhere from 87 miles per hour ( 140 km / h ) to 93 miles per hour ( 150 km / h ) . He lacks requisite confidence in his secondary pitches , however , which contributes to batters being able to consistently make solid contact against him .
Although they have improved throughout his career , Kendrick has had poor peripheral statistics , including WAR , FIP and BABIP . Because he manages to stay competitive on the mound and do his job , most assert that the poor peripheral statistics do not matter for him . When pitching , he maintains constant equanimity and seeks to avoid showing emotion , a trait he learned from his father and has embodied since playing Little League Baseball . He credits his composure as the reason he is able to consistently " go with the flow " , and avoid being flustered , even in adverse situations .
= = Personal life = =
In 2009 , Kendrick became engaged to Survivor contestant Stephenie LaGrossa . They were married at the Silverado Resort in Napa , California , on November 13 , 2010 . Kendrick and LaGrossa had their first child , a daughter named Sophia Marguerite on September 3 , 2011 , and their second child , a son named Kyle Jr . , on July 30 , 2013 . In March 2011 , his home was burglarized ; among the stolen items was his World Series ring . Subsequently , the ring was found in a swampy area of Bothell , Washington , by Snohomish County Sheriff 's deputies . His pitching intro music is " Radioactive " by Imagine Dragons . Among his hobbies are golf and fantasy football .
= Press Gang =
Press Gang is a British children 's television comedy @-@ drama consisting of 43 episodes across five series that were broadcast from 1989 to 1993 . It was produced by Richmond Film & Television for Central , and screened on the ITV network in its regular weekday afternoon children 's strand , Children 's ITV , typically in a 4 : 45 pm slot ( days varied over the course of the run ) .
Aimed at older children and teenagers , the programme was based on the activities of a children 's newspaper , the Junior Gazette , produced by pupils from the local comprehensive school . In later series it was depicted as a commercial venture . The show interspersed comedic elements with the dramatic . As well as addressing interpersonal relationships ( particularly in the Lynda @-@ Spike story arc ) , the show tackled issues such as solvent abuse , child abuse and firearms control .
Written by ex @-@ teacher Steven Moffat , more than half the episodes were directed by Bob Spiers , a noted British comedy director who had previously worked on classics such as Fawlty Towers . Critical reception was very positive , particularly for the quality of the writing , and the series has attracted a cult following with a wide age range .
= = Storyline = =
Famous journalist Matt Kerr ( Clive Wood ) arrives from Fleet Street to edit the local newspaper . He sets up a junior version of the paper , The Junior Gazette , to be produced by pupils from the local comprehensive school before and after school hours .
Some of the team are " star pupils " , but others have reputations for delinquency . One such pupil , Spike Thompson ( Dexter Fletcher ) , is forced to work on the paper rather than being expelled from school . He is immediately attracted to editor Lynda Day ( Julia Sawalha ) , but they bicker , throwing one @-@ liners at each other . Their relationship develops and they have an on @-@ off relationship . They regularly discuss their feelings , especially in the concluding episodes of each series . In the final episode of the third series , " Holding On " , Spike unwittingly expresses his strong feelings to Lynda while being taped . Jealous of his American girlfriend , Zoe , Lynda puts the cassette on Zoe 's personal stereo , ruining their relationship . The on @-@ screen chemistry between the two leads was reflected off @-@ screen as they became an item for several years .
Although the Lynda and Spike story arc runs throughout the series , most episodes feature self @-@ contained stories and sub @-@ plots . Amongst lighter stories , such as one about Colin accidentally attending a funeral dressed as a pink rabbit , the show tackled many serious issues . Jeff Evans , writing in the Guinness Television Encyclopedia , writes that the series adopts a " far more adult approach " than " previous efforts in the same vein " such as A Bunch of Fives . Some critics also compared it with Hill Street Blues , Lou Grant " and other thoughtful US dramas , thanks to its realism and its level @-@ headed treatment of touchy subjects . " The first series approached solvent abuse in " How To Make A Killing " , and the NSPCC assisted in the production of the " Something Terrible " episodes about child abuse . The team were held hostage by a gun enthusiast in series three 's " The Last Word " , while the final episode approaches drug abuse . The issue @-@ led episodes served to develop the main characters , so that " Something Terrible " is more " about Colin 's redemption [ from selfish capitalist ] , rather than Cindy 's abuse . "
According to the British Film Institute , " Press Gang managed to be perhaps the funniest children 's series ever made and at the same time the most painfully raw and emotionally honest . The tone could change effortlessly and sensitively from farce to tragedy in the space of an episode . " Although the series is sometimes referred to as a comedy , Moffat insists that it is a drama with jokes in it . The writer recalls " a long running argument with Geoff Hogg ( film editor on Press Gang ) about whether Press Gang was comedy . He insisted that it was and I said it wasn 't – it was just funny . " Some innuendo leads Moffat to claim that it " had the dirtiest jokes in history ; we got away with tons of stuff ... We nearly got away with a joke about anal sex , but they spotted it at the last minute . " In one episode Lynda says she 's going to " butter him up " , and , when asked while on a date in a restaurant if he was staying at the hotel , Colin replies " I shouldn 't think so : it 's only the first date . "
Jeff Evans also comments that the series was filmed cinematically , dabbling in " dream sequences , flashbacks , fantasies and , on one occasion , a Moonlighting @-@ esque parody of the film It 's a Wonderful Life . " The show had a strong awareness of continuity , with some stories , incidents and minor characters referred to throughout the series . Actors who played short @-@ term characters in the first two series were invited back to reprise their roles in future episodes . David Jefford ( Alex Crockett ) was resurrected from 1989 's " Monday – Tuesday " to appear in the final episode " There Are Crocodiles " , while the same actress ( Aisling Flitton ) who played a wrong number in " Love and the Junior Gazette " was invited to reprise her character for the third series episode " Chance is a Fine Thing . " " Attention to detail " such as this is , according to Paul Cornell , " one of the numerous ways that the series respects the intelligence of its viewers . "
After the team leaves school , the paper gains financial independence and runs commercially . Assistant editor Kenny ( Lee Ross ) leaves at the end of series three to be replaced by Julie ( Lucy Benjamin ) , who was the head of the graphics team in series one .
= = Production = =
= = = Inception = = =
Bill Moffat , a headmaster from Glasgow , had an idea for a children 's television programme called The Norbridge Files . He showed it to a producer who visited his school , Thorn Primary School in Johnstone , Renfrewshire , when it was used as the location for an episode of Harry Secombe 's Highway . Producer Sandra C. Hastie liked the idea and showed it to her future husband Bill Ward , co @-@ owner of her company Richmond Films and Television . When she requested a script , Moffat suggested that his 25 @-@ year @-@ old son Steven , an English teacher , should write it . Hastie said that it was " the best ever first script " that she had read .
All 43 episodes were written by Steven Moffat . During production of series two , he was having an unhappy personal life after the break @-@ up of his first marriage . His wife 's new lover was represented in the episode " The Big Finish ? " by the character Brian Magboy ( Simon Schatzberger ) , a name inspired by Brian : Maggie 's boy . Moffat brought in the character so that all sorts of unfortunate things would happen to him , such as having a typewriter dropped on his foot . This period in Moffat 's life would also be reflected in his sitcom Joking Apart .
Central Independent Television had confidence in the project , so rather than the show being shot at their studios in Nottingham as planned , they granted Richmond a £ 2 million budget . This enabled it to be shot on 16 mm film , rather than the regular , less expensive videotape , and on location , making it very expensive compared with most children 's television . These high production costs almost led to its cancellation at the end of the second series , by which time Central executive Lewis Rudd was unable to commission programmes by himself .
= = = Directors = = =
More than half of the episodes were directed by Bob Spiers , a noted British comedy director who had previously worked on Fawlty Towers amongst many other programmes . He would work again with Moffat on his sitcom Joking Apart and Murder Most Horrid , and with Sawalha on Absolutely Fabulous . According to Moffat , Spiers was the " principal director " taking an interest in the other episodes and setting the visual style of the show . Spiers particularly used tracking shots , sometimes requiring more dialogue to be written to accommodate the length of the shot . The other directors would come in and " do a Spiers " . All of the directors were encouraged to attend the others ' shoots so that the visual style would be consistent .
The first two episodes were directed by Colin Nutley . However , he was unhappy with the final edit and requested that his name be removed from the credits . Lorne Magory directed many episodes , notably the two @-@ part stories " How To Make A Killing " and " The Last Word . " One of the founders of Richmond Films and Television , Bill Ward , directed three episodes , and Bren Simson directed some of series two . The show 's cinematographer James Devis took the directorial reigns for " Windfall " , the penultimate episode .
= = = Location = = =
Whilst the show was set in the fictional town of Norbridge , it was mostly filmed in Uxbridge , a suburb of London . Many of the scenes were shot at Haydon School in Pinner . The first series was filmed entirely on location , but after the demolition of the building used as the original newspaper office , interior shots were filmed in Pinewood Studios for the second series , and the exterior of the building was not seen beyond that series . Subsequent series were filmed at Lee International Studios at Shepperton ( series three and four ) and Twickenham Studios ( series five ) .
= = = Music and title sequences = = =
The theme music was composed by Peter Davis ( who after the second series composed the rest of the series alone as principal composer ) , John Mealing and John G. Perry . The opening titles show the main characters striking a pose , with the name of the respective actor in a typewriter style typeface . Steven Moffat and Julia Sawalha were not very impressed with the opening titles when discussing them for a DVD commentary in 2004 . They were re @-@ recorded for series three , in the same style , to address the actors ' ages and alterations to the set .
Many of the closing titles in the first two series were accompanied by dialogue from two characters . Episodes that ended on a particularly sombre tone , such as " Monday @-@ Tuesday " and " Yesterday 's News " , used only appropriately sombre music to accompany the end credits . After an emphatic climax , " At Last a Dragon " used an enhanced version of the main theme with more extravagant use of electric guitar . Moffat felt that the voiceovers worked well in the first series , but that they were not as good in the second . Hastie recalls that Moffat was " extremely angry " that Drop the Dead Donkey had adopted the style . They were dropped after the second series . The cast , according to Moffat , were " grumpy with having to turn up to a recording studio to record them . "
= = Characters = =
= = = Main characters = = =
Lynda Day ( Julia Sawalha ) is the editor of the Junior Gazette . She is strong and opinionated , and is feared by many of her team . Moffat has said that the character was partly based on the show 's " ball @-@ breaking " producer , Sandra C. Hastie . Although she appears very tough , she occasionally exposes her feelings . She quits the paper at the end of " Monday @-@ Tuesday " , and in " Day Dreams " laments " Why do I get everything in my whole stupid life wrong ? " Intimidated by socialising , she hiccups at the idea . She is so nervous at a cocktail party , in " At Last a Dragon " , that she attempts to leave on several occasions . The mixture of Lynda 's sensitive side and her self @-@ sufficient attitude is illustrated in the series ' final episode " There Are Crocodiles . " Reprimanding the ghost of Gary ( Mark Sayers ) , who died after taking a drug overdose , she says :
Look , I 'm sorry you 're dead OK ? I do care . But to be perfectly honest with you , I don 't care a lot . You had a choice , you took the drugs , you died . Are you seriously claiming no one warned you it was dangerous ? ... I mean , have you had a look at the world lately ? ... There 's plenty of stuff going on that kills you and you don 't get warned at all . So sticking your head in a crocodile you were told about is not calculated to get my sympathy .
James " Spike " Thomson ( Dexter Fletcher ) is an American delinquent , forced to work on the paper rather than being excluded from school . He is immediately attracted to Lynda , and he establishes himself as an important member of the reporting team having been responsible for getting their first lead story . He usually has a range of one @-@ liners , though is often criticised , particularly by Lynda , for excessive joking . However , Spike often consciously uses humour to lighten the tone , such as in " Monday @-@ Tuesday " when he tries to cheer up Lynda after she feels responsible for David 's suicide .
The character was originally written as English , until producer Hastie felt that an American character would enhance the chance of overseas sales . This meant that English @-@ born Fletcher had to act in an American accent for all five years . Moffat says that he isn 't " sure [ that ] lumbering Dexter with that accent was a smart move . " The American accent had some fans surprised to learn that Fletcher is actually English .
Kenny Phillips ( Lee Ross ) is one of Lynda 's ( few ) long @-@ term friends and is her assistant editor in the first three series . Kenny is much calmer than Lynda , though is still dominated by her . Despite this , he is one of the few people able to stand up to Lynda , in his own quiet way . Although he identifies himself as " sweet " , he is unlucky in love : Jenny ( Sadie Frost ) , the girlfriend he meets in " How to Make a Killing " , dumps him because he is too understanding . His secret passion for writing music is revealed at the end of series two , which was influenced by Ross ' interests . Colin organizes and markets a concert for him , and the second series ends with Kenny performing " You Don 't Feel For Me " ( written by Ross himself ) . Lee Ross was only able to commit to the first six episodes of the 12 @-@ episode series three and four filming block because he was expecting a film role . Thus , by series four , Kenny has left for Australia .
Colin Mathews ( Paul Reynolds ) is the Thatcherite in charge of the paper 's finances and advertising . He often wears loud shirts , and his various schemes have included marketing defective half @-@ ping @-@ pong balls ( as ' pings ' ) , exam revision kits and soda that leaves facial stains . Rosie Marcel and Claire Hearnden appear throughout the second series as Sophie and Laura , Colin 's mischievous young helpers .
Julie Craig ( Lucy Benjamin ) is the head of the graphics team in series one . Moffat was impressed with Benjamin 's performance , and expanded her character for the second series . However she had committed herself to roles in the LWT sitcom Close to Home and Jupiter Moon , so the character was replaced by Sam . The character returns in the opening episode of series four as researcher on the Saturday morning show Crazy Stuff . She arranges for Lynda and Spike to be reunited on live television , but the subsequent complaints about the violence ( face slapping ) results in Julie 's firing . After giving Lynda some home truths , Julie replaces Kenny as the assistant editor for the final two series . She is a flirt , and , according to Lynda , was the " official pin @-@ up at the last prison riot . "
Sarah Jackson ( Kelda Holmes ) is the paper 's lead writer . Although she is intelligent she gets stressed , such as during her interview for editorship of the Junior Gazette . Her final episode , " Friendly Fire " , shows the development of her friendship with Lynda , and how the latter saw her as a challenge when she first arrived to Norbridge High . Together they had established the underground school magazine : Damn Magazine . Her first attempt to leave the newspaper to attend a writing course at the local college is thwarted by Lynda , but she eventually leaves in series five to attend university ( mirroring the reason for Holmes ' departure ) .
Frazer " Frazz " Davis ( Mmol
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either the edges ( cheilocystidia ) or faces ( pleurocystidia ) of the gills . The arrangement of the hyphae in the hymenophoral tissue varies from regular to interwoven . The cap cuticle is a cutis ( a type of tissue where the hyphae are arranged more or less parallel to the surface ) , formed by hyphae with septa , roughly 4 – 9 μm in diameter . Clamp connections are present in the hyphae . The sclerotium is made of hyphae that have yellow pigment in their walls that appear in cross @-@ section to be pseudoparenchymatous ( compactly interwoven short @-@ celled hyphae that resemble parenchyma of higher plants ) , and measure 5 – 10 μm in diameter .
= = = Similar species = = =
Collybia cookei is most likely to be confused with the two other members of Collybia , both of which are outwardly similar in appearance ; distinguishing between the three typically requires excavating the stem base away from the moss or debris in which the stem is embedded . In the field , C. tuberosa may be distinguished from C. cookei by its dark brown sclerotia that somewhat resembles an appleseed . Using a microscope provides a more definitive way of distinguishing the two : the hyphae in the sclerotia of C. cookei are rounded , while those of C. tuberosa are elongated ; this diagnostic character is apparent with both fresh and dried material of the two species . C. cirrhata does not produce sclerotia .
Another mushroom that grows on decomposing fruit bodies is Asterophora lycoperdoides , which is distinct from C. cookei because of the powdery brown asexual spores ( chlamydospores ) produced on the cap surface . Alexander H. Smith has noted a general similarity in appearance between C. cookei and the North American species Clitocybe sclerotoidea ( then known as Tricholoma sclerotoideum ) , which is parasitic to Helvella lacunosa . However , C. sclerotoidea is larger than C. cookei , with cap diameters up to 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) , and has more distantly spaced gills .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Like all members of the genus Collybia , C. cookei grows on the well @-@ rotted , blackened remains of mushrooms , such as species of Russula , Meripilus giganteus , and Inonotus hispidus . Fruit bodies occasionally grow on well @-@ decayed wood or rich humus . The fruit bodies grow scattered , clustered , or in groups . A field study conducted near a Brass mill in Sweden revealed that heavy metal contamination had little effect on the appearance of the mushroom , possibly because its substrate of partially decomposed fruit bodies has a lower metal concentration that the underlying topsoil .
Collybia cookei is found in Europe , Asia ( Japan ) , and North America . The European distribution extends north to the Arctic Circle and the Lofoten Islands . The species is widely distributed in North America ; it was reported from Mexico for the first time in 1998 . The fungus is partial to mixed forest dominated by aspen and conifers in montane and subalpine environments . In The Netherlands , it was a component of one of three communities of saprobic fungi associated with roadside verges ( the land between the road edge and the adjacent wall , fence or hedge ) planted with common oak ( Quercus robur ) ; the verges also supported the growth of the mushroom Russula ochroleuca , a host of C. cookei .
= Entranceway at Main Street at Roycroft Boulevard =
Entranceway at Main Street at Roycroft Boulevard is a suburban residential subdivision entranceway built in 1918 . It is on Main Street ( New York State Route 5 ) in the hamlet of Snyder , New York , in the town of Amherst within Erie County . The entranceway is a marker that represents the American suburbanization of rural areas , suburbanization that occurred through transportation @-@ related land development on the edges of urban areas . It consists of a variety of half @-@ height wall formations , featuring a semicircular wall on the Roycroft Boulevard median 's intersection with Main Street . The entranceway was added to the National Register of Historic Places on December 7 , 2005 .
= = History = =
Williamsville developed around a mill erected in 1811 , and the town of Amherst was born in 1818 . At that time , Main Street was the main link from Williamsville and Amherst to Buffalo . Main Street was displaced as " the unchallenged main artery of Amherst and Western New York " by the Erie Canal in 1825 and later by adjacent railroads . By 1866 , Buffalo Street Railway Company built a street car system that ran on Main Street from Amherst to Buffalo . Daily stage coach service also began in 1866 along Main Street and continued until it was displaced by an electric trolley in 1893 , the track ran 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) from Main and Bailey Avenue ( U.S. Route 62 in New York ) to the east with stops that included Entranceways at Main Street at Lamarck Drive and Smallwood Drive .
The early 20th century estate era gave way to the residential subdivision era . Suburban Buffalo 's subdivisions took on an urban flavor along the area 's main thoroughfares and paths of migration . Charles S. Burkhardt began Audubon Terrace on 400 acres north of Main Street in October 1919 on the Taylor and Satterfield Estates .
= = Location = =
Today , Main Street is a four @-@ lane road running east @-@ west through Snyder connecting Williamsville ( the other side of Interstate 290 , known as the Youngman Expressway ) to points westward such as the neighboring hamlet of Eggertsville and downtown Buffalo . The entranceway is located proximate to large residential areas of trees and grass , 1920s @-@ built subdivisions flanking a wide central median . It is situated three blocks east of Harlem Road ( New York State Route 240 ) . Across Main Street and northeast from the Entranceway is the Eggertsville @-@ Snyder Branch Library of the Buffalo & Erie County Public Library located at 4622 Main Street . Each side of the median serves one @-@ way traffic . The entranceways sit on the two south side corners of this T @-@ junction intersection .
= = Architecture = =
Completed in 1918 , the entranceway 's featured element is the nearly semi @-@ circular random ashlar stone half @-@ walls on Roycroft Boulevard 's axis of symmetry , which is at a 22 degree angle to Main Street . The wall has one central and two end square posts that are approximately 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) in height and that have poured concrete caps that are not original . Each post has a metal and glass contemporary street lamp projecting from its center . Quarter points of the arc have stone pilaster ornamentation . The running portion of the wall has a continuous cast in place coping cap shaped at a 45 degree angle , which forms an attached buttress three quarters the height of the posts . Past repairs have included incompatible stone and mortar patches . The Main Street paving and the grassy median abut the convex and concave sides , respectively . According to the August 5 , 2005 , application , the entranceway is in a state of disrepair , lacking a visible base and having a tilt .
On opposite sides of the Roycroft Boulevard roadways from the central feature are flanking structures with random ashlar stone posts and half @-@ height walls . They are oriented parallel to the angular Roycroft Boulevard and have lengths proportionate to the central wall end post 's distance from Main Street . Both walls are L @-@ shaped with the longer length extending along Roycroft Boulevard and having a short cornered length along Main Street . These walls have capped , square stone buttress @-@ less posts and corners marked by wall @-@ height stone pilaster . On the opposite side of each from the a concrete sidewalk parallel to Roycroft Boulevard is a free @-@ standing stone post . The west side is in fair condition , while the east side is out of vertical alignment and is in poor condition . The east side has the distinction of retaining the only original cast concrete cap with a circular recess on its north end post . It presumably once held an original lamp post and was once painted white . Its south end post has a four piece , white terra cotta cap resembling the other non @-@ original end posts in the set of structures .
= = Legacy = =
The entryways remain in their original location , retain original design , and setting . They continue to mark the entrance to the subdivision 's entrance for vehicular and pedestrian traffic as they were originally designed to do . Abbott and Beymer Land Co. purchased the land for the Aurora Park subdivision that the entranceway has marked since its 1918 construction . The street and plot plan were designed by the Straley Brothers , who were civil engineers and surveyors from Buffalo . County engineer , George C. Diehl , had a role in the development of this subdivision . The entranceway was added to the National Register of Historic Places on December 7 , 2005 .
= Battle of Gettysburg , First Day =
The First Day of the Battle of Gettysburg during the American Civil War took place on July 1 , 1863 , and began as an engagement between isolated units of the Army of Northern Virginia under Confederate General Robert E. Lee and the Army of the Potomac under Union Maj. Gen. George G. Meade . It soon escalated into a major battle which culminated in the outnumbered and defeated Union forces retreating to the high ground south of Gettysburg , Pennsylvania .
The first @-@ day battle proceeded in three phases as combatants continued to arrive at the battlefield . In the morning , two brigades of Confederate Maj. Gen. Henry Heth 's division ( of Lt. Gen. A.P. Hill 's Third Corps ) were delayed by dismounted Union cavalrymen under Brig. Gen. John Buford . As infantry reinforcements arrived under Maj. Gen. John F. Reynolds of the Union I Corps , the Confederate assaults down the Chambersburg Pike were repulsed , although Gen. Reynolds was killed .
By early afternoon , the Union XI Corps had arrived , and the Union position was in a semicircle from west to north of the town . The Confederate Second Corps under Lt. Gen. Richard S. Ewell began a massive assault from the north , with Maj. Gen. Robert E. Rodes 's division attacking from Oak Hill and Maj. Gen. Jubal A. Early 's division attacking across the open fields north of town . The Union lines generally held under extremely heavy pressure , although the salient at Barlow 's Knoll was overrun .
The third phase of the battle came as Rodes renewed his assault from the north and Heth returned with his entire division from the west , accompanied by the division of Maj. Gen. W. Dorsey Pender . Heavy fighting in Herbst 's Woods ( near the Lutheran Theological Seminary ) and on Oak Ridge finally caused the Union line to collapse . Some of the Federals conducted a fighting withdrawal through the town , suffering heavy casualties and losing many prisoners ; others simply retreated . They took up good defensive positions on Cemetery Hill and waited for additional attacks . Despite discretionary orders from Robert E. Lee to take the heights " if practicable , " Richard Ewell chose not to attack . Historians have debated ever since how the battle might have ended differently if he had found it practicable to do so .
= = Background = =
= = = Military situation = = =
= = Opposing forces = =
= = = Union = = =
= = = Confederate = = =
= = Morning = =
= = = Defense by Buford 's cavalry = = =
On the morning of July 1 , Union cavalry in the division of Brig. Gen. John Buford were awaiting the approach of Confederate infantry forces from the direction of Cashtown , to the northwest . Confederate forces from the brigade of Brig. Gen. J. Johnston Pettigrew had briefly clashed with Union forces the day before but believed they were Pennsylvania militia of little consequence , not the regular army cavalry that was screening the approach of the Army of the Potomac .
General Buford realized the importance of the high ground directly to the south of Gettysburg . He knew that if the Confederates could gain control of the heights , Meade 's army would have a hard time dislodging them . He decided to utilize three ridges west of Gettysburg : Herr Ridge , McPherson Ridge , and Seminary Ridge ( proceeding west to east toward the town ) . These were appropriate terrain for a delaying action by his small division against superior Confederate infantry forces , meant to buy time awaiting the arrival of Union infantrymen who could occupy the strong defensive positions south of town , Cemetery Hill , Cemetery Ridge , and Culp 's Hill . Early that morning , Reynolds , who was commanding the Left Wing of the Army of the Potomac , ordered his corps to march to Buford 's location , with the XI Corps ( Maj. Gen. Oliver O. Howard ) to follow closely behind .
Confederate Maj. Gen. Henry Heth 's division , from Lt. Gen. A.P. Hill 's Third Corps , advanced towards Gettysburg . Heth deployed no cavalry and led , unconventionally , with the artillery battalion of Major William J. Pegram . Two infantry brigades followed , commanded by Brig. Gens . James J. Archer and Joseph R. Davis , proceeding easterly in columns along the Chambersburg Pike . Three miles ( 5 km ) west of town , about 7 : 30 a.m. , Heth 's two brigades met light resistance from cavalry vedettes and deployed into line . Eventually , they reached dismounted troopers from Col. William Gamble 's cavalry brigade . The first shot of the battle was claimed to be fired by Lieutenant Marcellus E. Jones of the 8th Illinois Cavalry , fired at an unidentified man on a gray horse over a half @-@ mile away ; the act was merely symbolic . Buford 's 2 @,@ 748 troopers would soon be faced with 7 @,@ 600 Confederate infantrymen , deploying from columns into line of battle .
Gamble 's men mounted determined resistance and delaying tactics from behind fence posts with rapid fire from their breech @-@ loading carbines . It is a modern myth that they were armed with multi @-@ shot repeating carbines . Nevertheless , they were able to fire two or three times faster than a muzzle @-@ loaded carbine or rifle . Also , the breech @-@ loading design meant that Union troops did not have to stand to reload and could do so safely behind cover . This was a great advantage over the Confederates , who still had to stand to reload , thus providing an easier target . But this was so far a relatively bloodless affair . By 10 : 20 a.m. , the Confederates had reached Herr Ridge and had pushed the Federal cavalrymen east to McPherson Ridge , when the vanguard of the I Corps finally arrived , the division of Maj. Gen. James S. Wadsworth . The troops were led personally by Gen. Reynolds , who conferred briefly with Buford and hurried back to bring more men forward .
= = = Davis versus Cutler = = =
The morning infantry fighting occurred on either side of the Chambersburg Pike , mostly on McPherson Ridge . To the north , an unfinished railroad bed opened three shallow cuts in the ridges . To the south , the dominant features were Willoughby Run and Herbst Woods ( sometimes called McPherson Woods , but they were the property of John Herbst ) . Brig. Gen. Lysander Cutler 's Union brigade opposed Davis 's brigade ; three of Cutler 's regiments were north of the Pike , two to the south . To the left of Cutler , Brig. Gen. Solomon Meredith 's Iron Brigade opposed Archer .
General Reynolds directed both brigades into position and placed guns from the Maine battery of Capt. James A. Hall where Calef 's had stood earlier . While the general rode his horse along the east end of Herbst Woods , shouting " Forward men ! Forward for God 's sake , and drive those fellows out of the woods , " he fell from his horse , killed instantly by a bullet striking him behind the ear . ( Some historians believe Reynolds was felled by a sharpshooter , but it is more likely that he was killed by random shot in a volley of rifle fire directed at the 2nd Wisconsin . ) Maj. Gen. Abner Doubleday assumed command of the I Corps .
On the right of the Union line , three regiments of Cutler 's brigade were fired on by Davis 's brigade before they could get into position on the ridge . Davis 's line overlapped the right of Cutler 's , making the Union position untenable , and Wadsworth ordered Cutler 's regiments back to Seminary Ridge . The commander of the 147th New York , Lt. Col. Francis C. Miller , was shot before he could inform his troops of the withdrawal , and they remained to fight under heavy pressure until a second order came . In under 30 minutes , 45 % of Gen. Cutler 's 1 @,@ 007 men became casualties , with the 147th losing 207 of its 380 officers and men . Some of Davis 's victorious men turned toward the Union positions south of the railroad bed while others drove east toward Seminary Ridge . This defocused the Confederate effort north of the pike .
= = = Archer versus Meredith = = =
South of the pike , Archer 's men were expecting an easy fight against dismounted cavalrymen and were astonished to recognize the black Hardee hats worn by the men facing them through the woods : the famous Iron Brigade , formed from regiments in the Western states of Indiana , Michigan , and Wisconsin , had a reputation as fierce , tenacious fighters . As the Confederates crossed Willoughby Run and climbed the slope into Herbst Woods , they were enveloped on their right by the longer Union line , the reverse of the situation north of the pike .
Brig. Gen. Archer was captured in the fighting , the first general officer in Robert E. Lee 's army to suffer that fate . Archer was most likely positioned around the 14th Tennessee when he was captured by Private Patrick Moloney of Company G. , 2nd Wisconsin , " a brave patriotic and fervent young Irishman . " Archer resisted capture , but Moloney overpowered him . Moloney was killed later that day , but he received the Medal of Honor for his exploit . When Archer was taken to the rear , he encountered his former Army colleague Gen. Doubleday , who greeted him good @-@ naturedly , " Good morning , Archer ! How are you ? I am glad to see you ! " Archer replied , " Well , I am not glad to see you by a damn sight ! "
= = = Railroad cut = = =
At around 11 a.m. , Doubleday sent his reserve regiment , the 6th Wisconsin , an Iron Brigade regiment , commanded by Lt. Col. Rufus R. Dawes , north in the direction of Davis 's disorganized brigade . The Wisconsin men paused at the fence along the pike and fired , which halted Davis 's attack on Cutler 's men and caused many of them to seek cover in the unfinished railroad cut . The 6th joined the 95th New York and the 84th New York ( also known as the 14th Brooklyn ) , a " demi @-@ brigade " commanded by Col. E.B. Fowler , along the pike . The three regiments charged to the railroad cut , where Davis 's men were seeking cover . The majority of the 600 @-@ foot ( 180 m ) cut ( shown on the map as the center cut of three ) was too deep to be an effective firing position — as deep as 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 5 m ) . Making the situation more difficult was the absence of their overall commander , General Davis , whose location was unknown .
The men of the three regiments nevertheless faced daunting fire as they charged toward the cut . The 6th Wisconsin 's American flag went down at least three times during the charge . At one point Dawes took up the fallen flag before it was seized from him by a corporal of the color guard . As the Union line neared the Confederates , its flanks became folded back and it took on the appearance of an inverted V. When the Union men reached the railroad cut , vicious hand @-@ to @-@ hand and bayonet fighting broke out . They were able to pour enfilading fire from both ends of the cut , and many Confederates considered surrender . Colonel Dawes took the initiative by shouting " Where is the colonel of this regiment ? " Major John Blair of the 2nd Mississippi stood up and responded , " Who are you ? " Dawes replied , " I command this regiment . Surrender or I will fire . " Dawes later described what happened next :
The officer replied not a word , but promptly handed me his sword , and his men , who still held them , threw down their muskets . The coolness , self possession , and discipline which held back our men from pouring a general volley saved a hundred lives of the enemy , and as my mind goes back to the fearful excitement of the moment , I marvel at it .
Despite this surrender , leaving Dawes standing awkwardly holding seven swords , the fighting continued for minutes more and numerous Confederates were able to escape back to Herr Ridge . The three Union regiments lost 390 – 440 of 1 @,@ 184 engaged , but they had blunted Davis 's attack , prevented them from striking the rear of the Iron Brigade , and so overwhelmed the Confederate brigade that it was unable to participate significantly in combat for the rest of the day . The Confederate losses were about 500 killed and wounded and over 200 prisoners out of 1 @,@ 707 engaged .
= = Midday lull = =
By 11 : 30 a.m. , the battlefield was temporarily quiet . On the Confederate side , Henry Heth faced an embarrassing situation . He had been under orders from General Lee to avoid a general engagement until the full Army of Northern Virginia had concentrated in the area . But his excursion to Gettysburg , ostensibly to find shoes , was essentially a reconnaissance in force conducted by a full infantry division . This indeed had started a general engagement and Heth was on the losing side so far . By 12 : 30 p.m. , his remaining two brigades , under Brig. Gen. J. Johnston Pettigrew and Col. John M. Brockenbrough , had arrived on the scene , as had the division ( four brigades ) of Maj. Gen. Dorsey Pender , also from Hill 's Corps . Hill 's remaining division ( Maj. Gen. Richard H. Anderson ) did not arrive until late in the day .
Considerably more Confederate forces were on the way , however . Two divisions of the Second Corps , commanded by Lt. Gen. Richard S. Ewell , were approaching Gettysburg from the north , from the towns of Carlisle and York . The five brigades of Maj. Gen. Robert E. Rodes marched down the Carlisle Road but left it before reaching town to advance down the wooded crest of Oak Ridge , where they could link up with the left flank of Hill 's Corps . The four brigades under Maj. Gen. Jubal A. Early approached on the Harrisburg Road . Union cavalry outposts north of the town detected both movements . Ewell 's remaining division ( Maj. Gen. Edward " Allegheny " Johnson ) did not arrive until late in the day .
On the Union side , Doubleday reorganized his lines as more units of the I Corps arrived . First on hand was the Corps Artillery under Col. Charles S. Wainwright , followed by two brigades from Doubleday 's division , now commanded by Brig. Gen. Thomas A. Rowley , which Doubleday placed on either end of his line . The XI Corps arrived from the south before noon , moving up the Taneytown and Emmitsburg Roads . Maj. Gen. Oliver O. Howard was surveying the area from the roof of the Fahnestock Brothers ' dry @-@ goods store downtown at about 11 : 30 when he heard that Reynolds had been killed and that he was now in command of all Union forces on the field . He recalled : " My heart was heavy and the situation was grave indeed , but surely I did not hesitate a moment . God helping us , we will stay here till the Army comes . I assumed the command of the field . "
Howard immediately sent messengers to summon reinforcements from the III Corps ( Maj. Gen. Daniel E. Sickles ) and the XII Corps ( Maj. Gen. Henry W. Slocum ) . Howard 's first XI Corps division to arrive , under Maj. Gen. Carl Schurz , was sent north to take a position on Oak Ridge and link up with the right of the I Corps . ( The division was commanded temporarily by Brig. Gen. Alexander Schimmelfennig while Schurz filled in for Howard as XI Corps commander . ) The division of Brig. Gen. Francis C. Barlow was placed on Schurz 's right to support him . The third division to arrive , under Brig. Gen. Adolph von Steinwehr , was placed on Cemetery Hill along with two batteries of artillery to hold the hill as a rallying point if the Union troops could not hold their positions ; this placement on the hill corresponded with orders sent earlier in the day to Howard by Reynolds just before he was killed .
However , Rodes beat Schurz to Oak Hill , so the XI Corps division was forced to take up positions in the broad plain north of the town , below and to the east of Oak Hill . They linked up with the I Corps reserve division of Brig. Gen. John C. Robinson , whose two brigades had been sent forward by Doubleday when he heard about Ewell 's arrival . Howard 's defensive line was not a particularly strong one in the north . He was soon outnumbered ( his XI Corps , still suffering the effects of their defeat at the Battle of Chancellorsville , had only 8 @,@ 700 effectives ) , and the terrain his men occupied in the north was poorly selected for defense . He held out some hope that reinforcements from Slocum 's XII Corps would arrive up the Baltimore Pike in time to make a difference .
= = Afternoon = =
In the afternoon , there was fighting both west ( Hill 's Corps renewing their attacks on the I Corps ) and north ( Ewell 's Corps attacking the I and XI Corps ) of Gettysburg . Ewell , on Oak Hill with Rodes , saw Howard 's troops deploying before him , and he interpreted this as the start of an attack and implicit permission to set aside Gen. Lee 's order not to bring about a general engagement .
= = = Rodes attacks from Oak Hill = = =
Rodes initially sent three brigades south against Union troops that represented the right flank of the I Corps and the left flank of the XI Corps : from east to west , Brig. Gen. George P. Doles , Col. Edward A. O 'Neal , and Brig. Gen. Alfred Iverson . Doles 's Georgia brigade stood guarding the flank , awaiting the arrival of Early 's division . Both O 'Neal 's and Iverson 's attacks fared poorly against the six veteran regiments in the brigade of Brig. Gen. Henry Baxter , manning a line in a shallow inverted V , facing north on the ridge behind the Mummasburg Road . O 'Neal 's men were sent forward without coordinating with Iverson on their flank and fell back under heavy fire from the I Corps troops .
Iverson failed to perform even a rudimentary reconnaissance and sent his men forward blindly while he stayed in the rear ( as had O 'Neal , minutes earlier ) . More of Baxter 's men were concealed in woods behind a stone wall and rose to fire withering volleys from less than 100 yards ( 91 m ) away , creating over 800 casualties among the 1 @,@ 350 North Carolinians . Stories are told about groups of dead bodies lying in almost parade @-@ ground formations , heels of their boots perfectly aligned . ( The bodies were later buried on the scene , and this area is today known as " Iverson 's Pits " , source of many local tales of supernatural phenomena . )
Baxter 's brigade was worn down and out of ammunition . At 3 : 00 p.m. he withdrew his brigade , and Gen. Robinson replaced it with the brigade of Brig. Gen. Gabriel R. Paul . Rodes then committed his two reserve brigades : Brig. Gens . Junius Daniel and Dodson Ramseur . Ramseur attacked first , but Paul 's brigade held its crucial position . Paul had a bullet go in one temple and out the other , blinding him permanently ( he survived the wound and lived 20 more years after the battle ) . Before the end of the day , three other commanders of that brigade were wounded .
Daniel 's North Carolina brigade then attempted to break the I Corps line to the southwest along the Chambersburg Pike . They ran into stiff resistance from Col. Roy Stone 's Pennsylvania " Bucktail Brigade " in the same area around the railroad cut as the morning 's battle . Fierce fighting eventually ground to a standstill .
= = = Heth renews his attack = = =
Gen. Lee arrived on the battlefield at about 2 : 30 p.m. , as Rodes 's men were in mid @-@ attack . Seeing that a major assault was underway , he lifted his restriction on a general engagement and gave permission to Hill to resume his attacks from the morning . First in line was Heth 's division again , with two fresh brigades : Pettigrew 's North Carolinians and Col. John M. Brockenbrough 's Virginians .
Pettigrew 's Brigade was deployed in a line that extended south beyond the ground defended by the Iron Brigade . Enveloping the left flank of the 19th Indiana , Pettigrew 's North Carolinians , the largest brigade in the army , drove back the Iron Brigade in some of the fiercest fighting of the war . The Iron Brigade was pushed out of the woods , made three temporary stands in the open ground to the east , but then had to fall back toward the Lutheran Theological Seminary . Gen. Meredith was downed with a head wound , made all the worse when his horse fell on him . To the left of the Iron Brigade was the brigade of Col. Chapman Biddle , defending open ground on McPherson Ridge , but they were outflanked and decimated . To the right , Stone 's Bucktails , facing both west and north along the Chambersburg Pike , were attacked by both Brockenbrough and Daniel .
Casualties were severe that afternoon . The 26th North Carolina ( the largest regiment of the army with 839 men ) lost heavily , leaving the first day 's fight with around 212 men . Their commander , Colonel Henry K. Burgwyn , was fatally wounded by a bullet through his chest . By the end of the three @-@ day battle , they had about 152 men standing , the highest casualty percentage for one battle of any regiment , North or South . One of the Union regiments , the 24th Michigan , lost 399 of 496 . It had nine color bearers shot down , and its commander , Col. Henry A. Morrow , was wounded in the head and captured . The 151st Pennsylvania of Biddle 's brigade lost 337 of 467 .
The highest ranking casualty of this engagement was Gen. Heth , who was struck by a bullet in the head . He was apparently saved because he had stuffed wads of paper into a new hat , which was otherwise too large for his head . But there were two consequences to this glancing blow . Heth was unconscious for over 24 hours and had no further command involvement in the three @-@ day battle . He was also unable to urge Pender 's division to move forward and supplement his struggling assault . Pender was oddly passive during this phase of the battle ; the typically more aggressive tendencies of a young general in Lee 's army would have seen him move forward on his own accord . Hill shared the blame for failing to order him forward as well , but he claimed illness . History cannot know Pender 's motivations ; he was mortally wounded the next day and left no report .
= = = Early attacks XI Corps = = =
Maj. Gen. Oliver O. Howard of the XI Corps had a difficult defensive problem . He had only two divisions ( four brigades ) to cover the wide expanse of featureless farmland north of town . He and Maj. Gen. Carl Schurz , temporarily in command of the corps while Howard was in overall command on the field , deployed the division of Brig. Gen. Alexander Schimmelfennig on the left and Brig. Gen. Francis C. Barlow on the right . From the left , the brigades were Schimmelfennig 's ( under Col. George von Amsberg ) , Col. Włodzimierz Krzyżanowski , Brig. Gen. Adelbert Ames , and Col. Leopold von Gilsa . Howard recalled that he selected this line as a logical continuation of the I Corps line formed on his left . This decision has been criticized by historians , such as Edwin B. Coddington , as being too far forward , with a right flank vulnerable to envelopment by the enemy . ( Coddington suggests that a more defensible line would have been along Stevens Run , about 600 feet north of the railroad , a shorter line to defend , with better fields of fire , and with a more secure right flank . )
Making the Federal defense more difficult , Barlow advanced farther north than Schimmelfennig 's division , occupying a 50 @-@ foot ( 15 m ) elevation above Rock Creek named Blocher 's Knoll ( known today as Barlow 's Knoll ) . Barlow 's justification was that he wanted to prevent Doles 's Brigade , of Rodes 's division , from occupying it and using it as an artillery platform against him . General Schurz claimed afterward that Barlow had misunderstood his orders by taking this position . ( In Schurz 's official report , however , he states that Barlow " had been directing the movements of his troops with the most praiseworthy coolness and intrepidity , unmindful of the shower of bullets around , " and " was severely wounded , and had to be carried off the battle @-@ field . " ) By taking the knoll , Barlow was following Howard 's directive to obstruct the advance of Early 's division , and in doing so , deprive him of an artillery platform , as von Steinwehr fortified the position on Cemetery Hill . The position on the knoll turned out to be unfortunate , as it created a salient in the line that could be assaulted from multiple sides . Schurz ordered Krzyżanowski 's brigade , which had heretofore been sitting en masse at the north end of town ( without further order to position from Schurz ) forward to assist Barlow 's two brigades on the knoll , but they arrived too late and in insufficient numbers to help . Historian Harry W. Pfanz judges Barlow 's decision to be a " blunder " that " ensured the defeat of the corps . "
Richard Ewell 's second division , under Jubal Early , swept down the Harrisburg Road , deployed in a battle line three brigades wide , almost a mile across ( 1 @,@ 600 m ) and almost half a mile ( 800 m ) wider than the Union defensive line . Early started with a large @-@ scale artillery bombardment . The Georgia brigade of Brigadier @-@ General John B. Gordon was then directed for a frontal attack against Barlow 's Knoll , pinning down the defenders , while the brigades of Brigadier @-@ General Harry T. Hays and Colonel Isaac E. Avery swung around their exposed flank . At the same time the Georgians under Doles launched a synchronized assault with Gordon . The defenders of Barlow 's Knoll targeted by Gordon were 900 men of von Gilsa 's brigade ; in May , two of his regiments had been the initial target of Thomas J. " Stonewall " Jackson 's flanking attack at Chancellorsville . The men of the 54th and 68th New York held out as long as they could , but they were overwhelmed . Then the 153rd Pennsylvania succumbed . Barlow , attempting to rally his troops , was shot in the side and captured . Barlow 's second brigade , under Ames , came under attack by Doles and Gordon . Both Union brigades conducted a disorderly retreat to the south .
On the left flank of the XI Corps , the attack focused on Gen. Schimmelfennig 's division . They were subjected to a deadly artillery crossfire from Rodes ' and Early 's batteries , and as they deployed they were attacked by Doles ' infantry . Early 's troops were able to employ a flanking attack and roll up the division from the right , and they fell back in confusion toward the town . A desperate counterattack by the 157th New York from von Amsberg 's brigade was surrounded on three sides , causing it to suffer 307 casualties ( 75 % ) .
Gen. Howard , witnessing this disaster , sent forward an artillery battery and an infantry brigade from von Steinwehr 's reserve force , under Col. Charles Coster . Coster 's battle line just north of the town in Kuhn 's brickyard was overwhelmed by Hays and Avery . He provided valuable cover for the retreating soldiers , but at a high price : of Coster 's 800 men , 313 were captured , as were two of the four guns from the battery .
The collapse of the XI Corps was completed by 4 p.m. , after a fight of less than an hour . They suffered 3 @,@ 200 casualties ( 1 @,@ 400 of them prisoners ) , about half the number sent forward from Cemetery Hill . The losses in Gordon 's and Doles 's brigades were under 750 .
= = = Rodes and Pender break through = = =
Rodes 's original faulty attack at 2 : 00 had stalled , but he launched his reserve brigade , under Ramseur , against Paul 's Brigade in the salient on the Mummasburg Road , with Doles 's Brigade against the left flank of the XI Corps . Daniel 's Brigade resumed its attack , now to the east against Baxter on Oak Ridge . This time Rodes was more successful , mostly because Early coordinated an attack on his flank .
In the west , the Union troops had fallen back to the Seminary and built hasty breastworks running 600 yards ( 550 m ) north @-@ south before the western face of Schmucker Hall , bolstered by 20 guns of Wainwright 's battalion . Dorsey Pender 's division of Hill 's Corps stepped through the exhausted lines of Heth 's men at about 4 : 00 p.m. to finish off the I Corps survivors . The brigade of Brig. Gen. Alfred M. Scales attacked first , on the northern flank . His five regiments of 1 @,@ 400 North Carolinians were virtually annihilated in one of the fiercest artillery barrages of the war , rivaling Pickett 's Charge to come , but on a more concentrated scale . Twenty guns spaced only 5 yards ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) apart fired spherical case , explosive shells , canister , and double canister rounds into the approaching brigade , which emerged from the fight with only 500 men standing and a single lieutenant in command . Scales wrote afterwards that he found " only a squad here and there marked the place where regiments had rested . "
The attack continued in the southern @-@ central area , where Col. Abner M. Perrin ordered his South Carolina brigade ( four regiments of 1 @,@ 500 men ) to advance rapidly without pausing to fire . Perrin was prominently on horseback leading his men but miraculously was untouched . He directed his men to a weak point in the breastworks on the Union left , a 50 @-@ yard ( 46 m ) gap between Biddle 's left @-@ hand regiment , the 121st Pennsylvania , and Gamble 's cavalrymen , attempting to guard the flank . They broke through , enveloping the Union line and rolling it up to the north as Scales 's men continued to pin down the right flank . By 4 : 30 p.m. , the Union position was untenable , and the men could see the XI Corps retreating from the northern battle , pursued by masses of Confederates . Doubleday ordered a withdrawal east to Cemetery Hill .
On the southern flank , the North Carolina brigade of Brig. Gen. James H. Lane contributed little to the assault ; he was kept busy by a clash with Union cavalry on the Hagerstown Road . Brig. Gen. Edward L. Thomas 's Georgia Brigade was in reserve well to the rear , not summoned by Pender or Hill to assist or exploit the breakthrough .
= = = Union retreat = = =
The sequence of retreating units remains unclear . Each of the two corps cast blame on the other . There are three main versions of events extant . The first , most prevalent , version is that the fiasco on Barlow 's Knoll triggered a collapse that ran counterclockwise around the line . The second is that both Barlow 's line and the Seminary defense collapsed at about the same time . The third is that Robinson 's division in the center gave way and that spread both left and right . Gen. Howard told Gen. Meade that his corps was forced to retreat only because the I Corps collapsed first on his flank , which may have reduced his embarrassment but was unappreciated by Doubleday and his men . ( Doubleday 's career was effectively ruined by Howard 's story . )
Union troops retreated in different states of order . The brigades on Seminary Ridge were said to move deliberately and slowly , keeping in control , although Col. Wainwright 's artillery was not informed of the order to retreat and found themselves alone . When Wainwright realized his situation , he ordered his gun crews to withdraw at a walk , not wishing to panic the infantry and start a rout . As pressure eventually increased , Wainwright ordered his 17 remaining guns to gallop down Chambersburg Street , three abreast . A.P. Hill failed to commit any of his reserves to the pursuit of the Seminary defenders , a great missed opportunity .
Near the railroad cut , Daniel 's Brigade renewed their assault , and almost 500 Union soldiers surrendered and were taken prisoner . Paul 's Brigade , under attack by Ramseur , became seriously isolated and Gen. Robinson ordered it to withdraw . He ordered the 16th Maine to hold its position " at any cost " as a rear guard against the enemy pursuit . The regiment , commanded by Col. Charles Tilden , returned to the stone wall on the Mummasburg Road , and their fierce fire gave sufficient time for the rest of the brigade to escape , which they did , in considerably more disarray than those from the Seminary . The 16th Maine started the day with 298 men , but at the end of this holding action there were only 35 survivors .
For the XI Corps , it was a sad reminder of their retreat at Chancellorsville in May . Under heavy pursuit by Hays and Avery , they clogged the streets of the town ; no one in the corps had planned routes for this contingency . Hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting broke out in various places . Parts of the corps conducted an organized fighting retreat , such as Coster 's stand in the brickyard . The private citizens of Gettysburg panicked amidst the turmoil , and artillery shells bursting overhead and fleeing refugees added to the congestion . Some soldiers sought to avoid capture by hiding in basements and in fenced backyards . Gen. Alexander Schimmelfennig was one such person who climbed a fence and hid behind a woodpile in the kitchen garden of the Garlach family for the rest of the three @-@ day battle . The only advantage that the XI Corps soldiers had was that they were familiar with the route to Cemetery Hill , having passed through that way in the morning ; many in the I Corps , including senior officers , did not know where the cemetery was .
As the Union troops climbed Cemetery Hill , they encountered the determined Maj. Gen. Winfield Scott Hancock . At midday , Gen. Meade was nine miles ( 14 km ) south of Gettysburg in Taneytown , Maryland , when he heard that Reynolds had been killed . He immediately dispatched Hancock , commander of the II Corps and his most trusted subordinate , to the scene with orders to take command of the field and to determine whether Gettysburg was an appropriate place for a major battle . ( Meade 's original plan had been to man a defensive line on Pipe Creek , a few miles south in Maryland . But the serious battle underway was making that a difficult option . )
When Hancock arrived on Cemetery Hill , he met with Howard and they had a brief disagreement about Meade 's command order . As the senior officer , Howard yielded only grudgingly to Hancock 's direction . Although Hancock arrived after 4 : 00 p.m. and commanded no units on the field that day , he took control of the Union troops arriving on the hill and directed them to defensive positions with his " imperious and defiant " ( and profane ) persona . As to the choice of Gettysburg as the battlefield , Hancock told Howard " I think this the strongest position by nature upon which to fight a
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best that companies like Nintendo and Konami have had to offer this year " . He specifically complimented the character animations , simulations of underwater waves , and in @-@ depth background effects . Vassar praised Advance 3 for continuing Advance 1 and 2 's emulation of the " colorful , angular , and stylized look " of the original Sonic the Hedgehog for the Sega Genesis , as well as its " twangy , upbeat tunes " . Stardingo thought similarly overall but criticized the " garish " themes of the level Toy Kingdom .
= Falstaff ( opera ) =
Falstaff ( Italian pronunciation : [ ˈfalstaf ] ) is an opera in three acts by the Italian composer Giuseppe Verdi ( 1813 – 1901 ) . The libretto was adapted by Arrigo Boito from Shakespeare 's The Merry Wives of Windsor and scenes from Henry IV , parts 1 and 2 . The work premiered on 9 February 1893 at La Scala , Milan .
Verdi wrote Falstaff , which was the last of his 28 operas , as he was approaching the age of 80 . It was his second comedy , and his third work based on a Shakespeare play , following Macbeth and Otello . The plot revolves around the thwarted , sometimes farcical , efforts of the fat knight , Sir John Falstaff , to seduce two married women to gain access to their husbands ' wealth .
Verdi was concerned about working on a new opera at his advanced age , but he yearned to write a comic work and was pleased with Boito 's draft libretto . It took the collaborators three years from mid @-@ 1889 to complete . Although the prospect of a new opera from Verdi aroused immense interest in Italy and around the world , Falstaff did not prove to be as popular as earlier works in the composer 's canon . After the initial performances in Italy , other European countries and the US , the work was neglected until the conductor Arturo Toscanini insisted on its revival at La Scala and the Metropolitan Opera in New York from the late 1890s into the next century . Some felt that the piece suffered from a lack of the full @-@ blooded melodies of the best of Verdi 's previous operas , a view strongly contradicted by Toscanini . Conductors of the generation after Toscanini to champion the work included Herbert von Karajan , Georg Solti and Leonard Bernstein . The work is now part of the regular operatic repertory .
Verdi made numerous changes to the music after the first performance , and editors have found difficulty in agreeing on a definitive score . The work was first recorded in 1932 and has subsequently received many studio and live recordings . Singers closely associated with the title role have included Victor Maurel ( the first Falstaff ) , Mariano Stabile , Giuseppe Valdengo , Tito Gobbi , Geraint Evans and Bryn Terfel .
= = Composition history = =
= = = Conception = = =
By 1889 Verdi had been an opera composer for more than fifty years . He had written 27 operas , of which only one was a comedy , his second work , Un giorno di regno , staged unsuccessfully in 1840 . His fellow composer Rossini commented that he admired Verdi greatly , but thought him incapable of writing a comedy . Verdi disagreed and said that he longed to write another light @-@ hearted opera , but nobody would give him the chance . He had included moments of comedy even in his tragic operas , for example in Un ballo in maschera and La forza del destino .
For a comic subject Verdi considered Cervantes 's Don Quixote and plays by Goldoni , Molière and Labiche , but found none of them wholly suitable . The singer Victor Maurel sent him a French libretto based on Shakespeare 's The Taming of the Shrew . Verdi liked it , but replied that " to deal with it properly you need a Rossini or a Donizetti " . Following the success of Otello in 1887 he commented , " After having relentlessly massacred so many heroes and heroines , I have at last the right to laugh a little . " He confided his ambition to the librettist of Otello , Arrigo Boito . Boito said nothing at the time , but he secretly began work on a libretto based on The Merry Wives of Windsor with additional material taken from Henry IV , parts 1 and 2 . Many composers had set the play to music , with little success , among them Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf ( 1796 ) , Antonio Salieri ( 1799 ) , Michael William Balfe ( 1835 ) and Adolphe Adam ( 1856 ) . The first version to secure a place in the operatic repertoire was Otto Nicolai 's The Merry Wives of Windsor in 1849 , but its success was largely confined to German opera houses .
Boito was doubly pleased with The Merry Wives as a plot . Not only was it Shakespearian , it was based in part on Trecento Italian works – Il Pecorone by Ser Giovanni Fiorentino , and Boccaccio 's Decameron . Boito adopted a deliberately archaic form of Italian to " lead Shakespeare 's farce back to its clear Tuscan source " , as he put it . He trimmed the plot , halved the number of characters in the play , and gave the character of Falstaff more depth by incorporating dozens of passages from Henry IV .
Verdi received the draft libretto a few weeks later , by early July 1889 , at a time when his interest had been piqued by reading Shakespeare 's play : " Benissimo ! Benissimo ! ... No one could have done better than you " , he wrote back . Like Boito , Verdi loved and revered Shakespeare . The composer did not speak English , but he owned and frequently re @-@ read Shakespeare 's plays in Italian translations by Carlo Rusconi and Giulio Carcano , which he kept by his bedside . He had earlier set operatic adaptations of Shakespeare 's Macbeth ( in 1847 ) and Othello ( in 1887 ) and had considered King Lear as a subject ; Boito had suggested Antony and Cleopatra .
Verdi still had doubts , and on the next day sent another letter to Boito expressing his concerns . He wrote of " the large number of years " in his age , his health ( which he admitted was still good ) and his ability to complete the project : " if I were not to finish the music ? " He said that the project could all be a waste of the younger man 's time and distract Boito from completing his own new opera ( which became Nerone ) . Yet , as his biographer Mary Jane Phillips @-@ Matz notes , " Verdi could not hide his delight at the idea of writing another opera " . On 10 July 1889 he wrote again :
Amen ; so be it ! So let 's do Falstaff ! For now , let 's not think of obstacles , of age , of illnesses ! I also want to keep the deepest secrecy : a word that I underline three times to you that no one must know anything about it ! [ He notes that his wife will know about it , but assures Boito that she can keep a secret . ] Anyway , if you are in the mood , then start to write .
= = = Composition = = =
Boito 's original sketch is lost , but surviving correspondence shows that the finished opera is not greatly different from his first thoughts . The major differences were that an act 2 monologue for Ford was moved from scene 2 to scene 1 , and that the last act originally ended with the marriage of the lovers rather than with the lively vocal and orchestral fugue , which was Verdi 's idea . He wrote to Boito in August 1889 telling him that he was writing a fugue : " Yes , Sir ! A fugue ... and a buffa fugue " , which " could probably be fitted in " .
Verdi accepted the need to trim Shakespeare 's plot to keep the opera within an acceptable length . He was sorry , nonetheless , to see the loss of Falstaff 's second humiliation , dressed up as the Wise Woman of Brentford to escape from Ford . He wrote of his desire to do justice to Shakespeare : " To sketch the characters in a few strokes , to weave the plot , to extract all the juice from that enormous Shakespearian orange " . Shortly after the premiere an English critic , R A Streatfeild , remarked on how Verdi succeeded :
The leading note of [ Falstaff ] ' s character is sublime self @-@ conceit . If his belief in himself were shattered , he would be merely a vulgar sensualist and debauchee . As it is , he is a hero . For one terrible moment in the last act his self @-@ satisfaction wavers . He looks round and sees every one laughing at him . Can it be that he has been made a fool of ? But no , he puts the horrible suggestion from him , and in a flash is himself again . " Son io , " he exclaims with a triumphant inspiration , " che vi fa scaltri . L 'arguzia mia crea l 'arguzia degli altri . " [ " I am not only witty in myself , but the cause that wit is in other men " , a line from Henry IV part 2 . ] Verdi has caught this touch and indeed a hundred others throughout the opera with astonishing truth and delicacy .
In November Boito took the completed first act to Verdi at Sant 'Agata , along with the second act , which was still under construction : " That act has the devil on its back ; and when you touch it , it burns " , Boito complained . They worked on the opera for a week , then Verdi and his wife Giuseppina Strepponi went to Genoa . No more work was done for some time .
The writer Russ McDonald observes that a letter from Boito to Verdi touches on the musical techniques used in the opera – he wrote of how to portray the characters Nannetta and Fenton : " I can 't quite explain it : I would like as one sprinkles sugar on a tart to sprinkle the whole comedy with that happy love without concentrating it at any one point . "
The first act was completed by March 1890 ; the rest of the opera was not composed in chronological order , as had been Verdi 's usual practice . The musicologist Roger Parker comments that this piecemeal approach may have been " an indication of the relative independence of individual scenes " . Progress was slow , with composition " carried out in short bursts of activity interspersed with long fallow periods " partly caused by the composer 's depression . Verdi was weighed down by the fear of being unable to complete the score , and also by the deaths and impending deaths of close friends , including the conductors Franco Faccio and Emanuele Muzio . There was no pressure on the composer to hurry . As he observed at the time , he was not working on a commission from a particular opera house , as he had in the past , but was composing for his own pleasure : " in writing Falstaff , I haven 't thought about either theatres or singers " . He reiterated this idea in December 1890 , a time when his spirits were very low after Muzio 's death that November : " Will I finish it [ Falstaff ] ? Or will I not finish it ? Who knows ! I am writing without any aim , without a goal , just to pass a few hours of the day " . By early 1891 he was declaring that he could not finish the work that year , but in May he expressed some small optimism , which by mid @-@ June , had turned into :
The Big Belly [ " pancione " , the name given to the opera before the composition of Falstaff became public knowledge ] is on the road to madness . There are some days when he does not move , he sleeps , and is in a bad humour . At other times he shouts , runs , jumps , and tears the place apart ; I let him act up a bit , but if he goes on like this , I will put him in a muzzle and straitjacket .
Boito was overjoyed , and Verdi reported that he was still working on the opera . The two men met in October or November 1891 , after which the Verdis were in Genoa for the winter . They were both taken ill there , and two months of work were lost . By mid @-@ April 1892 the scoring of the first act was complete and by June – July Verdi was considering potential singers for roles in Falstaff . For the title role he wanted Victor Maurel , the baritone who had sung Iago in Otello , but at first the singer sought contractual terms that Verdi found unacceptable : " His demands were so outrageous , exorbitant , [ and ] incredible that there was nothing else to do but stop the entire project " . Eventually they reached agreement and Maurel was cast .
By September Verdi had agreed in a letter to his publisher Casa Ricordi that La Scala could present the premiere during the 1892 – 93 season , but that he would retain control over every aspect of the production . An early February date was mentioned along with the demand that the house would be available exclusively after 2 January 1893 and that , even after the dress rehearsal , he could withdraw the opera : " I will leave the theatre , and [ Ricordi ] will have to take the score away " . The public learned of the new opera towards the end of 1892 , and intense interest was aroused , increased rather than diminished by the secrecy with which Verdi surrounded the preparations ; rehearsals were in private , and the press was kept at arm 's length . Apart from Verdi 's outrage at the way that La Scala announced the season 's programme on 7 December – " either a revival of Tannhäuser or Falstaff " – things went smoothly in January 1893 up to the premiere performance on 9 February .
= = Performance history = =
= = = Premieres = = =
The first performance of Falstaff was at La Scala in Milan on 9 February 1893 , nearly six years after Verdi 's previous premiere . For the first night , official ticket prices were thirty times greater than usual . Royalty , aristocracy , critics and leading figures from the arts all over Europe were present . The performance was a huge success under the baton of Edoardo Mascheroni ; numbers were encored , and at the end the applause for Verdi and the cast lasted an hour . That was followed by a tumultuous welcome when the composer , his wife and Boito arrived at the Grand Hotel de Milan .
Over the next two months the work was given twenty @-@ two performances in Milan and then taken by the original company , led by Maurel , to Genoa , Rome , Venice , Trieste , Vienna and , without Maurel , to Berlin . Verdi and his wife left Milan on 2 March ; Ricordi encouraged the composer to go to the planned Rome performance of 14 April , to maintain the momentum and excitement that the opera had generated . The Verdis , along with Boito and Giulio Ricordi , attended together with King Umberto I and other major royal and political figures of the day . The king introduced Verdi to the audience from the Royal Box to great acclaim , " a national recognition and apotheosis of Verdi that had never been tendered him before " , notes Phillips @-@ Matz .
During these early performances Verdi made substantial changes to the score . For some of these he altered his manuscript , but for others musicologists have had to rely on the numerous full and piano scores put out by Ricordi . Further changes were made for the Paris premiere in 1894 , which are also inadequately documented . Ricordi attempted to keep up with the changes , issuing new edition after new edition , but the orchestral and piano scores were often mutually contradictory . The Verdi scholar James Hepokoski considers that a definitive score of the opera is impossible , leaving companies and conductors to choose between a variety of options . In a 2013 study Philip Gossett disagrees , believing that the autograph is essentially a reliable source , augmented by contemporary Ricordi editions for the few passages that Verdi omitted to amend in his own score .
The first performances outside the Kingdom of Italy were in Trieste and Vienna , in May 1893 . The work was given in the Americas and across Europe . The Berlin premiere of 1893 so excited Ferruccio Busoni that he drafted a letter to Verdi , in which he addressed him as " Italy 's leading composer " and " one of the noblest persons of our time " , and in which he explained that " Falstaff provoked in me such a revolution of spirit that I can ... date [ to the experience ] the beginning of a new epoch in my artistic life . " Antonio Scotti played the title role in Buenos Aires in July 1893 ; Gustav Mahler conducted the opera in Hamburg in January 1894 ; a Russian translation was presented in St Petersburg in the same month . Paris was regarded by many as the operatic capital of Europe , and for the production there in April 1894 Boito , who was fluent in French , made his own translation with the help of the Parisian poet Paul Solanges . This translation , approved by Verdi , is quite free in its rendering of Boito 's original Italian text . Boito was content to delegate the English and German translations to William Beatty Kingston and Max Kalbeck respectively . The London premiere , sung in Italian , was at Covent Garden on 19 May 1894 . The conductor was Mancinelli , and Zilli and Pini Corsi repeated their original roles . Falstaff was sung by Arturo Pessina ; Maurel played the role at Covent Garden the following season . On 4 February 1895 the work was first presented at the Metropolitan Opera , New York ; Mancinelli conducted and the cast included Maurel as Falstaff , Emma Eames as Alice , Zélie de Lussan as Nannetta and Sofia Scalchi as Mistress Quickly .
= = = Neglect = = =
After the initial excitement , audiences quickly diminished . Operagoers were nonplussed by the absence of big traditional arias and choruses . A contemporary critic summed it up : " ' Is this our Verdi ? ' they asked themselves . ' But where is the motive ; where are the broad melodies ... where are the usual ensembles ; the finales ? ' " By the time of Verdi 's death in 1901 the work had fallen out of the international repertoire . The rising young conductor Arturo Toscanini was a strong advocate of the work , and did much to save it from neglect . As musical director of La Scala ( from 1898 ) and the Metropolitan Opera ( from 1908 ) , he programmed Falstaff from the start of his tenure . Richard Aldrich , music critic of The New York Times , wrote that Toscanini 's revival " ought to be marked in red letters in the record of the season . Falstaff , which was first produced here on Feb. 4 . 1895 , has not been given since the following season , and was heard in these two seasons only half a dozen times in all . " Aldrich added that though the general public might have had difficulty with the work , " to connoisseurs it was an unending delight " .
In Britain , as in continental Europe and the US , the work fell out of the repertoire . Sir Thomas Beecham revived it in 1919 , and recalling in his memoirs that the public had stayed away he commented :
I have often been asked why I think Falstaff is not more of a box @-@ office attraction , and I do not think the answer is far to seek . Let it be admitted that there are fragments of melody as exquisite and haunting as anything that Verdi has written elsewhere , such as the duet of Nanetta and Fenton in the first act and the song of Fenton at the beginning of the final scene , which have something of the lingering beauty of an Indian summer . But in comparison with every other work of the composer , it is wanting in tunes of a broad and impressive character , and one or two of the type of " O Mia Regina " , " Ritorna Vincitor " , or " Ora per sempre addio " might have helped the situation .
Toscanini recognised that this was the view of many , but he believed the work to be Verdi 's greatest opera ; he said , " I believe it will take years and years before the general public understand this masterpiece , but when they really know it they will run to hear it like they do now for Rigoletto and La traviata . "
= = = Re @-@ emergence = = =
Toscanini returned to La Scala in 1921 and remained in charge there until 1929 , presenting Falstaff in every season . He took the work to Germany and Austria in the late 1920s and the 1930s , conducting it in Vienna , Berlin and at three successive Salzburg Festivals . Among those inspired by Toscanini 's performances were Herbert von Karajan and Georg Solti , who were among his répétiteurs at Salzburg . Toscanini 's younger colleague Tullio Serafin continued to present the work in Germany and Austria after Toscanini refused to perform there because of his loathing of the Nazi regime .
When Karajan was in a position to do so he added Falstaff to the repertoire of his opera company at Aachen in 1941 , and he remained a proponent of the work for the rest of his career , presenting it frequently in Vienna , Salzburg and elsewhere , and making audio and video recordings of it . Solti also became closely associated with Falstaff , as did Carlo Maria Giulini ; they both conducted many performances of the work in mainland Europe , Britain and the US and made several recordings . Leonard Bernstein conducted the work at the Met and the Vienna State Opera , and on record . The advocacy of these and later conductors has given the work an assured place in the modern repertoire .
Among revivals in the 1950s and later , Hepokoski singles out as particularly notable the Glyndebourne productions with Fernando Corena and later Geraint Evans in the title role ; three different stagings by Franco Zeffirelli , for the Holland Festival ( 1956 ) , Covent Garden ( 1961 ) and the Metropolitan Opera ( 1964 ) ; and Luchino Visconti 's 1966 version in Vienna . A 1982 production by Ronald Eyre , more reflective and melancholy than usual , was staged in Los Angeles , London and Florence ; Renato Bruson was Falstaff and Giulini conducted . Among more recent players of the title role Bryn Terfel has taken the part at Covent Garden in 1999 , in a production by Graham Vick , conducted by Bernard Haitink. and at the Metropolitan Opera in a revival of the Zeffirelli production , conducted by James Levine in 2006 .
Although Falstaff has become a regular repertoire work there nonetheless remains a view expressed by John von Rhein in The Chicago Tribune in 1985 : " Falstaff probably always will fall into the category of ' connoisseur 's opera ' rather than taking its place as a popular favorite on the order of La Traviata or Aida . " As noted by Operabase , during the 2012 – 13 season , the work appeared at number 32 of the 50 operas most often performed ; in the 2009 – 10 season it ranked at number 24 .
= = Roles = =
= = Synopsis = =
Time : The reign of Henry IV , 1399 to 1413
Place : Windsor , England
= = = Act 1 = = =
A room at the Garter Inn
Falstaff and his servants , Bardolfo and Pistola , are drinking at the inn . Dr Caius bursts in and accuses Falstaff of burgling his house and Bardolfo of picking his pocket . He is ejected . Falstaff hands a letter to each of his servants for delivery to Alice Ford and Meg Page , two wealthy married women . In these two identical letters , Falstaff professes his love for each of the women , although it is access to their husbands ' money that he chiefly covets . Bardolfo and Pistola refuse , claiming that honour prevents them from obeying him . Falstaff dispatches his page , Robin , to deliver the letters . Falstaff delivers a tirade at his rebellious followers ( L 'onore ! Ladri ... ! / " Honour ! You rogues ... ! " ) telling them that honour is a mere word and is of no practical value . He chases them out of his sight .
Ford 's garden
Alice and Meg have received Falstaff 's letters . They compare them , see that they are identical and , together with Mistress Quickly and Nannetta Ford , resolve to punish Falstaff . Meanwhile , Ford has been warned of the letters by Bardolfo and Pistola . All three are thirsty for revenge and are supported by Dr Caius and Fenton , a young gentleman . To Ford 's disapproval , Fenton is in love with Nannetta . Finding a moment to be alone , the young lovers exchange banter . They are interrupted by the return of Alice , Meg and Mistress Quickly . The act ends with an ensemble in which the women and the men separately plan revenge on Falstaff .
= = = Act 2 = = =
A room at the Garter Inn
Falstaff is alone at the inn . Bardolfo and Pistola , now in the pay of Ford , enter and pretend to beg for forgiveness for past transgressions . They announce to their master the arrival of Mistress Quickly , who delivers an invitation to go to Alice 's house that afternoon between the hours of two and three . She also delivers an answer from Meg Page and assures Falstaff that neither is aware of the other 's letter . Falstaff celebrates his potential success ( " Va , vecchio John " / " Go , old Jack , go your own way " ) . Ford arrives , masquerading as " Signor Fontana " , supposedly an admirer of Alice ; he offers money to the fat knight to seduce her . Falstaff is puzzled at the request , and " Fontana " explains that if Alice succumbs to Falstaff , it will then be easier for Fontana to overcome her virtuous scruples . Falstaff agrees with pleasure and reveals that he already has a rendezvous arranged with Alice for two o 'clock – the hour when Ford is always absent from home . Falstaff goes off to change into his best clothes ; Ford is consumed with jealousy ( È sogno o realtà ? / " Is it a dream or reality ? " ) . When Falstaff returns in his finery , they leave together with elaborate displays of mutual courtesy .
A room in Ford 's house
The three women plot their strategy ( " Gaie Comari di Windsor " / " Merry wives of Windsor , the time has come ! " ) . They are in high spirits , but Alice notices that Nannetta is not . This is because Ford plans to marry her to Dr Caius , a man old enough to be her grandfather ; the women reassure her that they will prevent it . Mistress Quickly announces Falstaff 's arrival , and Mistress Ford has a large laundry basket and a screen placed in readiness . Falstaff 's attempts to seduce Alice with tales of his past glory ( " Quand 'ero paggio del Duca di Norfolk " / " When I was page to the Duke of Norfolk I was slender " ) are cut short , as Mistress Quickly reports the impending arrival of Ford with a retinue of henchmen to catch his wife 's lover . Falstaff hides first behind the screen , and then the women hide him in the laundry basket . In the meantime Fenton and Nannetta hide behind the screen . The men hear the sound of a kiss behind it . They assume it is Falstaff with Alice , but instead they find the young lovers . Ford orders Fenton to leave . Inside the hamper Falstaff is almost suffocating . While the men resume the search of the house Alice orders her servants to throw the laundry basket through the window into the River Thames , where Falstaff endures the jeers of the crowd .
= = = Act 3 = = =
Before the inn
Falstaff glumly curses the sorry state of the world . Some mulled wine soon improves his mood . Mistress Quickly arrives and delivers another invitation to meet Alice . Falstaff at first wants nothing to do with it , but she persuades him . He is to meet Alice at midnight at Herne 's Oak in Windsor Great Park dressed up as Herne the Hunter . He and Mistress Quickly go inside the inn . Ford has realised his error in suspecting his wife , and they and their allies have been watching secretly . They now concoct a plan for Falstaff 's punishment : dressed as supernatural creatures , they will ambush and torment him at midnight . Ford privately proposes a separate plot to Caius : Nannetta will be disguised as Queen of the Fairies , Caius will wear a monk 's costume , and Ford will join the two of them with a nuptial blessing . Mistress Quickly overhears and quietly vows to thwart Ford 's scheme .
Herne 's Oak in Windsor Park on a moonlit midnight
Fenton arrives at the oak tree and sings of his happiness ( " Dal labbro il canto estasiato vola " / " From my lips , a song of ecstasy flies " ) ending with " Lips that are kissed lose none of their allure . " Nannetta enters to finish the line with " Indeed , they renew it , like the moon . " The women arrive and disguise Fenton as a monk , telling him that they have arranged to spoil Ford 's and Caius 's plans . Nannetta , as the Fairy Queen , instructs her helpers ( " Sul fil d 'un soffio etesio " / " On the breath of a fragrant breeze , fly , nimble spirits " ) before all the characters arrive on the scene . Falstaff 's attempted love scene with Alice is interrupted by the announcement that witches are approaching , and the men , disguised as elves and fairies , soundly thrash Falstaff . At length he recognises Bardolfo in disguise . The joke is over , and Falstaff acknowledges that he has received his due . Ford announces that a wedding shall ensue . Caius and the Queen of the Fairies enter . A second couple , also in masquerade , ask Ford to deliver the same blessing for them as well . Ford conducts the double ceremony . Caius finds that instead of Nannetta , his bride is the disguised Bardolfo , and Ford has unwittingly blessed the marriage of Fenton and Nannetta . Ford accepts the fait accompli with good grace . Falstaff , pleased to find himself not the only dupe , proclaims in a fugue , which the entire company sings , that all the world is folly , and all are figures of fun ( Tutto nel mondo è burla ... Tutti gabbati ! / " Everything in the world is a jest ... " ) .
= = Music and drama = =
Verdi scored Falstaff for three flutes ( third doubling piccolo ) , two oboes , English horn , two clarinets , bass clarinet , two bassoons , four horns , three trumpets , four trombones , timpani , percussion ( triangle , cymbals , bass drum ) , harp , and strings . In addition , a guitar , natural horn , and bell are heard from offstage . Unlike most of Verdi 's earlier operatic scores , Falstaff is through @-@ composed . No list of numbers is printed in the published full score . The score differs from much of Verdi 's earlier work by having no overture : there are seven bars for the orchestra before the first voice ( Dr Caius ) enters . The critic Rodney Milnes comments that " enjoyment ... shines from every bar in its irresistible forward impulse , its effortless melody , its rhythmic vitality , and sureness of dramatic pace and construction . " In The New Grove Dictionary of Opera , Roger Parker writes that :
the listener is bombarded by a stunning diversity of rhythms , orchestral textures , melodic motifs and harmonic devices . Passages that in earlier times would have furnished material for an entire number here crowd in on each other , shouldering themselves unceremoniously to the fore in bewildering succession .
The opera was described by its creators as a commedia lirica . McDonald commented in 2009 that Falstaff is very different – a stylistic departure – from Verdi 's earlier work . In McDonald 's view most of the musical expression is in the dialogue , and there is only one traditional aria . The result is that " such stylistic economy – more sophisticated , more challenging than he had employed before – is the keynote of the work . " McDonald argues that consciously or unconsciously , Verdi was developing the idiom that would come to dominate the music of the 20th century : " the lyricism is abbreviated , glanced at rather than indulged . Melodies bloom suddenly and then vanish , replaced by contrasting tempo or an unexpected phrase that introduces another character or idea " . In McDonald 's view the orchestral writing acts as a sophisticated commentator on the action . It has influenced at least one of Verdi 's operatic successors : in 1952 Imogen Holst , musical assistant to Benjamin Britten , wrote , after a performance of Falstaff , " I realised for the first time how much Ben owes to [ Verdi ] . There are orchestral bits which are just as funny to listen to as the comic instrumental bits in A. Herring ! "
The extent to which Falstaff is a " Shakespearian " opera has often been debated by critics . Although the action is taken from The Merry Wives of Windsor , some commentators feel that Boito and Verdi have transmuted Shakespeare 's play into a wholly Italian work . The soprano Elisabeth Schwarzkopf believed there was nothing English or Shakespearian about the comedy : " it was all done through the music " . In 1961 Peter Heyworth wrote in The Observer , " Because of Shakespeare we like to think of Falstaff as a work that has a certain Englishness . In fact the opera is no more English than Aida is Egyptian . Boito and Verdi between them transformed the fat knight into one of the archetypes of opera buffa . " Verdi himself , however , felt that the Falstaff of the opera is not a conventional Italian buffo character , but portrays Shakespeare 's fuller , more ambiguous Falstaff of the Henry IV plays : " My Falstaff is not merely the hero of The Merry Wives of Windsor , who is simply a buffoon , and allows himself to be tricked by the women , but also the Falstaff of the two parts of Henry IV . Boito has written the libretto in accordance . " A contemporary critic argued that the text " imitated with marvellous accuracy the metre and rhythm of Shakespeare 's verse " , but Hepokoski notes Boito 's use of traditional Italian metric conventions .
Another recurrent question is how much , if at all , Verdi was influenced by Wagner 's comic opera Die Meistersinger . At the time of the premiere this was a sensitive subject ; many Italians were suspicious of or hostile to Wagner 's music , and were protective in a nationalistic way of Verdi 's reputation . Nevertheless , Verdi 's new style was markedly different from that of his popular works of the 1850s and 1860s , and it seemed to some to have Wagnerian echoes . In 1999 the critic Andrew Porter wrote , " That Falstaff was Verdi 's and Boito 's answer to Wagner 's Meistersinger seems evident now . But the Italian Falstaff moves more quickly . " Toscanini , who did more than anyone else to bring Falstaff into the regular operatic repertoire , commented :
the difference between Falstaff , which is the absolute masterpiece , and Die Meistersinger , which is an outstanding Wagnerian opera . Just think for a moment how many musical means – beautiful ones , certainly – Wagner must make use of to describe the Nuremberg night . And look how Verdi gets a similarly startling effect at a similar moment with three notes .
Verdi scholars including Julian Budden have analysed the music in symphonic terms – the opening section " a perfect little sonata movement " , the second act concluding with a variant of the classic slow concertante ensemble leading to a fast stretto , and the whole opera ending with " the most academic of musical forms " , a fugue . Milnes suggests that this shows " a wise old conservative 's warning about the excesses of the verismo school of Italian opera " already on the rise by the 1890s . Among the solo numbers woven into the continuous score are Falstaff 's " honour " monologue , which concludes the first scene , and his reminiscent arietta ( " Quand 'ero paggio " ) about himself as a young page . The young lovers , Nannetta and Fenton , are given a lyrical and playful duet ( " Labbra di foco " ) in Act I ; in Act III , Fenton 's impassioned love song , " Dal labbro il canto estasiato vola " briefly becomes a duet when Nannetta joins him . She then has the last substantial solo section of the score , the " fairy " aria , " Sul fil d 'un soffio etesio " , described by Parker as " yet another aria suffused with the soft orchestral colours that characterize this scene " .
The score is seen by the critic Richard Osborne as rich in self @-@ parody , with sinister themes from Rigoletto and Un ballo in maschera transmuted into comedy . For Osborne the nocturnal music of Act III draws on the examples of Weber , Berlioz and Mendelssohn , creating a mood akin to that of Shakespeare 's A Midsummer Night 's Dream . Osborne views the whole opera as an ensemble piece , and he comments that grand soliloquy in the old Verdian style is reserved for Ford 's " jealousy " aria in Act II , which is almost tragic in style but comic in effect , making Ford " a figure to be laughed at . " Osborne concludes his analysis , " Falstaff is comedy 's musical apogee : the finest opera , inspired by the finest dramatist , by the finest opera composer the world has known " .
= = Recordings = =
There are two early recordings of Falstaff 's short arietta " Quand 'ero paggio " . Pini Corsi , the original Ford , recorded it in 1904 , and Maurel followed in 1907 . The first recording of the complete opera was made by Italian Columbia in March and April 1932 . It was conducted by Lorenzo Molajoli with the chorus and orchestra of La Scala , and a cast including Giacomo Rimini as Falstaff and Pia Tassinari as Alice . Some live stage performances were recorded in the 1930s , but the next studio recording was that conducted by Toscanini for broadcast by NBC in 1950 , released on disc by RCA . The first stereophonic recording was conducted by Herbert von Karajan for EMI in 1956 .
Among the singers whose performances of the title role are on live or studio recordings , Italians include Renato Bruson , Tito Gobbi , Rolando Panerai , Ruggero Raimondi , Mariano Stabile , Giuseppe Taddei and Giuseppe Valdengo ; Francophone singers include Gabriel Bacquier , Jean @-@ Philippe Lafont and José van Dam ; Germans include Walter Berry , Dietrich Fischer @-@ Dieskau and Hans Hotter ; and UK and US singers include Geraint Evans , Donald Gramm , Bryn Terfel , Leonard Warren and Willard White .
= Cy Young =
Denton True " Cy " Young ( March 29 , 1867 – November 4 , 1955 ) was an American Major League Baseball pitcher . During his 22 @-@ season baseball career ( 1890 – 1911 ) , he pitched for five different teams . Young established numerous pitching records , some of which have stood for a century . Young compiled 511 wins , which is most in Major League history and 94 ahead of Walter Johnson who is second on the list . Young was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1937 .
One year after Young 's death , the Cy Young Award was created to honor the previous season 's best pitcher .
In addition to wins , Young still holds the major league records for most career innings pitched ( 7 @,@ 356 ) , most career games started ( 815 ) , and most complete games ( 749 ) . He also retired with 316 losses , the most in MLB history . Young 's 76 career shutouts are fourth all @-@ time . He also won at least 30 games in a season five times , with ten other seasons of 20 or more wins . In addition , Young pitched three no @-@ hitters , including the third perfect game in baseball history , first in baseball 's " modern era " . In 1999 , 88 years after his final major league appearance and 44 years after his death , editors at The Sporting News ranked Young 14th on their list of " Baseball 's 100 Greatest Players " . That same year , baseball fans named him to the Major League Baseball All @-@ Century Team .
Young 's career started in 1890 with the Cleveland Spiders . After eight years with the Spiders , Young was moved to St. Louis in 1899 . After two years there , Young jumped to the newly created American League , joining the Boston franchise . He was traded back to Cleveland in 1909 , before spending the final two months of his career with the Boston Rustlers . After his retirement , Young went back to his farm in Ohio , where he stayed until his death at age 88 in 1955 .
= = Early life = =
Cy Young was the oldest child born to McKinzie Young , Jr. and German American Nancy Mottmiller . The couple had four more children : Jesse Carlton , Alonzo , Ella , and Anthony . When the couple married , McKinzie 's father gave him the 54 acres ( 220 @,@ 000 m2 ) of farm land he owned . Young was born in Gilmore , a tiny farming community located in Washington Township , Tuscarawas County , Ohio . He was christened Denton True Young . Some sources later , and even today , list his middle name erroneously as " Tecumseh " , apparently as a result of being nicknamed " The Chief " by teammates .
He was raised on one of the local farms and went by the name Dent Young in his early years . Young was also known as " Farmer Young " and " Farmboy Young " . Young stopped his formal education after he completed the sixth grade so he could help out on the family 's farm . In 1885 , Young moved with his father to Nebraska , and in the summer of 1887 , they returned to Gilmore .
Young played for many amateur baseball leagues during his youth , including a " semi @-@ pro " Carrollton team in 1888 . Young pitched and played second base . The first box score known containing the name Young came from that season . In that game , Young played first base and had three hits in three at @-@ bats . After the season , Young received an offer to play for the minor league Canton team , which started Young 's professional career .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Before Major League Baseball = = =
Young began his professional career in 1889 with the Canton , Ohio team of the Tri @-@ State League , a professional minor league . During his tryout , Young impressed the scouts , recalling years later , " I almost tore the boards off the grandstand with my fast ball . " Cy Young 's nickname came from the fences that he had destroyed using his fastball . The fences looked like a cyclone had hit them . Reporters later shortened the name to " Cy " , which became the nickname Young used for the rest of his life . During Young 's one year with the Canton team , he won 15 games and lost 15 .
Franchises in the National League , the major professional baseball league at the time , wanted the best players available to them . Therefore , in 1890 , Young signed with the Cleveland Spiders , a team which had moved from the American Association to the National League the previous year .
= = = Cleveland Spiders = = =
On August 6 , 1890 , Young 's major league debut , he pitched a three @-@ hit shutout . While Young was on the Spiders , Chief Zimmer was his catcher more often than any other player . Bill James , a baseball statistician , estimated that Zimmer caught Young in more games than any other battery in baseball history .
Early on , Young established himself as one of the harder @-@ throwing pitchers in the game . Bill James wrote that Zimmer often put a piece of beefsteak inside his baseball glove to protect his catching hand from Young 's fastball . In the absence of radar guns , however , it is impossible to say just how hard Young actually threw . Young continued to perform at a high level during the 1890 season . On the last day of the season , Young won both games of a doubleheader . In the first weeks of Young 's career , Cap Anson , the player @-@ manager of the Chicago Colts spotted Young 's ability . Anson told Spiders ' manager Gus Schmelz , " He 's too green to do your club much good , but I believe if I taught him what I know , I might make a pitcher out of him in a couple of years . He 's not worth it now , but I 'm willing to give you $ 1 @,@ 000 ( $ 26 @,@ 337 today ) for him . " Schmelz replied , " Cap , you can keep your thousand and we 'll keep the rube . "
Two years after Young 's debut , the National League moved the pitcher 's position back by 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) . Since 1881 , pitchers had pitched within a " box " whose front line was 50 feet ( 15 m ) from home base , and since 1887 they had been compelled to toe the back line of the box when delivering the ball . The back line was 55 feet 6 inches ( 16 @.@ 92 m ) away from home . In 1893 , 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) was added to the back line , yielding the modern pitching distance of 60 feet 6 inches ( 18 @.@ 44 m ) . In the book The Neyer / James Guide to Pitchers , sports journalist Rob Neyer wrote that the speed with which pitchers like Cy Young , Amos Rusie , and Jouett Meekin threw was the impetus that caused the move .
The 1892 regular season was a success for Young , who led the National League in wins ( 36 ) , ERA ( 1 @.@ 93 ) , and shutouts ( 9 ) . Just as many contemporary Minor League Baseball leagues operate today , the National League was using a split season format during the 1892 season . The Boston Beaneaters won the first @-@ half title , and the Spiders won the second @-@ half title , with a best @-@ of @-@ nine series determining the league champion . Despite the Spiders ' second half run , the Beaneaters swept the series , five games to none . Young pitched three complete games in the series , but lost two decisions . He also threw a complete game shutout , but the game ended in a 0 – 0 tie .
The Spiders faced the Baltimore Orioles in the Temple Cup , a precursor to the World Series , in 1895 . Young won three games in the series and Cleveland won the Cup , four games to one . It was around this time that Young added what he called a " slow ball " to his pitching repertoire to reduce stress on his arm . The pitch today is called a changeup .
In 1896 , Young lost a no @-@ hitter with two outs in the ninth inning when Ed Delahanty of the Philadelphia Phillies hit a single . On September 18 , 1897 , Young pitched the first no @-@ hitter of his career in a game against the Cincinnati Reds . Although Young did not walk a batter , the Spiders committed four errors while on defense . One of the errors had originally been ruled a hit , but the Cleveland third baseman sent a note to the press box after the eighth inning , saying he had made an error , and the ruling was changed . Young later said , that , despite his teammate 's gesture , he considered the game to be a one @-@ hitter .
= = = Shift to St. Louis = = =
Prior to the 1899 season , Frank Robison , the Spiders owner , bought the St. Louis Browns , thus owning two clubs simultaneously . The Browns were renamed the " Perfectos " , and restocked with Cleveland talent . Just weeks before the season opener , most of the better Spiders players were transferred to St. Louis , including fellow pitcher Pete McBride and three future Hall of Famers : Young , Jesse Burkett , and Bobby Wallace . The roster maneuvers failed to create a powerhouse Perfectos team , as St. Louis finished fifth in both 1899 and 1900 . Meanwhile , the depleted Spiders lost 134 games , the most in MLB history , before folding . Young spent two years with St. Louis , which is where he found his favorite catcher , Lou Criger . The two men were teammates for a decade .
= = = Move to the American League = = =
In 1901 , the rival American League declared major league status and set about raiding National League rosters . Young left St. Louis and joined the American League 's Boston Americans for a $ 3 @,@ 500 contract ( $ 99 @,@ 554 today ) . Young would remain with the Boston team until 1909 . In his first year in the American League , Young was dominant . Pitching to Criger , who had also jumped to Boston , Young led the league in wins , strikeouts , and ERA , thus earning the colloquial AL Triple Crown for pitchers . Young won almost 42 % of his team 's games in 1901 , accounting for 33 of his team 's 79 wins . In February 1902 , before the start of the baseball season , Young served as a pitching coach at Harvard University . The sixth @-@ grade graduate instructing Harvard students delighted Boston newspapers . The following year , Young coached at Mercer University during the spring . The team went on to win the Georgia state championship in 1903 , 1904 , and 1905 .
The Boston Americans played the Pittsburgh Pirates in the first modern World Series in 1903 . Young , who started Game One against the visiting Pirates , thus threw the first pitch in modern World Series history . The Pirates scored four runs in that first inning , and Young lost the game . Young performed better in subsequent games , winning his next two starts . He also drove in three runs in Game Five . Young finished the series with a 2 – 1 record and a 1 @.@ 85 ERA in four appearances , and Boston defeated Pittsburgh , five games to three games .
After one @-@ hitting Boston on May 2 , 1904 , Philadelphia Athletics pitcher Rube Waddell taunted Young to face him so that he could repeat his performance against Boston 's ace . Three days later , Young pitched a perfect game against Waddell and the Athletics . It was the first perfect game in American League history . Waddell was the 27th and last batter , and when he flied out , Young shouted , " How do you like that , you hayseed ? " Waddell had picked an inauspicious time to issue his challenge . Young 's perfect game was the centerpiece of a pitching streak . Young set major league records for the most consecutive scoreless innings pitched and the most consecutive innings without allowing a hit ; the latter record still stands at 25 @.@ 1 innings , or 76 hitless batters . Even after allowing a hit , Young 's scoreless streak reached a then @-@ record 45 shutout innings . Before Young , only two pitchers had thrown perfect games . This occurred in 1880 , when Lee Richmond and John Montgomery Ward pitched perfect games within five days of each other , although under somewhat different rules : the front edge of the pitcher 's box was only 45 feet ( 14 m ) from home base ( the modern release point is about 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) farther away ) ; walks required eight balls ; and pitchers were obliged to throw side @-@ armed . Young 's perfect game was the first under the modern rules established in 1893 . One year later , on July 4 , 1905 , Rube Waddell beat Young and the Americans , 4 – 2 , in a 20 @-@ inning matchup . Young pitched 13 consecutive scoreless innings before he gave up a pair of unearned runs in the final inning . Young did not walk a batter and was later quoted : " For my part , I think it was the greatest game of ball I ever took part in . " In 1907 , Young and Waddell faced off in a scoreless 13 @-@ inning tie .
In 1908 , Young pitched the third no @-@ hitter of his career . Three months past his 41st birthday , Cy Young was the oldest pitcher to record a no @-@ hitter , a record which would stand 82 years until 43 @-@ year @-@ old Nolan Ryan surpassed the feat . Only a walk kept Young from his second perfect game . After that runner was caught stealing , no other batter reached base . At this time , Young was the second @-@ oldest player in either league . In another game one month before his no @-@ hitter , he allowed just one single while facing 28 batters . On August 13 , 1908 , the league celebrated " Cy Young Day . " No American League games were played on that day , and a group of All @-@ Stars from the league 's other teams gathered in Boston to play against Young and the Red Sox . When the season ended , he posted a 1 @.@ 26 ERA , which gave him not only the lowest in his career , but also gave him a Major League record of being the oldest pitcher with 150 + innings pitched to post a season ERA under 1 @.@ 50 .
= = = Cleveland Naps and retirement = = =
Young was traded back to Cleveland , the place where he played over half his career , before the 1909 season , to the Cleveland Naps of the American League . The following season , 1910 , he won his 500th career game on July 19 against Washington . He split 1911 , his final year , between the Naps and the Boston Rustlers .
On September 22 , 1911 , Young shut out the Pittsburgh Pirates , 1 – 0 , for his last career victory . In his final start two weeks later , the last eight batters of Young 's career combined to hit a triple , four singles , and three doubles .
= = College coaching career = =
In February 1902 , before the start of the baseball season , Young served as a pitching coach at Harvard University . The sixth @-@ grade graduate instructing Harvard students delighted Boston newspapers . The following year , Young coached at Mercer University , in Macon , Georgia during the spring . The team went on to win the Georgia state championship in 1903 , 1904 , and 1905 .
= = After baseball = =
Beginning in 1912 , Young lived and worked on his farm . In 1913 , he served as manager of the Cleveland Green Sox of the Federal League , which was at the time an outlaw minor league . However , he never worked in baseball after that .
Young 's wife , Roba , whom he had known since childhood , died in 1933 . After she died , Young tried several jobs , and eventually moved in with friends John and Ruth Benedum and did odd jobs for them . Young took part in many baseball events after his retirement . In 1937 , 26 years after he retired from baseball , Young was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame . He was among the first to donate mementos to the Hall .
By 1940 , Young 's only source of income was stock dividends of $ 300 per year ( $ 5 @,@ 067 today ) . On November 4 , 1955 , Young died on the Benedum 's farm at the age of 88 . He was buried in Peoli , Ohio .
= = Baseball legacy = =
Young retired with 511 career wins , which remains the record for most career wins by a pitcher . At the time , Pud Galvin had the second most career wins with 364 . Walter Johnson , then in his fourth season , finished his career with 417 wins and , as of 2015 , remains second on the list . In 1921 , Johnson broke Young 's career record for strikeouts .
Young 's career is seen as a bridge from baseball 's earliest days to its modern era ; he pitched against stars such as Cap Anson , already an established player when the National League was first formed in 1876 , as well as against Eddie Collins , who played until 1930 . When Young 's career began , pitchers delivered the baseball underhand and fouls were not counted as strikes . The pitcher 's mound was not moved back to its present position of 60 feet 6 inches ( 18 @.@ 44 m ) until Young 's fourth season ; he did not wear a glove until his sixth season .
Young led his league in wins five times ( 1892 , 1895 , and 1901 – 1903 ) , finishing second twice . His career high was 36 in 1892 . He had fifteen seasons with twenty or more wins , two more than the runners @-@ up , Christy Mathewson and Warren Spahn . Young won two ERA titles during his career , in 1892 ( 1 @.@ 93 ) and in 1901 ( 1 @.@ 62 ) , and was three times the runner @-@ up . Young 's earned run average was below 2 @.@ 00 six times , but this was not uncommon during the dead @-@ ball era . Although Young threw over 400 innings in each of his first four full seasons , he did not lead his league until 1902 . He had 40 or more complete games nine times . Young also led his league in strikeouts twice ( with 140 in 1896 , and 158 in 1901 ) , and in shutouts seven times . Young led his league in fewest walks per nine innings thirteen times and finished second one season . Only twice in his 22 @-@ year career did Young finish lower than 5th in the category . Although the WHIP ratio was not calculated until well after Young 's death , Young was the retroactive league leader in this category seven times and was second or third another seven times . Young is tied with Roger Clemens for the most career wins by a Boston Red Sox pitcher . They each won 192 games while with the franchise .
Particularly after his fastball slowed , Young relied upon his control . Young was once quoted as saying , " Some may have thought it was essential to know how to curve a ball before anything else . Experience , to my mind , teaches to the contrary . Any young player who has good control will become a successful curve pitcher long before the pitcher who is endeavoring to master both curves and control at the same time . The curve is merely an accessory to control . " In addition to his exceptional control , Young was also a workhorse who avoided injury . For nineteen consecutive years , from 1891 through 1909 , Young was in his leagues ' top ten for innings pitched ; in fourteen of the seasons , he was in the top five . Not until 1900 , a decade into his career , did Young pitch two consecutive incomplete games . By habit , Young restricted his practice throws in spring training . " I figured the old arm had just so many throws in it " , said Young , " and there wasn 't any use wasting them . " Young once described his approach before a game :
I never warmed up ten , fifteen minutes before a game like most pitchers do . I 'd loosen up , three , four minutes . Five at the outside . And I never went to the bullpen . Oh , I 'd relieve all right , plenty of times , but I went right from the bench to the box , and I 'd take a few warm @-@ up pitches and be ready . Then I had good control . I aimed to make the batter hit the ball , and I threw as few pitches as possible . That 's why I was able to work every other day .
By the time of his retirement , Young 's control had faltered . He had also gained weight . In three of his last four years , he was the oldest player in the league .
In 1956 , about one year after Young 's death , the Cy Young Award was created . The first award was given to Brooklyn 's Don Newcombe . Originally , it was a single award covering the whole of baseball . The honor was divided into two Cy Young Awards in 1967 , one for each league .
On September 23 , 1993 , a statue dedicated to him was unveiled by Northeastern University on the site of the Red Sox 's original stadium , the Huntington Avenue Grounds . It was there that Young had pitched the first game of the 1903 World Series , as well as the first perfect game in the modern era of baseball . A home plate @-@ shaped plaque next to the statue reads :
On October 1 , 1903 the first modern World Series between the American League champion Boston Pilgrims ( later known as the Red Sox ) and the National League champion Pittsburgh Pirates was played on this site . General admission tickets were fifty cents . The Pilgrims , led by twenty @-@ eight game winner Cy Young , trailed the series three games to one but then swept four consecutive victories to win the championship five games to three .
= Siward Barn =
Siward Barn ( Old English : Sigeweard Bearn ) was an 11th @-@ century English thegn and landowner @-@ warrior . He appears in the extant sources in the period following the Norman Conquest of England , joining the northern resistance to William the Conqueror by the end of the 1060s . Siward 's resistance continued until his capture on the Isle of Ely alongside Æthelwine , Bishop of Durham , Earl Morcar , and Hereward ( " the Wake " ) as cited in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle . Siward and his confiscated properties in central and northern England were mentioned in Domesday Book , and from this it is clear that he was one of the main antecessors of Henry de Ferrers , father of Robert de Ferrers , the first Earl of Derby .
Following his capture in 1071 , he was imprisoned . This incarceration lasted until 1087 , when a guilt @-@ ridden King William , in expectation of his own death , ordered Siward 's release . Firm evidence of Siward 's later life is non @-@ existent , but some historians have argued that he took up a career in the Varangian Guard at Constantinople , in the service of the Emperor Alexios I Komnenos . The sources upon which this theory is based also allege that Siward led a party of English colonists to the Black Sea , who renamed their conquered territory New England .
= = Origins = =
Identifying Siward 's origin is difficult for historians because of the large number of Siwards in England in the mid @-@ 11th century . Other notable Siwards include Siward of Maldon and Siward Grossus , both men of substance with landholdings larger or comparable to Siward Barn 's . The Anglo @-@ Norman writer Orderic Vitalis , when describing William the Conqueror 's stay at Barking , says that Morcar , formerly Earl of Northumbria , and Edwine , Earl of Mercia , came and submitted to King William , followed by Copsi , Earl of Northumbria , along with Thurkil of Limis , Eadric the Wild , and " Ealdred and Siward , the sons of Æthelgar , grandsons [ or grand @-@ nephews ] ( pronepotes ) of King Edward " .
Edward Augustus Freeman and other historians have thought that this Siward was Siward Barn , arguing that Siward must have been a descendant of Uhtred the Bold , Earl of Northumbria , and Ælfgifu , daughter of King Æthelred the Unready , King Edward 's father . Historian and translator of Orderic , Marjorie Chibnall , pointed out that this Siward is mentioned later in his Ecclesiastical History as a Shropshire landowner , in connection with the foundation of Shrewsbury Abbey . Ann Williams likewise rejected this identification , identifying this Siward firmly with the Shropshire thegn Siward Grossus . According to Williams ' reconstruction , Siward Grossus and his brother Ealdred were the sons of Æthelgar by a daughter of Eadric Streona , Ealdorman of Mercia and Eadgyth , another daughter of King Æthelred , explaining the relationship Orderic believed they had with Edward the Confessor .
Another historian , Forrest Scott , guessed that Siward was a member of the family of Northumbrian earls , presumably connected in some way to Siward , Earl of Northumbria . Margaret Faull and Marie Stinson , the editors of the Philimore Domesday Book for Yorkshire , believed that Siward was " a senior member of the house of Bamburgh and possibly a brother or half @-@ brother of Earl Gospatric " . Another historian , Geoffrey Barrow , pointed out that Faull and Stinson gave no evidence for this assertion , and doubted the hypothesis because of Siward 's Danish name .
= = From York to Ely = =
In 1068 , there was a revolt in the north of England against the rule of King William , few details of which are recorded . It was serious enough to worry King William , who marched north and began the construction of castles at Warwick , Nottingham , York , Lincoln , Huntingdon and Cambridge . Earl Cospatric apparently fled to Scotland and in the beginning of 1069 King William appointed the Picard Robert de Comines as the new earl of Northumbria .
During the winter the English murdered Earl William and Robert fitz Richard , the custodian of the new castle at York , and trapped William Malet , the first Norman sheriff of York , in the castle . King William went north in the spring or summer of 1069 , relieved the siege of Malet , and restored the castle , placing William fitz Osbern in charge . The leaders of the revolt were Edgar the Ætheling ( claimant to the English throne ) , Gospatric of Northumbria , and , among others , Mærle @-@ Sveinn , former sheriff of Lincoln , and many senior Northumbria nobles .
In the autumn of 1069 , a fleet under the Danish king Sweyn Estridsson and his brother Earl Osbjorn arrived off the coast of England . It is from this point that Siward 's involvement in the revolt is documented . Orderic Vitalis related that :
The Ætheling , Waltheof , Siward , and the other English leaders had joined the Danes ... The Danes reached York , and a general rising of the inhabitants swelled their ranks . Waltheof , Gospatric ( Gaius Patricius ) , Mærle @-@ Sveinn ( Marius Suenus ) , Elnoc , Arnketil , and the four sons of Karle were in the advance guard and led the Danish and Norwegian forces .
What followed was William 's most devastating punitive expedition , the so @-@ called " Harrying of the North " , conducted during the winter of 1069 / 70 . After two minor engagements disadvantageous to the Danes , King William came to an agreement with Earl Osbjorn that neutralised them . William held Christmas court at the ruined city of York , and brought Waltheof and Gospatric back into his peace at the River Tees .
Siward was at Wearmouth in the summer of 1070 , with Edgar and Mærle @-@ Sveinn , while William marched to the River Tyne with his marauding army . Although William burnt down the church of Jarrow , he left Edgar 's party undisturbed . Siward must have gone to Scotland in this year , for the Historia Regum reports that in 1071 Morcar ( previously earl of Northumbria ) and Hereward went by ship to the Isle of Ely , and that
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" Æthelwine , bishop of Durham , and Siward , nicknamed Barn , sailing back from Scotland " arrived there too . This is also related by the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , which confirms that :
Bishop Æthelwine and Siweard Bearn came to Ely and many hundred men with them " .
It was at Ely that Siward and all the other notables , save Hereward , were captured by King William .
= = Confiscation and release = =
By 1086 , perhaps soon before or after his capture , many of Siward 's lands were given to the Norman warrior Henry de Ferrers , though other successors included Geoffrey de La Guerche and William d 'Ecouis . According to the Domesday Book , in " the time of Edward " ( TRE ) , or rather on the day of the death of Edward the Confessor , Siward held twenty @-@ one manors in eight different English counties .
In Berkshire , Greenham ( £ 8 ) , Lockinge ( £ 10 ) and Stanford in the Vale ( £ 30 ; now in Oxfordshire ) ; in Gloucestershire , Lechlade ( £ 20 ) ; in Warwickshire , Grendon ( £ 2 ) , Burton Hastings ( £ 4 ) and Harbury ( £ 2 ) ; in Derbyshire , Brassington ( £ 6 ) , Croxhall ( £ 3 ) , Catton ( £ 3 ) , Cubley ( £ 5 ) , Norbury and Roston ( £ 5 ) , Duffield ( £ 9 ) , Breadhall ( £ 4 ) , " Wormhill " ( waste ) and Moreley ( waste ) ; in Nottinghamshire , Leake ( £ 6 ) and Bonnington ( s . 6 ) ; in Yorkshire Adlingfleet ( £ 4 ) ; in Lincolnshire , Whitton ( £ 10 ) and Haxey ( 5 ) ; and in Norfolk Sheringham ( £ 4 ) and Salthouse ( £ 2 ) . Ann Williams doubted that the estates in Berkshire belonged to Siward Barn , noting the possibility that these estates belonged to Siward of Maldon .
The total value of his holdings is put at 142 libra ( " pounds " ) and 6 solidi ( " shillings " ) . Siward Barn ranks 21st out of all the English landowners in the time of King Edward below the rank of earl .
Nothing more is heard of Siward until 1087 , the year of the death of William the Conqueror . The Chronicle of John of Worcester relates that :
On his [ King William 's ] return [ from France ] fierce intestinal pains afflicted him , and he got worse from day to day . When , as his illness worsened , he felt the day of his death approaching , he set free his brother , Odo , bishop of Bayeux , earls Morkar and Roger , Siward called Barn , and Wulfnoth , King Harold 's brother ( whom he had kept in custody since childhood ) , as well as all he had kept imprisoned either in England or Normandy . Then he handed the English kingdom over to William [ Rufus ] , and granted the Norman duchy to Robert [ Curthose ] , who was then exiled in France . In this way , fortified by the holy viaticum , he abandoned both life and kingdom on Thursday , 9 September , after ruling the English kingdom for twenty years , ten months , and twenty @-@ eight days .
A similar account is in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , recension E , though specific names are omitted . This unfortunately is also the last notice of Siward in any near @-@ contemporary , reliable source .
= = Varangian and colonist ? = =
Two modern historians , however , have argued that Siward subsequently became a mercenary in the service of the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos . A 13th @-@ century French chronicle known as the Chronicon Laudunensis ( or Chronicon universale anonymi Laudunensis , " the anonymous universal chronicle of Laon " ) and the 14th century Icelandic text , the Játvarðar Saga , a short saga devoted to the life of Edward the Confessor , both relate a story about English warriors who sail to Constantinople to escape the dominion of the Normans , and found a colony in the Black Sea called New England . The Játvarðar Saga says that the leader of this expedition was one " Siward earl of Gloucester " ( Sigurð jarl af Glocestr ) .
Siward and his force were said to have rescued Constantinople from a siege by " heathens " , after which the emperor Alexios offered Siward and his men positions in the Varangian Guard . According to both sources , Siward and some of the English expressed their desire to have a territory of their own , and so Alexius told them of a land over the sea that had formerly been part of the empire , but was now occupied by heathens . The emperor subsequently granted this land to the English , and a party led by Earl Siward sailed onwards to take control of it . The land , the sources allege , lay " 6 days north and north @-@ east of Constantinople " , a distance and direction that puts the territory somewhere in or around the Crimea and Sea of Azov . Earl Siward , after many battles , defeated and drove away the heathens . The Chronicon Laudunensis says that this territory was renamed " New England " , while the Játvarðar Saga claims that the towns of the land were named after English towns , including London and York . The Chronicon alleges that , later , the English rebelled against Byzantine authority and became pirates .
The theory that this Siward is Siward Barn was advocated by Jonathan Shepard and Christine Fell . Shepard pointed out , although never called " Earl of Gloucester " , Siward had holdings in Gloucestershire – the only substantial Siward in Domesday Book with property in that county — and was indeed a participant in resistance to the Normans . Shepard argued that the narrative in question referred not , as the Chronicon Laudunensis had asserted , to the 1070s , but to the 1090s , after Siward 's release from prison . Fell , while acknowledging that there were two Siwards participating in resistance to William the Conqueror , Siward Barn and Siward of Maldon , pointed out that Siward Barn is more prominent in the literary sources and , unlike Siward of Maldon , had property in Gloucestershire . Two other historians who have since commented on the point , John Godfrey and Ann Williams , accepted that the identification is tenuous and remained neutral .
= Readville ( MBTA station ) =
Readville is a passenger rail station located slightly northwest of Wolcott Square in the Readville section of the Hyde Park neighborhood of Boston , Massachusetts . It serves multiple lines on the MBTA ( Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority ) Commuter Rail system , with access to the Fairmount Line and Franklin Line on separate platforms . Readville is the terminus of the Fairmount Line , although a small number of rush hour trains continue through the station to and from the Franklin Line . The station has platforms in place on the Northeast Corridor , but they are not used by Providence / Stoughton Line trains except during service disruptions .
Passenger service has run to Readville continuously since the Boston and Providence Railroad opened in 1834 . Separate stations on two levels were consolidated by the New Haven Railroad around 1898 . Until 1958 , the railroad had its heavy maintenance facilities located in Readville 5 @-@ Yard to the west of the station . The station building burned down in 1983 , but the MBTA built replacement platforms and ramps in 1992 .
= = History = =
= = = Early stations = = =
The Boston and Providence Railroad was built through Readville starting in 1832 , and passenger service on the main line and a branch to Dedham began in 1834 . The Norfolk County Railroad built the Midland Division starting in 1853 from Islington to Boston through Readville , and full service began in July 1855 . The Midland Branch , also called the Dorchester Branch , connected the Norfolk County Railroad ( which then ran to Blackstone , Massachusetts to Boston . The Midland Division crossed the Boston & Providence on a high grade and bridge ; there was initially no track connection between the two railroads . The Norfolk County was acquired by the Boston , Hartford and Erie Railroad in 1868 and then to the New York and New England Railroad in 1875 , becoming the latter 's primary route into Boston . Readville served as a short turn turnback point for B & P trains from 1867 to 1880 and after 1899 .
The Midland Branch station , located on the upper level closer to Wolcott Square , was originally known as Blue Hills after the nearby range of hills However , by 1888 it too was known as Readville . Near the beginning of the 20th century , the two stations were consolidated as one under the New Haven . After the New York , New Haven and Hartford Railroad acquired the Boston & Providence in 1893 and the NY & NE in 1898 , the two stations were consolidated . A connecting track was built in 1899 allowing trains from Franklin and beyond to run on the Northeast Corridor to Boston , and the two @-@ story Readville depot was built to serve both levels on the station . An under @-@ track passage provided access to the southbound B & P platform and the NY & NE track area .
= = = Dedham and Midland branches = = =
The Dedham Branch briefly became an important piece of the New Haven 's commuter system . Between 1926 and 1938 , trains operated on a loop using the Dedham Branch and the Norfolk County Railroad 's former route through West Roxbury ( part of which is now part of the Needham Line ) . In 1940 , service to Dedham via West Roxbury was discontinued , leaving the Dedham Branch as the only rail access to Dedham . However , traffic to Dedham continued to decline , and the last service ( a single daily round trip ) to Dedham via the Dedham Branch ended on April 21 , 1967 . The MBTA purchased the abandoned right of way from Penn Central on January 27 , 1973 .
The Midland Branch also declined in importance after the Franklin division was connected to the New Haven mainline in 1899 . Through trains from Connecticut were redirected to the mainline at Readville , leaving only Franklin and Readville locals to use the Midland . Service on the line from Boston to Readville was discontinued in 1938 ; it returned in 1940 but ended more permanently in March 1944 . Through trains to Connecticut ( discontinued in 1955 ) and commuter trains to Blackstone ( discontinued April 24 , 1966 ) and Franklin continued to use the section from Readville to Islington .
= = = MBTA era = = =
From 1944 to 1979 , the configuration of Readville was static : the two @-@ story depot served the lower level ( Northeast Corridor ) tracks , while the elevated track to Franklin and beyond was served by a small shack with stairs to the lower level . Starting in 1979 , construction of the Southwest Corridor necessitated closure of the main line between Back Bay and Forest Hills . From November 3 , 1979 until October 5 , 1987 , all Franklin Line and Providence / Stoughton Line service ran to Boston on the Midland Division via Readville .
The two @-@ story station building was destroyed by a fire on June 11 , 1983 . The building had been vacant since the early 1970s and was a frequent target of vandalism ; the fire was judged to be of suspicious origin . The MBTA did not replace the building , but handicapped @-@ accessible platforms were installed in 1992 and were connected with footbridges .
When Franklin and Providence / Stoughton service returned to the main line , service on the Midland had become popular enough to justify a continued shuttle service along the line from Boston to Fairmount . The Fairmount Shuttle was extended to Readville on November 30 , 1987 as the Fairmount Line . Since 1987 , Providence / Stoughton Line service has run through Readville without making a station stop , even though there are platforms in place to allow such use .
The 1898 @-@ built bridge over the Northeast Corridor , now used by Franklin Line trains running via Fairmount , is planned for replacement . The span will be replaced with a prebuilt bridge in a single weekend with minimal impact to Amtrak and MBTA service on the Corridor , with the old abutments left in place as retaining walls . The design contract was awarded in 2012 , and a construction contract was to be awarded in 2015 .
= = = Proposed Orange Line extension = = =
Readville is located in a densely populated neighborhood just nine miles from downtown Boston , making it a strong candidate for rapid transit service rather than conventional low @-@ frequency commuter rail service . The 1945 Coolidge Commission Report recommended that an extension of the Orange Line south from Forest Hills be built to Dedham via West Roxbury rather than Hyde Park and Readville . The 1966 Program for Mass Transportation recommended a bifurcated Orange Line , with one branch to West Roxbury or Hersey and another to Readville or Route 128 via Hyde Park . Various reports over the next two decades continued to recommend various combinations of the extensions ; however , due to cost , the 1987 relocation of the Orange Line to the Southwest Corridor was terminated at Forest Hills . Hyde Park , Readville , and the Needham Line instead received limited upgrades like handicapped @-@ accessible platforms .
The 2004 Program for Mass Transportation listed an extension to Route 128 with intermediate stops at Mount Hope , Hyde Park , and Readville at a cost of $ 342 @.@ 8 million . The extension was listed as low priority due to environmental issue with crossing the wetlands south of Readville , and because the corridor already had commuter rail service .
= = Station layout = =
Readville has an unusual layout because it is built on the crossing of two rail lines . The Fairmount Line and Franklin Line each have a single track atop an embankment . The Fairmount Line has a single side platform , while the Franklin Line has two . The Fairmount Line track continues atop a bridge over the Northeast Corridor to join with the Franklin Line . This connection is used by several trains each rush hour , allowing trains from the Franklin Line to avoid congestion in the crowded Southwest Corridor .
At ground level , the three @-@ track Northeast Corridor runs through the station . There are two side platforms ; however , Providence / Stoughton Line trains do not stop at Readville in regular service . The platforms are occasionally used during service disruptions when Fairmount Line service is not running or when trains cannot stop at Hyde Park .
Next to the Franklin Line embankment , two abandoned tracks run to the former Dedham Branch and Readville 5 @-@ Yard .
Readville station is fully handicapped accessible , although accessible routes are only available from the Hyde Park Avenue entrance . Every platform includes a 1 @-@ car length ( " mini @-@ high " ) high @-@ level platform , which allows passengers to board level with the train car floors . The platforms are all connected by a system of pedestrian bridges which include accessible ramps .
= = = Railroad yards = = =
Readville station is bounded by several railroad yards which were mostly built in the first half of the 20th century . East of the station on the Fairmount Line is the Readville Interim Repair Facility , an MBTA commuter rail maintenance facility and layover yard . Readville 1 @-@ Yard is an active CSX freight yard located south of the station , on tracks connecting the Fairmount Line to the Northeast Corridor . Additionally , there were formerly several yard tracks along the Northeast Corridor north of the station .
West of the station , Readville 5 @-@ Yard lies south of the former Dedham branch . The 42 @-@ acre ( 17 ha ) 5 @-@ Yard is split between Boston and Dedham , Massachusetts and was formerly owned and used by the New York , New Haven and Hartford Railroad , which had shops on the site until 1958 . The Penn Central Railroad acquired the yard along with the rest of the New Haven in 1968 ; the property was transferred to Conrail on March 30 , 1976 , and to Amtrak a day later . The MBTA acquired the yard from Amtrak on November 11 , 1987 and used it to store railroad @-@ related materials . Site remediation for environmental contamination including lead , arsenic , and PAHs was completed in 2011 .
In March 2012 , the MBTA announced that the contamination had been fully removed , and revealed plans to place solar panels in the west part of 5 @-@ Yard . The panels would be installed and maintained for at least 20 years by an outside contractor . Bidding began in May 2012 , with the stipulation that the solar array would be operational by the spring of 2013 . The contract was chosen in September 2012 , with a revised completion date of October 2013 . In July 2013 , MassDOT ( the MBTA 's parent agency ) announced that construction would not begin until at least 2014 due to a state solar program reaching capacity earlier than expected . As of January 2015 , the installation was to occur in June 2015 .
= = Bus connections = =
Readville has connections to two MBTA Bus routes :
32 Wolcott Square or Cleary Square – Forest Hills Station via Hyde Park Avenue
33 Dedham Line – Mattapan Station via River Street
The 32 route runs on Hyde Park Avenue to Wolcott Square , while the 33 runs on Readville Street just to the west .
= Snuffy 's Parents Get a Divorce =
" Snuffy 's Parents Get a Divorce " is an episode of the children 's television program Sesame Street . Produced in 1992 , it never aired because tests showed several unintended negative effects . Sesame Street has had a history of presenting difficult topics as part of its affective curriculum goals , including death , marriage , childbirth , and disaster . Extensive research was done before these episodes were written and produced , to ascertain their focus , and after they aired , to analyze the effect they had on viewers , and that was the case for " Snuffy 's Parents Get a Divorce " . The show 's producers had expressed a desire to produce the episode as early as 1989 , and they were convinced that it was a topic they should address after the US Census Bureau reported that 40 % of American children had experienced divorce .
The producers chose to present the Muppet Mr. Snuffleupagus ( " Snuffy " ) and his family 's experience of divorce . The episode was written by staff writer Norman Stiles , who also wrote the 1983 episode in which Mr. Hooper 's death was explained . Every word of the divorce episode was reviewed by the Children 's Television Workshop 's ( CTW ) advisory board , content experts , and developmental psychologists . After tests showed that their young viewers were confused by the episode and did not understand important concepts about divorce , the producers decided to not air it , despite the investment they had made . It was the first time the show 's producers made this kind of decision , and was cited as an example of the producer 's practice of " listening to the voices of children and by putting their needs first " , despite the costs .
Sesame Street did not address the topic of divorce until November 2012 , when they produced , for limited audiences , Little Children , Big Challenges : Divorce , as part of their resiliency initiative . Like in " Snuffy 's Parents Get a Divorce " , the production used a Muppet , Abby Cadabby , to represent the child experiencing divorce . Whereas Snuffy was shown going through it in real time , Abby 's parents ' divorce was in the past , which gave her time to adjust .
= = Background = =
Sesame Street , which premiered in 1969 , was the first children 's television program to use a detailed and comprehensive educational curriculum , with specific educational goals , in its content . The show 's goals included both cognitive and affective objectives . Initially , the cognitive skills of its young viewers were stressed over affective skills , which were addressed indirectly because the producers , writers , and researchers believed that focusing on cognitive skills would increase children 's self @-@ esteem and feelings of competency . Eventually , after the show 's first season , its critics forced its staff to address affective goals more overtly , which occurred after " extensive research and planning " .
According to writer Michael Davis , Sesame Street 's curriculum began addressing affective goals more overtly during the 1980s . For example , the producers addressed grief after the 1982 death of Will Lee , who had played Mr. Hooper since the show 's premiere . Author David Borgenicht called the episode " poignant " , and Davis called it " a landmark broadcast " and " a truly memorable episode , one of the show 's best " . For the 1988 and 1989 seasons , the topics of love , marriage , and childbirth were addressed when the show 's staff created a storyline in which the characters Luis and Maria fall in love , marry , and have a child , Gabi . Extensive research was done before these episodes were written and produced , to ascertain their focus , and after they aired , to analyze the effect they had on viewers . The show also addressed real @-@ life disasters . For example , the producers addressed the September 11 terrorist attacks with an episode that aired in early 2002 . They also produced a series of four episodes that aired after Hurricane Katrina in 2005 .
= = Development = =
The Children 's Television Workshop ( CTW , later Sesame Workshop ) , the organization responsible for the production of Sesame Street , considered and discussed addressing the topic of divorce for many years before developing an episode . As early as 1989 , writer and director Jon Stone expressed his intention of writing a script about it , stating , " My two projects for this year are drugs and divorce . Divorce is a difficult one . Perhaps we could do it with puppets . I am also writing a script on drugs and peer pressure " . Executive producer Dulcy Singer vetoed the idea in 1990 , before it reached development . While she felt complex social matters should be discussed on the series , she felt the issue was irrelevant to inner city and financially disadvantaged families , which was the show 's target audience . She said that " divorce is a middle @-@ class thing , " and suggested instead that an episode focus on a single @-@ parent family , with the child born out of wedlock with an absent father . Singer stated , even after the episode was filmed , " We were really nervous about the show , and we didn 't think it was a shoo @-@ in . When you 're dealing with something like death , the approach can be universal . But with divorce , it 's so personal . People react differently . " The topic of divorce was discussed again the following year , after the US Census Bureau released statistics suggesting 40 percent of all children in the United States , not just the middle classes , would soon live in divorced households .
Producer / director Lisa Simon stated , regarding the difficulty the producers and writers had with crafting the episode , " We hope to get to it by the end of the season . It always takes us a while to figure out how to do an issue appropriately , from a child 's point of view " . Puppeteer Jerry Nelson , who was one of the original performers of Snuffy , noted , " Now we delve into things like divorce that are likely to affect small children very heavily . We didn 't touch those things before " .
Instead of using the human characters in the show 's cast , the writers and producers decided to use Muppets to present their narrative about the effects of divorce on young children . They chose to use the family of Mr. Snuffleupagus ( " Snuffy " ) , a large Muppet that had been on the show since 1971 . Long @-@ time cast member Bob McGrath stated , " They knew they couldn 't do it with either of our married couples — Gordon and Susan or Maria and Luis — so they tried it with Snuffleupagus , writing a show about his parents getting divorced " . According to Simon , " With puppets , it 's slightly less frightening ... The kids have somebody to identify with . They see the puppet characters have feelings and work through a difficult issue many of them will have to face " .
Staff writer Norman Stiles , who also wrote the episode in which Mr. Hooper 's death was explained , was assigned to compose the script . Every word of the divorce episode was reviewed by CTW 's advisory board , content experts , and developmental psychologists . The episode featured Gordon explaining the concept of divorce , Snuffy being assured that his parents still loved him , and the characters talking and singing " about how Snuffy will have good homes , and so on and so on " .
= = Test results = =
As with the Mr. Hooper episode , " Snuffy 's Parents Get a Divorce " was studied extensively for comprehension and attention . After it was filmed , it was screened before a test audience of 60 children in four daycare centers . The results found several unintended negative effects . As The Christian Science Monitor said , " it bombed " . Despite Gordon 's reassuring the Muppets Elmo , Big Bird , and Telly , children believed that their parents ' arguments would lead to their divorce . They also were unsure that Snuffy and his little sister Alice 's parents loved them despite the divorce , were unclear where the characters ' parents lived ( especially their father , who had never appeared on the show before ) . Many viewers also thought that Snuffy and Alice would never see their father again . According to Singer , " The kids came away with negative messages ... The kids misunderstood arguments . They said arguments did mean divorce . Some thought Snuffy 's parents were moving away even though we said just the opposite . A number said the parents would no longer be in love with them " .
Based upon their findings , and despite the expense and their intention to air " Snuffy 's Parents Get a Divorce " in April 1992 , the CTW decided not to risk possibly harming their audience and not air the episode . McGrath said , " They wrote a whole show and taped it , and it was just devastating for test groups of kids . So they just threw the whole thing in the garbage and never tried it again . It was just too difficult a concept for a 3 @-@ year @-@ old " . CTW Research director Valeria Lovelace recommended scrapping the episode and going " back to the drawing board " , and the idea was abandoned , at least for the season . Producer Michael Loman recalled , " We ate the cost and never aired it . We feel there are a range of issues that we can deal with in the family that do not go to the extreme of divorce " . According to Sesame Street researcher Susan Scheiner , it was the first time the CTW had produced an episode , and after making a large investment , found after tests that the episode did not work . Rosemarie T. Truglio and her colleagues at the CTW cited the episode as an example of the CTW 's practice of " listening to the voices of children and by putting their needs first " .
= = Legacy = =
Sesame Street did not address the subject of divorce until November 2012 , when its producers created , as part of their resiliency initiative , Little Children , Big Challenges : Divorce . It was made available to military families and to the general public through family courts , counseling services , and parenting and child care programs . It included a 22 @-@ minute DVD , a caregiver guide , a storybook , a tip sheet for extended families and friends , mobile apps and social networking sites , and an online toolkit . Like in " Snuffy 's Parents Get a Divorce " , the Little Children , Big Challenges production also used a Muppet , Abby Cadabby , to represent the child experiencing divorce . Whereas Snuffy was shown going through it in real time , Abby 's parents ' divorce was in the past , which gave her time to adjust .
= Walther von Brauchitsch =
Heinrich Alfred Hermann Walther von Brauchitsch ( 4 October 1881 – 18 October 1948 ) was a German field marshal and the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the German Army in the early years of World War II .
Born into an aristocratic military family , Brauchitsch joined the 3rd Guards Grenadier Regiment 1901 . He served on the staff of several formations that fought over a dozen major battles of World War I , serving with the XVI Corps , 34th Infantry Division and Guards Reserve Corps as a staff officer before taking part in no fewer than twenty @-@ eight notable clashes on the Western Front , including the Battle of Verdun , the Battle of Armentières , the Battle at the Aisne , and the Battle of the Lys . For his service on the Western Front , he was awarded the Iron Cross and the House Order of Hohenzollern .
After Hitler 's rise to power in 1933 , Brauchitsch was put in charge of the East Prussian Military District , and became a popular officer because of his kindness to the civilian Prussian population in times of local fires . Although he personally disliked Nazism , he borrowed immense sums of money from Hitler and eventually became dependent on his financial help . Brauchitsch primarily served as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the German Army before World War II , from 1938 , and during the two first years of war , until 1941 . He played a key role in the Battle of France and oversaw the German military campaigns in Yugoslavia and Greece . For his part in Battle of France , Brauchitsch became one of 12 generals promoted to field marshal on 19 July 1940 . After a first heart attack in November 1941 and the failed Moscow offensive in December 1941 , Hitler dismissed him as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Army ; he spent the rest of the war in enforced retirement , and never saw Hitler again . After World War II , Brauchitsch was arrested on charges of war crimes , but died of a heart attack in 1948 before he could be prosecuted .
Brauchitsch married Elizabeth von Karstedt , an heiress from Brandenburg , in 1910 , with whom he had three children . They were divorced in 1938 and , shortly after , he married Charlotte Rüffer .
= = Early life = =
Brauchitsch was born in Berlin on 4 October 1881 as the sixth child of Bernhard Eduard von Brauchitsch , a cavalry general , and his wife Charlotte Bertha von Gordon , a housewife . The Brauchitsch family , which originally came from Silesia , had a long tradition of military service , and like his forefathers , Brauchitsch was raised in the tradition of the Prussian officer corps . His family moved in the leading social circles of Berlin 's high society , and his family name and father 's military rank put him on equal footing with any officer or official . In his teens , Brauchitsch was interested in liberal and conservative politics , and was fascinated by the fine art pieces that were sculpted in Berlin in the late 1880s . To help him pursue these interests , his father enrolled him at Französisches Gymnasium Berlin rather than a military academy .
In 1895 Brauchitsch joined the military academy in Potsdam . He later transferred to the Hauptkadettenanstalt Groß Lichterfelde , where in his final year he belonged to the " Selekta " ( top class for gifted students ) . and was chosen , as his brother Adolf five years before , as a page by Empress Augusta Victoria . During his time serving the empress at court , he learned manners and bearing that were noted for the rest of his life .
Upon graduation he received his commission and joined the 9th Company of the 3 . Garde @-@ Grenadier @-@ Regiment " Königin @-@ Elisabeth " in Charlottenburg as second lieutenant on 22 March 1900 . A medical condition made him unfit for service in the infantry , and Brauchitsch made a request for secondment to the recently formed 3 . Garde @-@ Feldartillerie @-@ Regiment ( 3rd Guards Field Artillery Regiment ) , which was granted on 1 December 1900 . After the secondment of six months , the commander of the regiment approved his permanent transfer to the regiment , where Brauchitsch , himself a keen horseman , was put in charge of training recruits in riding and driving .
While serving as an adjutant and later staff officer of his regiment , he noticed that his fellow officers and superiors showed no particular interest in artillery tactics . As he considered artillery to be his specialty , he instead joined the General Staff office in Berlin , where he was promoted to first lieutenant ( in 1909 ) .
= = World War I = =
By the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Brauchitsch had reached the rank of captain ( promoted in 1913 ) , and was appointed staff officer to the XVI Army Corps stationed near Metz . He would be in the thick of the Great War from start to finish serving in the 34th Infantry Division and Guards Reserve Corps . Between 1914 and 1916 , he was based near Othain , Véry , and Varennes , where he took part in the Battle of Verdun and Battle of the Argonne Forest . In the remaining two years of the conflict , Brauchitsch saw more action , taking part in notable engagements such as the third Battle of the Aisne , the Battle of Aisne @-@ Marne , the second Battle of the Aisne , the Battle of Armentières , and the Battle of Flanders . His contributions to the war effort did not go unnoticed ; Brauchitsch was awarded the Iron Cross 1st Class and the House Order of Hohenzollern , and ended the war with the rank of major .
= = Weimar Republic = =
The German military underwent a forced reduction in 1919 to comply with the Treaty of Versailles , but Brauchitsch managed to stay in the military . He remained with the General Staff , where he had no opportunity to use his knowledge of artillery . Eventually , in 1920 , he was permitted to transfer to the staff of the 2nd Artillery Regiment . The following year , he worked in the Ministry of the Reichswehr , in the Artillery Department .
Brauchitsch 's assignment in the Artillery Department was to reorganize artillery formations and implement lessons learned in the closing months of the war . He added ideas of his own , including modifying the classification system for light , medium , and heavy artillery . Heavy artillery , formerly known as " corps artillery " , now became " reinforcement artillery " . He also added emphasis on the combination and co @-@ operation between artillery and infantry .
After three years in the Artillery Department , he was promoted to lieutenant colonel in 1925 . As of 1 November 1927 , Brauchitsch was appointed Chief of Staff of the 6th Infantry Division in Münster , Westphalia , one of the strongest garrisons in the west of Germany . In the last years of the Weimar Republic , he took over the Army Training Department and became a colonel ( promoted in 1928 ) .
= = Nazi Germany = =
In 1933 , Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party came to power and began to expand the military , in order to realize Hitler 's military ambitions . Two years before , Brauchitsch had received his major general promotion . On 1 February 1933 , he was named commander of the East Prussian Military District ( Wehrkreis I ) and Chief of the 1st Division in Königsberg . As a consequence of the German re @-@ armament the command position Befehlshaber im Wehrkreis I ( Commander of the 1st Military District ) was expanded . The staff of the 1st Division formed the staff of the 1st Army Corps and Brauchitsch was appointed its first commanding general on 21 June 1935 .
Although Brauchitsch felt at home in Prussia , he had a clash with Erich Koch , the local Gauleiter ( party head and de facto head of civil administration of the province ) . Koch was known as somewhat of a crook who greatly enjoyed the power he possessed , and who would bring violence to his enemies . As neither Koch nor Brauchitsch wanted to lose their jobs in the region , the two attempted to keep their feud unofficial . As a result , Berlin hardly learned of their dispute .
A dispute emerged a few years later , when Brauchitsch learned that Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler planned to replace the army guards in East Prussia with SS men , with the purpose of persecuting Jews , Protestant and Catholic churches in the district . Even though Brauchitsch managed to prevent the SS replacement of the army troops in the region , Himmler categorized him as " a junker " , and informed Hitler of the disagreement . Brauchitsch claimed he had done his duty , saying laconically , " Civilians are not allowed to enter that area . "
Brauchitsch obtained the rank of general of artillery in 1936 . So when the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Army , Werner von Fritsch , was accused of homosexuality , Hitler appointed Brauchitsch a colonel general and the new army chief , on the recommendation of the Army High Command on 4 February 1938 . The homosexual allegations were in reality a trap set by Hitler as an excuse to dismiss one of the aristocratic senior officers within the Army High Command . Fritsch 's removal was a severe test of the stability of the German internal administration of that time .
Brauchitsch welcomed the Nazi policy of rearmament . The relationship between Hitler and Brauchitsch improved during Brauchitsch 's confusion about whether to leave his wife for his mistress , in the middle of the Munich Crisis ; Hitler set aside his usual anti @-@ divorce sentiments and encouraged Brauchitsch to divorce and remarry . Hitler even lent him 80 @,@ 000 Reichsmarks so he could afford the divorce . Over time , Brauchitsch became largely reliant on Hitler for financial help .
Like Colonel General Ludwig Beck , Brauchitsch opposed Hitler 's annexation of Austria and intervention in Czechoslovakia , although he did not resist Hitler 's plans for war , again preferring to refrain from politics .
In the final months before World War II , Brauchitsch focused on Italy 's potential to aid the Nazi military cause . This turned out not to be an easy task , as the Italian leader Benito Mussolini expected economic support from the Reich in return for his military collaboration . Fritsch had already told Brauchitsch that the Italian military was in " extremely poor fighting shape " . Joachim von Ribbentrop , Germany 's Foreign Minister and the main architect of the Axis alliance , constantly interfered with Brauchitsch 's efforts , as he wanted to see his work consolidated at all costs .
= = World War II = =
Even though Brauchitsch was in charge of operational affairs during the Polish and French campaigns , he had very little influence , as a whole , as to the war 's progress . During the invasion of Poland , he oversaw most plans . The campaign was often cited as the first example of " blitzkrieg " . Blitzkrieg was not a theory or an official doctrine . The Polish Campaign did not resemble the popular perception of what became known as blitzkrieg . The Panzer Divisions were spread thinly among the infantry and were not granted operational independence or grouped en masse , as they would in Western Europe . The operative method of the Wehrmacht in Poland followed the more traditional Vernichtungsgedanke . What is commonly referred to as blitzkrieg did not develop until after the campaign in the west in June 1940 . It was not the cause but rather the consequence of victory . Brauchitsch himself had to be convinced that armour could act independently at the operational level , before the campaign .
By early November 1939 , Brauchitsch and Chief of the General Staff Franz Halder started to consider overthrowing Hitler , who had fixed " X @-@ day " , the invasion of France , as 12 November 1939 . Both officers believed that the invasion was doomed to fail . On 5 November 1939 , the Army General Staff prepared a special memorandum purporting to recommend against launching an attack on the Western powers that year . Brauchitsch reluctantly agreed to read the document to Hitler and did so in a meeting on 5 November . Brauchitsch attempted to talk Hitler into putting off X @-@ day by saying that morale in the German Army was worse than in 1918 , a statement that enraged Hitler . He harshly berated Brauchitsch for incompetence . Brauchitsch went on to complain :
The aggressive spirit of the German infantry is sadly below the standard of the First World War ... [ there has been ] certain symptoms of insubordination similar to those of 1917 – 18 . "
Hitler flew into a rage , accusing the General Staff and Brauchitsch personally of disloyalty , cowardice , sabotage , and defeatism . He returned to the army headquarters at Zossen , where he " arrived in such poor shape that at first he could only give a somewhat incoherent account of the proceedings . " After that meeting , both Brauchitsch and Halder told Carl Friedrich Goerdeler , a key leader of the anti @-@ Nazi movement , that overthrowing Hitler was simply something that they could not do and that he should find other officers to take part in the plot . Hitler called a meeting of the General Staff , where he declared that he would smash the West within a year . He also vowed to " destroy the spirit of Zossen " , a threat that panicked Halder to such an extent that he forced the conspirators to abort their second planned coup attempt . On 7 November , following heavy snowstorms , Hitler put off X @-@ Day until further notice , which removed Brauchitsch and Halder 's primary motivation for the plot .
While preparations were underway for the Battle of France , a German planner and strategist named Erich von Manstein , then serving as chief of staff of Army Group A , presented his famous Sichelschnitt ( " sickle cut " ) plan . Brauchitsch and Halder , however , did not approve of the plan . When Manstein insisted on the plan being accepted , Halder suggested transferring Manstein far away to the east , so as to reduce his influence in the planning process . Brauchitsch agreed and transferred him to Silesia . However , Hitler invited a group of officers to lunch , and Manstein was among them . He managed to present his plan directly to Hitler . The following day , Hitler ordered Brauchitsch to accept Manstein 's plan , which the Führer presented as his own .
Despite his original scepticism , Brauchitsch eventually saw the plan 's potential and felt that the army had a real chance of success in France .
After the surprisingly swift fall of France , Brauchitsch was promoted to field marshal in July 1940 , during the 1940 Field Marshal Ceremony . After France had been occupied and divided , he and the rest of the high command were looking forward to a similarly easy and swift campaign against Great Britain , now seriously weakened by the French campaign . He was confident that Britain would be easily defeated : " We consider the victory already won . England remains secure , but only so long as we choose . "
Had Operation Sealion , the plan for the invasion of Britain , succeeded , Hitler intended to place Brauchitsch in charge of the new conquest . As the Luftwaffe could not gain the requisite air superiority , the Battle of Britain was lost and so the plan was shelved and eventually cancelled .
In the swift invasion and occupation of Yugoslavia and Greece in early April 1941 , the Germans committed some 337 @,@ 000 men , 2 @,@ 000 mortars , 1 @,@ 500 artillery pieces , 1 @,@ 100 anti @-@ tank guns , 875 tanks and 740 other armoured fighting vehicles , all of which were under the overall command of Brauchitsch . By the end of the month , all of Yugoslavia and Greece were in German hands .
Brauchitsch supported harsh measures against the Polish population , which he claimed were needed for securing German Lebensraum ( " living space " ) . He had a central role in the death sentences for Polish prisoners taken in the defense of the Polish Post Office in Danzig , rejecting the clemency appeal .
He ordered his army and commanders to cease criticism of racist Nazi policies , as harsh measures were needed for the " forthcoming battle of destiny of the German people " . When Germany turned East and invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941 , he again played a key part , making modifications to the original plan . Like his friend and colleague , Wilhelm Keitel , Brauchitsch did not protest when Hitler gave the German army the same instructions as the SS on who to kill in the occupied territory , but he later issued a series of decrees that ordered that Commissars were to be shot only if their anti @-@ German sentiments were " especially recognizable " .
As the Battle of Moscow got underway , his health was starting to fail . Even so , he continued his work , as he was determined to take Moscow before the start of the severe Russian winter . The army 's failure to take Moscow earned Hitler 's enmity , and things worsened for him , as he endured a serious heart attack in November . He was also informed that he had a malignant cardiac disease , most likely incurable .
Like other generals in the aftermath of the failure at Moscow , Brauchitsch was made a scapegoat . He was dismissed as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the German Army on 19 December and was transferred to the Führerreserve ( officers reserve ) , where he remained without assignment until the end of the war ; he never saw Hitler again .
Brauchitsch spent the last three years of the war in the Tři Trubky hunting lodge in the Brdy mountains southwest of Prague . One of his few public comments after retirement was a statement condemning the 20 July plot against Hitler for which he denounced several former colleagues . Later , he excused himself to Halder , claiming he had been forced to do so to save a relative 's life .
= = = Trial and death = = =
After the war , in August 1945 , Brauchitsch was arrested at his estate and imprisoned at Camp 198 in South Wales . His war crime charges included conspiracy and crimes against humanity . He died on 18 October 1948 of bronchial pneumonia in a British @-@ controlled military hospital in Hamburg , aged 67 , before he could be prosecuted . He was buried at Salzgitter cemetery , Lower Saxony , Germany .
= = Personal life = =
In 1910 , Brauchitsch married his first wife , Elizabeth von Karstedt , a wealthy heiress to 300 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 200 km2 ) in Brandenburg . The couple had two sons and a daughter , including Bernd von Brauchitsch , who later served in the Luftwaffe during World War II as Hermann Göring 's adjutant . They were divorced in 1938 after 28 years of marriage , as Brauchitsch had developed another romantic interest .
In 1925 , Brauchitsch met Charlotte Rueffer , the daughter of a Silesian judge . He wanted a divorce , but his wife refused . Rueffer later married a bank director named Schmidt , who drowned in his bath during a visit to Berlin . When Brauchitsch returned from East Prussia in 1937 , the pair resumed their affair . They married immediately after Brauchitsch had divorced Karstedt .
Brauchitsch was the uncle of Manfred von Brauchitsch , a 1930s Mercedes @-@ Benz " Silver Arrow " Grand Prix driver , and also Hans Bernd von Haeften and Werner von Haeften , who were members of the German resistance against Hitler .
= = Assessment = =
Historian Helmut Krausnick characterizes Brauchitsch as " an outstanding professional who lived up to the traditions of his profession , but especially lacked the strength of personality to deal with Hitler " . Historian Ian Kershaw on the other hand regards Brauchitsch as a " spineless individual , who was frightened by Hitler . He was no person to lead any type of front or revolt . "
= = Awards = =
Iron Cross ( 1914 )
2nd Class ( 13 September 1914 )
1st Class ( 1 October 1915 )
Württemberg Friedrich Order with Swords ( 7 May 1915 )
Knight 's Cross of the House Order of Hohenzollern with Swords ( 15 May 1917 )
Saxe @-@ Meiningen Honour Cross for War Merit ( 2 January 1918 )
Service Award for 25 service years ( 17 April 1920 )
The Honour Cross of the World War 1914 / 1918 ( 18 December 1934 )
Wehrmacht Long Service Award 1st Class ( 2 October 1936 )
Royal Hungarian Order of Merit 1st Class ( 20 August 1938 )
Star of the German Red Cross Decoration ( 5 September 1938 )
Anschluss Medal ( 21 November 1938 )
Grand Cross of the Royal Italian Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus ( 3 January 1939 )
Grand Cross of the Order of the White Rose of Finland ( 10 March 1939 )
Order of the Yugoslav Crown 1st Class ( 1 June 1939 )
Sudetenland Medal with Clasp ( 7 June 1939 )
Clasp to the Iron Cross ( 1939 )
2nd Class ( 30 September 1939 )
1st Class ( 30 September 1939 )
Knights Cross of the Iron Cross on 30 September 1939 as Colonel General and Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Army
Memel Medal ( 30 November 1939 )
Spanish Military Merit Cross 1st Class ( 1939 )
Grand Cross of the Royal Bulgarian Order of St Alexander with Swords ( 15 May 1941 )
Grand Cross of the Royal Hungarian Order of Merit with Swords ( 31 May 1941 )
Grand Cross of the Romanian Order of Michael the Brave ( 11 October 1941 )
Slovak War Victory Cross 1st Class ( 20 October 1941 )
Grand Cross of the Finnish Order of the Cross of Liberty ( 19 July 1942 )
Japanese Order of the Rising Sun 1st Class ( 26 September 1942 )
= = Dates of rank = =
Leutnant ( Second Lieutenant ) – 22 March 1900
Oberleutnant ( First Lieutenant ) – 18 October 1909
Hauptmann ( Captain ) – 18 December 1913
Major ( Major ) – 15 July 1918
Oberstleutnant ( Lieutenant Colonel ) – 1 June 1923
Oberst ( Colonel ) – 1 April 1928
Generalmajor ( Major General ) – 1 October 1931
Generalleutnant ( Lieutenant General ) – 1 October 1933
General der Artillerie ( General of Artillery ) – 1 October 1935
Generaloberst ( Colonel General ) – 4 February 1938
Generalfeldmarschall ( Field Marshal ) – 19 July 1940
= It 's All Coming Back to Me Now =
" It 's All Coming Back to Me Now " is a power ballad written by Jim Steinman . According to Steinman , the song was inspired by Wuthering Heights , and was an attempt to write " the most passionate , romantic song " he could ever create . The Sunday Times posits that " Steinman protects his songs as if they were his children " . Meat Loaf had wanted to record " It 's All Coming Back ... " for years , but Steinman saw it as a " woman 's song . " Steinman won a court movement preventing Meat Loaf from recording it . Girl group Pandora 's Box went on to record it and it was subsequently made famous through a cover by Celine Dion , which upset Meat Loaf because he was going to use it for a planned album with the working title Bat Out of Hell III . Alternately , Meat Loaf has said the song was intended for Bat Out of Hell II and given to the singer in 1986 , but that they both decided to use " I 'd Do Anything for Love ( But I Won 't Do That ) " for Bat II , and save this song for Bat III .
The song has had three major releases . The first version appeared on the concept album Original Sin , recorded by Pandora 's Box . It was then recorded by Celine Dion for her album Falling into You , and her version was a commercial hit , reaching No. 2 in the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 and No. 3 in the UK Singles Chart . Meat Loaf recorded it as a duet with Norwegian singer Marion Raven for Bat III and released it as a single in 2006 .
A music video was produced for each of the three versions ; death is a recurring theme in all of these videos , fitting in with the suggestion in Virgin 's press release for Original Sin that " in Steinman 's songs , the dead come to life and the living are doomed to die . " This is particularly evident when the dead characters seem to be resurrected in the memories of the main vocalist . Although in the case of Celine Dion 's video , the theme is less about the living being doomed and more about a lost love .
= = Inspiration = =
Influenced by Emily Brontë 's novel Wuthering Heights , Steinman compared the song to ' Heathcliff digging up Cathy 's corpse and dancing with it in the cold moonlight ' . In the Jim Steinman Opens Pandora 's Box promotional video , he posits that the novel :
is always made much too polite ; it always has been in movies . This isn 't the Wuthering Heights of Kate Bush -- that little fanciful Wuthering Heights . The scene they always cut out is the scene when Heathcliff digs up Catherine 's body and dances in the moonlight and on the beach with it . I think you can 't get much more operatic or passionate than that . I was trying to write a song about dead things coming to life . I was trying to write a song about being enslaved and obsessed by love , not just enchanted and happy with it . It was about the dark side of love ; about the ability to be resurrected by it ... I just tried to put everything I could into it , and I 'm real proud of it .
In another interview , Steinman expands on his comments about the song being about the ' dark side of love ' .
It 's about obsession , and that can be scary because you 're not in control and you don 't know where it 's going to stop . It says that , at any point in somebody 's life , when they loved somebody strongly enough and that person returns , a certain touch , a certain physical gesture can turn them from being defiant and disgusted with this person to being subservient again . And it 's not just a pleasurable feeling that comes back , it 's the complete terror and loss of control that comes back . And I think that 's ultimately a great weapon .
The website Allmusic called the song ' a tormented ballad about romantic loss and regret built on a spooky yet heart @-@ wrenching piano melody ' . The torment is present in the song 's opening ( ' There were nights when the wind was so cold ' ) , from which the singer recovers ( ' I finished crying in the instant that you left ... And I banished every memory you and I had ever made ' ) . However , the defiance in the verses are replaced by the return of the ' subservient ' feelings in the chorus ( ' when you touch me like this , and you hold me like that ... ' ) ; this juxtaposition continues throughout the song .
'There were those empty threats and hollow lies
'And whenever you tried to hurt me
'I just hurt you even worse and so much deeper.'
Eroticism is implied in the lines ' There were nights of endless pleasure ' and ' The flesh and the fantasies : all coming back to me ' . The song ends with a passionate , quiet reprise of the chorus . Critics have also identified Wagner , of whom Steinman is an admirer , as an inspiration . Specifying this song , the Sunday Times said " the theme of Wagner 's opera Tristan and Isolde , with its extreme passions and obsessive love , informs all his best work . "
A 2007 article in the Toronto Star claims that the song was written as Steinman 's " tryout " as lyricist for Andrew Lloyd Webber 's Sunset Boulevard .
= = Pandora 's Box = =
In 1989 , Steinman produced a concept album , Original Sin , with an all @-@ female group called Pandora 's Box . The album featured many tracks that would later be recorded by other artists , particularly Meat Loaf . Elaine Caswell was the lead vocalist for " It 's All Coming Back To Me Now " , who apparently collapsed five times during its recording . Caswell has since performed the song as part of The Dream Engine at Joe 's Pub in New York City .
For the track , Roy Bittan performed on the grand piano , with Steinman and Jeff Bova on keyboards . Guitars were by Eddie Martinez , with Steve Buslowe on bass guitar . Todd Rundgren arranged the background vocals , which were performed by Ellen Foley , Gina Taylor and Deliria Wilde . The song was released as a single in the United Kingdom during October 1989 , but only reached No. 51 in the singles charts . In its review of the album , Kerrang ! magazine called the song ' excruciatingly operatic ' .
Ken Russell directed the video , which was filmed at Pinewood Studios in Buckinghamshire . Steinman wrote the script , based on Russell 's " Nessun Dorma " segment in the compilation opera movie Aria . Scholar Joseph Lanza describes the video :
a woman 's near @-@ death experience [ from a motorcycle crash ] is set amid operatic excesses and black leather . In a simulated city engulfed by an apocalyptic blaze , British vocalist Elaine Caswell sings and participates in a ritual to celebrate the song 's " nights of sacred pleasure " ... [ The soundtstage ] is stocked with gravestones , motorcycles , python and dancers ( allegedly from the London production of Cats ) , strapped in chaps , studded bras , and spiked codpieces .
The girl , near death , is being ministered to by paramedics , fantasizing and being ' sexually aroused by a large python and writhing on a bed that lit up in time with the music , while surrounded by a group of bemused , semi @-@ naked dancers ' . When Steinman 's manager saw it , he responded ' It 's a porno movie ! ' The two @-@ day shoot ran over schedule and budget , costing £ 35 @,@ 000 an hour . Russell and Steinman even designed a sequence where a motorcyclist would cycle up the steps of a local church @-@ tower , jump out of the turrets at the top , and then explode ; alas , the wardens of the church refused permission .
The 7 " , 12 " and CD singles featured Steven Margoshes 's piano solo " Pray Lewd " ( containing elements of " It 's All Coming Back to Me Now " ) , Steinman 's monologue " I 've Been Dreaming Up a Storm Lately " , and " Requiem Metal " , a sample from Verdi 's Requiem Mass , all from the album Original Sin .
= = Celine Dion = =
The song is the first on Dion 's album Falling into You . Jim Steinman produced the track , with Steven Rinkoff and Roy Bittan as co @-@ producers . Bat Out of Hell and Meat Loaf collaborators Todd Rundgren , Eric Troyer , Rory Dodd , Glen Burtnick and Kasim Sulton provided backing vocals . An edited version of the song was then released on Celine 's album All the Way ... A Decade of Song . On Celine 's Falling Into You album the song 's original length is seven minutes and thirty @-@ seven seconds while on her All The Way album it is only five minutes and thirty @-@ one seconds .
In 2008 , " It 's All Coming Back to Me Now " was included on Celine 's greatest hits compilation My Love : Essential Collection . Live performances can be found in the A New Day ... Live in Las Vegas , Taking Chances World Tour : The Concert , and Céline ... une seule fois / Live 2013 albums . Dion also performed this song during her 2016 Summer Tour.The song was included in My Love : Essential Collection , which on some editions restores the song back to its original length .
= = = Personnel = = =
Roy Bittan - grand piano
Jeff Bova - keyboards , programming
Jimmy Bralower - drums , percussion
Steve Buslowe - bass
Tim Pierce - guitar
Eddie Martinez - additional guitars
Kenny Aronoff - additional drums
Bashiri Johnson - additional percussion
Todd Rundgren , Eric Troyer , Rory Dodd , Glen Burtnick , Kasim Sulton - background vocals
= = = Critical reception = = =
The cover has received acclaim from international critics . The Calgary Sun stated : " [ The song ] is undoubtedly the highlight of her English @-@ language recording career . Dion 's over @-@ the @-@ top vocals soar and swoop around Steinman 's epic , ostentatious arrangement . Not surprisingly , everything else that follows ... pales in comparison . " Toronto 's Eye Weekly said Steinman 's " fatal absence from the last Meat Loaf record is finally justified here , " and The Miami Herald said " Dion knocks a couple out of the ballpark ... [ the song ] features seven minutes of Wagnerian bombast , thunderclap piano chords and emoting that would wither an opera diva . Sure , it 's over @-@ the @-@ top but it 's passionate and musical . " Allmusic senior editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine marked this song as a standout along with " Falling Into You " and praised it : " Dion shines on mock epics like Jim Steinman 's " It 's All Coming Back to Me Now . " The New York Times ' Stephen Holden wrote : " The melodrama peaks with two overblown Jim Steinman productions : " It 's All Coming Back to Me Now " , a romantic flashback replete with thunderclaps ... "
Some other reviews were less enthusiastic . After labelling Dion " a Madonna @-@ meets @-@ Meat Loaf vocal freak " , The Vancouver Sun called the song " intensely self @-@ indulgent , pompously self @-@ important and mediocre beyond belief , the song just never ends . " The Ottawa Sun called it ' turgid ' , while The Toronto Sun , coincidentally , said that it " sounds like a Meat Loaf reject . "
According to the Sunday Times , Andrew Lloyd Webber told Steinman he thought this song " the greatest love song ever written , " and on hearing the Dion version reportedly said : " This will be the record of the millennium . "
= = = Music video = = =
Nigel Dick directed the music video for Dion 's version , with Simon Archer as cinematographer and Jaromir Svarc as art director . It was shot between June 29 and July 3 , 1996 in the summer palace of the Austrian Emperor , Ploskovice and Barandov Studios , Prague , Czech Republic ; it was later released in July 1996 . Castle Ploskovice in Ploskovice supplied the exterior of the gothic mansion . There are two versions of this music video ; the full version ( about 7 : 44 in length ) and the single version ( about 6 : 00 in length ) . Both of them are included on Dion 's 2001 DVD video collection All the Way ... A Decade of Song & Video .
The video opens with a man dying in an explosive motorcycle crash , after lightning strikes a tree down in his path . Dion 's character is haunted by her lover 's image , which she sees through a mirror , and images of them together through picture frames . There are stylistic similarities to Russell Mulcahy 's video for Steinman 's " Total Eclipse of the Heart " , to the extent that Slant Magazine calls Dick 's video an update .
= = = Official versions = = =
Several versions of the CD single were released in 1996 . They featured the songs " The Power of the Dream " , " Le fils de Superman " , " Fly " , " To Love You More " , and a live version of " Where Does My Heart Beat Now " ; a cassette and 7 " vinyl version were also released . Another CD contained several dance remixes , although these attracted negative reviews . While praising its original form , Allmusic said that ' as a dance song , it misses the mark ... the final ' Moran ' mix is a little better [ than the other dance mixes ] because the vocals don 't pop up until three and a half minutes into the song ' .
= = = Charts = = =
= = = Certifications and sales = = =
= = Meat Loaf and Marion Raven = =
In interviews , Meat Loaf has said that , in his mind , the song was always meant to be a duet . It was recorded as a duet by Meat Loaf and Marion Raven for the album Bat Out of Hell III : The Monster Is Loose , produced by Desmond Child . Raven had been working on her solo album with Child , and was chosen because the timbre of her voice starkly contrasts to Meat Loaf 's . In promotional interviews , Meat Loaf said that " I believe that the version that Marion Raven and myself did on this album is the definitive version . "
Meat Loaf cried when he first heard the song , which " is the only time that 's happened . " He has also said that the song could refer to Steinman and himself , with an array of emotions coming back every time they work together . Referring to lines like ' when I kiss you like that ' , he said that although " I love Jim Steinman " , he wouldn 't French kiss him .
To me it wasn 't a song about romance , it was about me and Jim Steinman . We 'd had a load of problems with managers in the early ' 80s and all of a sudden after five years we started to communicate . After I 'd been to his house , he sent me the song , and it was " It 's All Coming Back To Me Now " . Not the line ' When you kiss me like that ' , but the emotional connection . It doesn 't have to be literal .
P. R. Brown directed this video , which premiered on VH1 Classic on August 8 , 2006 . There are similarities between the video for Meat Loaf 's version of the song , and that the video for that of Celine Dion , with Meat Loaf being haunted by the memory of his lover . It is structured differently , however , with the story being told through flashback . Shots when Raven 's character is alive have a distinct yellow tint , with a darker , blue
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tint for those after her death . Whereas the motorcyclist dies before the first verse in the Dion version , Raven 's crash and resulting death is not shown until the final chorus . Meat Loaf becomes angry with Raven because the ghost of Raven 's former lover appears at a masquerade ball they are attending ( some reviewers have compared this to the Stanley Kubrick film Eyes Wide Shut ) .
This version of the song replaces the word ' nights ' with ' lights ' , in the line ' There were nights of endless pleasure ' . The ending of the single version is different , concluding with an additional ' We forgive and forget and it 's all coming back to me now ' . The album version , following those recorded by Pandora 's Box and Celine Dion , ends with the female voice whispering ' And if we ... ' , followed by four piano notes .
The track was available to download from iTunes in the United Kingdom in August 2006 , two months before its UK release on October 16 . The CD single includes the song " Black Betty " , with the limited edition 7 " featuring " Whore " , a rock duet with Patti Russo ; it was also released as a DVD single . The album version was made available on Meat Loaf and Marion Raven 's respective MySpace sites in August , with the single version being played during some of their promotional interviews , such as that on BBC Radio 2 . The cover art is by Julie Bell , who is also the artist for the album Bat out Of Hell III .
The single entered the UK charts at No. 6 on October 22 , 2006 , giving Meat Loaf his highest position in the UK charts since " I 'd Lie for You ( And That 's the Truth ) " reached No. 2 in 1995 . Critical reaction was generally positive , with The Guardian saying that the song is " ostensibly a reflection on love , but imbued with the delicacy of aircraft carriers colliding at sea . "
Marion Raven joined Meat Loaf for his 2007 tour of Europe . She was the supporting act , promoting her album Set Me Free . Meat Loaf introduced her again on stage at the latter stages of the concerts to duet on " It 's All Coming Back to Me Now " . A performance was recorded and released on DVD as 3 Bats Live .
= = = Charts = = =
= The Sword of Shannara =
The Sword of Shannara is a 1977 epic fantasy novel by Terry Brooks . It is the first book of the Original Shannara Trilogy , followed by The Elfstones of Shannara and The Wishsong of Shannara . Brooks was heavily influenced by J.R.R. Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings and began writing The Sword of Shannara in 1967 . It took him seven years to complete , as he was writing the novel while attending law school . Ballantine Books used it to launch the company 's new subsidiary Del Rey Books . Its success boosted the commercial expansion of the fantasy genre .
The novel interweaves two major plots into a fictional world called the Four Lands . One follows the protagonist Shea Ohmsford on his quest to obtain the Sword of Shannara and confront the Warlock Lord ( the antagonist ) with it . The other plot shadows Prince Balinor Buckhannah 's attempt to oust his insane brother Palance from the throne of Callahorn while the country and its capital ( Tyrsis ) come under attack from overwhelming armies of the Warlock Lord . Throughout the novel , underlying themes appear of mundane heroism and nuclear holocaust .
Critics have derided the novel for being derivative of J.R.R. Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings . Some have accused Brooks of lifting the entire plot and many of his characters directly from Lord of the Rings ; others have regarded the book more favorably and say that new writers often start by copying the style of established writers .
= = Plot summary = =
= = = History = = =
The Sword of Shannara 's events take place 2000 years after a Great War : nuclear holocaust has wiped out most of the planet . During this time , Mankind mutates into several distinct races : Men , Dwarves , Gnomes , and Trolls , all named after creatures from " age @-@ old " myths . Also , the Elves begin to emerge after having been in seclusion and hiding for centuries . The warring that caused the holocaust is referred to as the " Great Wars " throughout the novel . These wars rearranged the planet 's geographical attributes and wiped out most human life on Earth . Most advanced technology has been lost , but magic has been rediscovered .
A thousand years before The Sword of Shannara , an Elf named Galaphile gathers all of the people who still had some knowledge of the old world to Paranor to try to bring peace and order to all of the races . They name themselves the First Druid Council . Brona , a rogue Druid , and his followers leave , taking the Ildatch with them ; this magical tome controls their minds . 250 years later , Brona begins the First War of the Races when he convinces all Men to attack the other races . He almost succeeds in seizing rule of the Four Lands , but the tide turns , and the war ends with his defeat and disappearance . The Druids divide the Four Lands among the races and become reclusive , withdrawing to Paranor because of their shame at the betrayal by one of their own members .
Two and a half centuries after the First War of the Races , Brona returns as the Warlock Lord , now with Skull Bearers as his servants . Chronicled in the prequel novel First King of Shannara , the Second War of the Races begins with the destruction of the Druid Order . A lone Druid , Bremen , forges a magical talisman to destroy the Warlock Lord ; it is given to the Elven King , Jerle Shannara . As it takes the form of a blade , the talisman is named the Sword of Shannara . It succeeds in banishing the Warlock Lord . He is not killed , but his army is defeated by the combined armies of the Elves and Dwarves . Peace comes at a high price , interracial tension is renewed and the Druids have vanished .
= = = Present = = =
= = = = From Shady Vale to Paranor = = = =
Five centuries later , the Ohmsford family of Shady Vale in the Southland takes in the half @-@ Elven child Shea . He takes the name Ohmsford and is raised as a brother to the family 's son Flick . Becoming inseparable , the brothers run the family inn .
Some time later , the last Druid Allanon arrives in Shady Vale . Allanon warns the Ohmsford brothers that the Warlock Lord has returned to the Skull Kingdom in the Northland and is coming for Shea . As the last descendant of Jerle Shannara , Shea is the only one capable of wielding the Sword of Shannara against the Warlock Lord .
Allanon departs , leaving Shea three Blue Elfstones for protection . He tells Shea to flee at the sign of the Skull . A few weeks later , a creature bearing a symbol of a skull shows up : a Skull Bearer , one of the Warlock Lord 's " winged black destroyers " , has arrived to search for Shea . The brothers are forced to flee with the Skull Bearer on their heels . They take refuge in the nearby city of Leah where they find Shea 's friend Menion , the son of the city 's lord . Menion decides to accompany the two , and he travels with them to Culhaven , to meet with Allanon . While at Culhaven , they are joined by a prince of Callahorn , Balinor Buckhannah , two elven brothers , Durin and Dayel Elessedil , and the dwarf Hendel .
The party sets out for Paranor . But along the way , Shea falls over a waterfall and becomes separated from the group . Allanon spurs the group to continue to Paranor . Once there , the party gets into a battle with minions of the Warlock Lord and find that the Sword of Shannara has already been removed . The party then learns of the Warlock Lord 's invasion of the Southland , and decide to split up to do what they can to stop it .
= = = = In the Southland = = = =
Disguised by Allanon , Flick infiltrates the enemy camp and rescues the captive Elven King , Eventine Elessedil ; at the same time , in Kern , Menion saves a woman named Shirl Ravenlock and falls in love with her . They organize an evacuation of Kern before the Northland army reaches the city .
Balinor returns to Tyrsis to activate the Border Legion only to find that it has been disbanded . Balinor is then imprisoned by his insane brother Palance Buckhannah , who has taken control of Callahorn 's rule . His advisor , Stenmin , has driven Palance insane with drugs , making him his pawn . With help from Menion , Balinor escapes and confronts both Palance and Stenmin . Practically cornered , Stenmin stabs Palance as a distraction and flees .
Now commanded by Balinor , Callahorn 's reformed Border Legion marches out of Tyrsis and engages the Northland army at the Mermiddon River , killing many Northlanders before being forced to pull back ; the Border Legion retreats to Tyrsis and make preparations for defense . During the siege of Tyrsis , Hendel and Menion come upon Stenmin and some of his supporters . Hendel is killed , but Menion kills Stenmin . After three days , the Border Legion is beaten back from the Outer Wall of Tyrsis as a result of treachery — the wall falls when the traitors destroy the locks on the main gate , jamming it open . At the defenders ' last stand on the Bridge of Sendic , the Northlanders abruptly break and run .
= = = = In the Northland = = = =
After being captured by Gnomes , Shea is rescued by the one @-@ handed thief Panamon Creel and his mute Troll companion Keltset Mallicos . Journeying to the Northland , they reach the Skull Kingdom , where the insane Gnome deserter Orl Fane has carried the Sword of Shannara .
Infiltrating the Warlock Lord 's fortress in the Skull Mountain , Shea reaches the sword and unsheathes it . He learns about its true power , the ability to confront those with the truth about their lives . The Warlock Lord materializes and tries to destroy Shea , but the youth stands his ground and confronts his enemy with the sword . Although immune to physical weapons , the Warlock Lord vanishes after being forced to confront the truth about himself : he had deluded himself into believing that he is immortal , but this is impossible . The Sword forces him to confront this paradox , and it kills him .
Keltset sacrifices himself to save his companions during the Skull Kingdom 's destruction . In the south , the Northland army retreats after the Warlock Lord 's downfall . Allanon saves Shea 's life and reveals himself as Bremen 's centuries @-@ old son , before disappearing to sleep . Peace returns to the Four Lands . Balinor takes up his country 's rule , while Dayel and Durin return to the Westland , and Menion returns to Leah with Shirl . Shea and Flick reunite and return to Shady Vale .
= = Characters = =
Shea Ohmsford , the protagonist , Flick 's adopted brother and the only remaining descendant of Jerle Shannara . Shea must find an ancient magical sword , the Sword of Shannara , and use it to destroy the antagonist , the Warlock Lord . A major theme of this novel revolves around Shea — part of his quest includes finding a belief in himself . This is a search that every subsequent Brooks protagonist must undergo .
Flick Ohmsford , Shea 's brother . He helps Shea escape Shady Vale and ' tags along ' with the group that goes to recover the Sword . He rescues Eventine " solo " after Allanon disguises him as a Gnome .
Menion Leah , a friend of Shea and the Prince of the small country of Leah . He guides Shea and Flick to Culhaven after their escape of Shady Vale and the Skull Bearer . He is the first of many from the House of Leah to befriend a member of the Ohmsford family .
Allanon , a Druid who has been alive for around 400 years through the use of Druid Sleep . He guides and mentors the group on their quest to find the Sword . Allanon has been described as a parallel to Merlin from Arthurian legend .
Balinor Buckhannah , the Crown Prince of the country of Callahorn and the " charismatic commander of [ the ] Border Legion " . He left the capital , Tyrsis , after a fight with his insane brother , Palance ; upon returning , he was thrown into a dungeon by him .
Hendel , a " taciturn " Dwarf warrior . He first appears in the novel when he saves Menion Leah from a Siren , and was part of the company that went to find the Sword .
Durin Elessedil , the older brother of Dayel and cousin to King Eventine . He was part of the company that went to find the Sword .
Dayel Elessedil , the younger brother of Durin and cousin to King Eventine . He was part of the company that went to find the Sword .
Stenmin , a traitor to Callahorn now working for the Warlock Lord . He poisoned both Palance and Ruhl Buckhannah , the King of Callahorn , eventually killing Ruhl and driving Palance insane .
Palance Buckhannah , the brother of Balinor Buckhannah and a prince of Callahorn . He was driven insane as a result of drugs fed to him by Stenmin , and at his urging , took control of Callahorn when his father ' took ill ' .
Panamon Creel , a one @-@ handed " con man " wanderer whose left hand is now a pike . He saved Shea from a patrol of Gnomes . The inspiration from his character came directly from Rupert of Hentzau from The Prisoner of Zenda , by Anthony Hope .
Keltset Mallicos , Panamon 's mute companion . He is mute as a result of the Warlock Lord . He was able to save Panamon and Shea after they were captured by Trolls because he had been awarded the Black Irix , the highest honor any Troll can receive , and therefore is considered incapable of treachery . The Trolls then helped them get to Skull Mountain so that Shea could confront the Warlock Lord .
Brona ( the Warlock Lord ) , the former Druid and antagonist of the novel . In days long ago , Brona was a Druid before he was subverted by dark magic . He believes that he is immortal , and so he still lives . When he was confronted with the power of the Sword , " truth " , he was forced to see that he was really dead , and immediately disappeared .
Skull Bearers , " winged black destroyers " who " sacrificed their humanity " to become the Warlock Lord 's most trusted servants . They fly around at different points of the novel , demoralizing troops . They are usually seen only at night , though one does fly during the day over the city of Tyrsis on the last day of the battle .
Shirl Ravenlock , the daughter of an elder on the governing council of Kern , and a descendant of royal blood . She was kidnapped by Stenmin , but is accidentally rescued by Menion Leah . Menion and Shirl soon fall in love with each other . She is one of only two women to appear directly in the book , with the other being the Siren .
Orl Fane , a " Gollum @-@ like " Gnome who " covets the Sword as Gollum does the ring . " He stole the Sword and forced Panamon , Keltset and Shea to track him down . He was driven insane and killed by the Warlock Lord after he took control of his mind and forced him to try to take the Sword .
= = Background = =
Brooks began writing The Sword of Shannara in 1967 when he was twenty @-@ three years old . He started writing the novel to challenge himself and as a way of staying " sane " while he attended law school at Washington and Lee University . Brooks had been a writer since high school , but he had never found ' his ' genre : " I tried my hand at science fiction , westerns , war stories , you name it . All those efforts ... weren 't very good . " When he was starting college , he was given a copy of Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings to read for the first time . From then on , Brooks knew that he had found a genre he could write in . Writing Sword took seven years , as Brooks worked on it only sporadically while also completing his law school courses and rewrote it many times .
Brooks initially submitted his manuscript to DAW Books , whose editor Donald A. Wollheim rejected it and recommended submission to Judy @-@ Lynn del Rey at Ballantine Books instead . Ballantine Books accepted The Sword of Shannara in November 1974 . Brooks ' editor was Lester del Rey , who used the book to launch Ballantine 's new Del Rey Books imprint / subsidiary . Del Rey chose it because he felt that it was " the first long epic fantasy adventure which had any chance of meeting the demands of Tolkien readers for similar pleasures . "
In 1977 , The Sword of Shannara was simultaneously released as a trade paperback by Ballantine Books and hardback by Random House . The Brothers Hildebrandt , who had previously done illustration work for the work of Tolkien , was asked to make the cover . Greg Hildebrandt remembers the Del Reys as being " obsessed with the project . It was their baby . " The novel was a commercial success , becoming the first fantasy fiction novel to appear on The New York Times trade paperback bestseller list .
The original inspiration for The Sword of Shannara was Brooks ' desire to put " Tolkien 's magic and fairy creatures [ into ] the worlds of Walter Scott and [ Alexander ] Dumas " . Later , other inspirations jumped onto Brooks ' bandwagon . Brooks was inspired by J.R.R. Tolkien The Lord of the Rings and adventure fiction such as Alexandre Dumas ' The Three Musketeers , Robert Louis Stevenson 's Treasure Island , Arthur Conan Doyle 's The White Company and Walter Scott 's Ivanhoe .
Brooks decided not to use historical settings like these works . He instead followed Tolkien 's use of a fantasy setting instead :
I would set my adventure story in an imaginary world , a vast , sprawling , mythical world like that of Tolkien , filled with magic that had replaced science and races that had evolved from Man . But I was not Tolkien and did not share his background in academia or his interest in cultural study . So I would eliminate the poetry and songs , the digressions on the ways and habits of types of characters , and the appendices of language and backstory that characterized and informed Tolkien 's work . I would write the sort of straightforward adventure story that barreled ahead , picking up speed as it went , compelling a turning of pages until there were no more pages to be turned .
He admits that he was very influenced by The Lord of the Rings when writing it , being his first novel , but that he has evolved his own style since :
Tolkien approached it as an academic , and he was writing it as an academic effort , not as popular fiction . I ’ m a popular fiction writer , that 's the way I approached it . And I think that you 're right , too , about the fact that I was heavily under the influence of Tolkien when I wrote Sword of Shannara and it shows in that particular book . But I 've really gotten a long way away from Tolkien these days and not very many people come up to me any more and say , “ Well , gee , you 're writing an awful lot like Tolkien . ” They don ’ t say that any more .
Brooks also made decisions about his novel 's characterization and use of magic , saying that the magic " couldn 't be dependable or simply good or bad " . Also , he wanted to blur the distinctions between good and evil , " because life simply [ doesn 't ] work that way . " He wanted to ensure that readers would identify with his protagonist , Shea , which he accomplished by casting Shea as " a person simply trying to muddle through " .
= = Major themes = =
" Ordinary men placed in extraordinary circumstances " is a prevalent theme in The Sword of Shannara . Brooks credits Tolkien with introducing this theme of mundane heroism into fantasy literature and influencing his own fiction . " [ M ] y protagonists are cut from the same bolt of cloth as Bilbo and Frodo Baggins . It was Tolkien 's genius to reinvent the traditional epic fantasy by making the central character neither God nor hero , but a simple man in search of a way to do the right thing . ... I was impressed enough by how it had changed the face of epic fantasy that I never gave a second thought to not using it as the cornerstone of my own writing . "
The Sword of Shannara is set in a post @-@ apocalyptic Earth , where chemical and nuclear holocaust devastated the land in the distant past . Due to the numerous references in Sword to this catastrophe , Brooks was asked a question about whether he thought that his ' prediction ' might come true . He answered :
I don 't see myself as a negative person , so I don 't think I 've ever thought we would destroy ourselves . But it does worry me that not only are we capable of [ nuclear war ] , but [ we also ] flirt with the idea periodically . One mistake , after all . . . Anyway , I used the background in [ The ] Sword of Shannara more in a cautionary vein than as a prophecy . Also , it was necessary to destroy civilization in order to take a look at what it would mean to have to build it back up again using magic . A civilization once destroyed by misuse of power is a bit wary the second time out about what new power can do .
Environment plays a role in all of the Shannara novels : " Environment is a character in my story and almost always plays a major role in affecting the story 's outcome . I have always believed that fantasy , in particular , because it takes place in an imaginary world with at least some imaginary characters , needs to make the reader feel at home in the setting . That means bringing the setting alive for the reader , which is what creating environment as a character is really all about . " However , Brooks believes that Sword was more about behavioral issues and personal sacrifice .
= = Literary significance and reception = =
The Sword of Shannara received mixed reviews following its publication , most of which remarked on its similarity to J. R. R. Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings . Choice stated that the novel was an " exceptionally well @-@ written , very readable ... entrance into the genre ... [ that ] will be accepted by most teenagers . " Marshall Tymn also thought that it contained quality prose . Tymn believed that Sword followed Lord of the Rings too closely , but he also cited some of the differences , such as the use of a post @-@ holocaust setting with the races that sprang from that , and the " entertaining conartist , Panamon Creel , ... and ... an unexpected ending springing from the nature of the sword . " Cathi Dunn MacRae assessed all of Brooks ' works in her 1998 book Presenting Young Adult Fantasy Fiction . On The Sword of Shannara , she thought this :
In this postholocaust world of our future , Brooks parallels the mystic arts ... with science , two powers that are not good or evil but become either by the way we use them . Evil is a corruption of truth , erupting from the selfish use of power for one 's own ends . Good arises from the insistence on truth , allowing us to realize our indelible bonds with others of all races , and our connection with nature and earth . Anything unnatural is evil , such as the Warlock Lord 's immortality , which recalls similar abuse of nature by Le Guin 's Cob and by Barbara Hambly 's wizard Suraklin .
One of Brooks ' strengths is his plot 's momentum , maintained through cliffhangers , unexpected twists of fortune , and the dance of many characters ' constant movements . This brisk pace alters when characters pause to ruminate , which draws out suspense and reveals motivation . However , first novelist Brooks as puppet master is not always in control of the strings . With no single point of view centered in one character , his focus is diffused , and the anxieties and realizations of each character beg [ an ] to sound the same , blurring their identities with repetition .
= = = Sword and The Lord of the Rings = = =
The Sword of Shannara has drawn extensive criticism from critics who believe that Brooks derived too much of his novel from Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings . In 1978 , influential fantasy editor Lin Carter denounced The Sword of Shannara as " the single most cold @-@ blooded , complete rip @-@ off of another book that I have ever read " . Elaborating on his disapproval of the book , Carter wrote that " Terry Brooks wasn 't trying to imitate Tolkien 's prose , just steal his story line and complete cast of characters , and [ Brooks ] did it with such clumsiness and so heavy @-@ handedly , that he virtually rubbed your nose in it . " Roger C. Schlobin was kinder in his assessment , though he still thought that The Sword of Shannara was a disappointment because of its similarities to The Lord of the Rings . Brian Attebery accused The Sword of Shannara of being " undigested Tolkien " which was " especially blatant in its point @-@ for @-@ point correspondence " with The Lord of the Rings . In an educational article on writing , author Orson Scott Card cited The Sword of Shannara as a cautionary example of overly derivative writing , finding the work " artistically displeasing " for this reason .
Assessing The Sword of Shannara three decades after its publication , Tolkien scholar Tom Shippey agreed with Attebery , as Shippey found that the novel was distinctive for " the dogged way in which it follow [ ed ] Tolkien point for point " . Within Brooks ' novel , Shippey located " analogues " for Tolkien characters such as Sauron ( Brona ) , Gandalf ( Allanon ) , the Hobbits ( Shea and Flick ) , Aragorn ( Menion ) , Boromir ( Balinor ) , Gimli ( Hendel ) , Legolas ( Durin and Dayel ) , Gollum ( Orl Fane ) , the Barrow @-@ wight ( Mist Wraith ) , and the Nazgûl ( Skull Bearers ) , among others . He also found plot similarities to events in The Lord of the Rings such as the Fellowship of the Ring 's formation and adventures , the journeys to Rivendell ( Culhaven ) and Lothlórien ( Storlock ) , Gandalf 's ( Allanon ) fall in Moria ( Paranor ) and subsequent reappearance , and the Rohirrim 's arrival at the Battle of the Pelennor Fields ( Battle of Tirsys ) , among others . Avoiding direct commentary on the book 's quality , Shippey attributed the book 's success to the post @-@ Tolkienian advent of the fantasy genre : " What The Sword of Shannara seems to show is that many readers had developed the taste ... for heroic fantasy so strongly that if they could not get the real thing they would take any substitute , no matter how diluted . "
Terry Brooks has said that Tolkien 's works were a major influence in his writing , though he has also said that Tolkien was not his only influence . Other influences included his editor Lester del Rey , as well as the many different books which he had read over his life . Also , mythology and ancient civilizations that he had learned about in school gave him a wealth of knowledge from which he drew . Many of these influences are reflected in Brooks ' works .
In a 2001 Interzone essay , author Gene Wolfe defended Brooks ' derivation of material from Tolkien : " Terry Brooks has often been disparaged for imitating Tolkien , particularly by those reviewers who find his books inferior to Tolkien 's own . I can say only that I wish there were more imitators -- we need them -- and that all imitations of so great an original must necessarily be inferior . " In a commentary for The New York Times Book Review , Frank Herbert , author of the science fiction novel Dune , also defended Brooks , saying :
Don 't fault Brooks for entering the world of letters through the Tolkien door . Every writer owes a similar debt to those who have come before . Some will admit it . Tolkien 's debt was equally obvious . The classical myth structure is deeply embedded in Western society .
That 's why you should not be surprised at finding these elements in The Sword of Shannara . Yes , you will find here the young prince in search of his grail ; the secret ( and not always benign ) powers of nature ; the magician ; the wise old man ; the witch mother ; the malignant threat from a sorcerer ; the holy talisman ; the virgin queen ; the fool ( in the ancient tarot sense of the one who asks the disturbing questions ) and all of the other Arthurian trappings .
What Brooks has done is to present a marvelous exposition of why the idea is not the story . Because of the popular assumption ( which assumes mythic proportions of its own ) that ideas form 99 percent of a story , writers are plagued by that foolish question , " Where do you get your ideas ? " Brooks demonstrates that it doesn 't matter where you get the idea ; what matters is that you tell a rousing story .
Herbert said that " Brooks revert [ ed ] to his own style ... somewhere around Chapter 20 " and remarked upon what Brooks did not take from Tolkien :
In the last chapters , you get the Brooksian innovations — the Rock Troll [ Keltset ] , who is deep and mute and whose actions , thus , are far more important than any words could be ; the Grim Druid , who really changes character in the second half of the book , becoming far more complex and devious ( the name Allanon should give you a clue ) ; Balinor , the Prince of Callahorn , whose role breaks with myth tradition ; the Warlock Lord , who pretty much fills the traditional role of evil — but that 's what you expect of evil and it doesn 't blight a good story .
Herbert also praised the characters of evil in the book : " Ah , the monsters in this book . Brooks creates distillations of horror that hark back to childhood 's shadows , when the most important thing about a fearful creature was that you didn 't know its exact shape and intent . You only knew that it wanted you . The black @-@ winged skull bearer , for instance , is more than a euphemism for death . In a 2001 article for Seattle Weekly , David Massengill also commented upon Brooks ' main characters , calling them " idiosyncratic adventurers . "
Other contemporary newspapers took separate sides on the Sword and Lord of the Rings issue . John Batchelor , writing for The Village Voice , thought that it was the weakest of the 1977 surge in fantasy , ranking it below Stephen R. Donaldson 's The Chronicles of Thomas Covenant , the Unbeliever , Seamus Cullen 's Astra and Flondrix , and The Silmarillion , edited by Christopher Tolkien , while commenting that it " unabashedly cop [ ied ] " Lord of the Rings . However , he also believed that it was serviceable , simply because there is something exciting about sending off a group to face evil alone . Taking the opposite stance , L.V. Keptert in the Sydney Morning Herald believed that the book was similar enough to Tolkien that it would draw the many fans of that book to Sword , but it was only similar on a most basic level , and a valid comparison could not be made between the two . The Pittsburgh Press took a similar stance , saying that Sword embodied the Tolkien spirit and tradition but was quite able to stand apart from Lord of the Rings .
= = = Book impact = = =
The Sword of Shannara sold about 125 @,@ 000 copies in its first month in print . This success provided a major boost to the fantasy genre .
Louise J. Winters writes that " until Shannara , no fantasy writer except J. R. R. Tolkien had made such an impression on the general public . " Critic David Pringle credits Brooks for " demonstrat [ ing ] in 1977 that the commercial success of Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings had not been a fluke , and that fantasy really did have the potential to become a mass @-@ market genre " . With Stephen R. Donaldson 's The Chronicles of Thomas Covenant , the Unbeliever , The Sword of Shannara ushered in " the era of the big commercial fantasy " and helped make epic fantasy the leading fantasy subgenre . The Sword of Shannara and its sequels helped inspire later versions of Dungeons and Dragons .
= = Television adaptation = =
The Shannara books were to be adapted by Mike Newell , the director of Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire , but he left the project . The books eventually were adapted for television by Farah Films and executive produced by Brooks , Dan Farah , and Stewart Till . This begins with Elfstones , leaving Sword for later . The Shannara Chronicles premiered on American television network MTV on January 5 , 2016 .
= Curley Byrd =
Harry Clifton " Curley " Byrd ( February 12 , 1889 – October 2 , 1970 ) was an American university administrator , educator , athlete , coach , and politician . Byrd began a long association with the University of Maryland as an undergraduate in 1905 , and eventually rose to the position of university president from 1936 to 1954 .
In the interim , he had also served as the university 's athletic director and head coach for the football and baseball teams . Byrd amassed a 119 – 82 – 15 record in football from 1911 to 1934 and 88 – 73 – 4 record in baseball from 1913 to 1923 . Byrd Stadium , the university 's current football field , and its predecessor were both named in his honor . In graduate school at Georgetown University , he became one of football 's early users of the newly legalized forward pass , and he had a brief baseball career including one season as pitcher for the San Francisco Seals .
Byrd resigned as university president in order to enter politics in 1954 . He ran an unsuccessful campaign as the Democratic candidate for Maryland Governor against Theodore McKeldin . Byrd later received appointments to state offices with responsibilities in the Potomac River and Chesapeake Bay . In the 1960s , he made unsuccessful bids for seats in each chamber of the United States Congress . Byrd was a proponent of a " separate but equal " status of racial segregation in his roles as both university administrator and political candidate .
In 2015 , the student government association agreed to a resolution in support of changing the name of Byrd Stadium because of Byrd 's segregationist history . On September 28 , 2015 , University of Maryland President Wallace Loh appointed task force to develop viewpoints and options . The University President then made a recommendation to the University System of Maryland Board of Regents — the governing body of Maryland state universities — to change the name to " Maryland Stadium " . The ultimate decision on any name change rests with the Board of Regents . On December 11 , 2015 , the Board of Regents voted 12 @-@ 5 to remove the " Byrd " from the stadium 's name , renaming it Maryland Stadium for the time being .
= = Early life = =
Harry Clifton Byrd was born on February 12 , 1889 , in Crisfield , Maryland . He was one of six children of oysterman and county commissioner William Franklin Byrd and his wife Sallie May Byrd . In his youth , Byrd worked in the Chesapeake Bay fishing industry , where he saved most of his money to finance his college education . He attended Crisfield High School , where he excelled on the baseball diamond , and was also known as his hometown 's first recreational jogger .
A later source described how he appeared in 1905 :
" He was tall , and as the saying goes , built like a whip . He had a startlingly handsome face , with big , flashing eyes , a splotch of florid red on each cheek , and a mane of black curly hair ... He looked like Rupert of Hentzau , and had all of that worthy 's cold , sinister resolution about everything that he did . "
= = College career = =
In 1905 , Byrd graduated from Crisfield High School and enrolled at the Maryland Agricultural College , which is now known as the University of Maryland . Byrd was a star college athlete and participated in varsity football , baseball , and track . He served as the football team captain in 1907 , as the pitcher on the baseball team , and set a school record 10 @.@ 0 @-@ second 100 @-@ yard dash in track . Before leaving Crisfield , Byrd 's father warned him not to " try to play that thing called football . " He ignored the advice and reported for football practice where head coach Fred K. Nielsen told the undersized Byrd to " play with the kids " and that " football 's a man 's game . " He was allowed , however , to fill in as an end on the scout team due to a shortage of players . After sitting out the first three games , Nielsen sent Byrd in as a substitute against Navy , and his play was impressive enough to earn a position on the first team . After the elder Byrd read of his son 's newfound stardom in the newspaper , he wrote , " Since you 're going to play football , I 'm glad to see you 're doing it well . " During the summers and on weekends , Byrd supplemented his income by continuing work as a fisherman . He graduated second in his class with a Bachelor of Science degree in civil engineering in 1908 .
After graduation from Maryland , Byrd spent the next three years doing graduate work in law and journalism at George Washington University , Georgetown University , and Western Maryland College ( now known as McDaniel College ) . In a time before eligibility limitations , he played football at George Washington and Georgetown and ran track at Western Maryland . At Georgetown in 1909 , he was called the first quarterback in the East to master the forward pass , several years before Gus Dorais of Notre Dame did so in 1913 . According to The Georgetown Hoyas : A Story of A Rambunctious Football Team , Dorais 's " end @-@ over @-@ end ' discus ' throw was an exact copy " of Byrd 's passing technique , and the Irish " got the headlines because they had a press agent and Georgetown didn 't . "
Byrd also played for Maryland @-@ based semi @-@ professional baseball teams while pursuing his graduate studies . In 1910 , the Chicago White Sox signed Byrd , but he was soon traded to the San Francisco Seals , a semi @-@ professional Pacific Coast League baseball team with whom he pitched in 1912 . He returned to Maryland later that year , and in 1913 , married Katherine Dunlop Turnbull . Before they divorced twenty years later , the couple had three sons and a daughter : Harry , Sterling , William , and Evelyn .
= = Coaching career = =
In 1911 , injuries claimed enough Maryland Agricultural football players that the team could no longer field a practice squad to scrimmage against . The college turned to Byrd , who was serving as coach at Western High School in Georgetown , and he was willing to help his alma mater with scrimmages . Byrd later replaced head coach Charley Donnelly , who resigned mid @-@ season after accumulating a 2 – 4 – 2 record . Byrd led the Aggies to wins in both of their final games of the season , against Western Maryland , 6 – 0 , and Gallaudet , 6 – 2 .
In 1913 , the Maryland Agricultural College hired Byrd as an instructor in English and history , and he was named the head coach of the track and baseball teams , the latter of which he coached through 1923 . According to author David Ungrady in Tales from the Maryland Terrapins , the university initially offered Byrd $ 300 to coach football , but he demanded $ 1 @,@ 200 . The two parties came to agree upon that salary for all of his coaching and teaching duties which spanned nine months of the year . Byrd also worked as a sportswriter for The Washington Star , a job he held until 1932 .
As football coach , he developed a unique offensive scheme called the " Byrd system " , which combined elements of the single @-@ wing and double @-@ wing formations . One of Byrd 's track and football players , Geary Eppley , said , " He never yelled in practice or at a game ... He pointed out mistakes and explained what you did wrong . He took a calm approach . The strongest thing he 'd say was ' for cripes sake . ' "
In 1915 , his duties were expanded to include those of athletic director . That same year , he requested funds for the construction of the campus 's first dedicated football stadium , which was named in his honor . During his tenure as head football coach from 1911 to 1934 , he compiled a 119 – 82 – 15 record .
= = Administrative career = =
Byrd was appointed to the post of assistant university president in 1918 . He became a proponent of unification of the Maryland Agricultural College and the Baltimore professional schools into a single public University of Maryland , and he was instrumental in what became the Consolidation Act of 1920 . Byrd named the student newspaper The Diamondback in 1921 , and in 1933 , he was the lead advocate for the adoption of the diamondback terrapin as the university 's official nickname and mascot .
In 1932 , Byrd was promoted to vice president of the university . In July 1935 , he was named the acting president of the university , and was officially appointed to the presidency in February 1936 . During his tenure , the budget , facilities , faculty , and enrollment increased significantly . The school budget was increased and the campus expanded largely due to Byrd 's deft political maneuvering in Annapolis and Washington . The school also saw a large growth in enrollment , due in part to returning veterans making use of the G.I. Bill after World War II . From 1945 to 1948 , the university budget increased from $ 4 @.@ 8 million to $ 9 @.@ 8 million . Between 1935 and 1954 , student enrollment grew from 3 @,@ 400 to 16 @,@ 000 . Over that same time period , the value of the campus rose from $ 5 million to $ 65 million . Byrd , however stood fast on faculty salaries . He reportedly said , " Ph.D.s are a dime a dozen . " For years , Byrd refused to release the university 's financial records to state legislators , and how exactly he secured funding for many of his projects was largely a mystery . According to booster Jack Heise , Byrd financed a new basketball arena through the out @-@ of @-@ state tuition , paid by the federal government , for Maryland high school graduates who attended the university on the G.I. Bill . The General Accounting Office calculated that the extra fees totaled more than $ 2 million , but determined that they were within the bounds of legality .
Byrd was a staunch supporter of a " separate but equal " state university system . The Princess Anne campus provided agricultural education and Morgan State College provided liberal arts education for the state 's black students , while the University of Maryland remained open only to white students . In 1951 , Governor Theodore McKeldin criticized the University of Maryland as an example of wasteful state spending , and was especially critical of expansions to the Princess Anne campus , which was geographically disconnected from the state 's black population and not attracting many students to study agriculture . Contractors had begun projects at the college before approval from the public works board , which was described as a usual practice under Byrd . Byrd acceded to McKeldin and secured approval from the board for both the Princess Anne expansions as well as a sizable increase to the university budget .
In 1945 , Byrd hired 32 @-@ year @-@ old Paul " Bear " Bryant to his first head coaching post . Bryant led the Terrapins to a 6 – 2 – 1 record , but the two personalities clashed . The tensions came to a head when Byrd reinstated a player Bryant had suspended for violating team rules . Bryant resigned as head coach an hour later , which caused an uproar among students until he interceded to restore order .
Two years later , Byrd hired Jim Tatum as football coach . The year prior at Oklahoma , Tatum fielded a winning team , but the athletic department ran up a huge deficit and some players were paid in violation of conference rules , which resulted in university president George Cross firing athletic director Jap Haskell . The media blamed Tatum for his termination . Tatum told Cross to refute Tatum 's role in the matter , and threatened to reveal the Oklahoma team had been paid $ 6 @,@ 000 after the 1947 Gator Bowl . Cross asked Byrd to persuade Tatum not to go public , and according to author Gary King in An Autumn Remembered , Byrd replied , " Persuade , hell ! I 'll tell him to keep his damn mouth shut ! " Tatum remained as coach at Maryland from 1947 to 1955 , and amassed a 73 – 15 – 4 record .
In 1948 , the National Collegiate Athletic Association passed a set of regulations called the Purity Code , later renamed the Sanity Code , which permitted student @-@ athletes free tuition and meals , but required that part @-@ time jobs be legitimate and their pay commensurate with the work . Schools found to be in violation could be expelled from the NCAA . In 1950 , seven schools , called the " Sinful Seven " — Virginia , Maryland , VMI , Virginia Tech , The Citadel , Boston College , and Villanova — admitted they were in violation of the code . Time magazine asserted violators were far more widespread than those seven that had confessed . Maryland was the only Sinful Seven school that was also a major football power with eighty scholarship players , and Byrd led them in their stand against the Sanity Code . University of Virginia president Colgate Darden called the code hypocritical , and The Citadel 's leadership refused to " lie to stay in the association " and requested termination of its NCAA membership . At the convention to decide Virginia 's fate , Byrd said , " Does Ohio State want to vote for expulsion of Virginia , when Ohio State has facilities to take care of four or five as many athletes as Virginia ? " The ensuing vote fell 25 short of the needed two @-@ thirds majority to expel the Sinful Seven .
In 1951 , the football team 's 10 – 0 season culminated in a 28 – 13 victory over first @-@ ranked Tennessee in the 1952 Sugar Bowl . Maryland 's participation , however , was in violation of a Southern Conference resolution passed mid @-@ season that banned participation in postseason bowl games . Byrd had Maryland accept the bowl invitation , despite Tatum 's objections . The coach thought the threatened sanctions , which prevented Maryland from playing any Southern Conference games the following season , would severely disadvantage his team . In 1952 , Maryland and Clemson , which had also violated the bowl game ban , were sanctioned , and the incident hastened the break @-@ up of the Southern Conference and formation of the Atlantic Coast Conference , of which both schools were founding members .
Opponents in The Baltimore Sun alleged that Byrd emphasized athletics over academics and belittled him as the only college football coach to rise to the position of university president . Among the campus expansions , Byrd was responsible for the construction of Byrd Stadium in 1950 and Cole Field House in 1955 , which at the time was the largest basketball arena in the Southern Conference . Critics alleged that both facilities were constructed at the expense of campus libraries . Byrd also built the University of Maryland Golf Course in 1959 . Byrd resigned from the post in 1953 and his tenure ended effectively on December 31 .
= = Political career = =
Byrd resigned from the presidency in January 1954 to embark upon an unsuccessful campaign for Governor of Maryland . He narrowly beat perennial candidate George P. Mahoney in the Democratic primary by 50 @.@ 64 % to 49 @.@ 37 % and faced Republican incumbent McKeldin in the general election . Byrd campaigned on his stance of separate but equal . McKeldin won comfortable majorities in Baltimore 's black , Jewish , and upper @-@ middle class white districts , while Byrd took all of the blue @-@ collar white South and East Baltimore neighborhoods , including McKeldin 's boyhood home along Eutaw Street . Elsewhere in the state , however , middle @-@ class white voters did not support Byrd . Byrd lost by 54 @.@ 46 % to 45 @.@ 54 % . He went on to make unsuccessful bids for the Democratic nominations to the U.S. Senate in 1964 and the U.S. Congress in 1966 .
Despite his lack of success in campaigning , Byrd did receive several gubernatorial appointments : Chairman of the Maryland Tidewater Fisheries Commission , Maryland Commissioner to the Potomac River Fisheries Commission , and Chairman of the Commission on Chesapeake Bay Affairs . In 1959 , Governor J. Millard Tawes appointed Byrd as commissioner of tidewater fisheries . When a fisheries officer killed a Virginian waterman illegally dredging , Byrd disarmed the force . The action was credited with helping to end the long @-@ standing Potomac River Oyster Wars . Following the example of other oyster @-@ producing states , Byrd authorized fossil shell mining to produce culch , crushed shells used to form oyster beds . Byrd ignored Tawes ' warning to " stay away from private planting " by promoting the formation of leasing cooperatives , but his plan failed due to opposition in the Maryland General Assembly .
= = Business career = =
Byrd was also active in business and civic organizations . In 1951 , he was involved in the merger that formed the Suburban Trust Company , which in 1960 was the largest bank in Maryland outside of Baltimore City . He later served as the company 's vice president . Byrd also did business in real estate and construction . Byrd was active with service organizations . In 1962 , he became a member of the Loyal Order of the Moose . Byrd organized the College Park Rotary Club and served as its first president . Byrd was a member of the Defense Orientation Conference Association ( DOCA ) , an organization which educates civilians on the Defense Department 's programs and policies .
= = Death = =
Byrd died of a heart condition on October 2 , 1970 at the University of Maryland Hospital in Baltimore , Maryland . He is interred at Asbury United Methodist Church Cemetery in Crisfield , Maryland , and his epitaph reads : " Harry Clifton ' Curley ' Byrd , Educator – Statesman – Conservationist , President Emeritus , Father and Builder of the Greater Consolidated University of Maryland , Founded 1920 . " Byrd was inducted into the University of Maryland Athletic Hall of Fame in 1982 .
= = Head coaching record = =
= = = Football = = =
= = = Baseball = = =
= Bart Star =
" Bart Star " is the sixth episode in the ninth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 9 , 1997 . Written by Donick Cary and directed by Dominic Polcino , the episode guest starred Joe Namath , Roy Firestone , and Mike Judge . The episode sees Homer becoming the coach of a pee @-@ wee football team and expresses nepotism for Bart by making him the quarterback which receives backlash from the whole team , including Bart himself . The episode was critically well received .
= = Plot = =
Following a Health convention held in Springfield , the children of Springfield ( including Bart ) are deemed to be overweight . To help them stay in shape , the parents enroll their children in pee @-@ wee football . The coach , Ned Flanders , helps keep the team undefeated , but Homer heckles him relentlessly . Flanders finally snaps and turns the job over to Homer .
Homer initially acts tough towards Bart , but when he is reminded of how his father was hard on him as a child , he decides to be nicer to Bart. The next day , he decides to cut many players from the team , and replaces star quarterback Nelson with Bart , causing an uproar from the team . Bart is unable to play the position well and causes the team 's first loss . While training at night Bart meets Joe Namath , who promises to help him , but soon after Joe 's wife fixes the car , which had broken down due to vapor lock , Joe leaves without helping Bart.
Lisa suggests that Bart pretend he is injured to get out of quarterbacking , which he eagerly does , but Homer claims that without Bart the team must forfeit . This causes Bart to become angry and quit the team . The next game , Nelson is made quarterback again and the team wins , but Homer has nobody to celebrate with and becomes lonely . Afterwards , Homer finds Bart and persuades him to rejoin the team . The next day , during the championship game , the score is tied when Chief Wiggum comes to arrest Nelson . Bart decides to pretend he is Nelson and the team finally wins the championship .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Donick Cary , who obtained inspiration from an experience in high school he had with a football coach who had a son on the team . Similarly , show runner Mike Scully had been on a soccer team whose coach would give his son special treatment .
George Meyer obtained inspiration for the scene toward the beginning of the episode where Rainier Wolfcastle is taunting the children from an experience he had with Arnold Schwarzenegger . He was following Schwarzenegger during a hike , and overheard him taunting his children . Schwarzenegger 's influence was seen in the same scene , as he was appointed to be the chairman of the President 's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports , on which he served from 1990 to 1993 .
The final scene took a long time to write . The writing staff found it difficult to come up with a resolution that would end on positive terms for Bart and Homer , and was originally different when it was read at the writing table .
= = = Casting = = =
Joe Namath , Roy Firestone , and Mike Judge guest starred in the episode . Scully claims that Judge was paid $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to appear in the episode , where he voiced the cameo of Hank Hill . The appearance was actually a cross @-@ promotion for Judge 's animated show King of the Hill which followed The Simpsons on Fox 's Sunday schedule in 1997 . Other King of the Hill characters ( Hank 's niece Luanne , Hank 's wife Peggy , Hank 's son Bobby , and Hank 's friends , Dale Gribble , Bill Dauterive , and Boomhauer ) were present in the scene , although none of them spoke . Marv Albert was originally going to play Firestone 's part as a sports radio host , but was dropped following sexual assault charges that were made against him around the time the episode was in pre @-@ production . Albert would later appear , however , in the season 20 episode " The Burns and The Bees " .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Bart Star " finished 27th in ratings for the week of November 3 – 9 , 1997 , with a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 8 , equivalent to approximately 10 @.@ 6 million viewing households . It was the third highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files and King of the Hill .
Since airing , the episode has received positive reviews from critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , thought well of the episode , saying , " A fun episode , where you root for Bart and , unusually , Nelson - all the way through . Homer is just too stupid for words , but that 's excusable because we finally see Ned Flanders lose it , big time ! " In 2011 , Keith Plocek of LA Weekly 's Squid Ink blog named the scene in which Homer tries to purchase " beer that has candy floating in it " ( which Homer calls skittlebrau ) at the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart as the fourth best food moment on the show .
The director of the episode , Dominic Polcino , greatly enjoyed the episode , and claims that it is his favorite episode that he directed .
= Yugoslav submarine Smeli =
The Yugoslav submarine Smeli ( Daring ) was the second of the Osvetnik @-@ class diesel @-@ electric submarines built by Ateliers et Chantiers de la Loire , Nantes , France for the navy of the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( later Yugoslavia ) . She was launched in 1928 , and was built to a partial double hull Simonot design similar to the French Circé class . She was armed with six 550 mm ( 22 in ) torpedo tubes , one 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) gun , and one 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) anti @-@ aircraft gun , and could dive to 80 metres ( 260 ft ) .
Prior to World War II she participated in several cruises to Mediterranean ports . During the German @-@ led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 , she was captured by Italian forces at the Bay of Kotor . Initially designated N2 , her armament was changed and her conning tower modified . Due to her age and shallow diving depth , when she was commissioned into the Regia Marina as Antonio Bajamonti her service was limited to training and experimentation . She was scuttled at La Spezia in Liguria by the Italians in September 1943 the day after the Italian surrender .
= = Description and construction = =
Yugoslav naval policy in the interwar period lacked direction until the mid @-@ 1920s , although it was generally accepted that the Adriatic coastline was effectively a sea frontier that the naval arm was responsible for securing with the limited resources made available to it . In 1926 , a modest ten @-@ year construction program was initiated to build up a force of submarines , coastal torpedo boats , torpedo bombers and conventional bomber aircraft to perform this role . The Osvetnik @-@ class submarines were one of the acquisitions aimed at developing a naval force capable of meeting this challenge .
Smeli was built for the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( later Yugoslavia ) by the Ateliers et Chantiers de la Loire company at Nantes , France . Her partial double hull design , was based on a Simonot design , similar to the French Circé @-@ class . Her Serbo @-@ Croatian name translates as " Daring " . Along with her sister submarine of the class , Osvetnik , she had an overall length of 66 @.@ 5 m ( 218 ft 2 in ) , a beam of 5 @.@ 4 m ( 17 ft 9 in ) , and a surfaced draught of 3 @.@ 8 m ( 12 ft 6 in ) . Her surfaced displacement was 630 long tons ( 640 t ) or 809 long tons ( 822 t ) submerged , and her crew consisted of 43 officers and enlisted men . She had an operational depth of 80 m ( 260 ft ) .
She had two shafts driven by two MAN ( Maschinenfabrik ) diesel engines ( when surfaced ) or two Nancy electric motors ( when submerged ) , and carried 25 tonnes ( 25 long tons ) of fuel oil . The diesel engines were rated at 1 @,@ 480 bhp ( 1 @,@ 100 kW ) and the electric motors at 1 @,@ 000 shp ( 750 kW ) , and she was designed to reach a top speed of 14 @.@ 5 knots ( 26 @.@ 9 km / h ; 16 @.@ 7 mph ) under diesel power while surfaced , and 9 @.@ 2 knots ( 17 @.@ 0 km / h ; 10 @.@ 6 mph ) on her electric motors when submerged . She was armed with six 550 mm ( 22 in ) torpedo tubes ( four bow @-@ mounted , two stern @-@ mounted ) , one 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) gun , and one 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) anti @-@ aircraft gun . She had a surfaced radius of action of 3 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 500 km ; 4 @,@ 000 mi ) at 9 knots ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) , and 75 nautical miles ( 139 km ; 86 mi ) at 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ; 5 @.@ 8 mph ) submerged .
= = Service history = =
Smeli was the second of her class , and the fourth submarine of the navy of the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes , which subsequently became the Royal Yugoslav Navy . She and Osvetnik arrived in the Bay of Kotor on 9 December 1929 . In 1932 , the British naval attaché reported that Yugoslav ships engaged in few exercises , manoeuvres or gunnery training due to reduced budgets . In October 1934 , Smeli visited Bizerte in the French protectorate of Tunisia , and the Kelibia Roads off the coast of Tunisia . In August and September 1937 , Smeli , along with the British @-@ made submarine Hrabri and the depot ship Zmaj visited Greece , including the port of Piraeus , and the islands of Crete and Corfu .
When the German @-@ led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia began on 6 April 1941 , she was located in the Bay of Kotor on the southern Adriatic coast along with the three other submarines of the flotilla . She was subsequently captured by the Italian XVII Corps at the Bay of Kotor . Still in good condition , she was taken as war booty , and initially designated N2 . She was refitted and modernised at Pola in the upper Adriatic , which involved the replacement of some of her armament and modifications to her conning tower . After these modifications , her displacement was 665 long tons ( 676 t ) ( 822 long tons ( 835 t ) submerged ) . She was commissioned by the Italians as the Bajamonti @-@ class Antonio Bajamonti , named after Antonio Bajamonti , the 19th @-@ century politician and mayor of the Dalmatian port of Split . Despite her submerged stability and good diving rate , her age and shallow diving depth meant that she was only used for training and experimentation . She was scuttled by the Italians at La Spezia in Liguria on 9 September 1943 , the day after the Italian surrender .
= = = Books = = =
= Robert Keable =
Robert Keable ( 6 March 1887 – 22 December 1927 ) was a British novelist , formerly a missionary and priest in the Church of England . He resigned his ministry following his experiences in the First World War and caused a scandal with his 1921 novel Simon Called Peter , the tale of a priest 's wartime affair with a young nurse . The book sold 600 @,@ 000 copies in the 1920s alone , was referenced in The Great Gatsby , and was cited in a double murder investigation . Fêted in the United States , but critically less than well @-@ received , Keable moved to Tahiti where he continued to write , producing both novels and theological works , until his death at age 40 of a kidney complaint .
Keable was raised in Bedfordshire and educated at Magdalene College , Cambridge . He entered a theological college after graduation and was ordained a priest in 1911 . He spent the next several years as a missionary in Africa , stationed on Zanzibar and in Basutoland , before returning to Europe as an army chaplain during the First World War . There , he met and fell in love with a young nurse , Grace Eileen Joly Beresford Buck , a development over which he eventually quit the Church of England and left his wife , Sybil . Returning to England after the war , Keable resigned his ministry and began to write novels : his first , 1921 's Simon Called Peter , became a runaway success and launched Keable into a life of literary celebrity . Increasingly disillusioned with the hypocrisies he saw in contemporary British life , he and Buck left Europe for Tahiti in 1922 . The couple lived there happily until Buck 's death in childbirth in 1924 , after which Keable 's health began to fade . He nonetheless struck up a later relationship with a Tahitian woman , Ina , with whom he had a son , and continued to publish novels until his death of a kidney condition in 1927 .
Keable 's most famous publication was his first novel , Simon Called Peter , but he produced a prodigious literary output , spanning theological tracts through poetry to travel guides . Simon Called Peter 's sequel , Recompense , was made into a film , and his later novels all attracted substantial attention . His writings generally met with much greater popular than critical approbation , and Simon Called Peter was sufficiently incendiary to be banned . The book nonetheless became a contemporary best @-@ seller .
Much of Keable 's fiction contained autobiographical elements , often centring on his attitudes toward and experience of the Christian religious establishment . As well as these fictional explorations he produced a final , non @-@ fiction work , The Great Galilean , outlining the religious views he developed during a lifetime 's uneasy relationship to Anglicanism and Catholicism . He came to believe that the historical Jesus bore little relationship to the Jesus of Christian tradition , and , in The Great Galilean , attempted to reconcile his ambivalence about the orthodoxies of the Church with his enduring belief in an all @-@ loving God . Keable 's views earned him many unfavourable reviews and the contempt of the church in which he had practised , but foreshadowed ideas of free love that became prominent later in the 20th century .
= = Early life = =
Keable was named after his father , Robert Henry Keable , a successful businessman who in 1904 , when his son was 17 , was ordained an Anglican priest and became vicar at Pavenham , Bedfordshire . Robert Keable had a younger brother , Henry , who died of typhoid c.1918. The young Keable attended Whitgift School in Croydon , Surrey , where he was nicknamed " Kibbles " and noted for his " fluent and facetious " contributions to the school paper , the Whitgiftian . Influenced by his father 's piety he became an active lay preacher and member of the YMCA as a teenager . Keable 's was an austere , Anglican upbringing , the effect of which , his biographer Hugh Cecil has suggested , was to leave the young man industrious , somewhat preacherly in his writing style , and with a devoutness not particularly tied to the specific faith in which he 'd been raised .
Keable went up to Magdalene College , Cambridge , in 1905 . His peers there included the future Everest explorer George Mallory and Arthur Tedder , 1st Baron Tedder . Though his contemporaries described him as a quiet , devout student who initially associated only with other " religious @-@ minded " men , he later became more sociable and rowed in the college second eight . He took a first in the History Tripos , graduating with his BA in 1908 and receiving his MA in 1914 . At Magdalene he was a great friend of Arthur Grimble , the future commissioner of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands . Grimble 's daughter , in a biography of her father , described the undergraduate Keable as devout , " earnest , somewhat introspective " and deeply literary . She records that he spent his university vacations on missionary work . He is known also to have taught in East Africa under YMCA auspices , and to have climbed Mount Kilimanjaro .
Among the most significant acquaintances Keable made at Cambridge were two brothers among the fellowship , Arthur and Hugh Benson . The Bensons were sons of a highly accomplished academic and religious family ; their father , Edward White Benson , was Archbishop of Canterbury and their mother , Mary Sidgwick Benson , the sister of the philosopher Henry Sidgwick , had set up a lesbian household with Lucy Tait ( daughter of the previous archbishop of Canterbury ) after her husband 's death . In the years just before Keable came to Cambridge Hugh Benson ( the inspiration for Keable 's character " Father Vassall " in Peradventure ( 1921 ) ) had departed from the Anglicanism of his upbringing in favour of the Roman Catholic Church , being ordained a Catholic priest in 1904 . According to Keable 's contemporaries , the two met when Edouardo Ginistrelli , a neighbour on Keable 's staircase , invited them both to lunch : " Keable ... fell under the spell of Fr Benson 's winning personality , " wrote James I. James , a college acquaintance of Keable 's : " Keable 's Anglican loyalty remained , but it was a new kind of loyalty . He spoke no more of Protestantism
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, suggesting that the Protestant chaplaincy in France should be amalgamated into the operations of the YMCA , and that only the Roman Catholic padres – who seemed to have quite a different , more immediate relationship with their Celtic and Lancastrian companies – should remain . His public airing of these views attracted censure from the church ( and particularly from Frank Weston , who was also serving ) , but reflected the openness that made him popular with the officers in France . A smoker , he was known to share whisky and sodas in the officers ' mess , and – as does the title character in Simon Called Peter – to have become acquainted with a devoutly religious French prostitute .
Another transformative experience of Keable 's war was his acquaintance with Grace Eileen Joly Beresford Buck , known as " Jolie " , an 18 @-@ year @-@ old nurse from a prominent British family ( the daughter of William Tenant Buck and Beatrice Elinor Biddulph Beresford ; her ancestors included the Dukes of Rutland ) who was driving trucks for the Canadian Lumber Corps when the two met . The pair began a lifelong affair , though Keable did not yet leave his wife . Instead , at the war 's close , he returned to Leribe . He remained until 1919 , torn by his increasing alienation from the church and his experiences during the war . There he wrote his first novel , Simon Called Peter , in an intensive 20 @-@ day spell : " I laid a parson 's life bare " , he said of his writing , " and didn 't care a damn . " At last , in 1919 , Keable resigned his ministry and left the Anglican church .
= = Literary career = =
After leaving the church Keable and Sybil moved back to England , settling at West Wratting , Cambridgeshire , where both began to explore the Roman Catholic Church . Sybil converted and became a devout Catholic , but Keable also read works in contemporary philosophy and the books of Charles Darwin , and appears briefly to have lost his faith altogether . He wrote , of the history of Christianity , " I can see creative evolution at work . What is behind it , I don 't know . But I 'm inclined to think that I do not believe it is anything which the old concept of God really covers . "
To support the family Keable worked during 1921 as an assistant @-@ master at Dulwich College , and served the following year at Dunstable Grammar School . He continued to write : the manuscript for Simon Called Peter had found a publisher , Michael Sadleir at Constable , who liked its prospects and commissioned from Keable a second novel . He commenced The Mother of All Living , " an intense love @-@ drama set in South Africa " , which reflected his new interest in African traditional religion and featured a Bergsonian concept of " life @-@ force " as an alternative to theology .
Then Simon Called Peter was published , and met with astonishing success . The book reportedly sold over 600 @,@ 000 copies during the 1920s , reaching a 66th edition by 1922 . A largely autobiographical work , Simon Called Peter is the tale of a priest , Peter Graham , who has an affair in wartime France with a nurse named Julie . The title character almost abandons his faith for love , but experiences a direct revelation of Christ while watching a Catholic mass and is given up by his lover , who sees his sincerity . Its runaway popularity won Keable a level of celebrity : he spent a lot of time in London and took up again with Buck , who was now usually known as " Betty " ( she , by her token , called Keable " Bill " ) . The two met often at Gwen Otter 's salon at No. 1 Ralston Street , in Chelsea , near to where Keable had lodgings ; they made many friends , though refrained from fully overt displays of couplehood out of deference to Buck 's distressed parents and Keable 's wife . At this time , Keable appears to have become , in some measure , a proponent of open relationships and free love . He concluded that Buck had a right to pursue relationships with other men , though there is no firm evidence that she did , and " that a warm and spontaneous sexual nature , far from being in conflict with Christian love , was in fact a manifestation of it . "
Keable 's developing attitudes and relationship with " Betty " disgusted his wife , Sybil , but as a devout Catholic she refused to divorce . This left Keable unable to marry Buck , and contributed to a growing sense on his part of alienation from English society . At last , in 1922 , he managed legally to separate from his wife . He took up the suggestion of former college friend Arthur Grimble , by then a colonial administrator in the Ellice Islands , that he visit the South Pacific , a fashionable destination for 1920s Europeans . To Keable the South Seas appeared to offer escape from the hypocrisies of British society , as well as furnishing a climate better suited to his never @-@ hearty constitution . In 1922 Keable and Buck sailed aboard the Bendigo for the South Pacific via Australia , where Keable undertook a book tour , giving lectures in which he broadcast his new sexual ethics : that unmarried couples in love could have deeply moral relationships , while loveless spouses who stayed together for convention 's sake were committing acts of deep immorality . His views scandalised the contemporary press , but Frank Weston noted in correspondence that Keable as a " shipwrecked priest " made quite a useful cautionary tale for novices .
= = Tahiti = =
Keable was to remain resident in Tahiti for the rest of his life . He wrote once of his regret that the Tahitians had not succeeded in converting William Ellis , a nineteenth @-@ century Christian missionary sent there to attempt to proselytise them . " Bill and Betty " settled at first in Paul Gauguin 's former home at Punaavia . The house was quite luxurious , overlooking a bay with views of Moorea island . Buck drove a Dodge and enjoyed Tahiti 's ample supplies of cheap French wine ; Keable " brooded on Gauguin 's gesture against spiritual suffocation " , and eventually moved the household further inland , to a native @-@ style house in the wilder surrounds of Teahuahu , near Papeari . The couple made friends with the Swedish artist Paul Engdahl . Keable continued to write copiously , adding to his oeuvre the novel Recompense , a sequel to Simon Called Peter . He undertook several book tours of the United States and spent his spare time answering fanmail , swimming , and sailing .
Then , in 1924 , Buck fell pregnant . The couple agreed that she should return to England for better healthcare during the birth , and she went there to set up a home with her mother 's help . In early November 1924 she gave birth prematurely to a son , Anthony , and a few days later died of poisoning from chloroform administered against the pain of delivery . The grief @-@ stricken Keable 's own health worsened and he was advised to return to Tahiti ; the baby , too weak to travel , was left in England with Jack and Rita Elliott , friends of the couple 's since the Ralston Street salon days . The Elliotts were eventually to adopt him .
Keable remained in Tahiti , his health worsening . He suffered weight loss , diabetes , high blood pressure and fever , all stemming from a kidney illness . Nonetheless , he completed the novel Numerous Treasure , which he had begun before Buck 's death ; the bittersweet tale of a Polynesian woman who shared her name with a cocktail and a brand of cigarettes was a commercial success , and has been considered a valuable portrait of early @-@ century Tahitian life . His health and spirits rallied in the years after Buck 's death : he completed a travel book , Tahiti , Isle of Dreams , and a book tour of the United States and Europe . On returning to Tahiti he struck up a relationship with a mixed @-@ race islander named Ina , and made many new friends including the writers Alec Waugh ( elder brother of Evelyn ) , who had been inspired to visit Tahiti by Numerous Treasure , Zane Grey , and James Norman Hall . Waugh described the Keable of this period " reclined among cushions , clad only in a pareo , while his Tahitian princess , bare @-@ shouldered and bare @-@ footed , her black hair falling to her waist and a white flower behind her ear , glided negligently about the house " – and yet noted that , on suggesting a cup of tea , Keable 's voice still took on " the parsonical intonation with which fifteen years earlier he had summoned the parish children to a Sunday school treat . "
1927 's Lighten Our Darkness ( or Ann Decides ) was his last important novel . The tale of a Catholic priest restored to faith by a woman 's love was , however , poorly received , and the follow @-@ up Madness of Monty , a " kindly , innocuous comedy " , went over worse still . Instead , helped by James Norman Hall to overcome his failing eyesight , Keable devoted his attention to The Great Galilean , a non @-@ fictional account of the historical Jesus and his relationship to the Jesus of religious tradition .
Away from his writing , he and Ina conceived a child : Ina gave birth to a son , named Henry Reheatoa ( meaning " glorious warrior " ) , with whom Keable was delighted and to whom he bequeathed all his Tahitian properties . In November 1927 he initiated formal divorce proceedings against Sybil in an attempt to legitimise this son .
In December 1927 Keable contracted a worsened kidney infection , became septic and delirious , and , on 22 December , died at home . The New York Times obituary identified the illness that killed him as Bright 's disease ; the term was used to refer to a number of nephritic kidney conditions .
Though , according to acquaintances , many of his friends had heard nothing from him since his departure for Tahiti , his will made provision for a scholarship at Magdalene and named the college as his residuary legatee . His literary assets at death were valued at £ 5 @,@ 007 . Though Keable received a Protestant burial in Papeete , some accounts suggest that in the last weeks of his life he formally converted to Catholicism . Other commentators suggest the pagan sentiments he expressed about the birth of his new son as a riposte to social convention tend to indicate otherwise . Hugh Cecil argues that , at his death , Keable most likely just became " able to reconcile his two ideals , romantic @-@ erotic and religious , and could die peacefully accepting the rituals he loved . "
= = Religious views = =
The religious views Keable developed after leaving the Church of England influenced his novels ; he eventually articulated his own theology in his final book , The Great Galilean , a theological work . The unorthodoxy of his views was not always well received . A reviewer of his novel Peradventure observed " Peradventure starts as a Church of England tract , becomes what would appear to be a Roman Catholic tract , and before the end is reached the reader is in doubt as to just what sort of tract it is . "
His last book , The Great Galilean , has been characterised by one biographer as Keable 's attempt " to renconcile his love of Jesus with his failure to believe in him as a God . " The book sought to distinguish the " historical Jesus " of record from the " traditional Jesus " of church worship . The historical Jesus , Keable said , was so poorly known that there survived too little information for a three @-@ line obituary . Instead , the figure that Christians worshipped was a " traditional Jesus " , recorded in the Gospels from an oral tradition that was not really biographical . This " traditional Jesus " became a " literary Jesus " , the central figure of the four gospels , and it is on this figure – quite distinct from the actual , historical Jesus – that the contemporary church centred . Keable sought to criticise the attitude in the contemporary church toward " traditional Jesus " , given how much of the rest of " traditional " religion Protestantism had discarded . However , Keable was at pains to stress that the " traditional " Jesus should not be seen as an imposture , or something to be discarded . The ahistoricity of the traditional Jesus , he said , should not be a reason to leave the church . Without this traditional Jesus , he predicted , Western civilisation would fade and fall . He was , then , critical of the specific ways in which the contemporary church construed Jesus , in its attempts to conflate the traditional Jesus with historical Jesus , which Keable considered impossible . He blamed these actions of the church for the declining numbers of worshippers , and accused it of draining Christianity of profundity by relying too heavily on rationalism and rigid structure .
Though he believed that the historical Jesus was barely known , Keable nonetheless devoted much attention in The Last Galilean to trying to understand the figure . He emphasised the humanity of historical Jesus , who , he wrote , had shared humanity 's ignorance – though had also been blessed with an extraordinarily undistorted mind . He wrote of a Jesus tolerant – even fond – of sinners , and one who , understanding the importance of love and sex to the average man , advocated love as the most important thing , above any church rule or regulation . This Jesus was a great prophet of free love , associated and in harmony with a " spirit of all life " .
The Great Galilean was not well received . The New York Times reviewer called it hopelessly muddled , finding Keable 's claims about the unknowability of Jesus contrary to his efforts to understand and worship him : " Frankly , we do not know what to make of it . We can only suppose that street preaching at Cambridge , and even climbing Kilimanjaro , are not conducive to logic . "
= = Critical reception = =
Keable 's novels won him immense international popularity and intense controversy . His novels were equated with Mrs Humphry Ward 's Robert Elsmere , a similarly scandalous tale of religious doubt among the clergy published 40 years earlier : H.D.A. Major , editor of the Modern Churchman magazine , made this comparison with respect to Keable 's Peradventure , noting " It is slighter , but it has need to be . The twentieth century novel reader is intellectually and morally lighter than the nineteenth . " Reporting his death , the Melbourne Argus attributed the best @-@ selling popularity of Keable 's novels to the licentiousness of their contents : " they have no literary value " . His former college acquaintance James later wrote that " his friends sought to dissuade him from publication . The transition from the beautiful book on The Loneliness of Christ ( 1914 ) – of his Central African period – to Simon Called Peter ( 1921 ) came as a great shock to all who had known and loved him in earlier days . " Where Rosemary Grimble calls Keable 's novels " splendidly erotic " , a Birmingham News correspondent in Birmingham , Alabama , accused Keable of " fashioning abnormalities " . Other critics called his success " undeserved " and attributed it to prurience on the part of his readers . Reviewers also suggested that the contrast between Keable 's ecclesiastical background and the frank , often sexual , content of his novels attracted curiosity in itself . A Time columnist , " J.F. " , expressed the fascination of this disconnect overtly , responding to a piece titled " The censorship of thought " that Keable had contributed to a 1922 volume , Nonsenseorship ( sic ) , after Simon Called Peter 's publication had made him notorious . " Surely , here is a modern personality worth the study of the psychologists , " J.F. wrote , noting the romance of Keable 's unusual circumstances : " From a quiet English clergyman to the author of a sensational best @-@ seller who has taken up his permanent residence in the South Seas seems a long jump . " In person , he said , Keable was the antithesis of his novels ' striking directness :
He does not impress one as a radical gentleman . There is nothing to suggest the resigned clergyman , author of books marked by their sex frankness and melodrama . In fact , his scholarly bearing and gentleness mark him rather as the country curate , who should be acting as a character in a novel by May Sinclair and passing out crumpets to maiden ladies in a decorous drawing @-@ room instead of writing of Tahitian damsels as he has done in his new novel , Numerous Treasure .
It was for Simon Called Peter , a tale of a wartime romance between an English priest and a Red Cross nurse , that Keable acquired most of his notoriety . As well as its best @-@ selling print editions , the story was adapted as a stage play by Jules Eckert Goodman and Edward Knoblock in 1924 . The show enjoyed popular success in Chicago before moving on to New York .
A great deal of media coverage of Simon Called Peter concerned its involvement in a prominent United States court case , over the double murder in New Brunswick , New Jersey of Edward Wheeler Hall , a rector , and Elenor Mills , a married member of his congregation , with whom he had been conducting an affair . During their courtship Hall had presented Mills with copies of Simon Called Peter , which also featured a romance between a priest and a woman , and The Mother of All Living . John Sumner , the secretary of the Society for the Suppression of Vice , seized upon this fact and tried to have the books ' American publisher arrested . He claimed that Simon Called Peter could be used to corrupt and seduce the innocent : " Published with a title savouring of religion and written by a clergyman , it had an innocent look which admitted it to society where the ordinary licentious novel could not circulate . " A magistrate , declining the request to issue an arrest warrant against the publisher , nonetheless agreed that the book was " nasty " and " particularly objectionable because written by a clergyman . "
Shortly afterwards , a Boston judge deemed the book obscene , and fined a librarian ( who protested that she had a long queue of patrons waiting to borrow the book ) US $ 100 for circulating it . Keable himself professed surprise at the intensity of the reaction to the book , saying that his missionary and military experiences must have " blunted [ his ] perceptions as to what the general public felt . " In response to the banning in Boston of another of his books , Numerous Treasure , he wrote to his editor George Putnam that he had in the past month received fanmail from a bookseller , a request for his photograph from a girls ' high school library , and " an intimation that I had been adopted as the literary patron of a class at an American university . I feel vaguely that Boston ought to be told . "
The net effect of the Simon Called Peter controversy was to make Keable a celebrity . The book became so well known that F. Scott Fitzgerald , who described the novel as " really immoral " , gave it to protagonist Nick Carraway to read in his famous novel The Great Gatsby , and had the character pronounce " Either it was terrible stuff or the whiskey distorted things , because it didn 't make sense to me . " The book 's sequel , Recompense , was optioned as a film by Warner Brothers , starring Marie Prevost and Monte Blue . Keable himself found the screenplay so altered from the original text , he wryly proposed that he write another novel based on it . His first visit to the United States , in autumn 1924 , was announced in the New York Times ; he took in a production of the Simon Called Peter stage play in New York before returning to Polynesia via New Orleans , Los Angeles , and San Francisco . On his return , the Times printed a very lengthy letter from Keable on the subject of the origins of the cocktail , headlining it " Robert Keable , in His Tahiti Retreat , Makes a Case for Englishmen , or Their " Greek and Roman Ancestors , " as the Inventors . "
The same paper had received Keable 's second novel , 1922 's The Mother of All Living , favourably ; reviewer Louise Maundell Fields called it " Not only ... better from an artistic point of view [ than Simon Called Peter ] ... its general outlook is both steadier and more mature . [ ... ] the book has in it so much that is well done and worth while that one does not feel inclined to carp at its comparatively few weaknesses . " On the whole , other reviews were less favourable . The characters in both Peradventure and Recompense were criticised for lacking depth : reviewers said they served only as vehicles for conveying different theoretical points of view . A later book , 1927 's Ann Decides , was dismissed succinctly by the Chicago Daily Tribune as " tosh " .
P.W. Wilson , in a New York Times piece on contemporary religious literature two years after Keable had died , called Keable 's life " a spiritual tragedy " , and described his thinking as fundamentally contradictory :
" His mind , like rock , reveals by strata the volcanic and other experiences to which it has been subjected . "
Keable 's distinction between the historical and the traditional Jesus , Wilson argued , was ultimately muddled and internally inconsistent , his verdicts on the illiberality of the contemporary church at odds with his own abiding conviction .
Late in the 20th century Keable received some revisionist attention . Simon Called Peter came back into print , with a recent edition published in 2008 . Biographer Hugh Cecil , including Keable in his 1995 anthology of neglected Great War writers , concluded :
From early in his career he had used his talents to the full and seized life with both hands . His works , though seldom read now , were no mean achievement , intellectually or artistically , even if their high quality was rarely sustained throughout a whole book ... Robert Keable was quintessentially the divided twentieth century man , yearning for self @-@ realization and for a faith , and full of guilt and self @-@ hatred . Yet as we have seen , Simon Called Peter is not an unhappy book ... Robert 's experience of war ... seemed to reveal the nature of real goodness , loyalty , and love .
= Fire Station No. 23 ( Los Angeles , California ) =
Fire Station No. 23 is a former fire station in Downtown Los Angeles . Built in 1910 as an operating fire station , it was also the Los Angeles Fire Department 's headquarters until 1920 and the residence of every fire chief from 1910 @-@ 1928 . When it opened , it spawned a political firestorm due to the ornate interior and expensive imported materials , leading to its being called the " Taj Mahal " of firehouses . After 50 years of operation , the station was closed in 1960 as the department began replacing older stations with new facilities . Since the 1980s , Fire Station No. 23 has been a popular filming location . Motion pictures filmed at the station include the Ghostbusters movies , The Mask , Police Academy 2 , Flatliners , Firehouse and National Security .
= = History = =
= = = Construction controversy = = =
In June 1909 , the city of Los Angeles announced plans to build a three @-@ story fire station in the heart of the wholesale and manufacturing district that would also serve as the fire department 's headquarters . The projected cost of the station was placed at $ 35 @,@ 000 .
When the station opened in September 1910 at a final cost of $ 53 @,@ 000 , a controversy arose over the cost and use of expensive materials , including Peruvian mahogany in the chief 's living quarters . It was considered the " most elaborate and richest engine @-@ house west of New York " and maybe the " most ornate ... in this or any other world . " The Los Angeles Times reported on its opulence as follows :
" It is the interior which is to reincarnate man and beast in the fire department . It is the interior which is a sort of Nirvana for a soulful legion of blue @-@ shirted civil service graduates . Its spell will be hypnotic , for if the visitor starts in with the third floor he will leave by Winston Street in stupefaction . "
The building was an unusually narrow structure , only 26 feet ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) wide but 167 feet ( 51 m ) deep stretching the entire distance from Fifth to Winston Streets . The main floor was an arcade connecting Fifth and Winston Streets with stalls for ten horses , repressed vitrified brick , walls of white enamel tiling , and pressed steel ceilings 21 feet ( 6 @.@ 4 m ) above the floor . More than anything else , it was the extravagant third floor living quarters , described as " the chief 's boudoir " and a " palace for chiefs , " that drew the most attention . Access to the third floor was by a private elevator that " moves noiselessly and stealthily to the upper haven . " The third floor was covered in Peruvian mahogany with French bevel glass mirrors , a mantel of Vermont marble , polished inlaid oak floors , a private slide pole , a massive brass bed , private roof garden , and " a tub big enough for two chiefs . " The Times reported : " Notice the Peruvian mahogany carefully , and you will see that the heart of the log has been chosen and that its grain has been placed so that it gives the appearance of real flames . Certainly the esthetic for the reception room of the engine @-@ house de luxe . " The chief 's apartment alone was reported to have cost $ 25 @,@ 000 . The Times noted that the quarters rivaled the finest suites in the country , referred to it as a " Sybaritic effort , " and offered its sarcastic speculation that the house captain would be expected to " wear evening dress after 6 o 'clock , at least . "
The unveiling of the ornate fire station set off " a political and civic storm . " It was called a waste of taxpayer funds , as critics contended " three station houses could be built for what this cost . " Amid the outcry , city fire commissioners denied knowledge that the fire house was to have been so luxurious , though newspapers reported that the commissioners had approved the plans .
= = = Operation = = =
Fire Station No. 23 remained an active firehouse from 1910 @-@ 1960 . When it opened , it was manned by fifteen firefighters and ten horses . The original equipment included a horse wagon , chief 's buggy , and a pumper that used a vertical tube boiler . The company 's first major call was a fire in the old Byrne Building that took ten hours to extinguish .
The station also served as the department 's headquarters from 1910 – 1920 , and the home for every fire chief from 1910 to 1928 , including chief Ralph J. Scott . Chief Scott 's wife , Addie Scott , lived with him on the third floor and later recalled the station 's early days : " I remember the horses . They really knew what to do . When the bell would ring , they would come out and stand there to be hitched up . ... It was a nice life here for us . ... I remember trying to wax all these floors , and I just couldn 't do it . So someone came and helped me . This is a lot of floor space you know . "
Fire Station No. 23 was closed in November 1960 as the Los Angeles Fire Department began replacing older stations with newer stations with modern facilities . At the time of its closure , some of the 1 @,@ 100 men who had worked there attended a ceremony as the building was " mustered out of service . "
= = Museum = =
= = = Historic status = = =
In 1966 , the station was declared a Historic Cultural Monument by the Los Angeles Cultural Heritage Commission ; at the time of the declaration the Los Angeles Times called it the " Taj Mahal of fire stations . " A Library of Congress survey of 250 firehouses concluded that Station 23 's interior was " unmatched in its beauty . " It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1980 .
= = = Controversy over restoration = = =
Through the 1960s and 1970s , the station deteriorated . The surrounding neighborhood became part of the city 's Skid Row and the station became " a hangout for the street people . " Looters stole most of the copper tubing and brasswork , banisters , doorknobs , firebells , and even the five brass firepoles .
By the mid @-@ 1970s , concerns were raised that the building had become a hazard , and some proposed tearing it down . However , in 1979 , the Fire Commission announced plans to restore the rooms back to their 1910 condition and turn the station into a museum . The City Council placed the station under control of the fire department , but provided that no city funds were to be used in creating the museum .
In 1981 , officials of the fire department set up a nonprofit organization called Olde 23 to raise funds to build the museum , but sufficient funds were never raised . The projected cost of the museum , even in 1982 , was $ 1 million , and critics questioned the wisdom of building a museum in Skid Row . In 1988 , the city settled on a different location for the Los Angeles Fire Department Museum — Engine Co . No. 27 in Hollywood .
Fire Station No. 23 became the subject of controversy again in 1995 when the Los Angeles Times ran a 2 @,@ 200 @-@ word , front @-@ page article reporting on alleged misuse of city funds by Olde 23 , the nonprofit charged with restoration of the station . Even though plans for the fire department museum had shifted to another location years earlier , Olde 23 continued to live on , banking more than $ 200 @,@ 000 in fees from film and television producers using the station house as a shooting location . The Times reported that ex @-@ Chief Donald O. Manning had not told other city agencies about Olde 23 's continued operations , and Olde 23 had failed to turn over the income , as required by city law . Investigations by the Times and the City Controller also revealed that some filming fees had been paid in cash to James Croak , an American artist who leased the building from the City of Los Angeles from 1978 – 85 , but no illegality was found as Mr. Croak had the right to sub @-@ lease the property for short periods as long as he notified the landlord that he was doing so . Notably Mr. Croak used most of the money to replace missing brass fire poles , balustrades and other period fixtures that were missing . Other fees were not accounted for , and Olde 23 the museum Non @-@ Profit had even collected fees for use of other city fire stations as shooting locations . Also , even after the city chose a new location for a fire department museum , the chief did not use the funds collected by " Olde 23 " for the museum . The controversy came to light after an angry official for Warner Bros. wrote a memorandum complaining about " donations " to the Fire Department and referring to such donations as " extortion . "
= = Filming location = =
Since 1978 when James Croak occupied the building after an 18 @-@ year vacancy , Fire Station No. 23 became a popular filming location for motion pictures , television productions , commercials , and music videos . In 1995 , the Los Angeles Times wrote : " With its finely restored interior and turn @-@ of @-@ the @-@ century architecture , old Fire Station 23 in Downtown Los Angeles is one of the choicest filming locations in town . " One producer called it " a great raw architectural space that you can do a lot with . "
The first major motion picture filmed at Station 23 was Hammett ( 1982 ) by German director Wim Wenders , followed two years later by Ghostbusters . The station was used in the 1984 production as the location for the interior scenes of the headquarters of Drs. Venkman , Stantz and Spengler and Winston Zeddemore . Another station in New York , the Hook & Ladder Company 8 firehouse , was used for the exterior shots . The success of Ghostbusters helped popularize the station as a shooting location , and Fire Station No. 23 has since then been used in more than 50 productions , including Big Trouble in Little China ( 1986 ) , Ghostbusters II ( 1989 ) , The Mask ( 1994 ) , Police Academy 2 ( 1985 ) , A @-@ Team ( 1986 ) and V.I. Warshawski ( 1991 ) , Flatliners ( 1991 ) , Lost Highway ( 1997 ) , National Security ( 2003 ) , and RE ( e ) volution ( 2005 ) .
= British Library =
The British Library is the national library of the United Kingdom and the largest library in the world by number of items catalogued . A Grade I listed building , the library is a major research library , holding around 170 million items from many countries , in many languages and in many formats , both print and digital : books , manuscripts , journals , newspapers , magazines , sound and music recordings , videos , play @-@ scripts , patents , databases , maps , stamps , prints , drawings . The Library 's collections include around 14 million books , along with substantial holdings of manuscripts and historical items dating back as far as 2000 BC .
As a legal deposit library , the British Library receives copies of all books produced in the United Kingdom and Ireland , including a significant proportion of overseas titles distributed in the UK . It also has a programme for content acquisitions . The British Library adds some three million items every year occupying 9 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 0 mi ) of new shelf space .
The library is a non @-@ departmental public body sponsored by the Department for Culture , Media and Sport . It is located on the north side of Euston Road in St Pancras , London ( between Euston railway station and St Pancras railway station ) and has a document storage centre and reading room near Boston Spa , 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) east of Wetherby in West Yorkshire .
In 1973 , the British Library Act 1972 detached the library department from the British Museum , but it continued to host the now separated British Library in the same Reading Room and building as the museum until the library moved to a purpose @-@ built building at St Pancras , London .
= = Historical background = =
The British Library was created on 1 July 1973 as a result of the British Library Act 1972 . Prior to this , the national library was part of the British Museum , which provided the bulk of the holdings of the new library , alongside smaller organisations which were folded in ( such as the National Central Library , the National Lending Library for Science and Technology and the British National Bibliography ) . In 1974 functions previously exercised by the Office for Scientific and Technical Information were taken over ; in 1982 the India Office Library and Records and the HMSO Binderies became British Library responsibilities . In 1983 , the Library absorbed the National Sound Archive , which holds many sound and video recordings , with over a million discs and thousands of tapes .
The core of the Library 's historical collections is based on a series of donations and acquisitions from the 18th century , known as the " foundation collections " . These include the books and manuscripts of Sir Robert Cotton , Sir Hans Sloane , Robert Harley and the King 's Library of King George III , as well as the Old Royal Library donated by King George II .
For many years its collections were dispersed in various buildings around central London , in places such as Bloomsbury ( within the British Museum ) , Chancery Lane , Bayswater , and Holborn with an interlibrary lending centre at Boston Spa , Wetherby in West Yorkshire ( situated on Thorp Arch Trading Estate ) and the newspaper library at Colindale , north @-@ west London .
Initial plans for the British Library required demolition of an integral part of Bloomsbury – a seven @-@ acre swathe of streets immediately in front of the Museum , so that the Library could be situated directly opposite . After a long and hard @-@ fought campaign led by Dr George Wagner , this decision was overturned and the library was instead constructed by John Laing plc on a site at Euston Road next to St Pancras railway station .
From 1997 to 2009 the main collection was housed in this single new building and the collection of British and overseas newspapers was housed at Colindale . In July 2008 the Library announced that it would be moving low @-@ use items to a new storage facility in Boston Spa in Yorkshire and that it planned to close the newspaper library at Colindale , ahead of a later move to a similar facility on the same site . From January 2009 to April 2012 over 200 km of material was moved to the Additional Storage Building and is now delivered to British Library Reading Rooms in London on request by a daily shuttle service . Construction work on the Newspaper Storage Building was completed in 2013 and the newspaper library at Colindale closed on 8 November 2013 . The collection has now been split between the St Pancras and Boston Spa sites . The British Library Document Supply Service ( BLDSS ) and the Library 's Document Supply Collection is based on the same site in Boston Spa . Collections housed in Yorkshire , comprising low @-@ use material and the newspaper and Document Supply collections , make up around 70 % of the total material the library holds . The Library previously had a book storage depot in Woolwich , south @-@ east London , which is no longer in use .
The new library was designed specially for the purpose by the architect Colin St John Wilson . Facing Euston Road is a large piazza that includes pieces of public art , such as large sculptures by Eduardo Paolozzi ( a bronze statue based on William Blake 's study of Isaac Newton ) and Antony Gormley . It is the largest public building constructed in the United Kingdom in the 20th century .
In the middle of the building is a six @-@ storey glass tower inspired by a similar structure in the Beinecke Library , containing the King 's Library with 65 @,@ 000 printed volumes along with other pamphlets , manuscripts and maps collected by King George III between 1763 and 1820 . In December 2009 a new storage building at Boston Spa was opened by Rosie Winterton . The new facility , costing £ 26 million , has a capacity for seven million items , stored in more than 140 @,@ 000 bar @-@ coded containers , which are retrieved by robots , from the 162 @.@ 7 miles of temperature and humidity @-@ controlled storage space .
On Friday , 5 April 2013 , Lucie Burgess , the British Library 's head of content strategy , announced that , starting that weekend , the Library would begin saving all sites with the suffix .uk ( every British website , e @-@ book , online newsletter , and blog ) in a bid to preserve the nation 's " digital memory " ( which as of then amounted to about 4 @.@ 8 million sites containing 1 billion web pages ) . The Library would make all the material publicly available to users by the end of 2013 , and would ensure that , through technological advancements , all the material is preserved for future generations , despite the fluidity of the Internet .
The building was Grade I listed on 1 August 2015 .
= = Legal deposit = =
In England , Legal Deposit can be traced back to at least 1610 . The Copyright Act 1911 established the principle of the legal deposit , ensuring that the British Library and five other libraries in Great Britain and Ireland are entitled to receive a free copy of every item published or distributed in Britain . The other five libraries are : the Bodleian Library at Oxford ; the University Library at Cambridge ; the Trinity College Library at Dublin ; and the National Libraries of Scotland and Wales . The British Library is the only one that must automatically receive a copy of every item published in Britain ; the others are entitled to these items , but must specifically request them from the publisher after learning that they have been or are about to be published , a task done centrally by the Agency for the Legal Deposit Libraries .
Further , under the terms of Irish copyright law ( most recently the Copyright and Related Rights Act 2000 ) , the British Library is entitled to automatically receive a free copy of every book published in Ireland , alongside the National Library of Ireland , the Trinity College Library at Dublin , the library of the University of Limerick , the library of Dublin City University and the libraries of the four constituent universities of the National University of Ireland . The Bodleian Library , Cambridge University Library , and the National Libraries of Scotland and Wales are also entitled to copies of material published in Ireland , but again must formally make requests .
In 2003 the Ipswich MP Chris Mole introduced a Private Member 's Bill which became the Legal Deposit Libraries Act 2003 . The Act extends United Kingdom legal deposit requirements to electronic documents , such as CD @-@ ROMs and selected websites .
The Library also holds the Asia , Pacific and Africa Collections ( APAC ) which include the India Office Records and materials in the languages of Asia and of north and north @-@ east Africa .
= = Using the library 's reading rooms = =
The Library is open to everyone who has a genuine need to use its collections . Anyone with a permanent address who wishes to carry out research can apply for a Reader Pass ; they are required to provide proof of signature and address .
Historically , only those wishing to use specialised material unavailable in other public or academic libraries would be given a Reader Pass . The Library has been criticised for admitting numbers of undergraduate students , who have access to their own university libraries , to the reading rooms . The Library replied that it has always admitted undergraduates as long as they have a legitimate personal , work @-@ related or academic research purpose .
The majority of catalogue entries can be found on Explore the British Library , the Library 's main catalogue , which is based on Primo . Other collections have their own catalogues , such as western manuscripts . The large reading rooms offer hundreds of seats which are often filled with researchers , especially during the Easter and summer holidays .
British Library Reader Pass holders are also able to view the Document Supply Collection in the Reading Room at the Library 's site in Boston Spa in Yorkshire as well as the hard copy newspaper collection from 29 September 2014 . Now that access is available to legal deposit collection material , it is necessary for visitors to register as a Reader to use the Boston Spa Reading Room .
= = Material available online = =
The British Library makes a number of images of items within its collections available online . Its Online Gallery gives access to 30 @,@ 000 images from various medieval books , together with a handful of exhibition @-@ style items in a proprietary format , such as the Lindisfarne Gospels . This includes the facility to " turn the virtual pages " of a few documents , such as Leonardo da Vinci 's notebooks . Catalogue entries for a large number of the illuminated manuscript collections are available online , with selected images of pages or miniatures from a growing number of them , and there is a database of significant bookbindings . British Library Sounds provides free online access to over 60 @,@ 000 sound recordings .
The British Library 's commercial secure electronic delivery service was started in 2003 at a cost of £ 6 million . This offers more than 100 million items ( including 280 @,@ 000 journal titles , 50 million patents , 5 million reports , 476 @,@ 000 US dissertations and 433 @,@ 000 conference proceedings ) for researchers and library patrons worldwide which were previously unavailable outside the Library because of copyright restrictions . In line with a government directive that the British Library must cover a percentage of its operating costs , a fee is charged to the user . However , this service is no longer profitable and has led to a series of restructures to try to prevent further losses . When Google Books started , the British Library signed an agreement with Microsoft to digitise a number of books from the British Library for its Live Search Books project . This material was only available to readers in the US , and closed in May 2008 . The scanned books are currently available via the British Library catalogue or Amazon .
In October 2010 the British Library launched its Management and business studies portal . This website is designed to allow digital access to management research reports , consulting reports , working papers and articles .
In November 2011 , four million newspaper pages from the 18th and 19th centuries were made available online . The project will scan up to 40 million pages over the next 10 years . The archive is free to search , but there is a charge for accessing the pages themselves .
= = Electronic collections = =
Explore the British Library is the latest iteration of the online catalogue . It contains nearly 57 million records and may be used to search , view and order items from the collections or search the contents of the Library 's website . The Library 's electronic collections include over 40 @,@ 000 ejournals , 800 databases and other electronic resources . A number of these are available for remote access to registered St Pancras Reader Pass holders .
= = Digital Library System = =
In 2012 , the UK legal deposit libraries signed a memorandum of understanding to create a shared technical infrastructure implementing the Digital Library System developed by the British Library . The DLS was in anticipation of the Legal Deposit Libraries ( Non @-@ Print Works ) Regulations 2013 , an extension of the Legal Deposit Libraries Act 2003 to include non @-@ print electronic publications from 6 April 2013 . Four storage nodes , located in London , Boston Spa , Aberystwyth , and Edinburgh , linked via a secure network in constant communication automatically replicate , self ‐ check , and repair data . A complete crawl of every .uk domain ( and other TLD 's with UK based server GeoIP ) has been added annually to the DLS since 2013 , which also contains all of the Internet Archive 's 1996 @-@ 2013 .uk collection . The policy and system is based on that of the Bibliothèque nationale de France , which has crawled ( via IA until 2010 ) the .fr domain annually ( 62TB 's in 2015 ) since 2006 .
= = Exhibitions = =
A number of books and manuscripts are on display to the general public in the Sir John Ritblat Gallery which is open seven days a week at no charge . Some of the manuscripts in the exhibition include Beowulf , the Lindisfarne Gospels and St Cuthbert Gospel , a Gutenberg Bible , Geoffrey Chaucer 's Canterbury Tales , Thomas Malory 's Le Morte d 'Arthur ( King Arthur ) , Captain Cook 's journal , Jane Austen 's History of England , Charlotte Brontë 's Jane Eyre , Lewis Carroll 's Alice 's Adventures Under Ground , Rudyard Kipling 's Just So Stories , Charles Dickens 's Nicholas Nickleby , Virginia Woolf 's Mrs Dalloway and a room devoted solely to Magna Carta , as well as several Qu 'rans and Asian items .
In addition to the permanent exhibition , there are frequent thematic exhibitions which have covered maps , sacred texts , the history of the English language , and law , including a celebration of the 800th anniversary of the Magna Carta .
= = Business and IP Centre = =
In May 2005 , the British Library received a grant of £ 1 million from the London Development Agency to change two of its reading rooms into the Business & IP Centre . The Centre was opened in March 2006 . It holds arguably the most comprehensive collection of business and intellectual property ( IP ) material in the United Kingdom and is the official library of the UK Intellectual Property Office .
The collection is divided up into four main information areas : market research , company information , trade directories , and journals . It is free of charge in hard copy and online via approximately 30 subscription databases . Registered readers can access the collection and the databases .
There are over 50 million patent specifications from 40 countries in a collection dating back to 1855 . The collection also includes official gazettes on patents , trade marks and Registered Design ; law reports and other material on litigation ; and information on copyright . This is available in hard copy and via online databases .
Staff are trained to guide small and medium enterprises ( SME ) and entrepreneurs to use the full range of resources .
Since 2012 , Stephen Fear is currently the British Library 's Entrepreneur in Residence and Ambassador .
= = Document Supply Service = =
As part of its establishment in 1973 , the British Library absorbed the National Lending Library for Science and Technology ( NLL ) , based near Boston Spa in Yorkshire , which had been established in 1961 . Before this , the site had housed a World War II Royal Ordnance Factory , ROF Thorp Arch , which closed in 1957 . When the NLL became part of the British Library in 1973 it changed its name to the British Library Lending Division , in 1985 it was renamed as the British Library Document Supply Centre and is now known as the British Library Document Supply Service , often abbreviated as BLDSS .
BLDSS now holds 87 @.@ 5 million items , including 296 @,@ 000 international journal titles , 400 @,@ 000 conference proceedings , 3 million monographs , 5 million official publications , and 500 @,@ 000 UK and North American theses and dissertations . 12 @.@ 5 million articles in the Document Supply Collection are held electronically and can be downloaded immediately .
The collection supports research and development in UK , overseas and international industry , particularly in the pharmaceutical industry . BLDSS also provides material to Higher Education institutions , students and staff and members of the public , who can order items through their Public Library or through the Library 's BL Document Supply Service ( BLDSS ) . The Document Supply Service also offers Find it For Me and Get it For Me services which assist researchers in accessing hard @-@ to @-@ find material .
In April 2013 , BLDSS launched its new online ordering and tracking system , which enables customers to search available items , view detailed availability , pricing and delivery time information , place and track orders , and manage account preferences online .
= = Sound archive = =
The British Library Sound Archive holds more than a million discs and 185 @,@ 000 tapes . The collections come from all over the world and cover the entire range of recorded sound from music , drama and literature to oral history and wildlife sounds , stretching back over more than 100 years . The Sound Archive 's online catalogue is updated daily .
It is possible to listen to recordings from the collection in selected Reading Rooms in the Library through their SoundServer and Listening and Viewing Service , which is based in the Rare Books & Music Reading Room .
In 2006 the Library launched a new online resource British Library Sounds which makes over 60 @,@ 000 of the Sound Archive 's recordings available online for UK higher and further education and the general public .
= = Newspapers = =
The Library holds an almost complete collection of British and Irish newspapers since 1840 . This is partly because of the legal deposit legislation of 1869 , which required newspapers to supply a copy of each edition of a newspaper to the library . London editions of national daily and Sunday newspapers are complete back to 1801 . In total the collection consists of 660 @,@ 000 bound volumes and 370 @,@ 000 reels of microfilm containing tens of millions of newspapers with 52 @,@ 000 titles on 45 km of shelves . From earlier dates , the collections include the Thomason Tracts , comprising 7 @,@ 200 17th @-@ century newspapers , and the Burney Collection , featuring nearly 1 million pages of newspapers from the late 18th and early 19th centuries . The section also holds extensive collections of non @-@ British newspapers , in numerous languages .
The Newspapers section was based in Colindale in North London until 2013 , when the buildings , which were considered to provide inadequate storage conditions and to be beyond improvement , were closed and sold for redevelopment . The physical holdings are now divided between the sites at St Pancras ( some high @-@ use periodicals , and rare items such as the Thomason Tracts and Burney collections ) and Boston Spa ( the bulk of the collections , stored in a new purpose @-@ built facility ) .
A significant and growing proportion of the collection is now made available to readers as surrogate facsimiles , either on microfilm , or , more recently , in digitised form . In 2010 a ten @-@ year programme of digitisation of the newspaper archives with commercial partner DC Thomson subsidiary Brightsolid began , and the British Newspaper Archive was launched in November 2011 . A dedicated newspaper reading room opened at St Pancras in April 2014 , including facilities for consulting microfilmed and digital materials , and , where no surrogate exists , hard @-@ copy material retrieved from Boston Spa .
= = Moving image services = =
Launched in October 2012
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was selling bottled Grapico in Alabama , Florida , Georgia , Mississippi , and Louisiana .
Rochell received the federal trademark on Grapico in 1940 , giving his Grapico Company of America the right to use the name " Grapico " everywhere in the United States . In 1955 , Grapico Company of America attempted to expand its fruit @-@ flavored brands with Orangico , a sister product to Grapico that included real orange juice . The orange juice @-@ based Orangico did not sell well and the federal trademark eventually expired . In September 1981 , both the franchising rights to the Grapico brand name and The Pepsi Bottling Group in Newnan , Georgia were acquired by Buffalo Rock , an independent Pepsi bottler based in Birmingham , Alabama . Buffalo Rock revived the Orangico trademark in 1999 for an artificially flavored orange drink and introduced Diet Grapico in 2005 . Grapico is now produced at Buffalo Rock 's Birmingham , Alabama bottling facility .
= = History = =
Grapico was first sold in 1914 in New Orleans , Louisiana by J. Grossman 's Sons . In the Summer of 1917 , businessman R. R. Rochell and his Birmingham , Alabama based Grapico Bottling Works purchased Grapico syrup barrels from J. Grossman 's Sons and bottled and sold Grapico to the Alabama soft drink market . Present Grapico distributor Buffalo Rock , an independent Pepsi bottler based in Birmingham , Alabama , purchased the Grapico business in 1981 . The J. Grossman 's Sons ' Grapico retail sales line ended in 1929 and the present Grapico traces its roots to the Summer of 1917 in Birmingham , Alabama through R. R. Rochell 's Grapico .
= = = J. Grossman 's Sons ' Grapico = = =
J. Grossman 's Sons was a business that had been operating in New Orleans , Louisiana since at least 1884 . By the early 1900s , the business was being run by both Adolph Grossman and Isidore Grossman . Prior to developing Grapico , J. Grossman 's Sons served as creditors . In 1905 for example , a collection attorney successfully sued J. Grossman 's Sons to recover legal fees for reducing to judgment a debt of $ 875 owed to J. Grossman 's Sons . Also in 1905 , J. Grossman 's Sons unsuccessfully prevented the sale of their securing collateral , a debtor 's home , to the debtor 's daughter . In January 1912 , J. Grossman 's Sons lent $ 1000 to a Lewisburg , Louisiana saloon owner who they successfully sued eleven months later to recover the amount against his real estate .
J. Grossman 's Sons began manufacturing Grapico in 1914 . At that time , Grapico consisted of a syrup that , when mixed with soda water , had the taste , smell , and color of a genuine grape drink . The product was artificially colored and flavored with only an infinitesimal amount of grape juice or fruit of the grape .
Prior to 1916 , J. Grossman 's Sons contacted American jazz composers Peter DeRose and Ivan Reid to write a song about Grapico . DeRose , who would later be inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame , produced the piano accompanied song , Meet Me in the Land of Grapico . Meet Me in the Land of Grapico is a sentimental ballad from Tin Pan Alley that imagined a faraway Land of Grapico where love lives forever . The song ( see below ) and its cover sheet alluded to a grape vine @-@ covered arbor in the Land of Grapico , even though Grapico contained no grape juice . Dedicating the song to all the drinkers of Grapico , J. Grossman 's Sons published the song in 1916 and provided it free on request .
In the Summer of 1917 , businessman R. R. Rochell and his Birmingham , Alabama based Grapico Bottling Works began purchasing Grapico syrup barrels from J. Grossman 's Sons to bottle and sell the Alabama soft drink market . In that same year , Laurel , Mississippi based Grapico Bottling Company also became a wholesale customer of J. Grossman 's Sons and began bottling and selling Grapico in Mississippi . In 1918 , Rochell 's Grapico Bottling Works opened a bottling plant in Hattiesburg , Mississippi as a second Mississippi bottler and seller of Grapico .
By 1919 , Grapico manufacturer J. Grossman 's Sons was successful enough in their efforts to distribute Grapico that they awarded the Grapico advertising account to the Chambers Agency , Inc. of New Orleans . As early as November 1919 , businessman J. C. Kramer was doing business in Louisiana under the name of the Grapico Bottling Works ( Louisiana ) , a business unconnected with Rochell 's Grapico Bottling Works .
In 1920 , the demand for soft drinks significantly increased as a result of the prohibition against alcohol in the United States that began on January 29 , 1920 . The Grapico product was so successful by 1920 , that Grapico specifically was listed in the Louisiana law among generic items , Coca @-@ Cola , and RC Cola as items to be taxed : Section 22 of Act No. 233 of 1920 , which read :
That all persons , associations of persons , firms and corporations engaged in the sale of soda water , ice cream , confections , soda pop , Coca Cola , Chero @-@ Cola , Grapico or other similar soft drinks or beverages or refreshments , shall pay license based on the gross annual sales , and such licenses are hereby fixed and graded as follows .
In addition to experiencing taxes as a result of its success , the Grapico efforts found labor troubles . In 1920 , the International Union of United Brewery , Flour , Cereal , Soft Drink and Distillery Workers presented Grapico Bottling Company ( Mississippi ) with a union agreement . When the company refused to sign the agreement , the 112 employees at Grapico Bottling Company were called to strike . The Grapico Bottling Co. eventually signed the agreement .
In June 1922 , Grapico Bottling Works furthered the connection between the artificially flavored beverage and real grape juice through an advertisement campaign . On June 1 , 1922 , The Jacksonville Metropolis published a Grapico Bottling Works advertisement announcing a ten @-@ day writing contest that offered US $ 116 in prize money for essays on why a consumer would prefer " Sparkling Grapico " over real , fresh grapes . The advertisement indicated that Grapico was made from Pure Grape Juice with pure sugar and carbonated water and had no coloring or preservatives . Although not true , this information was consistent with the Grapico product labels used by J. Grossman 's Sons on the barrels that were shipped to and received by R. R. Rochell .
Mississippi based Grapico Bottling Company troubles did not end with its union problems . In September 1924 , John Henry Ennis of Ellisville , Mississippi purchased a Grapico . On drinking it , Ennis discovered that the contents were filled with filthy flies , some of which he swallowed and became sick . On filing a lawsuit against Grapico Bottling Company and its sole stockholder , Philip Carriere , Ennis learned that Grapico Bottling Company had filed for and successfully dissolved itself as a corporation between the time Ennis consumed the flies and filed suit against Grapico Bottling . On appeal , the Supreme Court of Mississippi issued an opinion that serve as precedent in Mississippi for the rule that a stockholder of a corporation is not liable for the debts , liabilities , and other acts of the corporation . After Grapico Bottling Company ( Mississippi ) dissolved in 1925 , Rochell 's Grapico Bottling Works became the sole supplier of Grapico to Mississippi .
= = = = Unfair competition through deceptive advertising = = = =
Since almost its inception in 1914 , Grapico was associated with real grape juice by J. Grossman 's Sons through its advertisements and business stationery . Publicly associating Grapico with genuine grape juice allowed J. Grossman 's Sons to compete directly with real grape juice producers such as Welch Grape Juice Co. and have an advantage over other imitation grape flavored beverage producers . A problem with this approach was that Grapico was an artificial grape drink that included neither real grape juice nor fruit from the grape .
In May 1926 , J. Grossman 's Sons became a defunct corporation and sold its Grapico formula and all rights connected to that formula to Pan American Manufacturing Co . , Inc . , a Louisiana corporation that had been manufacturing and selling extracts , ice cream powder , and syrups and flavors for soft drinks from New Orleans since 1911 . Pan American began manufacturing Grapico syrup and concentrate and continued supplying its wholesale customers outside of Louisiana with one @-@ gallon bottles of concentrated Grapico to allow them to make Grapico . In addition , through its subsidiary corporation , World Bottling Co . , Pan American continued supplying its retail customers in Louisiana with bottled Grapico for consumption . At the time Pan American acquired the Grapico business , it had three wholesale Grapico customers : Rochell 's Grapico Bottling Works in Birmingham , Alabama and two bottling plants operating in Mississippi . Grapico concentrate was sold by Pan American to its wholesale customers for $ 7 @.@ 50 per gallon and the finished bottled Grapico was by sold by Pan American and its three wholesale customers at 5 cents per 7 @-@ oz bottle .
Pan American continued associating their artificial grape drink with real grape juice in advertisements in trade periodicals , display cards , newspapers , boys ' caps for customers ' use , and in its company stationery . Typically , advertising material displayed images of grape vineyards and bunches of grapes together with the qualifying statements :
Sparkling
Grapico
Naturally Good
Acknowledged
The Best
Grape Drink
On The Market
Sparkling
Grapico
Naturally Good
The Drink of The Nation
In addition , Pan American continued J. Grossman 's Sons practice of using 7 @-@ oz clear bottles with molded labels prominently featuring a pictorial representation of a bunch of grapes with word " Grapico " . Given that the product was artificially colored and flavored to simulate the appearance , taste and smell of grape juice , the combination of the advertisements , the bottle grape bunch mold , and the product itself implied to others that the Grapico product was composed of pure grape juice .
In July 1928 , the Federal Trade Commission charged Pan American with unfair methods of competition and deceptive practices . After learning of the Federal Trade Commission complaint , Pan American altered the labels it used on its one @-@ gallon concentrate jugs . However , the efforts were too little , too late and Pan American and its " representatives , agents , servants , employees , and successors " lost the right to use the word " Grapico " to designate their artificial grape drink as of 1929 . Pan American 's wholesale customers , including R. R. Rochell , were seen as victims of Pan American 's unfair competition and the cease and desist order regarding the Grapico name did not extend to them .
= = = R. R. Rochell 's Grapico = = =
R. R. Rochell was a successful business man operating in Birmingham , Alabama . His success came despite the fact that he was illiterate . He was one of two major stock holders in the Edgewood Amusement Company , which dissolved in 1924 . Rochell began selling bottled Grapico in Alabama in 1917 and then in Mississippi in 1918 . In June 1920 , Rochell 's Grapico Bottling Works formally incorporated in Alabama as " The Grapico Bottling Works " .
Rochell 's early Grapico efforts were not without problems . For example , in November 1921 , Grapico Bottling Works acquired a US $ 648 Baltimore Semi @-@ Automatic Machine , Model B @-@ 1485 from New Orleans based Crown Cork and Seal Co. to cork and seal soda water bottles . Within three months , the bottle capper began to fail . Frequently , the neck of the moving bottles became stuck in the machine , which additionally broke bottles whose contents drenched workers . In addition , the caps made by the machine did not seal properly so that carbonation gas escaped from the Grapico bottles . After Grapico refused to pay the US $ 358 balance , the Sheriff seized the bottling machine from Grapico . The matter was resolved 3 ½ years later by the Louisiana First Circuit Court of Appeal , who set aside the machine sales contract so that Grapico Bottling Works no longer owed the balance .
By 1922 , R. R. Rochell 's Grapico had been expanded into the Florida soft drink market . With Grapico Bottling Company ( Mississippi ) dissolved in 1925 and Pan American prohibited from using the name " Grapico " in connection with the Grapico artificial grape drink , Rochell became the sole supplier of bottled Grapico in Alabama , Florida , Georgia , Mississippi , and Louisiana in 1929 .
In 1938 , R. R. Rochell was doing business in Alabama as " Orange Crush 7 @-@ Up Bottling Company . " At that time , it cost .44312 cents to produce a case of Grapico at Rochell 's plant in Birmingham and to deliver that same case approximately 100 miles ( 160 km ) away cost .32734 cents , making a total cost of approximately .77 cents per case to deliver a case of soft drinks to the areas surrounding Birmingham . The product was sold at .80 a case , for a .03 cent profit per case .
Just before he died in early 1940 , R. R. Rochell filed for a federal trademark on Grapico on behalf of Orange Crush 7 @-@ Up Bottling Company . The federal trademark issued just after Rochell. secured the national rights to the Grapico mark to the Orange Crush 7 @-@ Up Bottling Company . In that same year , Grapico was sold using the trademarked slogan ,
" The Drink of the Nation • Made its Way by the Way its Made . "
In June 1947 , Rochell 's business began using the names " The Grapico Bottling Company " and " The Grapico Company of America . " In October 1949 , " The Grapico Bottling Company " name was changed to " Orange Crush 7 Up Bottling Company " to reflect the work it was doing in Alabama on behalf of the Seven @-@ up Company . Despite the Alabama company 's efforts , the Seven @-@ up Company refused to grant The Grapico Company of America a bottling franchise to handle Seven @-@ up soft drinks . The business was operating as Orange Crush @-@ Grapico Bottling Company by 1953 . In July 1957 , the bottling business name was officially changed to " Orange Crush Grapico Company . "
In 1955 , Grapico Company of America expanded its fruit flavored brands into orange with Orangico , a play on the name Grapico . Orangico was to include real orange juice . The orange juice based Orangico did not sell well and the federal trademark eventually expired in 1999 .
In September 1981 , both the franchising rights to the Grapico brand name and The Pepsi Bottling Group in Newnan , Georgia were acquired by Buffalo Rock , an independent Pepsi bottler founded in Birmingham , Alabama in 1901 . Both Buffalo Rock and R.R. Rochell 's businesses were located in Birmingham since the early 1900s . For example , in October 1940 , R.R. Rochell 's business was located at 1031 11th Avenue North and Buffalo Rock 's business was located at 10th Avenue and 26th Street North — a distance of about three miles ( 5 km ) .
Between at least 1981 and 1988 , Grapico was distributed in only three states : Alabama , Florida and Georgia . In August 1988 , Buffalo Rock announced that they would expand distribution of Grapico the rest of the Southeastern United States . The announcement coincided with the new , more contemporary Grapico packaging . By June 1990 , Grapico was being sold in South Carolina .
Buffalo Rock revived the Orangico trademark in 1999 , this time to be used on an artificial orange syrup rather than a real orange based drink . Buffalo Rock introduced Diet Grapico in 2005 . Grapico is produced by Buffalo Rock through its Columbus , Georgia bottling facility , Sun Fresh Beverages , Inc .
= = In popular culture = =
Grapico is mentioned in Fried Green Tomatoes at the Whistle Stop Cafe , 1987 best selling novel by Fannie Flagg . Anne George 's 1996 novel Murder on a Bad Hair Day : A Southern Sisters Mystery , and the 2004 novel Making Waves by Cassandra King , Grapico mixed with Absolut Peppar jalapeño flavored vodka is a drink called the Ex @-@ girlfriend . It 's called the Ex @-@ girlfriend because " it 's sweet and seems like a good idea , but eventually it 's going to burn you and make you sick . " Grapico and coconut rum is called a " grapicolada . "
= = Gallery = =
Meet Me in the Land of Grapico
= The Tip @-@ Off =
" The Tip @-@ Off " is the third episode of series seven of the British espionage television series Spooks , and the 59th episode overall . It was originally broadcast on digital channel BBC Three on 28 October 2008 , and repeated on frontline channel BBC One on 3 November . The episode was written by Russell Lewis ; with additional writing by Ben Richards ; and directed by Peter Hoar . In the episode , Ben Kaplan ( Alex Lanipekun ) goes undercover to infiltrate an Al @-@ Qaeda cell in London during a dry run before an expected attack . However , it later becomes apparent the terrorists are going to attack during the dry run .
Actor Alex Lanipekun believed the episode became a sort of " coming of age " for his character , as he had to deal with issues dealing with undercover operations including not to get close to a terrorist . The episode introduces the " Sugarhorse " story arc , which continues through to the series finale . In making the scene where Lucas North was waterboarded , Richard Armitage who portrays him was subjected to the actual torture to ensure the scene 's authenticity . It was seen by over five million viewers after its original broadcast , and was given generally positive reviews . However , it received criticism for featuring the waterboarding scene .
= = Plot = =
Chief of Section D Ros Myers ( Hermione Norris ) introduces Lucas North ( Richard Armitage ) to one of Adam Carter 's assets , Pakistani intelligence officer Marlin ( Emilio Doorgasingh ) . Marlin has information about a planned attack by Al @-@ Qaeda ; a cell intends to create Internet chatter , followed by a dry run , after which they will commence a series of suicide attacks . The ringleader behind this is Nadif Abdelrashid ( Ariyon Bakare ) who was previously responsible for similar attacks in Turkey and Somalia . Ben Kaplan is in his first undercover operation disguised as a recent convert to Islam and becomes part of the cell . As part of his cover , Ben shares a flat with Jawad ( Tariq Jordan ) , another member . However , over the course of the operation Ben becomes close to Jawad , which Ben 's handler Lucas advises against , as Jawad is not an innocent .
When Malcolm Wynn @-@ Jones ( Hugh Simon ) discovers the chatter , Ben relays to the team that the dry run will commence the following day . On the day , Ben finds that Abdelrashid intends to carry out the attack ahead of schedule and during the dry run after Ben , Jawad , and two other men are given bombs . Ben relays this message to Lucas . Ros dispatches CO19 to apprehend Abdelrachid in his office , who intends to remote detonate the bombs . Another CO19 squad , as well as Lucas and Jo Portman ( Miranda Raison ) follow the cell members to a street market , which they will use to maximise civilian casualties . Ben admits he is MI5 to Jawad , who runs in panic and attempts to manually detonate his bomb ; this results in getting gunned down by CO19 officers , much to Ben 's dismay . After stopping another two bombs , Jawad 's mobile phone rings , revealing Abdelrashid is not the " Mr. Big " ; it is Marlin . He remote detonates the last bomb , killing the terrorist and the two CO19 officers holding him .
Although one bomb did detonate , Harry Pearce ( Peter Firth ) views the operation a success , as the other three did not , and no civilians were killed . Ben tells Lucas he was right about Jawad ; he chose to become a bomber over seeing his family . Lucas receives a call from Marlin , who asks to meet with him . During the confrontation , Marlin admits he was forced to become Mr. Big when terrorists kidnapped his family . Now knowing he has failed , he commits suicide .
In a subplot , rainwater falls onto Lucas 's face , which triggers a flashback where he was tortured by FSB interrogators during his eight @-@ year imprisonment in Russia . The interrogators question him on " Sugarhorse . " Lucas relays this to Harry , who claims not knowing what Sugarhorse is . However , he later visits a retired spycatcher Bernard Qualtrough ( Richard Johnson ) believing there is high level mole within MI5 . He only reveals that Sugarhorse is MI5 's " best kept secret " that only five people , including Richard Dolby ( Robert East ) , the Director General , and himself , know the details of . Harry later returns to Qualtrough 's bookstore to find out who the mole might be , starting by looking into Dolby 's file .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Russell Lewis , with additional writing by Ben Richards . Ben Kaplan became the central character of the episode . Actor Alex Lanipekin , who portrays Ben , stated that " The Tip @-@ Off " was a " kind of a coming of age " for the character , dealing with his first undercover operation . Lanipekun expanded :
The episode also introduces a story @-@ arc , about Sugarhorse , that would be resolved by the end of the seventh series . Hermione Norris describes Sugarhorse as " a group of spies who were brought together after the ending of the cold war to infiltrate , at the highest level , all forms of Russian intelligence so that if a nuclear power ever came into being and was at the hands of the Russian people , MI5 and MI6 could infiltrate it and stop it . " The cast read the brief on Sugarhorse , but were then told to shred it in order to maintain its secrecy from fans .
In a flashback sequence of the episode , Lucas is subjected to waterboarding , a method of torture . In order to ensure the authenticity of the sequence , Armitage was subjected to the actual torture . He agreed to perform the sequence after he was convinced by consultants from the FSB and CIA . Armitage was only waterboarded for a short time , and was filmed in slow motion to make it appear as if he was on for longer . Kudos film and television , the production company behind Spooks , had to follow several health and safety provisions from an advisor to ensure the sequence strictly adheres to the advice . The advisor and a medic were present during filming . The ambient temperature of the room was raised to make Armitage as comfortable as possible . However , after the sequence was shot , Armitage changed his opinion entirely , stating ; " I only lasted five to ten seconds , and the sound of my voice crying out to stop isn 't me acting . "
= = Broadcast and reception = =
The episode was originally broadcast on the digital channel BBC Three from 11 pm on Tuesday , 28 October 2008 , after the broadcast of the second episode on BBC One . The episode would later be repeated on BBC One on Monday , 3 November 2008 during the 9 pm to 10 pm time slot , except in Northern Ireland , where it was withheld until 10 : 35 pm . There is no ratings data available for the BBC Three broadcast . On the BBC One broadcast , the episode was seen by 5 @.@ 2 million viewers , an improvement of 140 @,@ 000 from the previous episode , with a 21 @.@ 6 per cent audience share , winning its time slot against the return of detective series Taggart on ITV1 , and other terrestrial channels . According to the Broadcasters ' Audience Research Board , the episode received final viewing figures of 5 @.@ 59 million , making the episode the 17th most seen broadcast on BBC One , and 32nd in overall television the week it was shown .
Mof Gimmers of TV Scoop was positive towards the episode , calling it " a tense week for Section D " and added " our guys did a pretty good job . " Gimmers also thought Ben " did well on his first undercover mission too , didn 't you think ? Apart from verging on sympathy for the young brainwashed bombers . Still , he 's young . He 'll get over it . " On Ros ' role in the episode , Gimmers said " I don 't think I 'll ever be able to say I 'm " warming " to such an ice queen as Ros , but I will admit to a growing admiration . " Scott Matthewman of The Stage stated " the seventh series of the spy show continues apace , " and praised the episode for " the superb performance of Hermione Norris as Ros Myers , fast becoming the twisted moral centre of the show . Both she and Peter Firth 's Harry Pearce get some great dialogue every week , so it 's a shame that the rest of the cast aren ’ t afforded the same luxury . "
The Guardian columnist Zoe Williams criticised the actual waterboarding in the torture scene , saying " it 's really unpleasant , [ Armitage ] concurred . ' I only lasted five to 10 seconds , and the sound of my voice crying out to stop isn 't me acting . ' Pal , that 's nice that you 're not showing off but this is all wrong and despicable : it 's like locking yourself and 10 friends into a loo on a commuter train , to see what it would be like on the train to Auschwitz . If you can make it stop whenever you like , you 're learning nothing and kicking people in the face while you 're at it . "
= Dance Again ... the Hits =
Dance Again ... the Hits is the first greatest hits album of American entertainer Jennifer Lopez . It was released on July 20 , 2012 , by Epic Records , to coincide with the launch of her first world tour , the Dance Again World Tour . Lopez previously conceived plans for a greatest hits album in 2009 , but instead opted to use the material recorded for her seventh studio album , Love ? , which was released by Island Records in May 2011 after her departure from Epic Records in 2010 . As Lopez owed the label one last album to fulfill her contract , she began work on a new greatest hits album in November 2011 . She later became unsure whether she wanted to go along with plans to release a greatest hits album or a new studio album , eventually deciding on the former .
Dance Again ... the Hits comprises eleven previously released tracks , and two new recordings : " Dance Again " and " Goin ' In " . A deluxe edition of the album was also released , featuring three additional previously released tracks , and a DVD featuring a selection of eleven music videos . The album received generally positive reviews from music critics , who praised it as a reflection of Lopez 's success . Some critics expressed their disappointment in the absence of several successful singles , but deemed this as impressive , noting that this may have been due to the large volume of hit singles she has released over the years . Dance Again ... The Hits was a moderate commercial success , peaking within the top ten in fourteen national charts , and the top twenty in ten national charts .
= = Background and development = =
Following the commercial failure of her sixth studio album Brave ( 2007 ) — and while pregnant with twins Max and Emme — Lopez began working on new music for a future project in 2008 . The project was kept under wraps until February 2009 when a new song from the recording sessions titled " Hooked on You " leaked online . Following the leak of " Hooked on You " , " One Love " and " What Is Love ? " were subsequently leaked online in May . The leaked songs were , at the time , meant to appear on a greatest hits album that later turned into a studio album .
" Louboutins " , a song written and produced by The @-@ Dream and C. " Tricky " Stewart , was released as the lead single from her seventh studio album , Love ? , in November 2009 . However , upon release , the song failed to garner enough airplay to chart , despite topping the US Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart . Lopez subsequently left Epic Records in February 2010 , citing that she had fulfilled her contractual obligations and now wished to release Love ? under a new label . Her departure from the label temporarily halted production on the album , however upon signing a new contract with Island Records , recording resumed on the album . The New York Daily News revealed that Lopez would be taking some of the records recorded under Epic Records to Island Records so that they could be included on the album .
" On the Floor " , Lopez 's first single with the label , was released in February 2011 . The song topped the charts across the globe , becoming one of the most successful singles of the year . Following the release of " On the Floor " , Love ? produced two moderately successful singles : " I 'm Into You " and " Papi " , both of which topped the US Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart . Love ? itself was a moderate commercial success and was viewed as a humble comeback from Lopez , as many had considered her recording career over . It was announced in November that Lopez was again working on new material for a greatest hits album . The following month , Lopez revealed that she had been playing some of her new music for L.A. Reid , who signed her to Island Records and left the label to become the CEO and chairman of Epic Records . This led further speculation that Lopez had moved back to Epic Records , which was first reported in July . The reports were later confirmed untrue , as Lopez was back with Epic Records because she owed the label one final album to end her contract , despite previously announcing that she had fulfilled her contract with them .
= = New material = =
Lopez began working on a " collection of songs " in 2011 , unaware of what she was " going to do with them " . At the time , she was deciding whether she wanted to release a greatest hits album or a new studio album . Lopez stated that when it comes time to make an album , she doesn 't sit down and write for the entire thing . She revealed that she is always working on new music and that her albums " happen organically " when she has recorded enough material . Lopez explained : " I don 't ever stop . I keep going with it . These records , like ' Follow the Leader , ' [ a collaboration with Puerto Rican duo Wisin & Yandel ] they just kind of came about . It wasn 't something like , ' Oh , I 'm going to sit down and make a record right now . ' " Among the songs she recorded , two were chosen to be included on Dance Again ... The Hits : " Dance Again " and " Goin ' In " .
The album 's title and opening track , " Dance Again " , was written by RedOne , Enrique Iglesias , Bilal " The Chef " , AJ Junior and Pitbull , who is also featured in the song . After hearing a demo version of the track , she begged Iglesias to let her record the song , telling him that it was " her song " . Lopez , who was going through a divorce with Marc Anthony and the " breakup of a family " , felt as if the song had come to her at the " perfect moment " . According to Lopez , the period was devastating because family is very important to her . Lopez revealed : " I had to turn that into something better " ; she thought : " I don 't want to just survive it , I want to come out better than that . " Lopez didn 't want to be " the woman who stayed in bed for months " . " I knew I had to get through it . I 'd dance every day , I 'd work out , I 'd say a little prayer and I still wouldn 't feel any better . Then I 'd go to bed and get up the next day and do it all again . It was a process , and it very gradually got a little easier ... I had to do it for my kids . I had to get through it for them . " She re @-@ wrote parts of the verses to better relate to her experiences . The song " helped lift her out of the darkness " and gave her hope again . Looking back on the song in December 2012 , Lopez stated that : " ' Dance Again ' became my anthem ... an expression of what I needed to do at that time in my life and for what I was taking on with [ my career ] . It was a beautiful metaphor that became my reality . "
Lopez 's vocals for " Dance Again " were arranged by RedOne and produced by Kuk Harrell . They were recorded at Pinky 's Palace . Pitbull 's vocals were recorded by Al Burna at Al Burna Studios , Miami , Florida . Chris " Tek " O 'Ryan and Trevor Muzzy handled audio engineering of the song , with assistance from Anthony Falcone and Peter Mack . O 'Ryan and Trevor Muzzy were in charge of vocal editing . All instruments in the song were played and programmed by RedOne , who also produced the song . The song was later mixed by Trevor Muzzy . In an interview with Ryan Seacrest , Lopez revealed that she loved being able to collaborate with RedOne and Pitbull again . She stated : " We had a great chemistry the last time , and it was like ' We 're going to have to do something again . ' And this was the perfect song . I love the message of the song . That when something bad happens , your life is not over . You have to get up . You 're gonna live . You 're gonna to be okay . You 're gonna dance again . "
" Goin ' In " was written by Michael Warren , Jamahl Listenbee , Joseph Angel , Coleridge Tillman , David Quiñones and Tramar Dillard . Lopez 's vocals were produced by Harrell and recorded at Pinky 's Palace . Josh Gudwin and O 'Ryan handled audio engineering of the song , with assistance from Falcone and Mack . The song features additional vocals from American rapper Lil Jon . GoonRock produced and later mixed the song alongside Kenny Moran at The House on the Hill Studios in Los Angeles , California . Of GoonRock , Lopez commented by stating that he is " very forward with his sound " . After recording her vocals for the song , Flo Rida recorded a rap verse for the song . Those involved in the production of the song were extremely happy with the song before Flo Rida 's rap appeared on it , but once his vocals were on the song it " took it over the top top " . When choosing who she wanted to feature on the song , Lopez had several other rappers in mind , such as Big Sean . Lopez revealed : " We had a couple of people who said yes , that they would get on it , but [ Flo Rida ] just seemed like the perfect one . " She further explained that the style of the song " really fit Flo Rida " ; " It was half @-@ dance , but half kind of hard too . "
= = Critical response = =
Dance Again ... The Hits received generally positive reviews from contemporary music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 72 , based on four reviews , which indicates " generally favorable reviews " . Sal Cinquenmani of Slant Magazine wrote that the " most immediately striking thing " about the compilation is " just how many hits [ she ] has racked up over the years " . " So many , in fact , that there 's a hefty handful of singles missing from the standard edition of the album " , using her number @-@ one single " All I Have " as an example of this . He stated that Lopez 's " output has been nothing if not on trend " , and that Dance Again ... The Hits plays not only as a chronicle of her music career , but of " pop music as a whole since just before the turn of the century " , with genres spanning Latin pop , dance , and R & B. According to Cinquenmani , the album also serves as a " historical record " of who the rappers du jour were " over the last dozen years or so " , from Big Pun , Fat Joe , Ja Rule , and Lil Wayne . He concluded by stating that if the compilation " proves anything " it 's that Lopez is , " if not the queen , then at least the duchess of reinvention and should never be counted out " .
Michael Cragg of BBC Music wrote that it 's " surprising that she hadn 't unleashed a hits collection before now given that she 's what you might politely call a ' singles artist ' " . He questioned the song choices , writing that the person who made the decision to not include " Papi " needs to have a " long , hard look in the mirror " , although it 's " hard to argue with most of what 's on offer " , Lopez " slipping effortlessly into different guises with each song " . He concluded by stating that : " A cipher for good songs rather than the reasons those songs are good she may be , but there are few that do it better " . Lewis Corner of Digital Spy too questioned the decisions of which songs appeared on the album , but wrote that : " the very fact that she can 't fit all her classics on to one disc can be seen as nothing more than a testament to her enduring career " . AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine pointed out that Lopez 's other well or moderately charted songs such as " Play " , " I 'm Gonna Be Alright " , " I 'm Glad " , and " Hold You Down " were not present on the compilation , while also writing that her older hits didn 't fit neatly with her newer songs and that it 's sequencing was " scattershot " . Erlewine , nonetheless , said that " [ the album ] does have the familiar tunes , so it serves its purpose " .
Irving Tan of Sputnikmusic put Dance Again ... The Hits into the category of a greatest hits album that " you get facial brickbat of moderate @-@ to @-@ raw disappointment at the discovery of how thin and forced the artist 's discography really is " . He wrote that having another artist featured on nine of the thirteen tracks " gives the impression that as a product , having Jennifer Lopez alone is simply not enough " . He further criticized the decision to include the Murder remixes of " Ain 't It Funny " and " I 'm Real " over the original studio versions , stating that it was almost like " Sony Music held their hands up and admitted that the initial cuts that they published simply weren 't up to scratch " . Tan concluded that for a greatest hits album , the track listing is " simply all over the place " , with no indication that the record executives or Lopez " looked around for a logical start " or an " easy access ramp to her seven @-@ album canon " .
= = Commercial performance = =
Dance Again ... the Hits enjoyed moderate commercial success in the United States , peaking at number 20 on the Billboard 200 the week of its debut with sales of 14 @,@ 000 copies . The album performed better on the Billboard R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums component chart , where it managed to reach number six . Dance Again ... the Hits performed significantly lower on the Billboard 200 than Lopez 's seventh studio album Love ? , which peaked at number five , as well as her previous compilation album J to tha L – O ! The Remixes ( 2002 ) , which peaked at number one . After a month , the album had sold 38 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . As of December 2012 , Dance Again ... the Hits is Lopez 's second lowest performing album in the country ; only The Reel Me achieved a lower chart position in 2003 , peaking at number 69 . On the UK Albums Chart , Dance Again ... the Hits debuted at number four with sales of 9 @,@ 213 copies in its first week of release , matching the peak of J to Tha L @-@ O ! : The Remixes in that country .
Overseas , Dance Again ... the Hits performed well in most music markets , reaching the top ten in fourteen national charts , five of which were in the first five positions . Its highest position came from the Canadian Albums chart , where the album achieved number three . The album reached the same peak on the Italian Albums chart . Other countries where the album managed to score a high peak were Spain ( number five ) , Taiwan ( number three ) , the Czech Republic ( number six ) and Switzerland ( number seven ) . On the Australian Albums Chart , the album had a moderate commercial performance , reaching number 20 ; her previous compilation album , J to tha L – O ! The Remixes , achieved a higher position of number 11 . In Latin America , the album appeared on the Mexican Album chart , reaching a peak of number 10 .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
^ a signifies a vocal producer
^ b signifies an executive producer
^ c signifies a remixer
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for Dance Again ... the Hits adapted from AllMusic .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Super Mario Strikers =
Super Mario Strikers , known as Mario Smash Football in Europe and Australia , is a five @-@ on @-@ five football ( soccer ) game developed by Next Level Games for the GameCube . The game was released in Europe and North America in late 2005 , and in Japan and Australia in 2006 . The game 's sequel , Mario Strikers Charged , was also developed by Next Level Games and is available for the Wii . The game 's developers had worked on the NHL series before development of Strikers , which served as an influence for the fast @-@ paced and physical nature of the game .
Strikers is a sports game incorporating characters and themes from the Mario franchise . The game features the basic aspects and objectives of a football game , although no referees are present and characters can legitimately shove others out of possession of the ball . As in other games such as Mario Power Tennis , the player can use Mario @-@ themed items such as bananas and red shells to hinder the opposition and gain the advantage . Each team 's captain can use " Super Strikes " that , if timed accurately , will result in two points scored for the striker 's team . Each team comprises a goal keeper , a main Mario character ( captain ) , and three of the same secondary Mario characters known as " side kicks " .
The game received " generally favorable reviews " according to video game review aggregator Metacritic . In general , reviewers lauded Strikers ' accessibility and multiplayer gameplay , but criticised the lack of gameplay modes and single @-@ player offerings .
= = Gameplay = =
Super Mario Strikers is a five @-@ a @-@ side football console video game comprising characters and themes from the Mario series . Each team consists of a captain character from the Mario series and three secondary Mario characters known as " sidekicks " . Kritter is the goalkeeper for all sides except the " Super Team " , which consists of four captain robots and a Robo @-@ Kritter . Both sidekicks and captains have varying gameplay attributes with " balanced " and " defensive " play types available . Strikers follows the basic gameplay featured in most football video games , including the ability to dash , tackle players , and lob the ball . Despite this , characters not in possession can legitimately hit opponents with or without the ball ( " Big Hit " ) , resulting in a more arcade @-@ like style of gameplay . The game also features " Perfect " passes and shots , which trigger in sequence if both a pass and shot are applied close to the opponent 's goal . The most powerful shot possible is the " Super Strike " , which only the captain can make and will account for two points if successful . Once charged , the player must time button presses accurately on a visible gauge to trigger a successful shot at goal , resulting in a character @-@ specific animation .
As in other Mario sports titles such as Mario Power Tennis , the player can use items — bananas , red shells , etc . — to impede the opponent . Some " power ups " can aid the user by granting temporary imperviousness while others immobilize and hinder the opponent . The central antagonist of the Mario universe , Bowser , will also appear occasionally as a non @-@ player character to obstruct the players from each side . Strikers include six stadia , each having barriers to prevent the ball going out of play . These stadia only vary aesthetically and do not affect gameplay , featuring different surfaces such as grass and wood . The player can adjust the match settings to limit or expand the match time and select whether features such as the Super Strike will be included . As the player advances through the game , further adjustments can be made called " cheats " , that can render goalkeepers weaker and grant an infinite number of items .
Strikers includes multiple gameplay modes such as the " Grudge Match " , which is the standard single and multiplayer match mode of the game . Trainings sessions come in the form of " Strikers 101 " , where the player can practice individual aspects such as shooting and dashing . " Cup Battles " allows up to four players to compete in tournaments against artificial intelligence opponents to advance through more difficult cups for rewards , with " Super " denoting the higher @-@ ranked tournaments .
= = Development = =
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ikers was developed by Next Level Games , who revealed the game at the E3 conference of 2005 in the form of a playable demonstration . In an interview , game director Mike Inglehart and marketing director Grace Kim revealed that Strikers was originally intended to be a more realistic Mario sports game , but the development team opted for an " over @-@ the @-@ top " style after numerous consultations with Nintendo . Next Level Games cited a connection between Strikers and NHL Hitz Pro in terms of gameplay mechanics , claiming that the latter influenced the " responsive gameplay " in Strikers , as well as the use of goalkeepers and on @-@ field collisions . The developers revealed that the character system would be " balanced and fun " , although Nintendo had " the ultimate say " in regards to character design , wanting strong and aggressive styles that did not deviate from past characterisations too much . For this reason , voice recording for Strikers required more lines and sounds than in other Mario sports titles .
Assisted by producer Ken Yeeloy , Inglehart stated in an interview a willingness to link any new feature of Strikers with the sport of football . With this , they decided to accentuate " the exciting parts " of the game , with Inglehart using the electric fences in the stadia as an example in reference to the physicality of the sport . They also explained reasons for not using a penalty or card system , rating the power @-@ up system as compensation for this considering power @-@ ups are awarded to the team of a player that has been pushed or shoved .
= = Reception = =
Super Mario Strikers received generally positive reviews from critics , with reviewers lauding the game 's characterisation and visual style , being reminiscent to that of Kazuto Nakazawa . GameSpot 's Brian Ekberg praised the game 's accessibility , stating that " Strikers ' pick @-@ up @-@ and @-@ play design will have you playing like a cartoon Pele in no time " . Similarly , critics welcomed the developers ' choice to forgo traditional football rules in the favour of a more arcade @-@ like style of gameplay . Despite this , IGN complained of a " disappointingly slim " variety of modes , as well as the perceived small roster of characters and inflexibility when choosing teams . On a similar note , Eurogamer criticised the vague presentation of characters attributes , making it difficult to determine what their respective strengths and weaknesses are . Despite enjoying the variety and appearance of Striker 's stadia , GameSpot noted only cosmetic differences among them , and criticised a lack of physical features to make them more interesting .
Strikers ' multiplayer gameplay in particular was welcomed by reviewers , who praised the developers for providing aggressive and fast @-@ paced action . Conversely , the game 's single player offerings gained a less enthusiastic response , with critics noting " boring " and repetitive gameplay . GameSpot thought some features were " overpowered " in parts , including the big @-@ hit tackles and the ability to dash constantly given the absence of a stamina meter . Despite this , Eurogamer remarked that it was deeper than first anticipated , while IGN lauded the game 's " tight controls " and use of Super Strikes . The ability to push enemies into the electric barrier and the use of items was also welcomed as a means to make the game entertaining while playing defensively .
The game 's visuals received a mixed response , with critics reporting occasional problems with Striker 's framerate . While praising the character models and goal animations , GameSpot bemoaned the absence of a " Mario feel " when appraising the menu and settings . IGN noted " blurry textures , uninspired stadium designs , and almost incomprehensibly a sometimes sluggish framerate " , despite enjoying the characters art style . The audio received a mediocre response , with critics praising the use of character and audience chants while criticising a lack of variety and repetitiveness . GameSpot thought the menu music had " some nice flair to it " , despite noting sounds such as Luigi 's goal celebration that , while charming when first heard , became tedious . In Japan , Famitsu gave the game a score of three sevens and one six for a total of 27 out of 40 ; Famitsu Cube + Advance , on the other hand , gave it a score of one nine , two eights , and one seven , for a total of 32 out of 40 .
Not all non @-@ video game publications gave the same praise for the game . Common Sense Media gave it all five stars and called it " a perfect game for a bunch of teenagers to play because it 's wacky , fast @-@ paced , and just plain fun . " However , Maxim gave it a score of seven out of ten and stated that " With matches of five @-@ on @-@ five taking place on small fields with really basic controls , Strikers is classic arcade @-@ style soccer , but the game gets an extra kick from power @-@ ups , random Bowser attacks , and a Telemundo @-@ style announcer . " The Sydney Morning Herald gave it a similar score of three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five and called it " immediately likable " .
= = = Awards and sales = = =
In GameSpot 's E3 2005 coverage , this game was given the award " Best Sports Game " , and was nominated a finalist for " Best Game of Show " . It received GameSpy 's " Game of the Year 2005 " awards for " Best GameCube Sports " , " Best GameCube Multiplayer " , and was ranked second for all GameCube games in 2005 . It was a finalist for " Sports Game of the Year " by the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences for the 2006 Interactive Achievement Awards . Super Mario Strikers has sold 950 @,@ 000 in North America as of December 27 , 2007 .
= = = Top Players = = =
Since the release of the game , there have been many tournaments . Kevin " Bonj " Bongiovanni has been known to be the best player to have ever touched the game with his total earnings of $ 300 @,@ 000 in prize money . His combo of Yoshi and Birdo can matchup to anyone . Other Honorable Mentions : Kevin " Sully " Sullivan . Keith " I Peaked " Watkins .
= Tropical Storm Norman ( 2000 ) =
Tropical Storm Norman was a tropical cyclone that hit Mexico in September 2000 . The sixteenth cyclone and fourteenth named storm of the 2000 Pacific hurricane season , Norman originated in a tropical wave that emerged from the coast of Africa on September 4 , and moved westward across the Atlantic Ocean ; the wave entered the Pacific on September 16 . The disturbance organized into a tropical depression on early on September 20 , and later that day the storm reached its peak intensity of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) , and subsequently made landfall to the west of Lázaro Cárdenas , Michoacán . After weakening to a tropical depression over land , the storm re @-@ emerged over open waters , and made a second landfall before dissipating shortly thereafter . The storm produced heavy rain that resulted in flooding and mudslides , killing about nine people .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Tropical Storm Norman were from the same tropical wave that spawned Atlantic Hurricane Gordon , which emerged off the coast of Africa on September 4 . The wave moved westward , with the southern portion of the wave crossing Central America while Gordon formed in the northwest Caribbean Sea . When the wave reached the eastern Pacific Ocean on September 16 , it interacted with a pre @-@ existing low @-@ level circulation , which produced a large area of disturbed weather . On September 18 , the convection began contracting and organizing , gradually developing a circular area of thunderstorms with well @-@ defined outflow . It is estimated that at 0000 UTC on September 20 , the system developed into Tropical Depression Sixteen @-@ E , about 205 miles ( 335 km ) south @-@ southeast of Manzanillo , Colima .
Upon first becoming a tropical cyclone , the depression was located within an area of weak steering currents . Initially it was forecast to remain offshore ; with warm waters and light wind shear , the depression was forecast to intensify into a strong tropical storm , and possibly attain hurricane status . However , the circulation was difficult to locate , and as such its exact motion was uncertain . Ships in the region confirmed the center of the storm as further northeast than previously thought , but also confirmed tropical storm force winds ; as a result , the National Hurricane Center upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Norman . Strengthening continued , and Norman attained peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) , shortly prior to making landfall west of Lázaro Cárdenas , Michoacán , late on September 20 .
Initially , the storm was forecast to dissipate quickly over land , although the possibility was noted for a westward turn , due to an anticyclone located over central Mexico . About 10 hours after moving ashore , Norman weakened to tropical depression status , and while moving further inland its track turned to the northwest . The center became very ill @-@ defined over the mountainous terrain of southwest Mexico , although stronger rainbands persisted offshore . Late on September 21 , the poorly defined center of Norman emerged into open waters near Puerto Vallarta , Jalisco , and subsequently turned northward . At first , the depression was forecast to re @-@ intensify into a minimal tropical storm ; however , its previous land interaction prevented it from ever re @-@ strengthening . The circulation remained close to the coastline , and at 1500 UTC on September 22 , Norman made landfall near Mazatlán , Sinaloa , as a weak tropical depression . Within a few hours , the cyclone dissipated over land .
= = Impact and preparations = =
In response to Norman 's upgrade into a tropical storm , a tropical storm warning was issued for the coast from Zihuatanejo to Manzanillo on September 20 . The warning was dropped after Norman made landfall the next day . No additional warnings were issued upon Norman 's reemergence over water because it was never expected to restrengthen .
Norman produced heavy rainfall across western Mexico , officially peaking at 14 in ( 360 mm ) at Callejones , Colima . At La Villita , Michoacán , total rainfall reached 9 @.@ 5 in ( 240 mm ) . However , the highest amount was actually at Petacalco / La Union . The rainfall caused severe flooding and mudslides , which killed about nine people . Additionally , the heavy precipitation flooded streets and homes as well as down trees . Four of the deaths occurred in the State of Chiapas as a result of a mudslide . Two more were swept away by raging rivers in the State of Veracruz , and another two people drowned in the State of Guerrero . In Chiapas , authorities evacuated about 300 families due to the flooding .
= Shiva =
Shiva / ˈʃivə / ; Sanskrit : Śiva , Tamil : சிவன ் meaning " The Auspicious " is one of the three major deities of Hinduism . He is the chief within Shaivism , one of the three most influential denominations in contemporary Hinduism . He is one of the five primary forms of God in the Smarta Tradition , and " the Destroyer " .
At the highest level , Shiva is regarded as formless , limitless , transcendent , and unchanging as well . Shiva also has many benevolent and fearsome depictions . In benevolent aspects , he is depicted as an omniscient Yogi who lives an ascetic life on Mount Kailash , as well as a householder with wife Parvati and his two children , Ganesha and Kartikeya , and in fierce aspects , he is often depicted slaying demons . Shiva is also regarded as the patron god of yoga , meditation , and arts .
The main iconographical attributes of Shiva are the third eye on his forehead , the snake Vasuki around his neck , the adorning crescent moon , the holy river Ganga flowing from his matted hair , the trishula as his weapon and the damaru as his musical instrument . Shiva is usually worshiped in the aniconic form of Lingam .
The worship of Shiva is a pan @-@ Hindu tradition , practiced widely across all of India , Nepal , Sri Lanka and parts of Pakistan .
= = Etymology and other names = =
The Sanskrit word " Shiva " ( Devanagari : शिव , śiva ) comes from the Shri Rudram Chamakam of the Taittiriya Shakha ( TS 4 @.@ 5 , 4 @.@ 7 ) of the Krishna Yajurveda . The word means auspicious and it is used as an adjective only in the Rig Veda . In simple English transliteration it is written either as Shiva or Siva . The adjective śiva , is used as an attributive epithet for several Rigvedic deities , including Rudra . Other popular names associated with Shiva are Mahadeva , Mahesha , Maheshvara , Shankara , Shambhu , Rudra , Rishikesha ( man of knowledge ) , Hara , Trilochan , Devendra ( chief of the gods ) , Neelakanta , Subhankar and Trilokinatha ( meaning Lord of the three realms ) .
The Sanskrit word śaiva means " relating to the god Shiva " , and this term is the Sanskrit name both for one of the principal sects of Hinduism and for a member of that sect . It is used as an adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices , such as Shaivism .
Some authors associate the name with the Tamil word śivappu meaning " red " , noting that Shiva is linked to the Sun ( śivan , " the Red one " , in Tamil ) and that Rudra is also called Babhru ( brown , or red ) in the Rigveda .
Adi Shankara , in his interpretation of the name Shiva , the 27th and 600th name of Vishnu sahasranama , the thousand names of Vishnu interprets Shiva to have multiple meanings : " The Pure One " , or " the One who is not affected by three Guṇas of Prakṛti ( Sattva , Rajas , and Tamas ) " or " the One who purifies everyone by the very utterance of His name . " Chinmayananda Saraswati , in his translation of the Vishnu sahasranama , further elaborates on that verse : Shiva means " the One who is eternally pure " or " the One who can never have any contamination of the imperfection of Rajas and Tamas " .
Shiva 's role as the primary deity of Shaivism is reflected in his epithets Mahādeva ( " Great god " ; mahā " Great " and deva " god " ) , Maheśvara ( " Great Lord " ; mahā " great " and īśvara " lord " ) , and Parameśvara ( " Supreme Lord " ) .
There are at least eight different versions of the Shiva Sahasranama , devotional hymns ( stotras ) listing many names of Shiva . The version appearing in Book 13 ( Anuśāsanaparvan ) of the Mahabharata is considered the kernel of this tradition . Shiva also has Dasha @-@ Sahasranamas ( 10 @,@ 000 names ) that are found in the Mahanyasa . The Shri Rudram Chamakam , also known as the Śatarudriya , is a devotional hymn to Shiva hailing him by many names .
= = Historical development and literature = =
Early prehistorical paintings at the Bhimbetka rock shelters , depict Shiva dancing , Shiva 's trident , and his mount Nandi but no other Vedic gods . The worship of Shiva is a pan @-@ Hindu tradition , practiced widely across all of India , Nepal and Sri Lanka .
= = = Assimilation of traditions = = =
The figure of Shiva as we know him today was built up over time , with the ideas of many regional sects being amalgamated into a single figure . How the persona of Shiva converged as a composite deity is not well documented . According to Vijay Nath :
Vishnu and Siva [ ... ] began to absorb countless local cults and deities within their folds . The latter were either taken to represent the multiple facets of the same god or else were supposed to denote different forms and appellations by which the god came to be known and worshipped . [ ... ] Siva became identified with countless local cults by the sheer suffixing of Isa or Isvara to the name of the local deity , e.g. , Bhutesvara , Hatakesvara , Chandesvara . "
An example of assimilation took place in Maharashtra , where a regional deity named Khandoba is a patron deity of farming and herding castes . The foremost center of worship of Khandoba in Maharashtra is in Jejuri . Khandoba has been assimilated as a form of Shiva himself , in which case he is worshipped in the form of a lingam . Khandoba 's varied associations also include an identification with Surya and Karttikeya .
= = = Indus Valley origins = = =
Many Indus valley seals show animals but one seal that has attracted attention shows a figure , either horned or wearing a horned headdress and possibly ithyphallic figure seated in a posture reminiscent of the Lotus position and surrounded by animals was named by early excavators of Mohenjo @-@ daro Pashupati ( lord of cattle ) , an epithet of the later Hindu gods Shiva and Rudra .
Some academics like Gavin Flood and John Keay have expressed doubts about this claim . John Keay writes that " He may indeed be an early manifestation of Lord Shiva as Pashu- pati " , but a couple of his specialties of this figure does not match with Rudra . Writing in 1997 Doris Meth Srinivasan rejected Marshall 's package of proto @-@ Shiva features , including that of three heads . She interprets what John Marshall interpreted as facial as not human but more bovine , possibly a divine buffalo @-@ man .
Writing in 2002 , Gregory L. Possehl concluded that while it would be appropriate to recognize the figure as a deity , its association with the water buffalo , and its posture as one of ritual discipline , regarding it as a proto @-@ Shiva would " go too far . "
= = = Vedic origins = = =
Shiva 's rise to a major position in the pantheon was facilitated by his identification with a host of Vedic deities , including Rudra , Agni , Indra , Prajapati , Vayu , and others .
= = = = Rudra = = = =
Shiva as we know him today shares many features with the Vedic god Rudra , and both Shiva and Rudra are viewed as the same personality in Hindu scriptures . The two names are used synonymously . Rudra , the god of the roaring storm , is usually portrayed in accordance with the element he represents as a fierce , destructive deity .
The oldest surviving text of Hinduism is the Rig Veda , which is dated to between 1700 and 1100 BC based on linguistic and philological evidence . A god named Rudra is mentioned in the Rig Veda . The name Rudra is still used as a name for Shiva . In RV 2 @.@ 33 , he is described as the " Father of the Rudras " , a group of storm gods .
The identification of Shiva with the older god Rudhra is not universally accepted , as Axel Michaels explains :
Rudra is called " The Archer " ( Sanskrit : Śarva ) , and the arrow is an essential attribute of Rudra . This name appears in the Shiva Sahasranama , and R. K. Sharma notes that it is used as a name of Shiva often in later languages .
The word is derived from the Sanskrit root śarv- , which means " to injure " or " to kill " , and Sharma uses that general sense in his interpretive translation of the name Śarva as " One who can kill the forces of darkness " . The names Dhanvin ( " Bowman " ) and Bāṇahasta ( " Archer " , literally " Armed with arrows in his hands " ) also refer to archery .
= = = = Agni = = = =
Rudra and Agni have a close relationship . The identification between Agni and Rudra in the Vedic literature was an important factor in the process of Rudra 's gradual development into the later character as Rudra @-@ Shiva . The identification of Agni with Rudra is explicitly noted in the Nirukta , an important early text on etymology , which says , " Agni is also called Rudra . " The interconnections between the two deities are complex , and according to Stella Kramrisch :
The fire myth of Rudra @-@ Śiva plays on the whole gamut of fire , valuing all its potentialities and phases , from conflagration to illumination .
In the Śatarudrīya , some epithets of Rudra , such as Sasipañjara ( " Of golden red hue as of flame " ) and Tivaṣīmati ( " Flaming bright " ) , suggest a fusing of the two deities . Agni is said to be a bull , and Lord Shiva possesses a bull as his vehicle , Nandi . The horns of Agni , who is sometimes characterized as a bull , are mentioned . In medieval sculpture , both Agni and the form of Shiva known as Bhairava have flaming hair as a special feature .
= = = = Indra = = = =
According to Wendy Doniger , the Puranic Shiva is a continuation of the Vedic Indra . Doniger gives several reasons for her hypothesis . Both are associated with mountains , rivers , male fertility , fierceness , fearlessness , warfare , transgression of established mores , the Aum sound , the Supreme Self . In the Rig Veda the term śiva is used to refer to Indra . ( 2 @.@ 20 @.@ 3 , 6 @.@ 45 @.@ 17 , and 8 @.@ 93 @.@ 3 . ) Indra , like Shiva , is likened to a bull . In the Rig Veda , Rudra is the father of the Maruts , but he is never associated with their warlike exploits as is Indra .
The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre @-@ classical era were closely related to the hypothesised Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European religion , and the Indo @-@ Iranian religion . According to Anthony , the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo @-@ European immigrants in the contact zone between the Zeravshan River ( present @-@ day Uzbekistan ) and ( present @-@ day ) Iran . It was " a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo @-@ European elements " , which borrowed " distinctive religious beliefs and practices " from the Bactria – Margiana Culture . At least 383 non @-@ Indo @-@ European words were borrowed from this culture , including the god Indra and the ritual drink Soma . According to Anthony ,
Many of the qualities of Indo @-@ Iranian god of might / victory , Verethraghna , were transferred to the adopted god Indra , who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture . Indra was the subject of 250 hymns , a quarter of the Rig Veda . He was associated more than any other deity with Soma , a stimulant drug ( perhaps derived from Ephedra ) probably borrowed from the BMAC religion . His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers .
= = = Later literature = = =
Rudra 's transformation from an ambiguously characterized deity to a supreme being began in the Shvetashvatara Upanishad ( 400 @-@ 200 BC ) , which founded the tradition of Rudra @-@ Shiva worship . Here they are identified as the creators of the cosmos and liberators of souls from the birth @-@ rebirth cycle . The period of 200 BC to 100 AD also marks the beginning of the Shaiva tradition focused on the worship of Shiva , with references to Shaiva ascetics in Patanjali 's Mahābhāṣya and in the Mahabharata .
The Shaiva Puranas , particularly the Shiva Purana and the Linga Purana , discuss the various forms of Shiva and the cosmology associated with him . The Tantras , composed between the 8th and 11th centuries , regard themselves as Sruti . Among these the Shaiva Agamas , are said to have been revealed by Shiva himself and are foundational texts for Shaiva Siddhanta .
= = Position within Hinduism = =
= = = Shaivism = = =
Shaivism is one of the four major sects of Hinduism , the others being Vaishnavism , Shaktism and the Smarta Tradition . Followers of Shaivism , called " Shaivas " , revere Shiva as the Supreme Being . Shaivas believe that Shiva is All and in all , the creator , preserver , destroyer , revealer and concealer of all that is . The tantric Shaiva tradition consists of the Kapalikas , Kashmir Shaivism and Shaiva Siddhanta . The Shiva Purana is one of the puranas , a genre of Hindu religious texts , dedicated to Shiva . Shaivism is widespread throughout India , Nepal , and Sri Lanka , mostly . Areas notable for the practice of Shaivism include parts of Southeast Asia , especially Malaysia , Singapore , and Indonesia . Indologist Axel Michaels suggests that Shaivism , like Vaishnavism , implies a unity which cannot be clearly found either in religious practice or in philosophical and esoteric doctrine . Furthermore , practice and doctrine must be kept separate .
= = = Panchayatana puja = = =
Panchayatana puja is the system of puja ( worship ) in the Smarta Tradition . It is said to have been introduced by Adi Shankara , the 8th century Hindu philosopher . It consists of the worship of five deities : Shiva , Vishnu , Devi , Surya and Ganesha . Depending on the tradition followed by Smarta households , one of these deities is kept in the center and the other four surround it . Worship is offered to all the deities . The five are represented by small murtis , or by five kinds of stones , or by five marks drawn on the floor .
= = = Trimurti = = =
The Trimurti is a concept in Hinduism in which the cosmic functions of creation , maintenance , and destruction are personified by the forms of Brahmā the creator , Vishnu the maintainer or preserver and Śhiva the destroyer or transformer . These three deities have been called " the Hindu triad " or the " Great Trinity " .
= = Attributes = =
Third eye : Shiva is often depicted with a third eye , with which he burned Desire ( Kāma ) to ashes , called " Tryambakam " ( Sanskrit : त ् र ् यम ् बकम ् ) , which occurs in many scriptural sources . In classical Sanskrit , the word ambaka denotes " an eye " , and in the Mahabharata , Shiva is depicted as three @-@ eyed , so this name is sometimes translated as " having three eyes " . However , in Vedic Sanskrit , the word ambā or ambikā means " mother " , and this early meaning of the word is the basis for the translation " three mothers " . These three mother @-@ goddesses who are collectively called the Ambikās . Other related translations have been based on the idea that the name actually refers to the oblations given to Rudra , which according to some traditions were shared with the goddess Ambikā . It has been mentioned that when Shiva loses his temper , his third eye opens which can reduce most things to ashes .
Crescent moon : Shiva bears on his head the crescent moon . The epithet Candraśekhara ( Sanskrit : चन ् द ् रशेखर " Having the moon as his crest " - candra
= " moon " ; śekhara =
" crest , crown " ) refers to this feature . The placement of the moon on his head as a standard iconographic feature dates to the period when Rudra rose to prominence and became the major deity Rudra @-@ Shiva . The origin of this linkage may be due to the identification of the moon with Soma , and there is a hymn in the Rig Veda where Soma and Rudra are jointly implored , and in later literature , Soma and Rudra came to be identified with one another , as were Soma and the moon . The crescent moon is shown on the side of the Lord 's head as an ornament . The waxing and waning phenomenon of the moon symbolizes the time cycle through which creation evolves from the beginning to the end .
Ashes : Shiva smears his body with ashes ( bhasma ) . The ashes are said to represent the end of all material existence . Some forms of Shiva , such as Bhairava , are associated with a very old Indian tradition of cremation @-@ ground asceticism that was practiced by some groups who were outside the fold of brahmanic orthodoxy . These practices associated with cremation grounds are also mentioned in the Pali canon of Theravada Buddhism . One epithet for Shiva is " inhabitant of the cremation ground " ( Sanskrit : śmaśānavāsin , also spelled Shmashanavasin ) , referring to this connection .
Matted hair : Shiva 's distinctive hair style is noted in the epithets Jaṭin , " the one with matted hair " , and Kapardin , " endowed with matted hair " or " wearing his hair wound in a braid in a shell @-@ like ( kaparda ) fashion " . A kaparda is a cowrie shell , or a braid of hair in the form of a shell , or , more generally , hair that is shaggy or curly .
Blue throat : The epithet Nīlakaṇtha ( Sanskrit नीलकण ् ठ ; nīla
= " blue " , kaṇtha =
" throat " ) . Since Shiva drank the Halahala poison churned up from the Samudra Manthan to eliminate its destructive capacity . Shocked by his act , Goddess Parvati strangled his neck and hence managed to stop it in his neck itself and prevent it from spreading all over the universe , supposed to be in Shiva 's stomach . However the poison was so potent that it changed the color of his neck to blue . ( See Maha Shivaratri . )
Sacred Ganga : The epithet Gangadhara , " Bearer of the river Ganga " ( Ganges ) . The Ganga flows from the matted hair of Shiva . The Gaṅgā ( Ganga ) , one of the major rivers of the country , is said to have made her abode in Shiva 's hair . The flow of the Ganga also represents the nectar of immortality .
Tiger skin : Shiva is often shown seated upon a tiger skin , an honour reserved for the most accomplished of Hindu ascetics , the Brahmarishis .
Serpents : Shiva is often shown garlanded with a snake .
Trident ( Trishula ) : Shiva 's particular weapon is the trident .
Drum : A small drum shaped like an hourglass is known as a damaru . This is one of the attributes of Shiva in his famous dancing representation known as Nataraja . A specific hand gesture ( mudra ) called ḍamaru @-@ hasta ( Sanskrit for " ḍamaru @-@ hand " ) is used to hold the drum . This drum is particularly used as an emblem by members of the Kāpālika sect .
Axe ( Parashu ) and Deer are held in Shiva 's hands in south Indian icons .
Nandī : Nandī , also known as " Nandin " , is the name of the bull that serves as Shiva 's mount ( Sanskrit : vāhana ) . Shiva 's association with cattle is reflected in his name Paśupati , or Pashupati ( Sanskrit : पशुपति ) , translated by Sharma as " lord of cattle " and by Kramrisch as " lord of animals " , who notes that it is particularly used as an epithet of Rudra . " Rishabha " or the bull represents Dharma Devata ( lord ) . Lord Siva rides on the bull . This denotes that Lord Siva is the protector of Dharma , is an embodiment of Dharma or righteousness .
Mount Kailāsa : Mount Kailash in the Himalayas is his traditional abode . In Hindu mythology , Mount Kailāsa is conceived as resembling a Linga , representing the center of the universe .
Gaṇa : The Gaṇas are attendants of Shiva and live in Kailash . They are often referred to as the bhutaganas , or ghostly hosts , on account of their nature . Generally benign , except when their lord is transgressed against , they are often invoked to intercede with the lord on behalf of the devotee . His son Ganesha was chosen as their leader by Shiva , hence Ganesha 's title gaṇa @-@ īśa or gaṇa @-@ pati , " lord of the gaṇas " .
Varanasi : Varanasi ( Benares ) is considered to be the city specially loved by Shiva , and is one of the holiest places of pilgrimage in India . It is referred to , in religious contexts , as Kashi .
= = Forms and depictions = =
According to Gavin Flood , " Shiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox , " whose attributes include opposing themes . The ambivalent nature of this deity is apparent in some of his names and the stories told about him .
= = = Destroyer and Benefactor = = =
In Yajurveda , two contrary sets of attributes for both malignant or terrific ( Sanskrit : rudra ) and benign or auspicious ( Sanskrit : śiva ) forms can be found , leading Chakravarti to conclude that " all the basic elements which created the complex Rudra @-@ Śiva sect of later ages are to be found here " . In the Mahabharata , Shiva is depicted as " the standard of invincibility , might , and terror " , as well as a figure of honor , delight , and brilliance .
The duality of Shiva 's fearful and auspicious attributes appears in contrasted names . The name Rudra reflects Shiva 's fearsome aspects . According to traditional etymologies , the Sanskrit name Rudra is derived from the root rud- , which means " to cry , howl " . Stella Kramrisch notes a different etymology connected with the adjectival form raudra , which means " wild , of rudra nature " , and translates the name Rudra as " the wild one " or " the fierce god " . R. K. Sharma follows this alternate etymology and translates the name as " terrible " . Hara is an important name that occurs three times in the Anushasanaparvan version of the Shiva sahasranama , where it is translated in different ways each time it occurs , following a commentorial tradition of not repeating an interpretation . Sharma translates the three as " one who captivates " , " one who consolidates " , and " one who destroys " . Kramrisch translates it as " the ravisher " . Another of Shiva 's fearsome forms is as Kāla " time " and Mahākāla " great time " , which ultimately destroys all things . The name Kāla appears in the Shiva Sahasranama , where it is translated by Ram Karan Sharma as " ( the Supreme Lord of ) Time . " Bhairava " terrible " or " frightful " is a fierce form associated with annihilation .
In contrast , the name Śaṇkara , " beneficent " or " conferring happiness " reflects his benign form . This name was adopted by the great Vedanta philosopher Adi Shankara ( c . 788 @-@ 820 ) , who is also known as Shankaracharya . The name Śambhu ( Sanskrit : शम ् भु ) , " causing happiness " , also reflects this benign aspect .
= = = Ascetic and Householder = = =
Shiva is depicted as both an ascetic yogi and as a householder , roles which have been traditionally mutually exclusive in Hindu society . When depicted as a yogi , he may be shown sitting and meditating . His epithet Mahāyogi ( " the great Yogi : Mahā
= " great " , Yogi =
" one who practices Yoga " ) refers to his association with yoga . While Vedic religion was conceived mainly in terms of sacrifice , it was during the Epic period that the concepts of tapas , yoga , and asceticism became more important , and the depiction of Shiva as an ascetic sitting in philosophical isolation reflects these later concepts . Shiva is also depicted as a corpse below Goddess Kali , it represents that Shiva is a corpse without Shakti . He remains inert . While Shiva is the static form , Mahakali or Shakti is the dynamic aspect without whom Shiva is powerless .
As a family man and householder , he has a wife , Parvati and two sons , Ganesha and Kartikeya . His epithet Umāpati ( " The husband of Umā " ) refers to this idea , and Sharma notes that two other variants of this name that mean the same thing , Umākānta and Umādhava , also appear in the sahasranama . Umā in epic literature is known by many names , including the benign Pārvatī . She is identified with Devi , the Divine Mother ; Shakti ( divine energy ) as well as goddesses like Tripura Sundari , Durga , Kamakshi and Minakshi . The consorts of Shiva are the source of his creative energy . They represent the dynamic extension of Shiva onto this universe . His son Ganesha is worshipped throughout India and Nepal as the Remover of Obstacles , Lord of Beginnings and Lord of Obstacles . Kartikeya is worshipped in South India ( especially in Tamil Nadu , Kerala and Karnataka ) by the names Subrahmanya , Subrahmanyan , Shanmughan , Swaminathan and Murugan , and in Northern India by the names Skanda , Kumara , or Karttikeya .
Some regional deities are also identified as Shiva 's children . As one story goes , Shiva is enticed by the beauty and charm of Mohini , Vishnu 's female avatar , and procreates with her . As a result of this union , Shasta - identified with regional deities Ayyappan and Aiyanar - is born . Shiva is also mentioned in some scriptures to have had daughters like the serpent @-@ goddess Manasa and Ashokasundari . The demons Andhaka and Jalandhara and the god Mangala are considered children of Shiva .
= = = Nataraja = = =
The depiction of Shiva as Nataraja ( Sanskrit : naṭarāja , " Lord of Dance " ) is popular . The names Nartaka ( " dancer " ) and Nityanarta ( " eternal dancer " ) appear in the Shiva Sahasranama . His association with dance and also with music is prominent in the Puranic period . In addition to the specific iconographic form known as Nataraja , various other types of dancing forms ( Sanskrit : nṛtyamūrti ) are found in all parts of India , with many well @-@ defined varieties in Tamil Nadu in particular . The two most common forms of the dance are the Tandava , which later came to denote the powerful and masculine dance as Kala @-@ Mahakala associated with the destruction of the world . When it requires the world or universe to be destroyed , Lord Śiva does it by the tāṇḍavanṛtya. and Lasya , which is graceful and delicate and expresses emotions on a gentle level and is considered the feminine dance attributed to the goddess Parvati . Lasya is regarded as the female counterpart of Tandava . The Tandava @-@ Lasya dances are associated with the destruction @-@ creation of the world .
= = = Dakshinamurthy = = =
Dakṣiṇāmūrti ) literally describes a form ( mūrti ) of Shiva facing south ( dakṣiṇa ) . This form represents Shiva in his aspect as a teacher of yoga , music , and wisdom and giving exposition on the shastras . This iconographic form for depicting Shiva in Indian art is mostly from Tamil Nadu . Elements of this motif can include Shiva seated upon a deer @-@ throne and surrounded by sages who are receiving his instruction .
= = = Ardhanarishvara = = =
An iconographic representation of Shiva called Ardhanārīśvara shows him with one half of the body as male and the other half as female . According to Ellen Goldberg , the traditional Sanskrit name for this form is best translated as " the lord who is half woman " , not as " half @-@ man , half @-@ woman " . According to legend , Lord Shiva is pleased by the difficult austerites performed by the goddess Parvati , grants her the left half of his body . This form of Shiva is quite similar to the Yin @-@ Yang philosophy of Eastern Asia , though Ardhanārīśvara appears to be more ancient .
= = = Tripurantaka = = =
Shiva is often depicted as an archer in the act of destroying the triple fortresses , Tripura , of the Asuras . Shiva 's name Tripurāntaka , " ender of Tripura " , refers to this important story . In this aspect , Shiva is depicted with four arms wielding a bow and arrow , but different from the Pinakapani murti . He holds an axe and a deer on the upper pair of his arms . In the lower pair of the arms , he holds a bow and an arrow respectively . After destroying Tripura , Tripurantaka Shiva smeared his forehead with three strokes of Ashes . This has become a prominent symbol of Shiva and is practiced even today by Shaivites .
= = = Lingam = = =
Apart from anthropomorphic images of Shiva , the worship of Shiva in the form of a lingam , is also important . These are depicted in various forms . One common form is the shape of a vertical rounded column . Shiva means auspiciousness , and lingam means a sign or a symbol , so the Shivalinga is regarded as a " symbol of the great God of the universe who is all @-@ auspiciousness " . Shiva also means " one in whom the whole creation sleeps after dissolution " . Since , according to Hinduism , it is the same god that creates , sustains and withdraws the universe , the Shivalinga represents symbolically God Himself . Some scholars , such as Monier Monier @-@ Williams and Wendy Doniger , also view linga as a phallic symbol , although this interpretation is disputed by others , including Swami Vivekananda , Sivananda Saraswati , and S. N. Balagangadhara .
The worship of the lingam originated from the famous hymn in the Atharva @-@ Veda Samhitâ sung in praise of the Yupa @-@ Stambha , the sacrificial post . In that hymn , a description is found of the beginningless and endless Stambha or Skambha , and it is shown that the said Skambha is put in place of the eternal Brahman . Just as the Yajna ( sacrificial ) fire , its smoke , ashes , and flames , the Soma plant , and the ox that used to carry on its back the wood for the Vedic sacrifice gave place to the conceptions of the brightness of Shiva 's body , his tawny matted hair , his blue throat , and the riding on the bull of the Shiva , the Yupa @-@ Skambha gave place in time to the Shiva @-@ Linga . In the text Linga Purana , the same hymn is expanded in the shape of stories , meant to establish the glory of the great Stambha and the superiority of Shiva as Mahadeva . Jyotirlinga means " The Radiant sign of The Almighty " . The Jyotirlingas are mentioned in the Shiva Purana .
= = = The five mantras = = =
Five is a sacred number for Shiva . One of his most important mantras has five syllables ( namaḥ śivāya ) .
Shiva 's body is said to consist of five mantras , called the pañcabrahmans . As forms of God , each of these have their own names and distinct iconography :
Sadyojāta
Vāmadeva
Aghora
Tatpuruṣa
Īsāna
These are represented as the five faces of Shiva and are associated in various texts with the five elements , the five senses , the five organs of perception , and the five organs of action . Doctrinal differences and , possibly , errors in transmission , have resulted in some differences between texts in details of how these five forms are linked with various attributes . The overall meaning of these associations is summarized by Stella Kramrisch :
Through these transcendent categories , Śiva , the ultimate reality , becomes the efficient and material cause of all that exists .
According to the Pañcabrahma Upanishad :
One should know all things of the phenomenal world as of a fivefold character , for the reason that the eternal verity of Śiva is of the character of the fivefold Brahman . ( Pañcabrahma Upanishad 31 )
= = = Other forms = = =
Shiva , like some other Hindu deities , is said to have several incarnations , known as Avatars . Although Puranic scriptures contain occasional references to " ansh " avatars of Shiva , the idea is not universally accepted in Saivism . The Linga Purana speaks of twenty @-@ eight forms of Shiva which are sometimes seen as avatars . According to the Svetasvatara Upanishad , he has four avatars .
In the Hanuman Chalisa , Hanuman is identified as the eleventh avatar of Shiva and this belief is universal . Hanuman is popularly known as “ Rudraavtaar ” “ Rudra ” being a name of “ Shiva ” . Rama – the Vishnu avatar is considered by some to be the eleventh avatar of Rudra ( Shiva ) . Some traditions regard the sage Durvasa , the sage Agastya , the philosopher Adi Shankara and Ashwatthama as avatars of Shiva . Other forms of Shiva include Virabhadra and Sharabha .
= = Festivals = =
Maha Shivratri is a festival celebrated every year on the 13th day in the Krishna Paksha of the month of Phalguna in the Hindu calendar . This festival is of utmost importance to the devotees of Shiva . Mahashivaratri marks the night when Shiva performed the Tandava and it is the day that Shiva was married to Parvati . The holiday is often celebrated with special prayers and rituals offered up to Shiva , notably the Abhishek . This ritual , practiced throughout the night , is often performed every three hours with water , milk , yogurt , and honey . Bel ( aegle marmelos ) leaves are often offered up to the Hindu god , as it is considered necessary for a successful life . The offering of the leaves are considered so important that it is believed that someone who offers them without any intentions will be rewarded greatly .
= = Beyond Hinduism = =
Shiva is mentioned in Buddhist Tantra . Shiva as Upaya and Shakti as Prajna . In cosmologies of Buddhist tantra , Shiva is depicted as passive , with Shakti being his active counterpart .
The Japuji Sahib of the Guru Granth Sahib says , " The Guru is Shiva , the Guru is Vishnu and Brahma ; the Guru is Paarvati and Lakhshmi . " In the same chapter , it also says , " Shiva speaks , and the Siddhas listen . " In Dasam Granth , Guru Gobind Singh has mentioned two avtars of Rudra : Dattatreya Avtar and Parasnath Avtar .
The worship of Shiva became popular in Central Asia through the Hephthalite Empire , and Kushan Empire . Shaivism was also popular in Sogdia and the Kingdom of Yutian as found from the wall painting from Penjikent on the river Zervashan . In this depiction , Shiva is portrayed with a sacred halo and a sacred thread ( " Yajnopavita " ) . He is clad in tiger skin while his attendants are wearing Sogdian dress . A panel from Dandanwulike shows Shiva in His Trimurti form with Shakti kneeling on her right thigh . Another site in the Taklamakan Desert depicts him with four legs , seated cross @-@ legged on a cushioned seat supported by two bulls . It is also noted that Zoroastrian wind god Vayu @-@ Vata took on the iconographic appearance of Shiva .
In Indonesia , Shiva is also worshiped as Batara Guru . In the ancient times , all kingdoms were located on top of mountains . When he was young , before receiving his authority of power , his name was Sang Hyang Manikmaya . He is first of the children who hatched from the eggs laid by Manuk Patiaraja , wife of god Mulajadi na Bolon . This avatar is also worshiped in Malaysia . Shiva 's other form in Indonesian Hinduism is " Mahadewa " ( Mahadeva ) .
Daikokuten , one of the Seven Lucky Gods in Japan , is considered to be evolved from Shiva . The god enjoys an exalted position as a household deity in Japan and is worshipped as the god of wealth and fortune . The name is the Japanese equivalent of Mahākāla , the Buddhist name for Shiva .
= Super Smash Bros. =
Super Smash Bros. , known in Japan as Dairantō Smash Brothers ( Japanese : 大乱闘スマッシュブラザーズ , Hepburn : Dairantō Sumasshu Burazāzu , lit . " Great Melee Smash Brothers " ) , is a series of crossover fighting games published by Nintendo , that primarily featuring characters from franchises established on its systems . All five games have been directed by Masahiro Sakurai .
The gameplay objective differs from that of traditional fighters by aiming to knock opponents out of the stage instead of depleting life bars . The original Super Smash Bros. , released in 1999 for the Nintendo 64 , had a small budget and was originally a Japan @-@ only release , but its domestic success led to a worldwide release . The series achieved even greater success with the release of Super Smash Bros. Melee , which was released in 2001 for the GameCube and became the best @-@ selling game on that system . A third installment , Super Smash Bros. Brawl , was released in 2008 for the Wii . Although HAL Laboratory has been the developer of the first two titles , the third game was developed through the collaboration of several companies . The fourth and fifth installments , Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U , were released in 2014 for the Nintendo 3DS and Wii U , respectively . The 3DS installment was the first series title to be released on a handheld platform .
The series features many characters from Nintendo 's most popular franchises , including Mario , Fox McCloud , Link , Kirby , Samus Aran and Pikachu . The original Super Smash Bros. had 12 playable characters , and the roster count has risen to 26 characters in Melee , 39 in Brawl , and 58 in 3DS / Wii U ( seven of which are downloadable ) . Some characters are able to transform into different forms that have different styles of play and sets of moves . The games also feature non @-@ playable Nintendo characters , like Ridley and Petey Piranha . In Brawl , two third @-@ party characters were added , Solid Snake and Sonic the Hedgehog . Additional third @-@ party characters Mega Man , Pac @-@ Man , Ryu , Cloud Strife and Bayonetta appeared in 3DS and Wii U , while Solid Snake was removed from the line @-@ up .
Every title in the series has been well received by critics , with much praise given to the multiplayer mode experience . The Super Smash Bros. games have spawned a large competitive community and have been featured in several high profile gaming tournaments .
= = History = =
= = = Super Smash Bros. ( 1999 ) = = =
Super Smash Bros. was introduced in 1999 for the Nintendo 64 . It was released worldwide after selling over a million copies in Japan . It featured eight characters from the start ( Mario , Donkey Kong , Link , Samus , Yoshi , Kirby , Fox , and Pikachu ) , with four unlockable characters ( Luigi , Captain Falcon , Ness , and Jigglypuff ) , all of them created by Nintendo or one of its second @-@ party developers .
In Super Smash Bros. , up to four players can play in multiplayer ( Versus ) mode , with the specific rules of each match being predetermined by the players . There are two match types that can be chosen : Time , where the person with the most KOs at the end of the set time wins ; and stock , where each player has a set amount of lives and are eliminated from play when their lives are depleted .
This game 's one @-@ player mode included one adventure mode that always followed the same series of opponents although the player could change the difficulty . Other single player modes exist such as Training and several mini @-@ games , including " Break the Targets " and " Board the Platforms " . All of these were included in the sequel , with the exception of " Board the Platforms " .
There are nine playable stages in Versus mode , eight based on each of the starting characters ( such as Princess Peach 's Castle for Mario , Zebes for Samus , and Sector Z for Fox ) and the unlockable Mushroom Kingdom , based around motifs from the original Super Mario Bros. , even containing original sprites and the original version of the Overworld theme from that game .
= = = Super Smash Bros. Melee ( 2001 ) = = =
Super Smash Bros. Melee was released November 21 , 2001 , in Japan ; December 3 , 2001 , in North America ; May 24 , 2002 , in Europe ; and May 31 , 2002 , in Australia for the GameCube video game console . It had a larger budget and development team than Super Smash Bros. did and was released to much greater praise and acclaim among critics and consumers . Since its release , Super Smash Bros. Melee has sold more than 7 million copies and was the best @-@ selling game on the GameCube . Super Smash Bros. Melee features 26 characters , of which 15 are available initially , more than doubling the number of characters in its predecessor . There are also 29 stages .
It introduced two new single @-@ player modes alongside the Classic mode : Adventure mode and All @-@ Star mode . Adventure mode has platforming segments similar to the original 's " Race to the Finish " mini @-@ game , and All @-@ Star is a fight against every playable character in the game , allows the player only one life in which damage is accumulated over each battle and a limited number of heal items in between battles .
There are also significantly more multiplayer modes and a tournament mode allowing for 64 different competitors whom can all be controlled by a human player , although only up to four players can participate at the same time . Additionally , the game featured alternative battle modes , called " Special Melee , " which allows players to make many different alterations to the battle , along with alternative ways to judge a victory , such as through collecting coins throughout the match .
In place of Super Smash Bros. ' character profiles , Melee introduced trophies ( called " figures " in the Japanese version ) . The 293 trophies include three different profiles for each playable character , one unlocked in each single @-@ player mode . In addition , unlike its predecessor , Melee contains profiles for many Nintendo characters who are either non @-@ playable or do not appear in the game , as well as Nintendo items , stages , enemies , and elements .
= = = Super Smash Bros. Brawl ( 2008 ) = = =
Although a third Super Smash Bros. game had been announced long before E3 2006 , Nintendo unveiled its first information in the form of a trailer on May 10 , 2006 , and the game was named Super Smash Bros. Brawl . The trailer featured Solid Snake , of Konami 's Metal Gear fame , marking the first time that a third @-@ party character had been introduced as a playable character in a Super Smash Bros. title . A second third @-@ party character , Sonic the Hedgehog , from Nintendo 's former rival Sega was also confirmed as a playable character on October 10 , 2007 . Super Smash Bros. Brawl was released in Japan on January 31 , 2008 , in North America on March 9 , 2008 , in Australia on June 26 , 2008 , and Europe on June 27 , 2008 . Brawl is also the first game in the franchise to support online play , via the Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi Connection , and to offer the ability for players to construct their own original stages . The game features a total of 39
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with the Sex Pistols and the Buzzcocks , as the only UK bands among her favorites . The band cited the Sex Pistols , the New York Dolls , and The Stooges as their musical influences . They also preferred the Sex Pistols over the Clash . According to Rootes , " The Sex Pistols are political in a great teenage fuck @-@ you way . The Clash are political in a mature way , like they 've done politics in A @-@ levels . "
The lyrics of Black Eye deal with sexual and abuse topics : " Nothing you will likely hear on the radio " , Rootes explained . The song " Hypersonic " , named after the best @-@ selling vibrator in England , celebrates the joys of vibrator use . The title track , " Black Eye " , is about domestic violence . Rootes remarked : " When I was frowing up , my dad was really violent . I knew it was something I had to write a song about – to get it out of my system . " The song inspired the album cover , which depicts a cat holding a mouse in its jaw . Rootes explained that the mouse 's black eye represents a moment of serenity before it dies . Similarly , the song " Scream " deals with rape issues , while " Dirty Old Bird " is about spousal abuse . The track " Technicolour Yawn " is about the unpleasant effect of a hangover , " Psychofudge " is about drug usage , and " Cheap " deals with one 's loss of virginity and the subsequent feel of becoming " sort of cheap and common . "
Not all the songs from the album explore social issues . The songs " I Wanna Be Your Lush " and " Too Famous " use satire to criticise the superior attitudes of male musicians , while " Husband " disapproves " gruff and pushy " boyfriends . The band also clarified that they have nothing against men . As Rootes notes , " Men are great ! We love them ! We 're talking about dickhead men , not all men . " The band considered themselves more of a pro @-@ girl band than a feminist band . Rootes told Select : " So many girls are afraid to be girls . Apart from Courtney Love , who 's really feminine and uses her sexuality and is a strong woman . I don 't think women should dress like boys . That 's what 's great about PJ Harvey . She was boyish and now she 's gone really glam . She looks amazing and she 's become an icon : a real woman . "
= = Promotion and release = =
Black Eye is the first full @-@ length released by The Enclave . To promote the launch of the album , the record label , who had been working with the band since December 1995 , released several singles for " Husband " , " Psychofudge " , " Cheap " , and " Hypersonic " prior to the album release . The Enclave also released an EP consisting of five live songs recorded at New York 's CBGB on May 15 , 1996 and released on July 9 , 1996 to further awareness of the band . Prominent music critic Robert Christgau described the sound of the EP as " as pure punk as the ' 90s get . " Zutaut also admitted that the band 's punk attitude " may scare radio and MTV a little bit " , but he believed that their melodic music and lyrical statements " would pave the way for its success . "
The band embarked on a major tour in both coasts of the United States in April , May , and September 1996 . In Europe , the band also toured in Ireland with Foo Fighters , appeared at major summer festivals , and played with the Sex Pistols , Iggy Pop , and the Buzzcocks at Finsbury Park in London in June 23 , 1996 . The album was released on September 17 , 1996 in the US and September 30 , 1996 in the UK . The songs " Husband " and " Nothing " reached number 58 and number 52 respectively on the UK Singles Chart . A music video was made for " Black Eye " under the direction of Floria Sigismondi .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon release , Black Eye received mixed to positive reviews from music critics . Tom Sinclair , writing for Entertainment Weekly , stated that the album " barrels forward with such high @-@ spirited hookiness that it 's possible to forgive the shameless pandering of lyrics like ' I wanna be your kitten / Caress my fur . ' " In a very positive review , prominent music critic Robert Christgau felt that most of the songs " live up to the underlining " and considered the album to be the best punk debut since the ones by the Ramones , Sex Pistols , The Clash , and Wire . AllMusic reviewer Tom Demalon praised the loud guitar playing of both Rootes and Jones and opined that " the lack of dynamic diversity makes Black Eye somewhat of a one @-@ trick pony , but it 's a trick that makes the album 's strongest tracks a joy . "
Nick Duerden of Q magazine remarked that Black Eye " sounds like a cross between The Stooges and Courtney Love . And despite boasting the musical dexterity of Status Quo , it 's a short , sharp shock that dispatches its venom with a tireless guile . " Similarly , critic Roy Wilkinson of Select compared some songs favourably to The Stooges and early @-@ Siouxsie and the Banshees . However , he noted that the band " [ seems ] intent on falling short of PJ [ Harvey ] ' s black @-@ bordered presence . When was the last time you heard the Yeovil delta blues sound enlivened by such Carry On Riffing @-@ isms as ' I 've rocketed to Uranus ' ( ' Nothing ' ) and ' When the kids scream , there is a racket / You 've got a magnificent packet ' ( ' Too Famous ' ) ? "
In a negative review , Darren Gawle of Drop @-@ D magazine criticised the lyrics for their vague observations about obvious truths , stating : " The only shocking thing about Black Eye lies in a band trying to pass themselves off as Riot Grrls when in fact they pack as much ' Grrr ' as a slightly vexed Yorkshire Terrier . " In contrast , Colin Weston of Drowned in Sound commented : " The thing about Fluffy , is they aren 't the most lyrically challenging of bands , but their music more then [ sic ] makes up for it , and what they DO say , you understand immediately ... not messing about with ' Deep and meaningful ' lyrics , these girls have got something to say , and say it the only way they know how ... in your face ! ! ! " Although Black Eye was not ranked in the Top 40 of The Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop critics ' poll for 1996 , Christgau placed it at number 3 in his own " Dean 's List " .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Fluffy .
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
Fluffy
Amanda Rootes – vocals , guitar
Bridget Jones – guitar
Helen Storer – bass
Angie Adams – drums
Technical personnel
Bill Price – engineer , mixing , producer
George Marino – mastering
John Coding – design
Phil Hope – management
Elaine Constantine – photography
Jake Walters – photography
= 2011 LSU vs. Alabama football game =
The 2011 LSU vs. Alabama football game was a regular @-@ season college football game between the unbeaten LSU Tigers ( ranked No. 1 in the nation ) , and the unbeaten Alabama Crimson Tide ( ranked No. 2 in the nation ) on November 5 , 2011 , at Bryant – Denny Stadium in Tuscaloosa , Alabama . Coined a " Game of the Century , " this was the first time two Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) football teams came into a regular season matchup undefeated and ranked No. 1 and No. 2 in the nation . In a game dominated by defense and special teams , LSU won in overtime 9 – 6 . LSU kicker Drew Alleman made all 3 of his field goals , while Alabama kickers Jeremy Shelley and Cade Foster made only 2 out of their 6 attempts , proving to be decisive in the game .
LSU and Alabama first met on the field in 1895 , and have met annually since 1964 . When former LSU head coach Nick Saban was hired in the same capacity at Alabama , their annual contest became , arguably , an even more heated rivalry than before . At the start of the 2011 season , Alabama was ranked No. 2 and LSU was ranked No. 4 in all of the major college polls , and prior to their annual meeting , each team defeated all eight of their opponents , and LSU moved into the No. 1 spot after a victory over West Virginia . Statistically , the game matched two of the top defenses in both the SEC and all of college football .
Alabama received the ball to begin the game . After a scoreless first quarter in which Alabama missed two field goals , both teams scored field goals in the second ; Alabama also had another attempt blocked early in the second quarter , that left the score tied 3 – 3 at halftime . Alabama took a 6 – 3 lead in the third , but LSU tied the game at 6 – 6 in the fourth quarter to send the game into overtime . In the overtime period , Alabama missed a 52 @-@ yard field goal . LSU then connected on a 25 @-@ yard field goal to win the game 9 – 6 .
In the weeks after the game , both teams defeated their remaining opponents , and LSU captured the SEC Championship , after they defeated Georgia 42 – 10 . On December 4 , 2011 , the final Bowl Championship Series standings were released with LSU ranked No. 1 and Alabama ranked No. 2 to set up a rematch in the 2012 BCS National Championship Game . In the rematch , Alabama defeated LSU 21 – 0 and captured the 2011 national championship .
= = Pre @-@ game buildup = =
LSU and Alabama first met on the field in 1895 and continuously since 1964 . Prior to their 2011 game , Alabama held an overall lead in the all @-@ time series with 45 wins to only 24 for LSU and five ties . Historically , LSU 's main rival was Tulane and Alabama 's were both Auburn and Tennessee . However , when former LSU head coach Nick Saban was hired in the same capacity at Alabama in 2007 season , the Alabama – LSU game became a major rivalry game for each school .
At the beginning of the 2011 season , both teams were ranked in the top five . After Alabama 's victory over Arkansas and LSU 's over West Virginia on September 24 , their November 5 game was viewed by many in the national media as a playoff with the winner advancing to the 2012 BCS National Championship Game . After the week ten polls were released , the game officially became the first college football , regular season No. 1 vs. No. 2 matchup since the 2006 Michigan vs. Ohio State football game , and the first all @-@ time regular season No. 1 vs. No. 2 matchup between SEC conference foes . Due to the No. 1 vs. No. 2 rankings against conference rivals and the hype that led up to the matchup , the game was referred to as the " Game of the Century . "
= = = LSU = = =
In the preseason polls , LSU opened the 2011 season as the No. 4 team in both the AP and Coaches ' Polls . In week one , the Tigers met the No. 3 Oregon Ducks in the Cowboys Classic . Against the highly regarded Oregon running attack , the LSU defense held the Ducks to less than 100 yards rushing and won the game 40 – 27 . With their win , they moved up to No. 2 and No. 3 in the AP and Coaches ' Polls . After they held the Northwestern State Demons of the Football Championship Subdivision to minus 4 yards rushing at Baton Rouge , LSU faced ranked opponents on the road in consecutive weeks against the Mississippi State Bulldogs and the West Virginia Mountaineers . Against the No. 25 Bulldogs , the Tigers only managed to score a single touchdown , but behind a third strong defensive performance won 19 – 6 .
In their third game of the season against a ranked opponent , LSU played their first @-@ ever game against the No. 16 Mountaineers at Morgantown . Although West Virginia was able to outgain the Tigers in total offense 533 to 366 yards , four Mountaineer turnovers resulted in a 47 – 21 LSU victory . As a result of this win , combined with the other two over ranked opponents , LSU was selected the No. 1 team by the AP following week 5 . The Tigers returned home to defeat the Kentucky Wildcats 35 – 7 in Jordan Jefferson 's return from suspension , and then defeated the No. 17 Florida Gators 41 – 11 , also in Death Valley . After their 38 – 7 victory over the Tennessee Volunteers at Neyland Stadium , the Tigers were selected as the No. 1 team in both the AP and Coaches ' Polls for the first time of the season after the Oklahoma Sooners were upset by Texas Tech Red Raiders . The next week , LSU defeated the No. 19 Auburn Tigers 45 – 10 at home and entered their bye week undefeated and ranked No. 1 for their game against No. 2 Alabama in Tuscaloosa .
Prior to the game against Alabama , LSU 's defense was ranked near the top of all major defensive categories nationally . They ranked fourth in total defense ( 251 @.@ 38 yards per game ) , third in scoring ( 11 @.@ 5 points per game ) and rushing defense ( 76 @.@ 63 yards per game ) and tenth in passing defense ( 174 @.@ 75 yards per game ) . In the SEC , the Tigers ranked second in total , scoring and rushing defense and fourth in passing defense . Nationally on offense , LSU ranked twelfth in scoring offense ( 39 @.@ 25 points per game ) , 31st in rushing offense ( 189 yards per game ) , 81st in total offense ( 372 @.@ 13 yards per game ) and 99th in passing offense ( 183 @.@ 13 yards per game ) . In the SEC , they ranked second in scoring offense , fourth in rushing offense , sixth in total offense and eighth in passing offense .
= = = Alabama = = =
In the preseason polls , Alabama opened the 2011 season as the No. 2 ranked team in both the AP and Coaches ' Polls . After they defeated the Kent State Golden Flashes 48 – 7 in the season opener , Alabama dropped to No. 3 in the AP Poll as a result of LSU 's victory over Oregon . In Week 2 , the Crimson Tide traveled to Beaver Stadium for the first time since 1989 to play the Penn State Nittany Lions . They defeated the No. 23 Nittany Lions 27 – 11 , and returned to Tuscaloosa for a pair of home games against the North Texas Mean Green and the Arkansas Razorbacks . Against North Texas , the Alabama defense was dominant and secured the first shutout for the Crimson Tide defense since the 2009 season with their 41 – 0 victory . The following week , Alabama opened conference play with a 38 – 14 victory over No. 14 Arkansas and then defeated the No. 12 Florida Gators 38 – 10 to extend their record to 5 – 0 . After their victory over Florida , the Crimson Tide regained their No. 2 ranking in the AP Poll .
Alabama then returned home for their homecoming game against the Vanderbilt Commodores . For the second time of the season , the Alabama defense had a shutout in the 34 – 0 Crimson Tide victory . After a 52 – 7 win over the Ole Miss Rebels at Vaught – Hemingway Stadium , Alabama returned for their annual Third Saturday in October contest against the Tennessee Volunteers . The Crimson Tide defeated Tennessee for the fifth consecutive season with their 37 – 6 victory and entered their bye week undefeated and ranked No. 2 for their game against No. 1 LSU in Tuscaloosa .
Prior to the game against LSU , Alabama 's defense was ranked at or near the top of all major defensive categories nationally . Both nationally and in the SEC , they ranked first in total ( 180 @.@ 5 yards per game ) , scoring ( 6 @.@ 88 points per game ) and rushing defense ( 44 @.@ 88 yards per game ) . The Crimson Tide also nationally ranked second , and first in the SEC , in pass defense ( 135 @.@ 63 yards per game ) . Nationally on offense , Alabama ranked eleventh in scoring offense ( 39 @.@ 38 points per game ) , fourteenth in rushing offense ( 229 @.@ 25 yards per game ) , 23rd in total offense ( 457 @.@ 63 yards per game ) and 63rd in passing offense ( 228 @.@ 38 yards per game ) . In the SEC , they ranked first in total , scoring and rushing offense and fourth in passing offense .
= = Game summary = =
Originally to air on CBS with a start time of 2 : 30 p.m. CST , CBS reassigned the game for primetime television at 7 : 00 p.m. CST as part of a trade announced October 23 . The deal with CBS involved swapping games to other networks and gave future scheduling considerations for the 2012 season to ESPN . This was the case as CBS used their allotted SEC primetime slot for the Alabama – Florida game earlier in the season .
The 2011 edition of the Alabama – LSU football rivalry kicked off at 7 : 14 p.m. CST on November 5 , 2011 , before a crowd of 101 @,@ 821 people at Bryant – Denny Stadium , in Tuscaloosa , Alabama . The game was broadcast nationally in prime time on CBS and Verne Lundquist provided the play @-@ by @-@ play commentary , Gary Danielson provided the color commentary and Tracy Wolfson served as the sideline reporter . An estimated 20 million people watched the game 's television broadcast on CBS , and the broadcast earned a television rating of 11 @.@ 5 , the highest rating for a non @-@ bowl , college football telecast on CBS since 1989 .
= = = First quarter = = =
After winning the coin toss , Alabama elected to receive the ball to open the first half . Marquis Maze fielded the James Hairston kickoff and returned it to the Alabama 30 @-@ yard line where the offense began its first series . Alabama opened with a pair of gains by Trent Richardson on an 18 @-@ yard run and on a 22 @-@ yard pass reception from A. J. McCarron to reach the LSU 30 @-@ yard line . However , the drive stalled on the next three plays , and on fourth down Cade Foster missed a 44 @-@ yard field goal wide right and the game remained tied at zero . The Tigers began their first offensive series with Jarrett Lee at quarterback from their own 27 @-@ yard line . After LSU gained a pair of first downs on runs by Spencer Ware and short passes from Lee , the drive faltered , and Brad Wing punted the ball out @-@ of @-@ bounds at the Alabama five .
Alabama started their second drive with a short gain and an incompletion , and then McCarron then threw a 19 @-@ yard pass to Maze for a first down . The Crimson Tide gained another pair of first downs with a Maze reception and three runs each from Richardson and Eddie Lacy before the drive stalled at the LSU 33 . Again Foster missed a field goal , this time from 50 @-@ yards , and the game remained tied at zero . On the next LSU possession , Ware had a short gain and Lee completed a short pass to Russell Shepard before he threw an interception to Robert Lester at the Alabama 47 @-@ yard line . The Crimson Tide then began their third offensive series with a 19 @-@ yard completion from McCarron to Darius Hanks before the end of the first quarter .
= = = Second quarter = = =
After a ten @-@ yard gain by Richardson to start the quarter , Alabama lost a total of seven yards on consecutive plays and a McCarron incompletion on third down set up a third long field goal attempt . This time the 49 @-@ yard attempt from Jeremy Shelley was blocked by Bennie Logan and recovered by Eric Reid who returned it to the Alabama 48 . On this LSU possession , Jordan Jefferson took over as the Tigers ' quarterback , and LSU gained a first down on a six @-@ yard Michael Ford run and a pair of short runs by Ware . However , the drive stalled again and Wing was forced to punt for LSU .
Alabama started from their own four , and Lacy had a short gain before Richardson had four consecutive runs to move the ball to the 39 @-@ yard line . The next play was Alabama 's longest play from scrimmage in the game when McCarron threw a 39 @-@ yard pass to Richardson and brought the ball to the LSU 19 @-@ yard line . However , for the fourth time in four offensive possessions , the LSU defense held Alabama to a field goal attempt . This time , the 34 @-@ yard Jeremy Shelley kick was good and the Crimson Tide took a 3 – 0 lead . Once the received the kickoff , LSU began their fourth offensive possession from their own 24 . The Tigers opened their drive with runs of 14 and nine yards from Ford , followed by short runs from Ware , Jefferson and Ford again to bring the ball to the Alabama 36 . After a five yard substitution penalty , Jefferson completed a 34 @-@ yard pass to Russell Shepard to give the Tigers a first and goal from the Alabama eight . After a four @-@ yard rush by Ford and a Jefferson incompletion , Dre Kirkpatrick was called for holding that resulted in a first and goal from the Alabama two @-@ yard line . Jefferson then threw another incompletion followed with a run for no gain by Ford . LSU then called a time @-@ out with two seconds left in the half to set up a field goal attempt , and Alabama followed with a second time @-@ out in an attempt to ice the kicker . Drew Alleman then kicked a 19 @-@ yard field goal as time expired to tie the game at 3 – 3 at halftime .
= = = Third quarter = = =
LSU received the ball to start the second half and started their fifth offensive drive from their own 18 . After they gained a first down on a short pass on a pair of runs , the Alabama defense stopped the Tigers on their next series to force a punt . Alabama then started from their own 48 , but were only able to muster a three and out . This resulted in their first punt of the night from Cody Mandell . With Lee back at quarterback for LSU , he threw his second interception , this time to Mark Barron , to give Alabama possession at the LSU 35 . Again the LSU defense held the Alabama offense in check to set up another long field goal attempt . This time Foster connected on a 46 @-@ yard field goal to give the Crimson Tide a 6 – 3 lead . On the next drive , LSU was able to gain a pair of first downs primarily with only runs by Jefferson and Ford , but again were forced to punt . Alabama started this drive from their own 11 , and was able to gain a pair of first downs on McCarron passes before he threw an interception to Morris Claiborne that was returned to the Alabama 15 . The quarter ended two plays later after a pair of LSU runs resulted in no gain .
= = = Fourth quarter = = =
After a two @-@ yard Jefferson run to open the fourth quarter , Alleman kicked a 30 @-@ yard field goal to tie the game at 6 – 6 . Alabama began the next series with a two @-@ yard Richardson reception followed by a two @-@ yard run before McCarron connected with Maze for a first down on an 18 @-@ yard reception . Richardson then had a three @-@ yard run and a 24 @-@ yard run to give the Crimson Tide a first down at the LSU 28 . On the next play , Maze threw an interception on a trick play to Reid at the LSU one @-@ yard line to give the Tigers possession . After Alabama held LSU to a three @-@ and @-@ out , Wing had a 73 @-@ yard punt to give Alabama possession at their own 18 . Alabama and LSU then traded punts on the next three offensive possessions to send the game into overtime tied 6 – 6 .
= = = Overtime = = =
In the overtime period , Alabama was on offense first . McCarron opened their drive with a pair of incompletions to Richardson . After a five @-@ yard substitution penalty and a five @-@ yard quarterback sack by Sam Montgomery , Foster missed a 52 @-@ yard field goal . On LSU 's possession , Ware had a three @-@ yard rush and then Ford had a 15 @-@ yard run to give the Tigers a first down from the Alabama seven . After a pair of runs that netted a loss of one yard , on third down Alleman kicked a 25 @-@ yard field goal to give LSU the 9 – 6 victory .
= = = Scoring summary = = =
= = Statistical summary = =
In a game noted for dominant defense performances for both teams , offensively , both Alabama and LSU had similar statistics . The Crimson Tide compiled 295 yards of total offense as compared to LSU 's 239 yards . Alabama quarterback AJ McCarron completed 16 of 28 passes for 199 passing yards . His top receiver in the game was Trent Richardson who had 80 yards on 5 receptions , followed by Marquis Maze with 61 yards on 6 receptions .
Jarrett Lee entered the game as the Tigers ' starting quarterback . However after he threw a pair of interceptions , Lee was replaced by Jordan Jefferson for the remainder of the game . In the game , Lee completed 3 of 7 passes for 24 yards and Jefferson completed 6 of 10 passes for 67 yards . The Tigers top receiver in the game was Russell Shepard who had 39 yards on 2 receptions .
In terms of rushing offense , LSU outgained Alabama 148 to 96 yards , led by Michael Ford who ran for 72 rushing yards . The Crimson Tide was led on the ground by Richardson , who carried the ball 23 times for 89 yards . LSU , was led by Ford 's 72 rushing yards , and also saw Jefferson rush for 43 yards on 11 carries and Spencer Ware pick up 29 yards on 16 carries .
Defensively , Nico Johnson led Alabama with eleven total tackles in the game , followed by DeQuan Menzie with eight . Mark Barron and Robert Lester each had one interception and Courtney Upshaw accounted for the Crimson Tide 's only quarterback sack of the game . For LSU , Ryan Baker led the Tigers with eight total tackles in the game , followed by both Eric Reid and Sam Montgomery who each had six . Reid and Morris Claiborne each had one interception and Montgomery accounted for both of LSU 's quarterback sacks .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = LSU = = =
With the victory , LSU remained atop all three polls at No. 1 . They also took a one game lead in the SEC Western Division standings over Alabama , and ultimately secured a place in the 2011 SEC Championship Game . The Tigers went on to finish the regular season 12 – 0 with victories over Western Kentucky , Ole Miss and Arkansas . In the SEC Championship , LSU rallied from an early double @-@ digit deficit to defeat Georgia and won the conference championship , retained their unanimous No. 1 ranking and secured a place in the BCS National Championship Game .
Statistically , LSU 's defense was still ranked near the top of all major defensive categories nationally after the game against Alabama . They moved up to second in both scoring ( 10 @.@ 89 points per game ) and rushing defense ( 78 @.@ 78 yards per game ) , third in total defense ( 256 @.@ 22 yards per game ) and ninth in passing defense ( 177 @.@ 44 yards per game ) . The Tigers remained ranked second in total , scoring and rushing defense and fourth in passing defense within the conference . On offense the Tigers dropped to 20th in scoring offense ( 35 @.@ 89 points per game ) , 38th in rushing offense ( 184 @.@ 44 yards per game ) , 87th in total offense ( 357 @.@ 33 yards per game ) and 102nd in passing offense ( 172 @.@ 89 yards per game ) . In conference , they remained second in scoring offense , sixth in total offense , eighth in passing offense , but dropped to fifth in rushing offense .
= = = Alabama = = =
With the loss , Alabama dropped to No. 4 in both the AP and Coaches ' Polls and to No. 3 in the BCS standings . The Crimson Tide went on to finish the regular season 11 – 1 with victories over Mississippi State , Georgia Southern and Auburn . During these final weeks , a series of upsets occurred that allowed Alabama to remain in contention for the final No. 2 ranking , and thus to qualify for the BCS National Championship Game . Alabama secured a place in the BCS National Championship Game after they completed the regular season ranked No. 2 with a BCS score of .942 , slightly ahead of Oklahoma State with a BCS score of .933 . The .09 difference between the teams was the closest final BCS ranking between No. 2 and No. 3 ranked teams since the current BCS formula was instituted in 2004 .
Statistically , Alabama 's defense was ranked at the top of all major defensive categories nationally after the game against LSU . They still ranked first in total ( 187 @.@ 00 yards per game ) , scoring ( 7 @.@ 11 points per game ) and rushing defense ( 56 @.@ 33 yards per game ) , and moved up to first in pass defense ( 130 @.@ 67 yards per game ) . Alabama remained the conference leader in all four major categories as well . On offense the Crimson Tide dropped to 23rd in scoring offense ( 35 @.@ 67 points per game ) , 21st in rushing offense ( 214 @.@ 44 yards per game ) , 30th in total offense ( 439 @.@ 56 yards per game ) and 68th in passing offense ( 225 @.@ 11 yards per game ) . In conference , Alabama remained first in rushing and fourth in passing offense , but dropped to second in total and third in scoring offense .
= = = Rematch = = =
On December 4 , 2011 , the final Bowl Championship Series standings were unveiled with LSU ranked first , followed by Alabama , to set up a rematch between the two teams in the 2012 BCS National Championship Game . In the weeks that led up to the game , the notion of a split national championship became a major storyline . This was the case as the AP Poll is not tied to the Bowl Championship Series and some AP voters expressed they might vote LSU national champions even if they lost as they defeated Alabama in their regular season game . However , after Alabama shut out LSU 21 – 0 in the BCS National Championship Game , the AP voted them national champions to give the Crimson Tide the consensus national championship and thus avoid a split title with LSU .
= = = Players drafted in the NFL = = =
Within the next four years , 45 players that participated in this game were taken into the NFL Draft . This represents the highest number of players taken in a regular season game and represents the second highest number of players taken into the NFL Draft from both of the teams that participated , second only to the 2003 Fiesta Bowl which produced 52 future draft picks . The final pick came with the 253rd selection on the 2015 NFL Draft , which saw the New England Patriots take Xzavier Dickson , three selections before the final " Mr. Irrelevant " pick . The following table lists all of the participants from the 2011 LSU vs. Alabama game that were later drafted by an NFL team :
= Raid at Cabanatuan =
The Raid at Cabanatuan , also known as The Great Raid , was a rescue of Allied prisoners of war ( POWs ) and civilians from a Japanese camp near Cabanatuan City , in the Philippines . On January 30 , 1945 , during World War II , United States Army Rangers , Alamo Scouts , and Filipino guerrillas liberated more than 500 from the POW camp .
After the surrender of tens of thousands of American troops during the Battle of Bataan , many were sent to the Cabanatuan prison camp following the Bataan Death March . The Japanese transferred most of the prisoners to other areas , leaving just over 500 American and other Allied POWs and civilians in the prison . Facing brutal conditions including disease , torture , and malnourishment , the prisoners feared they would all be executed by their captors before the arrival of General Douglas MacArthur and his American forces returning to Luzon . In late January 1945 , a plan was developed by Sixth Army leaders and Filipino guerrillas to send a small force to rescue the prisoners . A group of over a hundred Rangers and Scouts and several hundred guerrillas traveled 30 miles ( 48 km ) behind Japanese lines to reach the camp .
In a nighttime raid , under the cover of darkness and a distraction by a P @-@ 61 Black Widow , the group surprised the Japanese forces in and around the camp . Hundreds of Japanese troops were killed in the 30 @-@ minute coordinated attack ; the Americans suffered minimal casualties . The Rangers , Scouts , and guerrillas escorted the POWs back to American lines . The rescue allowed the prisoners to tell of the death march and prison camp atrocities , which sparked a new rush of resolve for the war against Japan . The rescuers were awarded commendations by MacArthur , and were also recognized by President Franklin D. Roosevelt . A memorial now sits on the site of the former camp , and the events of the raid have been depicted in several films .
= = Background = =
After the United States was attacked at Pearl Harbor on December 7 , 1941 by Japanese forces , it entered World War II to join the Allied forces in their fight against the Axis powers . American forces led by General Douglas MacArthur , already stationed in the Philippines as a deterrent against a Japanese invasion of the islands , were attacked by the Japanese hours after Pearl Harbor . On March 12 , 1942 , General MacArthur and a few select officers , on the orders of President Franklin D. Roosevelt , left the American forces , promising to return with reinforcements . The 72 @,@ 000 soldiers of the United States Army Forces in the Far East ( USAFFE ) , fighting with outdated weapons , lacking supplies , and stricken with disease and malnourishment , eventually surrendered to the Japanese on April 9 , 1942 .
The Japanese had initially planned for only 10 @,@ 000 – 25 @,@ 000 American and Filipino prisoners of war ( POWs ) . Although they had organized two hospitals , ample food , and guards for this estimate , they were overwhelmed with over 72 @,@ 000 prisoners . By the end of the 60 @-@ mile ( 97 @-@ km ) march , only 52 @,@ 000 prisoners ( approximately 9 @,@ 200 American and 42 @,@ 800 Filipino ) reached Camp O 'Donnell , with an estimated 20 @,@ 000 having died from illness , hunger , torture , or murder . Later with the closure of Camp O 'Donnell most of the imprisoned soldiers were transferred to the Cabanatuan prison camp to join the POWs from the Battle of Corregidor .
In 1944 , when the United States landed on the Philippines to recapture it , orders had been sent out by the Japanese high command to kill the POWs in order to avoid them being rescued by liberating forces . One method of the execution was to round the prisoners up in one location , pour gasoline over them , and then burn them alive . After hearing the accounts of the survivors from the massacre at the Puerto Princesa Prison Camp , the liberating forces feared that the safety of the POWs being held in the country was in jeopardy , and decided to launch a series of rescue operations to save the surviving POWs on the islands .
= = POW camp = =
The Cabanatuan prison camp was named after the nearby city of 50 @,@ 000 people ( locals also called it Camp Pangatian , after a small nearby village ) . The camp had first been used as an American Department of Agriculture station and then a training camp for the Filipino army . When the Japanese invaded the Philippines , they used the camp to house American POWs . It was one of three camps in the Cabanatuan area and was designated for holding sick detainees . Occupying more than 25 acres ( 0 @.@ 10 km2 ) , the rectangular @-@ shaped camp was 800 yards ( 730 m ) deep by 600 yards ( 550 m ) across , divided by a road that ran through its center . One side of the camp housed Japanese guards , while the other included bamboo barracks for the prisoners as well as a section for a hospital . Nicknamed the " Zero Ward " , the hospital housed the sickliest prisoners as they waited to die from diseases such as dysentery and malaria . Eight @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 4 @-@ m ) high barbed wire fences surrounded the camp , in addition to multiple pillbox bunkers and four @-@ story guard towers .
At its peak , the camp held 8 @,@ 000 American soldiers ( along with a small number of soldiers and civilians from other nations including the United Kingdom , Norway , and the Netherlands ) , making it the largest POW camp in the Philippines . This number dropped significantly as able @-@ bodied soldiers were shipped to other areas in the Philippines , Japan , Japanese @-@ occupied Taiwan , and Manchukuo to work in slave labor camps . As Japan had not yet ratified the Geneva Convention , the POWs were transported out of the camp and forced to work in factories to build Japanese weaponry , unload ships , and repair airfields .
The imprisoned soldiers received two meals a day of steamed rice , occasionally accompanied by fruit , soup , or meat . To supplement their diet , prisoners were able to smuggle food and supplies hidden in their underwear into the camp during Japanese @-@ approved trips to Cabanatuan . To prevent extra food , jewelry , diaries , and other valuables from being confiscated , items were hidden in clothing , latrines , or were buried before scheduled inspections . Prisoners collected food using a variety of methods including stealing , bribing guards , planting gardens , and killing animals which entered the camp such as mice , snakes , ducks , and stray dogs . The Filipino underground collected thousands of quinine tablets to smuggle into the camp to treat malaria , saving hundreds of lives . When the Japanese had an American radio technician fix their radios , he would steal parts , allowing the prisoners to have several radios to listen to newscasts of the war efforts outside the camp . One group of Corregidor prisoners , before first entering the camp , had each hidden a piece of a radio under their clothing , to later be reassembled into a working device . The radios were able to pick up a San Francisco @-@ based radio station , allowing the POWs to hear about the status of war outside the gates of the prison . A smuggled camera was used to document the camp 's living conditions . Prisoners also constructed weapons and smuggled ammunition into the camp for the possibility of securing a handgun .
Multiple escape attempts were made throughout the history of the prison camp , but the majority ended in failure . In one attempt , four soldiers were recaptured by the Japanese . The guards forced all prisoners to watch as the four soldiers were beaten , forced to dig their own graves and then executed . Shortly thereafter , the guards put up signs declaring that if other escape attempts were made , ten prisoners would be executed for every escapee . Prisoners ' living quarters were then divided into groups of ten , which motivated the POWs to keep a close eye on others to prevent them from making escape attempts .
The Japanese permitted the POWs to build septic systems and irrigation ditches throughout the prisoner side of the camp . An onsite commissary was available to sell items such as bananas , eggs , coffee , notebooks , and cigarettes . Recreational activities allowed for baseball , horseshoes , and ping pong matches . In addition , a 3 @,@ 000 @-@ book library was allowed ( much of which was provided by the Red Cross ) , and films were shown occasionally . A bulldog was kept by the prisoners , and served as a mascot for the camp . Each year around Christmas , the Japanese guards gave permission for the Red Cross to donate a small box to each of the prisoners , containing items such as corned beef , instant coffee , and tobacco . Prisoners were also able to send postcards to relatives , although they were censored by the guards .
As American forces continued to approach Luzon , the Japanese Imperial High Command ordered that all able @-@ bodied POWs be transported to Japan . From the Cabanatuan camp , over 1 @,@ 600 soldiers were removed in October 1944 , leaving over 500 sick , weak , or disabled POWs . On January 6 , 1945 , all of the guards withdrew from the Cabanatuan camp , leaving the POWs alone . The guards had previously told prisoner leaders that they should not attempt to escape , or else they would be killed . When the guards left , the prisoners heeded the threat , fearing that the Japanese were waiting near the camp and would use the attempted escape as an excuse to execute them all . Instead , the prisoners went to the guards ' side of the camp and ransacked the Japanese buildings for supplies and large amounts of food . Prisoners were alone for several weeks , except when retreating Japanese forces would periodically stay in the camp . The soldiers mainly ignored the POWs , except to ask for food . Although aware of the consequences , the prisoners sent a small group outside the prison 's gates to bring in two carabaos to slaughter . The meat from the animals , along with the food secured from the Japanese side of the camp , helped many of the POWs to regain their strength , weight , and stamina . In mid @-@ January , a large group of Japanese troops entered the camp and returned the prisoners to their side of the camp . The prisoners , fueled by rumors , speculated that they would soon be executed by the Japanese .
= = Planning and preparation = =
On October 20 , 1944 , General Douglas MacArthur 's forces landed on Leyte , paving the way for the liberation of the Philippines . Several months later , as the Americans consolidated their forces to prepare for the main invasion of Luzon , nearly 150 Americans were executed by their Japanese captors on December 14 , 1944 at the Puerto Princesa Prison Camp on the island of Palawan . These Americans were herded into air @-@ raid shelters , sealed in , doused with gasoline , and burned alive . One of the survivors , PFC Eugene Nielsen , recounted his tale to U.S. Army Intelligence on January 7 , 1945 . Two days later , MacArthur 's forces landed on Luzon and began a rapid advance towards the capital , Manila .
Major Bob Lapham , the American USAFFE senior guerrilla chief , and another guerrilla leader , Juan Pajota , had considered freeing the prisoners within the camp , but feared logistical issues with hiding and caring for the prisoners . An earlier plan had been proposed by Lieutenant Colonel Bernard Anderson , leader of the guerrillas near the camp . He suggested that the guerrillas would secure the prisoners , escort them 50 miles ( 80 km ) to Debut Bay , and transport them using 30 submarines . The plan was denied approval as MacArthur feared the Japanese would catch up with the fleeing prisoners and kill them all . In addition , the Navy did not have the required submarines , especially with MacArthur 's upcoming invasion of Luzon .
On January 26 , 1945 , Lapham traveled from his location near the prison camp to Sixth Army headquarters , 30 miles ( 48 km ) away . He proposed to Lieutenant General Walter Krueger 's intelligence chief Colonel Horton White that a rescue attempt be
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672 . By then , Marguerite Louise was in the depths of despair , and asked to be allowed visit Villa Poggio a Caiano , a Medici villa , ostensibly for worship at a nearby shrine . Once there , she refused to return , which resulted in a two @-@ year stand off between herself and the Grand Duke , for he would not consent to her return to France , a return she begged for in her parting letter to him . Madame du Deffand 's mission having failed , Louis XIV made one final attempt to reconcile the Grand Ducal couple , to no avail . Therefore , all attempts at conciliation having failed , Cosimo capitulated to Marguerite Louise , in a contract signed on 26 December 1674 : Marguerite Louise , provided for with a pension of 80 @,@ 000 livres , was allowed to leave for France , but she had to confine herself to the Saint Pierre Abbey of Montmartre and surrender her rights as a Royal Princess of France . Overjoyed , the Grand Duchess departed for France laden down with the fixtures and furniture of Villa Poggio a Caiano , for , in her own words , she had no intention " of setting forth without her proper wages " .
= = = Montmartre = = =
News of Marguerite Louise 's departure from Livorno on the 12 July 1675 was greeted with " a great displeasure " by the Florentines . The nobility , too , sympathised with her , falsely believing Cosimo was to blame for driving Marguerite Louise from Tuscany . Marguerite Louise , initially , patronised charitable works at Montmartre and bore herself with " an air of piety " , but soon reverted to her profligate ways , wearing heavy rouge and bright yellow periwigs , and embarking on an affair with the Count of Lovigny , and later with two members of the Luxembourg regiment . Louis XIV , ignoring the 1674 contract 's article banning Marguerite Louise from stepping foot outside the convent , allowed the Grand Duchess to court , where she gambled for high stakes .
Because of her " shabby " retinue and short visits , Marguerite Louise garnered the reputation of a Bohemian among the courtiers of Versailles , and , therefore , was compelled to allow " those of insignificant birth " into her circle . The Tuscan envoy , Gondi , issued frequent protests to the French court of Marguerite Louise 's behaviour , to no avail . Eventually , the Abbess of Montmartre , Françoise Renée de Lorraine , ( 1621 – 1682 ) , when quizzed by the King about Marguerite Louise 's latest affair with a groom , interceded , saying , " A conspiracy of silence is the sole antidote to the depravity and excesses of [ Marguerite Louise ] " ; this explains Marguerite Louise 's absence from memoirs of the time .
Back in Florence , Cosimo III had the Tuscan envoy report on Marguerite Louise 's every movement , which he closely scrutinised . If he deemed a particular action of hers to be offensive , he wrote to Louis XIV , demanding an explanation . Initially sympathetic with Cosimo , Louis XIV , tiring of his endless stream of protests , said , " Since Cosimo had consented to the retirement of his wife to France , he had virtually relinquished all right to interfere in her conduct " . That Cosimo III ceased meddling in the affairs of his wife was the result of Louis XIV 's rebut . Marguerite Louise was informed of Cosimo III 's ensuing illness by her eldest son , Grand Prince Ferdinando , who espoused his mother 's cause and corresponded with her . Marguerite Louise , confident of her husband 's imminent death , told the French court that " at the first notice of her detested husband 's demise , she would fly to Florence to banish all hypocrites and hypocrisy and establish a new government " . This , however , was not to be , and Cosimo III actually outlived her two years .
In 1688 , saturated in debt , Marguerite Louise wrote to Cosimo , begging for 20 @,@ 000 crowns . When Cosimo was not initially forthcoming , she switched her focus to her son the Grand Prince , in the hope he would help her , but he feigned he could not , for fear of upsetting his father . Eventually , Cosimo paid off her debts , and her financial security was assured when she inherited a large sum of money from a relative in 1696 .
While Marguerite Louise 's behaviour — at its worst when she threatened to burn down the convent — was tolerated by the previous Abbess of Montmartre , the new Abbess , Madame d 'Harcourt , frequently complained of her to the Grand Duke and the King . In retaliation , Marguerite Louise threatened to kill her with a hatchet and a pistol , and formed a clique against her . Therefore , in line with her wishes , Cosimo III consented to Marguerite Louise 's departure for a new convent , Saint @-@ Mandé , on the condition she only leave with the King Louis XIV 's explicit permission and be attended to by a chamberlain of his choice . Since she would not assent to these prerequisites , the payment of her pension was suspended , only to be resumed when Louis XIV compelled her to yield .
= = = Saint @-@ Mandé = = =
At Saint @-@ Mandé , Marguerite Louise underwent a transformation : she no longer cared for " excesses " , and busied herself with reforming the convent , which she called a " spiritual brothel " ; the absentee mother superior , who wore men 's clothing , was sent away , non @-@ conformist nuns were removed and it is because of these deeds her behaviour no longer proved a bone of contention with Florence . Marguerite Louise 's health began to decline in 1712 , with an attack of apoplexy , which left her with a paralysed left arm and foaming mouth . She soon recovered , only to suffer another attack the next year ; the death of the only one of her three children she cared for , Grand Prince Ferdinando , contributed to the second attack of apoplexy , which briefly paralysed her eyes and made speech difficult . The Regent of France , Philippe d 'Orléans , allowed Marguerite Louise to buy a house in Paris , 15 Place des Vosges , where she spent her final years . She corresponded with the Regent 's mother , Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate , and gave assiduously to charity . Marguerite Louise d 'Orléans , Princess of France and Grand Duchess of Tuscany , died in September 1721 , and was buried in Picpus Cemetery , in Paris .
= = Issue = =
Cosimo III and Marguerite Louise had three children :
Ferdinando de ' Medici , Grand Prince of Tuscany ( b.1663 d.1713 ) married Violante Beatrice of Bavaria , no issue ;
Anna Maria Luisa de ' Medici , Electress Palatine ( b.1667 d.1743 ) married Johann Wilhelm , Elector Palatine , no issue ;
Gian Gastone de ' Medici , Grand Duke of Tuscany ( b.1671 d.1737 ) married Anna Maria Franziska of Saxe @-@ Lauenburg , no issue .
= = Ancestors = =
= = Titles , styles , honours and arms = =
= = = Titles and styles = = =
28 July 1645 – 12 June 1661 Her Royal Highness Mademoiselle d 'Orléans
12 June 1661 – 23 May 1670 Her Royal Highness The Grand Princess of Tuscany
23 May 1670 – 17 September 1721 Her Royal Highness The Grand Duchess of Tuscany
= Charles Redheffer =
Charles Redheffer was an American inventor who claimed to have invented a perpetual motion machine . First appearing in Philadelphia , Redheffer exhibited his machine to the public , charging high prices for viewing . When he applied to the government for more money , a group of inspectors were sent to examine the machine . It was discovered the machine was actually powered by a device Redheffer claimed was powered by the machine .
Redheffer moved to New York City and set up a similar scam after rebuilding his machine . However , an engineer detected that it was a fake when he visited an exhibition by listening to its unsteady motions . He discovered that the machine was operated by a man using a crank in a room on the floor above . Redheffer returned to Philadelphia . He later claimed to have created another machine , but refused to demonstrate it to anyone . He managed to get a patent for his machine in 1820 , but after this his fate is unknown .
= = Personal life = =
Little has been recorded about Redheffer 's life , other than his connection to the hoax . According to one source , he was from Germantown in Philadelphia , but most sources simply state that he appeared in Philadelphia with his machine . Redheffer disappeared from public view after the discovery of the fraud , and his fate is unknown .
= = Appearance in Philadelphia = =
Charles Redheffer and his machine became well known in Philadelphia in 1812 . Redheffer claimed he had invented a perpetual motion machine and exhibited it in a house near the Schuylkill River in the outskirts of the city . He charged an admission fee of $ 5 ( some sources claim $ 1 ) for men to view it ; depending on the source , women were admitted free or at a charge of $ 1 . The machine caused a sensation , and Redheffer lobbied for funds to build a larger version .
On January 21 , 1813 , eight city commissioners visited Redheffer to inspect the machine . They had to do so through a barred window , as Redheffer was concerned anyone going near the machine might damage it . One of the inspectors , Nathan Sellers , was accompanied by his son Coleman , who noticed something odd about the gears . The machine itself was said to be powering a separate device through a series of gears and weights . Coleman noticed that the cogs were worn on the wrong side and suggested that the device was in fact powering the machine .
The elder Sellers was convinced the machine was a hoax . To validate his suspicions , he hired local engineer Isaiah Lukens to build a similar machine , using a hidden clockwork motor as a power source . They then arranged a demonstration of the machine to Redheffer , who was immediately convinced and offered to buy it . Meanwhile , Redheffer 's machine appeared in the Philadelphia Gazette . Civil engineer Charles Gobort offered to bet sums of money ranging from $ 6 @,@ 000 to $ 10 @,@ 000 that the machine was genuine , and that Redheffer had discovered perpetual motion .
= = Move to New York City = =
His ruse revealed , Redheffer immediately departed for New York City where he was still unknown . He changed his machine somewhat so that it could not be detected as easily , and he exhibited it as he had done in Philadelphia .
When mechanical engineer Robert Fulton went to see the machine , he noticed that the machine was unsteady as if someone would have powered it manually and irregularly with a crank . Fulton also detected that the sound was uneven , uncharacteristic of a machine 's motions . He announced the machine was a fraud , and challenged Redheffer exclaiming he would expose the secret power source , otherwise he would pay for all the damage he would cause . Redheffer agreed , so Fulton removed some boards from the wall alongside the machine and exposed a catgut cord that led to the upper floor . Upstairs he found an old man who was turning a hand @-@ crank with one hand and eating bread with the other . Spectators realized they had been duped and destroyed the machine ; Redheffer fled the city .
= = Later appearances = =
Redheffer appears to have constructed another machine in 1816 , which he stated his intention to demonstrate to a group of men including the mayor and chief justice of Philadelphia . However , despite several meetings , Redheffer refused to demonstrate the machine to them .
On July 11 , 1820 , the U.S. Patent Office granted a patent to Charles Redheffer ( or Charles Redheiffer ) for a device listed as " machinery for the purpose of gaining power " . ( Unfortunately , all patents up to 1836 were lost in the 1836 U.S. Patent Office fire . If recovered , it would be X @-@ Patent X3,215 . )
= Question Time British National Party controversy =
The Question Time British National Party controversy occurred in the autumn of 2009 , due to an invitation by the British Broadcasting Corporation ( BBC ) to Nick Griffin , leader of the far @-@ right British National Party ( BNP ) , to be a panelist on Question Time , one of its flagship television programmes on current affairs .
The decision to have the BNP represented on the programme for the first time sparked public and political debate in the United Kingdom . At the heart of the matter was the BBC 's public broadcasting mandate , requiring it to give equal prominence to political parties above a given level of electoral representation . Mark Thompson , Director @-@ General of the BBC , defended the BBC 's decision to invite Griffin , stating , " the BNP has demonstrated a level of support that would normally lead to an occasional invitation to join the panel on Question Time . It is for that reason – not for some misguided desire to be controversial , but for that reason alone – that the invitation has been extended . "
A late appeal was made to the BBC Trust , the BBC 's governing body , by the Secretary of State for Wales Peter Hain , to have the appearance blocked , which ultimately failed . Griffin appeared on the edition which aired on 22 October 2009 . As the programme was due to go on air , public protests took place at BBC Television Centre in London . The pre @-@ recorded programme featured Griffin alongside the Secretary of State for Justice Jack Straw , the Conservative peer and Shadow Minister for Community Cohesion Sayeeda Warsi , Baroness Warsi , the Liberal Democrats ' Home Affairs spokesperson Chris Huhne , and the writer / playwright Bonnie Greer . The edition was watched by over 8 million people – over half the total audience share – and more than double the previous record high for Question Time .
= = Background = =
Question Time is the flagship BBC Television political panel show , which began in 1979 . The weekly show , hosted by David Dimbleby since 1994 , takes place at locations around the country . Questions from a local audience are directed to a panel of invited guests , usually consisting of British politicians , alongside other public figures . The topics for debate during the programme are loosely defined by " set @-@ piece " questions from pre @-@ selected audience members . For each topic , the question is answered by each panel member in turn , followed by supplementary questions on the topic , time permitting . The show is pre @-@ recorded a few hours before being broadcast , and it is stressed by Dimbleby as the programme starts , that the panellists have no previous knowledge of the content of the questions .
The British National Party ( BNP ) is a far right minority party in Britain founded by John Tyndall in 1982 . The leader of the party at the time was Nick Griffin , elected as one of the eight MEPs in the North West England constituency , although he has since resigned . At the time of the programme , the BNP won 943 @,@ 598 votes and two seats in the UK 's 2009 European Parliament elections in June , when a total of 72 seats were contested . The BNP polled 6 @.@ 26 % of the national vote of 15 @,@ 625 @,@ 823 ( from an electorate of 45 @,@ 315 @,@ 669 ) , making it the sixth ranked party , behind the Conservatives ( 27 @.@ 7 % ) , United Kingdom Independence Party ( 16 @.@ 5 % ) , Labour ( 15 @.@ 7 % ) , Liberal Democrats ( 13 @.@ 7 % ) and the Green Party ( 8 @.@ 6 % ) . The result represented a 1 @.@ 3 percentage point increase on its previous performance . Since then , support for the party has declined significantly , allegedly due " to internal splits and the rise of Ukip " .
At the time of the programme the BNP held one seat on the London Assembly and council seats in four London boroughs ; it was the second party in the London Borough of Barking and Dagenham .
= = BBC policy = =
= = = Coverage of the BNP = = =
Griffin had already appeared on other BBC shows , including The Andrew Marr Show on BBC One and The World at One on BBC Radio 4 . No BNP representative had ever appeared on Question Time before , but following the European election performance , this stance was reviewed . The possibility of an appearance on Question Time by Nick Griffin was publicly announced by the BBC in early September . That month , James Macintyre of the New Statesman who was a former Question Time producer , said that Mentorn , the independent production company responsible for Question Time , had been proposing an appearance by Griffin over the previous two years . The Independent gave credit to the BBC for resisting " the naïve showbiz instincts " of executives at Mentorn , who may have wanted " what Peter Hain calls a ' beanfest ' for reasons well removed from the BBC 's charter obligations . "
On 21 October , the day before the broadcast , the BBC Director @-@ General , Mark Thompson , wrote an article for The Guardian entitled ' Keeping Nick Griffin off air is a job for parliament , not the BBC ' . He said that those arguing for the BNP to be excluded from the programme were making the case for censorship , which was a matter for the government and not the BBC . He explained the BBC 's decision :
Question Time is an opportunity for the British public to put questions to politicians of every ideological hue . Politicians from the UK 's biggest parties appear most frequently , but from time to time representatives of parties with many fewer supporters – from the Scottish Socialists and Respect to the Green party – also take their seats on the stage . Question Time is the most prominent programme of its kind on British television , and we carefully study the support gained in elections by each of the parties , large and small , before deciding who to invite and how frequently they should appear . It is a straightforward matter of fact that , with some 6 % of the vote and the election of two MEPs in this spring 's European elections – and with some success in local elections as well – the BNP has demonstrated a level of support that would normally lead to an occasional invitation to join the panel on Question Time . It is for that reason – not for some misguided desire to be controversial , but for that reason alone – that the invitation has been extended .
The BBC Deputy Director General , Mark Byford , also defended the decision on the day of the programme , saying : " [ The BNP ] should have the right to be heard , be challenged , and for the public who take part in Question Time and the viewers to make up their own minds about the views of the BNP . It 's not for the BBC to censor and say they can 't be on " . The BBC 's chief political adviser , Ric Bailey , stated after the failed appeal that the BBC " would have been breaking its charter if it had not treated the BNP with impartiality ... We absolutely stand by that judgement , even though there 's obviously been a lot of controversy about it " . A senior BBC presenter , John Humphrys , said the decision was " absolutely right " . He said : " Why should we be afraid of what they have to say ? Free speech is the issue here , and the BBC 's obligations . " However , broadcasting unions said some of its members would protest at the invitation .
= = = Appeal to the BBC Trust = = =
A late attempt to stop the programme came from the Labour Secretary of State for Wales , Peter Hain , who accused the BBC of being " apologists " for the BNP and making " one of the biggest mistakes in its proud history " . After failing to persuade the BBC Director General Mark Thompson to stop the appearance , Hain appealed to the BBC Trust . The BNP 's constitution restricting membership of the party to " indigenous Caucasian " people , namely " indigenous British ethnic groups " including the " Anglo @-@ Saxon folk community " and the " Celtic Scottish folk community " was declared illegal on 15 October 2009 under the Race Relations Act , after a challenge by the Equality and Human Rights Commission , and Hain argued that the appearance might be illegal in light of the ruling .
On the night of Tuesday 20 October , the Trust announced it was forming an emergency committee , comprising three trustees chaired by Richard Tait , to examine the appeals . Late on 21 October , the day before the programme was due to be made , the Trust cleared Griffin to appear on the show . It also ruled that , given the pre @-@ recorded nature of the show , many of the concerns were hypothetical and premature . The Trust declined further comment , in case of an appeal of the decision after the show :
We have concluded that the decision as to whether it is appropriate in all the circumstances for the BBC to allow the BNP to participate on Question Time is a question of editorial judgement , which the charter and framework agreement reserve for the Director @-@ General .
We have written to the Director @-@ General asking him to engage personally to ensure that the broadcast programme complies with the general law , the BBC 's editorial guidelines and all other regulatory requirements .
The committee is aware of the debate and public controversy on this issue and that this is a matter of considerable importance to many licence fee payers .
= = Opinions prior to broadcast = =
= = = Nick Griffin = = =
In an e @-@ mail to BNP supporters , Griffin said " Never before have we had the chance to present our patriotic , common sense solutions to Britain ’ s nightmare situation to the public at large in such prominent fashion ... I am relishing this opportunity , and I know that ... the ordinary members , supporters and voters of the BNP will be in the studio with me as I take on the corrupt , treacherous swine destroying our beautiful island nation . ” He also stated in a letter on the BNP website : " I will , no doubt , be interrupted , shouted down , slandered , put on the spot , and subjected to a scrutiny that would be a thousand times more intense than anything directed at other panellists . It will , in other words , be political blood sport . But I am relishing this opportunity . "
Griffin told The Times : " I thank the political class and their allies for being so stupid . " He went on to say that his invitation on the programme " clearly gives us a whole new level of public recognition . " Griffin said of his fellow Question Time panellists before the show that Bonnie Greer was " the joker in the pack ... [ who ] ... knows how to look after herself and may be more of a handful than the others " , that Menzies Campbell " would have been more daunting " than Chris Huhne , that Jack Straw is " a very effective advocate " . He said that the appearance of Baroness Warsi for the Conservatives was a typical " tokenist " stunt . In the run @-@ up to the programme , the BNP website displayed a prominent countdown to Question Time .
= = = UK parliamentary parties = = =
The policy of the Labour Party never to share a platform with the BNP was changed following the BBC 's invitation to Griffin . Labour said that future appearances were to be on a " case by case " basis . On 27 September 2009 , the Secretary of State for Justice , Jack Straw , announced he would appear on the programme , following the announcement that the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats would take part in any edition of Question Time that included the BNP . Straw said he would be delighted to make the argument for people against the BNP :
Wherever we have had BNP problems in my area and when we have fought them hard , we 've pulled back and won the seats back .
Speaking on the Question Time episode the week before the expected appearance by Griffin , the Home Secretary Alan Johnson condemned the decision of the BBC :
There isn 't a constitutional obligation to appear on Question Time . That gives [ the BNP ] a legitimacy they do not deserve . These people believe in the things that the fascists believed in the Second World War , they believe in what the National Front believe in . They believe in the purity of the Aryan race . It is a foul and despicable party .
The Prime Minister and Labour leader , Gordon Brown , said he would not interfere with the BBC 's decision . He said : " asked about their racist and bigoted views that are damaging to good community relations , it will be a good opportunity to expose what they are about . " When pressed on the reversal of Labour 's ' No Platform ' policy , Brown said " The issue is : should we have someone there ? Jack Straw is a very experienced person who has had to deal with the BNP and their awful politics over a period of time . "
The Conservative leader , David Cameron , was uncomfortable with the BBC decision , which reminded him of an invitation to Gerry Adams to speak at the Oxford Union during the 1980s when he was at Oxford . He said : " It makes me uneasy . I don 't think the BBC should have done it . "
The Conservative panel member , Baroness Warsi , a British Muslim from Dewsbury , West Yorkshire – a town which Janice Turner of The Times reported as having the biggest BNP vote in Britain – stated " I want to ask Nick Griffin what about me isn 't British " . The Liberal Democrat panel member Chris Huhne decided in consultation with his party leader Nick Clegg that , given the BBC 's decision to invite Griffin , he had no choice but to attend . He said that " Thursday night 's excitement would not have been called off just because the Liberal Democrats decided not to participate . "
On the day of the programme , the former Labour Mayor of London , Ken Livingstone , said that the BBC would " bear moral responsibility " for any rise in racist attacks in Britain . The Labour MP Diane Abbott , the first black woman to be elected to Parliament , believed that the appearance of Griffin would signal the BNP was part of the political mainstream in the same way that her appearance on Question Time in 1987 had signalled black people 's acceptance as part of the mainstream . She said : " It 's not a programme that 's going to scrutinise his views , it 's not that sort of programme , it 's politics as entertainment " . Andy Slaughter , a Labour MP whose constituency includes the BBC Television Centre , arrived to support the protests , scathingly attacking the BBC 's " smugness " , saying that local people on the estates were " utterly affronted " .
Ten MPs signed an early day motion tabled by the Labour MP Mike Gapes which called the BBC decision " profoundly wrong " and noted that " no previous BBC Director General made such a judgement and that neither Martin Webster , who polled 16 percent of the vote in the West Bromwich by @-@ election in 1973 , John Tyndall , Colin Jordan or Oswald Mosley were treated in the same way " .
= = = Other = = =
The decision by the BBC to invite Griffin on to Question Time caused widespread controversy . In an editorial on 15 October 2009 , The Guardian said : " The BNP is no normal party – yet by inviting it on to Question Time , the BBC runs the risk of normalising it " . It also stated that it would give the BNP " its best @-@ ever platform for its poisonous politics " .
Jim Shields , associate professor in French Studies at Warwick University , stated that the appearance would be " a real milestone " in Griffin 's acceptability . He said that the far @-@ right leader Jean @-@ Marie Le Pen 's appearance on a similar programme in France saw support for his Front national party " double overnight " . Professor Ted Cantle , commissioned by the Government to investigate the 2001 Oldham riots , urged a " more sophisticated approach " using reasoned arguments , to defeat the far right .
The anti @-@ fascist magazine Searchlight said that entry level for inclusion on BBC programmes should be " election to the national parliament " . Muhammad Abdul Bari , the Secretary General of the Muslim Council of Britain , said " We regret the BBC 's decision . There is a general fear that allowing the BNP to air its toxic views will increase Islamophobia and give the BNP the aura of respectability needed to spread its message of hate " .
On 21 October , Iain Martin wrote in a The Wall Street Journal blog that the appearance on Question Time signalled that the mainstream political parties in Britain had " badly let down their fellow Britons ... by setting narrow terms for the national debate which exclude the concerns of millions of voters and force them out on to the fringes " . Similarly , the issue of Griffin 's upcoming appearance was the headline story on BBC Two 's Newsnight the previous evening . It was dealt with in a segment on social decline in Britain and the perceived failings of the major parties .
On the morning of the programme , the leading article in The Times said that the BBC were right to invite Griffin , but that the issue of his appearance should not be allowed to dominate the programme , and that the panel and its chairman should be " well briefed on Mr Griffin ’ s many unsavoury comments on topics such as immigration " . Richard Preston , blogging for The Daily Telegraph , compared the importance of Griffin 's appearance with past infrequent Question Time panellists such as comedians Eddie Izzard , Norman Pace and Jim Davidson , while also expressing confidence that the hour @-@ long show and David Dimbleby would provide enough scrutiny to expose Griffin if he was a ' lightweight ' or a ' bluffer ' ; he suggested that " Britain truly does have problems " if a trio of mainstream politicians did not manage to take him apart .
= = Broadcast = =
= = = Panel = = =
The panel for the 22 October edition of Question Time consisted of :
Bonnie Greer , writer , historian and playwright
Nick Griffin , British National Party MEP for North West England and BNP Leader
Chris Huhne , then Liberal Democrat MP for Eastleigh and the Home Affairs spokesperson
Jack Straw , Labour MP for Blackburn and the then United Kingdom Justice Secretary
Baroness Warsi , Conservative Life Peer and the then Shadow Minister for Community Cohesion and Social Action
= = = Recording = = =
Question Time was held in BBC Television Centre in London , for the first time in four years , to enable the police to keep order for Griffin 's appearance . The audience was expected by The Times to number 200 people and to comprise a broad spectrum of political views , including BNP supporters and left @-@ wing groups . The recording of the edition of 22 October was brought forward two hours from the usual 8 @.@ 30 pm start time to allow for any disruption , before being broadcast later the same night .
Filming started shortly before 7 @.@ 00 pm , and ended at around 8 @.@ 30 pm ; Griffin left the building 10 minutes later . Audience members inside the studios used their mobile phones to relay live information about the recording 's progress . James Lyons , political correspondent for the Daily Mirror , wrote that the mood in the studio turned from anger to mockery of Griffin .
A full audience attended the making of the programme and there were no protests in the studio . One audience member suggested that a " half dozen " BNP members in the studio shouted encouragement to Griffin . The show was broadcast on BBC One at 10 @.@ 35 pm ( BST ) and at 11 @.@ 05 pm on BBC One Wales .
= = = Protests = = =
Demonstrations were planned to take place during the show . A protest rally by Unite Against Fascism ( UAF ) had been held in London on the night of Tuesday 20 October , and sixteen coachloads of UAF protesters were expected on the day . Amid concern over the safety of residents , Hammersmith and Fulham council asked for clarification of the BBC 's security arrangements , and pushed for an alternative location . Although the protest organisers UAF rejected suggestions that the protests would be violent , security was stepped up at BBC Television Centre . Simon Darby of the BNP stated there would be no counter @-@ demonstration . Griffin expressed fears over his safety for his arrival and departure . Extra officers of the Metropolitan Police were drafted in to maintain order outside the studios , while the BBC recruited an extra 60 security guards for inside the studio .
By mid @-@ afternoon of the day of the programme , protesters had begun gathering outside Television Centre and there were also protesters outside regional BBC offices . By 4 @.@ 30 pm ( BST ) police estimated there were 500 chanting protesters ; around 25 people who reached the main entrance of Television Centre after breaking through a cordon were expelled . They were part of a group of about 40 people that had made a dash for an iron gate that had been left open . After this breach , stand @-@ by officers reinforced the police cordon and protesters moved to block Wood Lane , hoping to prevent Griffin entering the studios . Griffin arrived at 5 @.@ 17 pm unnoticed and entered on foot through a rear entrance on Frithville Road . It was reported that around 600 people had turned up to protest against Griffin .
Due to the various protests , Television Centre and other BBC buildings around the country were ' locked down ' until the protesters had dispersed . People arriving for recordings of other shows at Television Centre , such as Friday Night with Jonathan Ross , were turned away . Six people were arrested during the protests , reportedly for " offences including violent disorder , causing actual bodily harm , assault of a police officer and a person wanted on warrant " ; three police officers were slightly injured . Martin Smith , a UAF national officer and , at the time , the Socialist Workers Party National Secretary , was later found guilty of assaulting the police officer at South Western Magistrates ' Court , London , on 7 September 2010 . He was sentenced to a 12 @-@ month community order , with 80 hours ' unpaid work , and was fined £ 450 pending an appeal .
= = = Questions = = =
Five debate topics were initiated from audience questions during the programme : the BNP 's campaign symbols , Islam , immigration policy , Jan Moir and finally , the show itself .
The first three topic starting questions were as follows ( with notes detailing the approximate time into the broadcast the question occurred , the first panellist directed to respond to it by the moderator , and any background information to the question ) :
Given that the Second World War was fuelled by the need to disarm oppressive and racist regimes , is it fair that the BNP has hijacked Churchill as its own ? ( 1 minute in , Jack Straw ) This question references the BNP 's use of images of Winston Churchill , the British Prime Minister during World War II , in its recent European election campaign .
Why is Islam a " wicked and vicious " faith ? ( 21 , Nick Griffin ) Directed to Nick Griffin , the question was in reference to a quotation attributed to him .
Can the recent success of the BNP be explained by the misguided immigration policy of the government ? ( 27 , Jack Straw ) Jack Straw refused to answer this question .
Should the Daily Mail have published the Jan Moir article on Stephen Gately ? ( 50 , Bonnie Greer ) Referencing a recent newspaper article written by Daily Mail columnist Jan Moir about the recent death of the former Boyzone bandmember Stephen Gately , which sparked record complaints to the Press Complaints Commission .
Might this programme be viewed as an early Christmas present for the BNP ? ( 58 , Chris Huhne ) In reference to the prior comments of Peter Hain after the ruling of the BBC Trust that the programme could go ahead would represent " an early Christmas present " for the BNP .
= = = Viewing figures = = =
The previous record audience for Question Time was set during its 14 May 2009 edition in the wake of the MPs ' expenses scandal , when 3 @.@ 8 million watched. and The Guardian had estimated the broadcast might attract ' 3 million or so ' viewers . The programme was watched by over 8 million people , the highest in the 30 @-@ year history of Question Time , and nearly triple the programme 's normal audience of two to three million .
In terms of share of audience , the broadcast represented over 50 % of the total audience share on the night , surpassing the previous record of 30 % achieved on the same 14 May 2009 show . The Griffin edition squeezed the audience of Newsnight ( BBC Two ) to 300 @,@ 000 viewers compared to its normal 700 @,@ 000 to 1 million , while a repeat showing of Piers Morgan 's Life Stories on ITV1 attracted 700 @,@ 000 viewers , a 5 % share . The Times noted that audience figures for the show led the BBC 's weekly total , ahead of Strictly Come Dancing on Saturday night .
= = Reception = =
= = = Public comments = = =
While both the BBC and its independent regulator Ofcom had expected a ' barrage ' of complaints over the programme , Ofcom reported having received a " small number of complaints " about the programme by the following day , understood to be fewer than 100 . By noon on Friday 23 October , the BBC had received 416 calls , 243 complaining of bias against Griffin , 114 complaining about Griffin being allowed to appear , and 59 in support of the BBC . The main complaints were reported to be that the programme had overly focused on the BNP , becoming the ' Nick Griffin show ' . Ofcom was considering whether a formal investigation was warranted under the broadcast code section on harm and offence . After one week , Ofcom had received 290 complaints .
= = = Panel view = = =
Straw described Nick Griffin as a " fantasising conspiracy theorist with some very unpleasant views and no moral compass . But now that he has been exposed for what he is it is time to move on . " Warsi said Griffin was " ... very much exposed for the man that he is . When he was questioned on his views his face of extremism was exposed . He was given an opportunity to explain some of his policies and he couldn 't " . Huhne said , " This is a person who comes from a fascist background ; anyone who watches the programme will see exactly what he stands for . " Greer said Griffin had been " totally trounced " on the show , and that sitting next to Griffin had been " probably the weirdest and most creepy experience of my life " . Nevertheless , Griffin perceived that he had " struck up a rapport " with Greer , who treated him differently from the other panellists . ( Greer avoided looking in Griffin 's direction throughout , and indeed turned her back on him pointedly , and for the remainder of the programme , after he said that the Ku Klux Klan chapter leaders with whom he had been seen had been ' non @-@ violent ' - a remark greeted with laughter from the audience ) Speaking to the Associated Press , Griffin stated that his appearance had secured the BNP 's place on the national stage , and while not revolutionary , was like gaining a kind of " boy scout 's badge " . He was relatively pleased with having " been able to land a few punches of my own " . Later , Griffin declared : " Millions of people are angry about the way I was treated . " Describing the experience as a " lynch mob " , he complained how the choice of London had made it hostile territory for him , and had prevented him from speaking on current events such as the postal strikes .
= = = BNP view = = =
On 23 October , the day after the broadcast , Griffin announced he would be lodging a formal complaint over the programme , over its focus on BNP issues rather than topical subjects . Griffin stated , " There is not much support for me there [ in London ] , because the place is dominated by ethnic minorities . There is an ethnic minority that supports me : the English . But there 's not many of them left . " A spokesman for the BNP said that London was too " multicultural " to be fair to it and that a location like the northwest of England would have been more favourable . The BNP were also going to file a Freedom of Information Request to the BBC to determine the decision @-@ making process behind hosting the programme in London , and in allowing the debate to focus on the BNP , arguing that criticism of the BNP had dominated the whole programme .
Griffin dismissed criticism of his performance , saying " people who have always been against the BNP will say that I couldn 't answer some things . " He was of the opinion that he had been shown " extraordinary hostility " by the main political parties , but that he was happy having done his best . Griffin said : " I can see that millions of people who don 't usually watch Question Time will remember what I 've said and think that 's how they feel and I 'm perfectly happy with that . " He also said he expected the BNP would appear on Question Time again . The BNP legal officer , Lee Barnes , described Griffin 's performance as " failing to press the attack " , and the Evening Standard reported a possible challenge to Griffin 's leadership from a faction within the BNP , linked to Chris Jackson , which was dissatisfied with his performance , but rated this chance of success as low .
The BNP also claimed that it had received thousands of pounds in donations , and that 3 @,@ 000 people had expressed an interest on their website in joining the party once their recruitment freeze was lifted . This would represent nearly a 30 % increase in membership according to the party website .
While campaigning on 28 October for the forthcoming Glasgow North East by @-@ election on 22 November , Griffin was asked why he had laughed on Question Time . He replied : " I had thought that David Dimbleby would have the professional self @-@ respect to at least make a show of being fair . I was laughing at the fact that I was wrong " , adding , " All that was exposed was the pure , vicious bigotry of the British ruling elite . "
= = = Other reactions and analyses = = =
The programme was headline news in several of the early Friday paper editions of the British press , from the tabloids to the broadsheets . Tabloid headlines included " Bigot at Bay " ( Daily Mail ) and " When Auntie Met Nazi " ( The Sun : " Auntie " being a nickname for the BBC ) , while broadsheets featured examples such as " Hostile reception for Griffin " ( The Times ) and " Griffin 's baptism of fire at the BBC " ( The Independent ) .
Immediately after the show , The Independent said Griffin had " choked " on the oxygen of publicity given him by the BBC . The Times described Griffin as having been " caught in TV 's glare " , subjected to a " hostile hour @-@ long grilling " . The Guardian , however , was of the opinion that , while Griffin was jeered and attacked and " often looked just plain shifty " , he made no major gaffes and would thus think of it as a success . After rating the panel 's performance as " flawed " , and after some questions on the night went unanswered or were avoided by Griffin , it concluded that it " was the audience that came out best from the evening " . The fact that four out of the five question topics on the night were BNP @-@ related was criticised by some who believed it would allow Griffin to claim ' victimisation ' . However , according to The Times , the BBC was ' delighted ' with the strategy , which was to ensure it could not be accused of giving Griffin an " easy ride " .
The Welsh Secretary , Peter Hain , who had appealed to the BBC Trust to have Griffin 's appearance prevented , continued to denounce the decision . David Lammy , one of Britain 's first black ministers , feared that people would face violence as a result of the programme . The former Home Secretary , David Blunkett , attacked the way in which BBC News at Six engaged in " deliberate promotion of their own publicity @-@ seeking decision " , opining that " the only people who have benefited from this row are the BNP and the BBC 's Question Time ratings " . The Conservative Mayor of London , Boris Johnson , responded to Griffin 's complaints about the location by defending London 's diversity , urging residents to " reject their narrow , extremist and offensive views at every opportunity " . Anshel Pfeffer , commenting for the Israeli newspaper Haaretz , noted the relative silence of UK Jewish groups over the BNP appearance , and praised the BBC 's decision to give the BNP a voice , stating : " The BBC is right to have Griffin and other racists on its most respectable shows ; it is wrong to apologise . By doing so it is simply fulfilling its democratic and journalistic duties . " Pfeffer compared and contrasted this with Israeli freedom @-@ of @-@ speech laws , and questioned whether Hitler could have risen to power in modern times given the media 's scrutiny of democratic politicians .
The Guardian selected a spontaneous joke about the South Pole made by an audience member , Khush Klare , as the " undoubted highlight " , having raised the loudest cheer from the audience . Klare , the son of Indian parents who migrated to Britain in the 1960s , had suggested collecting money for Griffin to be deported to the South Pole , as " it 's a colourless landscape that will suit you fine " . Klare said that while he did not think so at first , in retrospect he thought that Question Time was the right platform for Griffin .
Analysing the broadcast footage , The Times determined that the cameras spent " nearly 25 minutes " of the hour @-@ long programme of the screen time either on Griffin or a " two @-@ shot " with him and another panellist , equating to 38 % . The Daily Mail alleged that the BBC " stage @-@ managed " the programme , highlighting a crib @-@ sheet handed out to the audience members ; The Guardian 's ' Media Monkey ' blog observed that such a sheet is routinely given to the audience , and also accused The Mail of using a ' doctored ' crib @-@ sheet .
The first opinion poll taken after Nick Griffin 's appearance , conducted hours after the programme by YouGov for The Daily Telegraph , indicated that voter support for the BNP had increased by 1 % , from 2 % to 3 % , in the previous month , and that 22 % of voters were now " seriously considering " voting BNP in a future local , general or European election — broken down into " definitely " , 4 % ; " probably " , 3 % ; and " possible " , 15 % . The bookmaker , William Hill , changed its odds on the BNP winning a Westminster seat in the 2010 General Election from 10 @-@ 1 to 7 @-@ 2 after the programme . The BNP received 1 @.@ 9 % of the vote in the election and did not win a seat .
In an interview in the News of the World , the former Archbishop of Canterbury , George Carey , spoke out against Griffin 's claims that he was representing " Christian Britain " and called on Christians to " stand shoulder to shoulder " in rejecting the British National Party . The Prime Minister , Gordon Brown , did not watch the programme : his office explained that he " very rarely watches Question Time " through lack of time .
The programme received attention around the world , including from North America , Asia , the Middle East , Australia , Turkey , Russia , and South America .
The media later reported that the cost of policing the appearance had been £ 143 @,@ 000 .
= = = BBC view = = =
The BBC was subjected to criticism from some of its own staff , as Radio 4 broadcaster Sue MacGregor said that the show " gave the impression of attack dogs against Nick Griffin " , and another presenter called it a " bear pit " . In defence of criticism of the format and focus of the programme , the Deputy Director General Mark Byford stated that " the agenda of the programme was set by the audience 's own questions " . Byford also said of the comments that " clearly Mr Griffin and the BNP were the subject of intense questioning , but all the panellists were given the opportunity to respond and to have their voices heard " . Sir Christopher Bland , the former chairman of the BBC 's board of governors , said , however , that had the BBC not changed the format , the corporation would probably have been accused of leniency .
On 23 October , the BBC said it was " too early " to confirm how much more airtime would be given to the BNP in the future ; The Times reported on 24 October that the BBC had " no plans " to have Griffin on Question Time before the next general election .
On 28 October , Mark Thompson stated before the House of Lords communications committee that future BNP appearances on Question Time would " probably be no more than once a year and could be less " , based on the party continuing the same levels of support . Thompson denied suggestions that the invitation was made to boost viewing figures .
No BNP representative has appeared on the show since the 22 October 2009 broadcast .
= Chitty Chitty Death Bang =
" Chitty Chitty Death Bang " is the third episode of the first season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . The episode follows Peter after he tries to make amends for his son , Stewie 's , first birthday party when he loses their reservation at a popular kids ' restaurant known as Cheesie Charlie 's . Meanwhile , Meg becomes friends with an excitable girl named Jennifer , who leads her to join a death cult , in an attempt to fit in .
The episode was written by Danny Smith and directed by Dominic Polcino , both firsts in the Family Guy series . It was rated TV @-@ 14 . The episode featured guest performances by Butch Hartman , Waylon Jennings , Rachael MacFarlane and John O 'Hurley , along with several recurring voice actors for the series . Much of the episode features a cutaway style of humor that is typically used in Family Guy , many of which feature cultural references including the Incredible Hulk , The Dukes of Hazzard , Three Little Pigs , and Couplehood . The title " Chitty Chitty Death Bang " was derived from 1930s and 1940s radio programs , particularly the radio thriller anthology Suspense , which featured several elements pertaining to death and murder .
The episode has received praise from television critic Ahsan Haque for its storyline and use of cultural references .
= = Plot = =
Lois has booked Cheesie Charlie 's for Stewie 's upcoming first birthday party and sends Peter , along with Chris , to drop off the deposit check at the restaurant . However , once they arrive , they seek the opportunity to play with all the machines , causing Peter to lose his watch in a claw machine . A little boy wins his watch , which causes Peter to become angry and tries to force the watch off the child . Cheesie Charlie himself sees this and asks Peter to leave . But once Peter shows the deposit check , Cheesie Charlie immediately apologizes and exclaims how they are very excited to host Stewie 's birthday party . Peter , angered by how he was treated , states that they won 't be celebrating Stewie 's party there , which causes a crowd of people to circle around Cheesie Charlie shouting for the reservation . Peter , realizing what he has just done , immediately returns home with a poorly crafted lie in an attempt to evade Lois ' aggravation which involves him saying that they are Nazis who torture , kill and kidnap people . He pretends that he 's already planned an extravagant party at home so that Lois doesn 't have do any work .
Meanwhile , Stewie misinterprets the meaning of his birthday and assumes that the same mysterious " Man in White " who delivered him as an infant will be returning to force Stewie back into Lois ' womb from which he escaped just one year ago . Meg cries all the way home to Peter from cheerleading practice , and has been having trouble fitting in at school . Later , she discovers a new friend named Jennifer . Meanwhile , Stewie makes it all the way to the airport looking for tickets but then is stopped by a member of staff . The man then gives Stewie some advice saying that running from your problems never solves anything . Stewie then reflects on this , deciding to finally face " The Man in White " . But before he leaves , he wishes the man luck before freezing him in carbonite . Peter tries desperately , but ultimately unsuccessfully , to put together a party in time for Stewie 's birthday . He finally reroutes a circus into the Griffins ' backyard , saving the day - that is , until he reveals to Lois that he gave Meg permission to go to a party at her friend 's house . Lois , who wanted the whole family together for Stewie 's party , is upset with Peter for letting Meg go . What Peter and Lois don 't realize is that Meg 's " party " is actually a cult meeting where all the members are about to commit group suicide .
Peter goes to retrieve Meg from her " party " , oblivious to the fact that he is sparing her life in the process . The Cult Leader chases after them while wearing his ceremonial white robe and is mistaken by Stewie as " The Man in White " . Stewie does away with him and , feeling victorious , joins the others to enjoy his party .
= = Production = =
" Chitty Chitty Death Bang " was written by Danny Smith and directed by Dominic Polcino , both their first episodes in the Family Guy series . Staff writers included voice actor Mike Henry and Andrew Gormley , while Ricky Blitt , Chris Sheridan as executive story editors , and Neil Goldman and Garrett Donovan acted as the story editors . To help Polcino direct the episode were supervising directors Peter Shin and Roy Allen Smith .
In addition to the regular cast , guest stars included actor and comedian Patrick Bristow , animator , executive producer , animation director , storyboard artist and producer Butch Hartman ( who played Mr. Weed , Peter 's boss , and various other characters ) , writer Gary Janetti who played the Demon and Riff ) , actor John O 'Hurley ( who played the Cult Leader ) , and Waylon Jennings ( who played himself ) . Recurring cast members included Mike Henry who played Cleveland Brown and Lori Alan who played Dianne Simons . This is the first episode Seth MacFarlane 's sister , Rachael MacFarlane guest starred in the episode as the voice of Jennifer . In future episodes she would become a recurring voice actor for the series . Rachel has noted that she was asked by Seth to lend her voice for the show , but she did have to audition for the role .
As with the remaining first four episodes of the season , the title of the episode , " Chitty Chitty Death Bang " , was derived from 1930s and 1940s radio programs , particularly the radio thriller anthology " Suspense " , which featured several elements pertaining to death and murder . This convention was later dropped following the fourth episode of the season , " A Hero Sits Next Door " . due to individual episodes becoming difficult to identify and distinguish .
= = Cultural references = =
When Peter explains to Lois why he canceled the party at Cheesie Charlie 's , he said he had been kidnapped by them and that they are Nazis . He explains to Lois that he escaped by turning into the Incredible Hulk .
The place where Lois had planned Stewie 's birthday party is called Cheesie Charlie 's , which is a reference to the food chain Chuck E. Cheese 's .
When Stewie recalls how he was conceived he tells the story of which he was in a sperm ships and gets in to a fight with other sperm ships is a reference to fights in the Star Wars trilogy .
Peter loses his Dukes of Hazzard watch .
When Peter is looking for pigs for a petting zoo he takes down a house of straw and a house made of sticks , this is a reference to the fairy tale Three Little Pigs .
Peter is also struck in the head by a paintcan on a string , a reference to the film Home Alone .
Items added to the suicide cult punch mix by Jennifer include cyanide , arsenic , rat poison , and the book Couplehood by Paul Reiser .
The episode title is a reference to the 1968 musical film , Chitty Chitty Bang Bang .
= = Reception = =
A 2008 review of the episode written by Ahsan Haque of IGN was generally positive ; Haque stated that while it he did not believe " Chitty Chitty Death Bang " was an " instant classic , " it has " plenty of memorable moments " and " a nicely crafted storyline . " Haque went on to praise Peter 's attempt to " convince [ Lois ] that the people are Cheesie Charlie 's are Nazi devils who kidnapped him and that he only manages to escape because he was able to turn into the Incredible Hulk , " as well as Stewie 's role in the episode , calling it " extremely clever . " Haque concluded his review by rating the episode an 8 @.@ 4 / 10 . David Williams from the DVD Movie Guide , " said that " this episode saying that the episodes of the first season did a marvelous job of introducing the characters of the series to the viewers .
In his review of " Chitty Chitty Death Bang " the TV Critic called the writing in the episode wittier than in previous ones . He found the Stewie storyline very enjoyable , and also commented positively on the moral of the story . He criticized the Meg storyline as he did not find mass suicide funny ; he also commented that Peter felt a lot like Homer from The Simpsons . In his final comments he said it had some odd moments but it was a fun story .
= Beurre Maître d 'Hôtel =
Beurre Maître d 'Hôtel , also referred to as Maître d 'Hôtel butter , is a type of compound butter ( French : " Beurre composé " ) of French origin , prepared with butter , parsley , lemon juice , salt and pepper . It is a savory butter that is used on meats such as steak ( including the chateaubriand sauce for chateaubriand steak ) , fish , vegetables and other foods . It may be used in place of a sauce , and can significantly enhance a dish 's flavor . Some variations with a sweet flavor exist . It is usually served cold as sliced disks on foods , and is sometimes served as a side condiment .
= = Etymology = =
The name of Beurre Maître d 'Hôtel is derived from the manner in which it was commonly prepared from scratch by a restaurant 's maître d 'hôtel at diners ' tables . It is also referred to as Maître d 'Hôtel butter .
= = Preparation = =
Beurre Maître d 'Hôtel is a savory butter prepared by mixing softened butter with very finely minced parsley , lemon juice , salt and pepper . A ratio of around 1 @.@ 5 tablespoons of parsley to two ounces of butter may be used . Additional ingredients may include shallot and Worcestershire sauce . Vinegar is sometimes used , although its inclusion is rare . Cayenne pepper has also been used . After mixing , it is typically rolled in parchment paper or plastic wrap and chilled to harden .
= = Uses = =
Beurre Maître d 'Hôtel is usually served cold as sliced disks atop various foods , and sometimes as a side condiment . It is used on grilled meats such as steak and fish , and also on eggs , vegetables , potatoes and breads . Some variations exist , including a few sweet versions that include sugar , which may be used on dishes such as pancakes . When used as a topping , it is typically added just before the dish is served . It has also been served melted atop dishes , whereby it is placed atop foods during the last few minutes of cooking . It may be used in the place of a sauce , and a small amount can significantly add to a dish 's overall flavor .
= = = In Chateaubriand sauce = = =
Beurre Maître d 'Hôtel is used as an ingredient in Chateaubriand sauce , which is sometimes used in the preparation of Chateaubriand steak . The butter is used in the last stage of the sauce 's preparation , whereby after the sauce is strained , it is finished with Beurre Maître d 'Hôtel . Chopped tarragon may also be added to the sauce during this last preparation stage .
= Marceline the Vampire Queen =
Marceline the Vampire Queen is a character in the American animated television series Adventure Time created by Pendleton Ward . She is voiced by Olivia Olson in most appearances , by Ava Acres as a child and by Cloris Leachman as an old woman . Marceline is a fun @-@ loving 1 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old
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" I Remember You " . In " Memory of a Memory " , after Ash sold the teddy bear to a witch , Marceline was furious and broke up with him . In the episode " Sky Witch " , Marceline enlists Princess Bubblegum 's help , and they retrieve the bear , but in " Betty " , she sacrifices the bear in order to allow Simon the chance to communicate with his fiancée . Although she is very independent , her detachment often makes her feel alone , as seen in " Marceline 's Closet " ; while Jake and Finn are hiding in her closet , she expresses most of her feeling via the writings of her 500 @-@ year @-@ old diary . Throughout the series , Marceline is seen playing music ; in several official sources , she is described as " a wild rocker girl " . Several times throughout the series , she jams with Finn and Jake , and various others depending on the circumstances . She is usually shown playing her axe bass , which was formerly her family 's heirloom battle axe . According to Ward , she is ambidextrous , which explains her ability to play bass with both hands . She often finds it easier to express her feelings through music , as seen with songs like the " Fry Song " , about her father , and " I 'm Just Your Problem " , about her relationship with Princess Bubblegum .
= = = Relationships = = =
Marceline has a close relationship with Finn and Jake . Marceline and Finn have many things in common with one another ; in the episodes " Evicted " and " Henchman " it is stated that the reason Marceline befriended Finn is because he simply enjoys being himself . Although she has kissed Finn platonically on the cheek twice , Ward has noted that there is no romantic subtext between the two . On the other hand , Marceline and Jake share a more complex relationship . In her initial appearances , she derived pleasure from scaring Jake , who was terrified " of her vampire bite " . Jake , in turn , felt that she was evil and had managed to take over Finn 's mind . Due to this , Jake attempted to kill her several times , to no avail . However , after the events of " Henchman " , Jake seems to have forgotten his fear of her ; in " Memory of a Memory " , he even refers to her as a " friend " in one of her memories .
Marceline shares a rocky relationship with Princess Bubblegum . Initially , in the series bible , the two were described as " friendly rivals " competing for Finn 's attention . However , as the show has gone on , their relationship has been fleshed out and changed . Marceline was the first person to address Bubblegum by her first name — Bonnibel — which occurred in the episode " Go With Me " . Their connections are explored further in the season three episode " What Was Missing " . In the episode , Marceline 's song " I 'm Just Your Problem " and the dialogue between her and Bubblegum implied that there may have had some sort of relationship in the past , although the exact details surrounding the nature of the relationship were not explained . This later caused an internet controversy over Marceline 's sexual orientation . However , after the events of " What Was Missing " , Marceline and Bubblegum 's relationship seems to have gotten better , as the two spend quality time together in " Sky Witch " and " Stakes " .
Marceline and her father , Hunson Abadeer , have trouble accepting one another . Initially , Marceline feels that her father does not care for her , and expresses her feelings through the before @-@ mentioned " Fry Song " . Although they admit to loving each other , Abadeer constantly pressures Marceline to follow in the family business and take over ruling the Nightosphere , a prospective job Marceline does not want . Marceline and the Ice King also have a complicated relationship . In the episode " I Remember You " , it is revealed that the Ice King — then , the human man named Simon Petrikov — discovered her crying in the ruins of a city destroyed by the Mushroom Wars . It was Simon who gave little Marceline Hambo and attempted to watch over her . This kind gesture made the Ice King a long @-@ time close friend to Marceline . However , as the crown 's power increased , Simon began to forget more and more about his relationship with Marceline , until he had all but forgotten their friendship . Former storyboard artist and current supervising director for the series Adam Muto explained that Marceline and the Ice King 's history was not part of the series ' initial plan , but something that " evolved from [ the show 's ] original course and it will likely continue to evolve in the future . "
= = Reception = =
Marceline has attracted positive critical attention . Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club praised that the fact that she is one " of this show ’ s most tragic characters " . He later wrote that her addition " was a major turning point for the series , introducing a hip , adventure @-@ loving female to the cast who can hold her own against Finn and Jake and also has a strong connection to Ooo ’ s past . " Furthermore , he noted that " she ’ s been at the center of some of the show ’ s most emotional episodes " , and " beyond her dramatic value , Marceline tends to just make every episode better " because " her writers clearly enjoy writing scenes for her " . Susana Polo of The Mary Sue referred to the character as " one of the radder characters " in the series . Cam Shea of IGN named Marceline 's introduction in " Evicted ! " as the fourth best moment in the series ' first season . He wrote that " sure , in this episode she evicts Finn and Jake from their home ... but hey , this is the first time we meet her and she 's awesome . " He later wrote that " Marceline = best " . io9 writer Charlies Jane Anders wrote that Marceline 's — as well as the Ice King 's — appearance in " I Remember You " was " one of the most intense things I 've seen in ages . " She praised Marceline 's development from a " pretty one @-@ note villain " to a type of person that " we sort of knew " . CartoonNetwork.co.uk named her " Character of the Week " on January 24 , 2012 . The Guardian called Marceline the best character in Adventure Time in a DVD review of the series , noting in particular that " she 's … responsible for some of the show 's best songs . "
The production crew of Adventure Time are also pleased with the character . Ward has stated several times that Marceline is his favorite character because he does not " know everything about her character yet " , which he finds " mysterious [ and ] cool " . Rynda claimed that Marceline was probably his favorite character in the series because " she 's just really fun to draw . " Marceline is also particularly popular with the Adventure Time fan base , and after the release of " Evicted ! " her popularity grew enormously . Ward later noted that he felt " good about that . It 's nice " . The character 's popularity has been recognized by the company that owns Adventure Time . In fact , the official press release for the Adventure Time : Marceline and the Scream Queens companion comic book referred to the character as a " fan @-@ favorite " .
Marceline 's popularity has transcended into other mediums of popular culture ; American singer Willow dedicated two tracks of her debut album Ardipithecus to the character , which were eponymously named after her .
= = = Relationship controversy = = =
The episode " What Was Missing " became controversial because of an allegedly implied past relationship between Marceline and Princess Bubblegum . The controversy largely began after an accompanying " Mathematical " recap — a studio @-@ endorsed behind the scenes video series implied that there were lesbian relations between Princess Bubblegum and Marceline and that the writing staff actively seeks input from fans . This incident was addressed by the show 's producer , Fred Seibert , who said that " in trying to get the show ’ s audience involved we got wrapped up by both fan conjecture and spicy fanart and went a little too far . " Soon after , the video recap and the entire channel was pulled off of YouTube , although " What Was Missing " still airs during reruns . Seibert 's decision to remove the video also proved controversial ; Bitch magazine later wrote an article about how the episode " handled female desire — female queer desire at that — in a subtle but complex way " , but that the removal of the recap and the studio 's perceived treatment of the controversy was detrimental towards the acceptance of queer romance in children 's television . Ward later addressed the issue and gave a more neutral view ; he said that , because there were " so many extreme positions taken on it all over the Internet " , he did not " really want to comment on it [ because ] it was a big hullaballoo . "
In August 2014 , Olson told a crowd of fans gathered at a Barnes & Noble book signing from The Adventure Time Encyclopedia , that , according to Ward , Marceline and Princess Bubblegum had dated in the past , but that because the series airs in some areas where homosexual relationships are illegal , the show has not been able to officially make clear the relationship in the series itself .
= Red @-@ tailed black cockatoo =
The red @-@ tailed black cockatoo ( Calyptorhynchus banksii ) also known as Banksian- or Banks ' black cockatoo , is a large black cockatoo native to Australia . Adult males have a characteristic pair of bright red panels on the tail that gives the species its name . It is more common in the drier parts of the continent . Five subspecies are recognised , differing most significantly in beak size . Although the more northerly subspecies are widespread , the two southern subspecies , the forest red @-@ tailed black cockatoo and the south @-@ eastern red @-@ tailed black cockatoo are under threat .
The species is usually found in eucalyptus woodlands , or along water courses . In the more northerly parts of the country , these cockatoos are commonly seen in large flocks . They are seed eaters and cavity nesters , and as such depend on trees with fairly large diameters , generally Eucalyptus . Populations in southeastern Australia are threatened by deforestation and other habitat alterations . Of the black cockatoos , the red @-@ tailed is the most adaptable to aviculture , although black cockatoos are much rarer and much more expensive in aviculture outside Australia .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
The species complex was first described by the ornithologist John Latham in 1790 as Psittacus banksii , commemorating English botanist Sir Joseph Banks . The red @-@ tailed black cockatoo also has the distinction of being the first bird from Eastern Australia illustrated by a European , as a female , presumably collected at Endeavour River in north Queensland , was sketched by Banks ' draughtsman Sydney Parkinson in 1770 . Narrowly predating Latham , English naturalist George Shaw described Psittacus magnificus from a specimen collected somewhere in the Port Jackson ( now Sydney ) region . For many years , the species was referred to as Calyptorhynchus magnificus , proposed by Gregory Mathews in 1927 as Shaw 's name had predated Latham 's 1790 description . For several decades , Mathews ' proposal was accepted by many authorities , although it was unclear whether the original Port Jackson reference had actually referred to the red @-@ tailed black or , more likely , the glossy black cockatoo . In 1994 , an application to conserve Calyptorhynchus banksii as the scientific name was accepted by the ICZN . The red @-@ tailed black cockatoo is the type species of the genus Calyptorhynchus , the name of which is derived from the Greek calypto- / καλυπτο- " hidden " and rhynchus / ρυγχος " beak " . The change was first made by Anselme Gaëtan Desmarest in 1826 .
In 1827 , Jennings proposed the name Psittacus niger for the bird . The binomial combination had already been used by Carl Linnaeus for the lesser vasa parrot in 1758 , and by Johann Friedrich Gmelin for the palm cockatoo in 1788 ; it was thus invalid even though both other species were already known by different names at the time . Alternate common names include Banks ' black cockatoo , Banksian black cockatoo , or simply black cockatoo . Indigenous people of the central Cape York Peninsula have several names for the bird : ( minha ) pachang in Pakanh ; ( inh - ) inhulg in Uw Oykangand ; and ( inh - ) anhulg in Uw Olkola . ( The bracketed prefix ( inh- or minha ) is a qualifier meaning ' meat ' or ' animal ' . ) Ngarnarrh or KarnamarrTo are terms used by the Gunwinggu of Arnhem Land . In Central Australia , southwest of Alice Springs , the Pitjantjatjara term for the subspecies C. b. samueli is iranti . Karrak is a Noongar term derived from the call for the southwestern race C. b. naso . In the language of the Bungandidj of south @-@ eastern South Australia and western Victoria this bird was called treen .
= = = Classification = = =
The red @-@ tailed black cockatoo 's closest relative is the glossy black cockatoo ; the two species form the subgenus Calyptorhynchus within the genus of the same name . They are distinguished from the other black cockatoos of the subgenus Zanda by their significant sexual dimorphism and calls of the juveniles ; one a squeaking begging call , the other a vocalization when swallowing food .
A 1999 mtDNA phylogenetic study of cockatoos utilizing among others , the red @-@ tailed black cockatoo supported the hypotheses that cockatoos originated in Australia before the Paleogene and Neogene periods ( 66 mya , marking the end of the Mesozoic , to 2 @.@ 6 mya ) and that the genus Cacatua diversified in two separate radiations to the islands of Indonesia , New Guinea , and the South Pacific . It concluded that the first extant cockatoo to diverge from the ancestral cockatoos was the palm cockatoo , followed by a subclade containing the black cockatoos .
A 2008 mitochondrial and nuclear DNA phylogenetic study of the parrots , cockatoos and related taxa by utilizing among others the yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoo , provides confirmatory evidence for a Gondwanaland origin of the ancestral parrots in the Cretaceous period , and an Australasia divergence of the ancestral cockatoos from the parrots in either late Cretaceous ( 66 mya ) or Paleogene ( 45 mya ) periods depending on baseline assumptions .
Five subspecies are recognised ; they differ mainly in the size and shape of the beak , the overall bird size and female colouration :
C. b. banksii is found in Queensland and , rarely , in far northern New South Wales ; it is the largest subspecies by overall body size and has a moderate @-@ sized bill . It merges with subspecies macrorhynchus around the Gulf of Carpentaria . It has disappeared from much of its former range in northern New South Wales and southeast Queensland .
C. b. graptogyne , ( Endangered ) known as the south @-@ eastern red @-@ tailed black cockatoo , is found in southwestern Victoria and southeastern South Australia in an area bordered by Mount Gambier to the west , Portland to the south , Horsham to the northeast and Bordertown to the north . The smallest of the five subspecies , it was only recognised as distinct in the 1980s . It is predominantly dependent on stands of Eucalyptus baxteri ( brown stringybark ) , Eucalyptus camaldulensis ( river redgum ) and Allocasuarina luehmannii ( buloke ) for feeding and nesting . These tree species have been all threatened by land clearing and most remaining are on private land ; possibly only 500 – 1000 individuals remain . The subspecies and its habitat are the subject of a national recovery plan . In 2007 local landowners are being reimbursed for assisting in regenerating suitable habitat .
C. b. macrorhynchus , given the name great @-@ billed cockatoo by Mathews , is found across northern Australia . Although thought to be widespread and abundant , this subspecies has been little studied . It is also large and has a large beak , as its subspecific name implies . Females lack red colouration in their tails .
C. b. naso ( Near Threatened ) is known as the forest red @-@ tailed black cockatoo and is found in the southwest corner of Western Australia between Perth and Albany . This form has a larger bill , and favours marri ( Corymbia ( formerly Eucalyptus ) calophylla ) , jarrah ( E. marginata ) and karri ( E. diversicolor ) .
C. b. samueli exists in four scattered populations : in central coastal Western Australia from the Pilbara south to the northern Wheatbelt in the vicinity of Northam , and inland river courses in Central Australia , southwestern Queensland and the upper Darling River system in Western New South Wales . Birds of this subspecies are generally smaller with smaller bills than the nominate banksii .
= = Description = =
Red @-@ tailed black cockatoos are around 60 centimetres ( 24 in ) in length and sexually dimorphic . The male 's plumage is all black with a prominent black crest made up of elongated feathers from the forehead and crown . The bill is dark grey . The tail is also black with two lateral bright red panels . Females are black with yellow @-@ orange stripes in the tail and chest , and yellow grading to red spots on the cheeks and wings . The bill is pale and horn @-@ coloured . The underparts are barred with fine yellow over a black base . Male birds weigh between 670 and 920 grams ( 1 @.@ 5 – 2 lb ) , while females weigh slightly less at 615 – 870 grams ( 1 @.@ 25 – 1 @.@ 75 lb ) . In common with other cockatoos and parrots , red @-@ tailed black cockatoos have zygodactyl feet , two toes facing forward and two backward , that allow them to grasp objects with one foot while standing on the other , for feeding and manipulation . Black cockatoos are almost exclusively left @-@ footed ( along with nearly all other cockatoos and most parrots ) .
Juvenile red @-@ tailed black cockatoos resemble females until puberty , which occurs around four years of age , but have paler yellow barred underparts . As the birds reach maturity , males gradually replace their yellow tail feathers with red ones ; the complete process takes around four years .
As with other cockatoos , the red @-@ tailed black cockatoo can be very long @-@ lived in captivity ; in 1938 , ornithologist Neville Cayley reported one over fifty years old at Taronga Zoo . Another bird residing at London and Rotterdam Zoos was 45 years and 5 months of age when it died in 1979 .
Several calls of red @-@ tailed black cockatoos have been recorded . The bird 's contact call is a rolling metallic krur @-@ rr or kree , which may carry long distances and is always given while flying ; its alarm call is sharp . Displaying males vocalize a sequence of soft growling followed by a repetitive kred @-@ kred @-@ kred @-@ kred .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The red @-@ tailed black cockatoo principally occurs across the drier parts of Australia . It is widespread and abundant in a broad band across the northern half of the country , where it has been considered an agricultural pest , with more isolated distribution in the south . It is found in a wide variety of habitats , from shrublands and grasslands through eucalypt , sheoak and Acacia woodlands , to dense tropical rainforests . The bird is dependent on large , old eucalypts for nesting hollows , although the specific gums used vary in different parts of the country .
Cockatoos are not wholly migratory , but they do exhibit regular seasonal movements in different parts of Australia . In the northern parts of the Northern Territory , they largely leave areas of high humidity in the summer wet season . In other parts of the country cockatoo seasonal movements tend to follow food sources , a pattern recorded in Northern Queensland , and New South Wales . In southwest Western Australia , both extant subspecies appear to have a north @-@ south pattern ; northwards after breeding in the case of subspecies naso , while movements by subspecies samueli in the wheatbelt can be irregular and unrelated to the seasons .
= = Behaviour = =
Red @-@ tailed black cockatoos are diurnal , raucous and noisy , and are often seen flying high overhead in small flocks , sometimes mixed with other cockatoos . Flocks of up to 500 birds are generally only seen in the north or when the birds are concentrated at some food source . Otherwise , they are generally rather shy of humans . In northern and central Australia , birds may feed on the ground , while the two southern subspecies , graptogyne and naso , are almost exclusively arboreal . They tend to fly rather slowly with intermittent deep flapping wingbeats , markedly different from the shallow wingbeats of the similar glossy black cockatoo . They also often fly at considerable height .
= = = Diet = = =
Although red @-@ tailed black cockatoos feed on a wide variety of native and introduced grains , the mainstay of their diet is eucalyptus seeds . There is a specific relationship between the species and larger @-@ fruited species of gums . These vary across Australia but include the marri in Southwest Western Australia , Darwin woolybutt E. miniata across the north of the country , E. baxteri in Victoria and the bloodwood species Corymbia polycarpa and C. intermedia in Queensland . Cockatoos bite off branchlets with clusters of seed capsules , then hold them with their feet while chewing and harvesting seeds before littering the ground with debris . Among other seeds and nuts consumed are those of Acacia , Allocasuarina , Banksia , Grevillea and Hakea , as well as berries , fruits and various insects . Cockatoos have adapted to eating some introduced plants such as the doublegee ( Emex australis ) . There is some evidence of consumption of wild radish ( Raphanus raphanistrum ) , wild turnip ( Brassica tournefortii ) and melon ( Citrullus or Cucumis ) . Red @-@ tailed black cockatoos have been implicated as agricultural pests of peanut and other crops at Lakeland Downs in Far North Queensland . Here the cockatoos , in flocks of up to several hundred birds , have learned to sever the peanut plants above ground level before pulling the peanuts out of the ground by their stems and shelling them . They also damage electrical cables on pivot irrigators .
= = = Breeding = = =
The male red @-@ tailed black cockatoo courts by puffing up crest and cheek feathers , and hiding the beak ; it then sings and struts , ending in a jump and a flash of red tail feathers toward the female who will most often reply by defensively biting him . Breeding generally takes place from May to September except in the case of the South @-@ eastern subspecies , which nests during summer ( December to February ) . Pairs of the subspecies samueli in the Wheatbelt region of Western Australia may produce two broods , while those of South @-@ eastern subspecies only produce one . Nesting takes place in large vertical tree hollows of tall trees . Isolated trees are generally chosen , so birds can fly to and from them relatively unhindered . The same tree may be used for many years . Hollows can be 1 to 2 metres ( 3 – 7 ft ) deep and 0 @.@ 25 – 0 @.@ 5 metres ( 10 – 20 in ) wide , with a base of woodchips . A clutch consists of 1 to 2 white , lustreless eggs , although the second chick is in most cases neglected and perishes in infancy .
= = Conservation status = =
The red @-@ tailed black cockatoo is protected under the Australian Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Amendment ( Wildlife Protection ) Act 2001 . These birds are listed internationally under Appendix II of CITES , which allows international trade in live wild @-@ caught and captive @-@ bred specimens , if such exports are not detrimental to wild populations . However , the current Australian restrictions on commercial exports from Australia are not imposed by CITES . C. b. graptogyne is also specifically listed as endangered on the Australian Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 .
Status of the red @-@ tailed black cockatoo as a species , and as a subspecies , also varies from state to state within Australia . For example :
The south @-@ eastern red @-@ tailed black cockatoo subspecies C. b. graptogyne is listed as endangered on Schedule 7 of the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972 of South Australia. and is the smallest of the species . Though a June , 2012 count of approximately 1500 individuals is a notable increase from the 2007 count of just 1000 , it remains in danger of extinction .
C. b. graptogyne is also listed as threatened on the Victorian Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act ( 1988 ) . Under this Act , an Action Statement for the recovery and future management of this species has been prepared . However , it should also be noted that the red @-@ tailed black cockatoo is listed under this Act under its previous Latin name , Calyptorhynchus magnificus . On the 2007 advisory list of threatened vertebrate fauna in Victoria , this subspecies is listed as endangered .
The red @-@ tailed black cockatoo is listed as vulnerable on the NSW Threatened Species Conservation Act ( 1995 )
Like many Australian cockatoos and parrots , the red @-@ tailed black cockatoo is threatened by the thriving illegal trade in bird smuggling . High demand and high transit mortality mean that many more birds are taken from the wild than actually sold .
In 1997 , the Northern Territory Government 's Department of Natural Resources , Environment and The Arts ( now defunct ) proposed a plan for management of the trade in eggs and nestlings of C. b. macrorhynchus . To date the plan has not been implemented . The Australian Senate inquiry into the Commercial Utilisation of Australian Native Wildlife concluded in early 1998 that routine capture and commercial use of adult wild birds should be prohibited .
= = Aviculture = =
In the late 1990s , red @-@ tailed black cockatoos fetched prices of $ 1750 in Australia and $ 8900 ( ~ US $ 6000 ) overseas . Hand @-@ raised birds can be bought for anywhere between $ 15 @,@ 000 to $ 40 @,@ 000 in the United States , where they are seldom seen in aviculture . Hand @-@ reared birds are able to learn a few words and can be quite affectionate , although males may become imprinted and unlikely to breed . The red @-@ tailed black cockatoo is the most commonly seen of the black cockatoos in captivity , and can be hardy and long @-@ lived if given plenty of space . Until now , most birds in captivity have been of subspecies C. b. banksii and C. b. samueli . Birds were often previously bred without much attention to subspecies of origin . However , with an increase in interest in conservation , more aviculturists are concerned about maintaining the integrity of the separate subspecies in cultivation , and so avoid crossbreeding .
The birds breed easily in captivity and can lay eggs every 3 weeks between February and November . Once the female has one egg in her nest , she will not lay another . An egg takes about 30 days to hatch . The eyes of the young open around 3 weeks and the yellow down will show black pin feathers at about 6 weeks . The best time for hand raising is at about 10 weeks when their black feathers are in place but the tail feathers are still short . Young birds fledge after about 4 months and both sexes have the colouring of their mother . Mature male birds will become aggressive to young male birds at puberty ( 4 years ) ; they must be separated if caged .
The large and powerful bills of these birds can quickly and easily open a Brazil nut ( normally requiring crushing in a vise or pounding with a hammer ) , shearing it as neatly as a laser.They can also demolish a whole coconut with husk in 3 days
Captive breeding guidelines may be found in Husbandry Guidelines for the Red @-@ tailed Black Cockatoo ( Bennett , 2008 ) .
= = Cultural depictions = =
A red @-@ tailed black cockatoo , named Karak , was the official mascot of the 2006 Commonwealth Games held in Melbourne . Promotion coincided with an implementation of initiatives to ensure the survival of the South @-@ eastern subspecies graptogyne , as well as increased environmental awareness at the games .
A traditional story from western Arnhem Land tells of Black Cockatoo and her husband Crow , who are Bird @-@ people , sprouting black feathers after becoming afflicted with a sickness from across the sea to the north . In fear of being buried underground , they transform into birds and fly high in the sky .
In the folklore of the Tiwi people , the red @-@ tailed black cockatoo is said to accompany the dead to heaven .
= Daicon III and IV Opening Animations =
The Daicon III and IV Opening Animations are two short , anime , 8 mm films that were produced for the 1981 Daicon III and 1983 Daicon IV Nihon SF Taikai conventions . They were produced by a group of amateur animators known as Daicon Film , who would later go on to form the animation studio Gainax . The films are known for their unusually high production values for amateur works and for including numerous references to otaku culture , as well as its appropriation of the song " Twilight " ( 1981 ) by English rock band Electric Light Orchestra .
Daicon III was made by Hideaki Anno , Hiroyuki Yamaga and Takami Akai and Daicon IV credits twelve people , including Yamada as the director and Anno and Akai as animation supervisors . Despite the questionable legal status of the works , the production of Daicon III resulted in debts that were repaid by selling video tapes and 8mm reels of the production ; of which the profits went to the production of Daicon IV . In 2001 , the anime magazine Animage ranked the Daicon animations as the 35th of the " Top 100 " anime of all time .
= = Summary = =
= = = Daicon III Opening Animation = = =
The Jet VTOL ship from Ultraman 's Science Patrol descends out of the sky toward Earth , as a school girl , carrying her randoseru , observes from behind a tree . The Science Patrol offer the girl a cup of water and ask her to deliver it to " DAICON " . The girl salutes and races away , but she quickly experiences trouble as Punk Dragon blocks her path . He summons a mecha from Starship Troopers , and it and the girl begin battling . The girl tosses the mecha aside and Gomora rises from the earth . Using a booster concealed in her backpack , the girl flies up into the sky and evades Gomora 's blast , with the mecha flying after her . They continue their battle in mid @-@ air . A blow from the mecha sends the girl falling , imperiling her cup of water . At the last moment , she has a vision of the Science Patrol and regains consciousness . She snatches the cup before it crashes to the ground . Resuming her battle with the mecha , she catches one of its missiles and hurls it back at the mecha , causing a huge explosion . The destroyed mecha launches a rocket , summoning Godzilla with the Ideon symbol . With King Ghidorah and Gamera chasing her , the girl flies through the air with her jet @-@ propelled backpack . A Star Destroyer , a TIE fighter , and Martian fighting machines from the film The War of the Worlds ( 1953 ) cross the background . Reaching into her backpack , the girl pulls out a bamboo ruler , which magically becomes a lightsaber . After slicing an Alien Baltan in half , the girl launches a number of miniature missiles from her backpack . Hit by one of the missiles , a Maser Tank from the Godzilla series catches fire . The Atragon breaks in two as the Yamato , the USS Enterprise , an X @-@ wing fighter and Daimajin explode in complete chaos . The girl pours her cup of water on a shriveled daikon buried in the ground . As the daikon absorbs the water , it turns into the spaceship Daicon . Bathed in light , and now wearing a naval uniform , the girl boards the ship , where the film 's producers , Toshio Okada and Yasuhiro Takeda , sit at the controls . As the landing gear retracts , Daicon departs for the far reaches of the universe .
= = = Daicon IV Opening Animation = = =
The Daicon IV Opening Animation begins with an abridged , 90 @-@ second retelling of the Daicon III Opening Animation set to music by Kitarō . After this , " Prologue " by Electric Light Orchestra is heard , while the lyrics appear against a starfield and an outline of the spaceship Daicon passes in the background . The film proper begins as " Prologue " segues into " Twilight " , the song which follows it on the album Time .
The girl from the previous animation is now an adult , wearing a bunny costume . She fights off a multitude of sci @-@ fi monsters and mobile suits then jumps into a throng of Metron Seijin and tosses them aside . She is then in a lightsaber duel with Darth Vader , with Stormtroopers sitting in the background and the Death Star enshrined in one corner . From atop a cliff , a xenomorph with artificial legs , wielding the Discovery One , knocks the girl down with an energy burst and the Dynaman robot attempts to crush her . The girl lifts the Dynaman robot off her with superhuman strength and smashes it against a cliff . The Stormbringer suddenly appears in the sky , and the girl jumps on it , riding it like a surfboard . A few scenes unconnected to the main plot are shown , such as Yoda as Yū Ida given a Japanese comedy routine with various characters in the audience . The girl is still riding the Stormbringer when she runs into a formation of Ultrahawk 1 's . Then the Yamato , the Arcadia attached to the transformed SDF @-@ 1 Macross appear , along with an exploding VF @-@ 1 Valkyrie variable fighter from Macross armed with a Gundam @-@ style beam saber . An air battle unfolds in an otaku coffee shop . The girl is then seen in a world filled with American comic superheroes . A host of machines and characters ( from The Lord of the Rings , Conan , Narnia , Pern , and others ) fly past her into space , including a Klingon battle cruiser , the moon ship from H. G. Wells ' First Men in the Moon , the Millennium Falcon , Lord Jaxom and the Thunderbirds . Once back on land , the girl jumps off the Stormbringer and it splits into seven parts , which fly though the sky spewing smoke in seven colors . A sequence of famous spaceships crashing into each other is shown . Then , suddenly , " what could only be described as an atomic bomb " explodes over an unpopulated city , leaving behind a flurry of sakura petals . Successive upheavals of the Earth give birth to new worlds . As a beam launched by the Daicon traverses the sky , lush greenery sprouts and grows . The camera then pans over a massive crowd of fictional characters , the sun rises , the camera zooms out to the solar system , and the film ends with an image of the Daicon logo .
= = Production = =
Originally , the productions were intended to be shot in 16 mm film , but both were shot in 8 mm film instead and were completed only the morning before their debut . In order to pay off the debts of the productions , video copies of the animation were sold . Eng declares this as the first example of original video animation ( OVA ) predating Dallos . Kazutaka Miyatake of Studio Nue originally designed the mecha that appears in the Daicon III clip chasing the little girl for a Japanese edition of the military science fiction novel Starship Troopers novel in the early eighties .
= = = Daicon III = = =
Only three people were involved in the production of Daicon III , Hideaki Anno , Hiroyuki Yamaga and Takami Akai . Takeda , who was a part of the group , explains in Notenki Memoirs that Anno knew how to make anime , but he never worked with animation cels . They were referred to Animepolis Pero , an anime hobby store chain , but they found that the cost of the cels were too expensive , so a single cel was purchased and taken to a vinyl manufacturer in east Osaka , where they purchased a roll for 2000 yen . After cutting and preparing the vinyl cels , they discovered that the painted cels would stick together when stacked and dry paint would peel off the cels . To keep costs low , they made their own tap to punch holes in the B5 animation paper used in the production .
The work was carried out in an empty room of Okada 's house where their business was also operated . While other people were present , the work was shared and Anno , Akai and Yamaga worked full @-@ time on the production , the direction was not professional , but Takeada attributed Okada as the producer , with Yamaga directing , Akai doing character animation and Anno as the mecha animator . Takeada also said other individuals were involved and were used to trace cels or paint cels as needed , but still credits Yamaga , Akai and Anno with the production itself . Filming was done by a camera on a tripod and frames were called out by Anno because the production lacked timing sheets .
Osamu Tezuka did not see the opening film at Daicon III , but was shown the film by Akai and Yamaga later that night . After watching the film , Tezuka remarked " Well , there certainly were a lot of characters in the film . ... [ T ] here were also some that weren 't in the film " . Akai and Yamaga later realized the omission of Tezuka 's characters ; they were subsequently used in the Daicon IV animation . According to Toshio Okada , the theme of water in the opening represented " opportunity " and Lawrence Eng , an otaku researcher , describes the theme as , " ... making the best use of one 's opportunities while fighting against those who would seek to steal such opportunity away . "
= = = Daicon IV = = =
The production facility for Daicon IV was in a dedicated studio in a building called the Hosei Kaikan that was owned by a textile union . Takeda defined it as a literal anime sweatshop , the building was shutdown at 9 : 00 pm and a majority of the staff would be locked inside and working through the night without air conditioning . The Daicon IV film officially credits a production crew of twelve people . Hiroyuki Yamaga directed the production of Daicon IV with Hideaki Anno and Takami Akai as animation directors . Toru Saegusa did the artwork and the animations were done with Yoshiyuki Sadamoto , Mahiro Maeda , Norifumi Kiyozumi ; additional animation was provided by Ichiro Itano , Toshihiro Hirano , Narumi Kakinouchi , Sadami Morikawa , Kazutaka Miyatake . Originally , Daicon IV was supposed to be fifteen minutes long , but the difficult production resulted in the cut time .
= = Reception and release = =
The Daicon III film was reported on in Animec magazine which resulted in requests for the film to be released publicly . In order to pay off the debts from producing the film , the decision was made to sell 8mm reels of the film and videos . Additional original artwork and the storyboards were included in the release . The sale paid the debts and the profit would be used to produce Daicon IV .
Due to copyright problems an official release of the animations has proven impossible . For the American release of the film , the rights to use of the Playboy bunny costume was
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to instability in the south of England . Ine , Cædwalla 's successor , abdicated in 726 , and the West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List says that he reigned for thirty @-@ seven years , implying his reign began in 689 instead of 688 . This could indicate an unsettled period between Cædwalla 's abdication and Ine 's accession . The kingship also changed in Kent in 688 , with Oswine , who was apparently a Mercian client , taking the throne ; and there is evidence of East Saxon influence in Kent in the years immediately following Cædwalla 's abdication .
In 694 , Ine extracted compensation of 30 @,@ 000 pence from the Kentishmen for the death of Mul ; this amount represented the value of an aetheling 's life in the Saxon system of Weregild . Ine appears to have retained control of Surrey , but did not recover Kent . No king of Wessex was to venture so far east until Egbert , over a hundred years later .
= Taunton by @-@ election , 1754 =
The Taunton by @-@ election of 1754 to the Parliament of Great Britain was held across thirteen days , from 10 – 24 December 1754 in Taunton , the county town of the southwestern English county of Somerset . It took place following the death of the incumbent Whig Member of Parliament , John Halliday . The by @-@ election was contested by Robert Maxwell on behalf of the Whigs , and Sir John Pole , 5th Baronet for the Tories . Maxwell was elected with a majority of 56 . The election had over 700 rejected votes , and the result caused rioting in Taunton , during which two people were killed .
The election was fiercely contested , and both sides incurred great expenses during the campaign . There was not another contested election in Taunton for almost twenty years , and during that time the Taunton Market House Society was set up with the aim of preventing the bad blood of a contested election , and to spend money that would have otherwise been spent on campaigning on improving the town . Maxwell remained as one of Taunton 's members of parliament until 1768 .
= = Background = =
= = = Vacancy and nominations = = =
In the mid @-@ 18th century , the parliamentary constituency of Taunton , which had an electorate of around 500 , returned predominantly Whig members of parliament , partly due to an agreement between Charles Wyndham , 2nd Earl of Egremont and the local Dissenters ; Lord Egremont , the chief landowner in the borough , would nominate a candidate for one of the two seats , while the Dissenters would name the second . Nationally , parliament had been controlled by the Whigs since 1715 , in what was dubbed the " Whig Supremacy " by Basil Williams . At the 1754 general election , Lord Egremont put forward his brother @-@ in @-@ law , George Carpenter , 3rd Baron Carpenter , while the Dissenters nominated one of their own , John Halliday . The pair were elected unopposed . Two months after the election , on 8 June 1754 , Halliday died , resulting in a by @-@ election being called to fill the vacant seat .
The Dissenters proposed Robert Webb , who had previously served as the member for Taunton from 1747 until the general election in 1754 , to fill the vacancy . The recent history of the elections in Taunton suggested that no opposition would be offered : the last contested election had been in 1741 . That however proved not to be the case , and a group of Tories put forward their own candidate , Sir John Pole , 5th Baronet of Shute in Devon . Webb did not want the expense of a contested election , and withdrew , leaving the Dissenters without a candidate . Unable to find a suitable candidate , the Dissenters appealed to Lord Egremont to locate someone to stand for the Whiggish interest . The Mayor , Henry Manly , was sent to London to meet with the Whig Prime Minister , Thomas Pelham @-@ Holles , 1st Duke of Newcastle , to try and secure a candidate . Manly reported that the Duke of Newcastle did not want the seat to go to a Tory , and was willing to fund the election from the secret service account ( more accurately the King 's private money , a fund which was not accountable to Parliament ) . Eventually , through communication with both Lord Egremont and the Duke of Newcastle , Robert Maxwell came forward as the Whig candidate . Maxwell offered to spend up to £ 3 @,@ 000 on the election , in addition to the money promised from the secret service fund .
= = = Candidates = = =
John Pole was the only son of Sir William Pole , 4th Baronet . The family owned the Shute House estate in east Devon , and had returned six generations of members of parliament , including John Pole 's father . He had inherited the estate , and the baronetcy upon his father 's death in 1741 . Robert Maxwell was the oldest son of John Maxwell , 1st Baron Farnham , an Irish politician and peer . Robert had been a member of the Parliament of Ireland since 1743 for the constituency of Lisburn . He had not stood for the British parliament during the 1754 general election , though he was by that time almost certainly resident in England .
= = Result = =
When Halliday died in June , parliament was in recess . As a result of this , a writ could not be issued until parliament reconvened in the winter . This extended the election campaign to run for six months , causing major disruption to the wool trade in the town . In his History of Taunton , Joshua Toulmin reported that the length of the campaigning allowed " the display of every manoeuvre , and the exertion of every power , by which the parties could counteract each other 's views . " A lot of money was spent on both sides of the election ; in addition to the £ 3 @,@ 000 which Maxwell said he was willing to spend , the government put forward £ 3 @,@ 675 of secret service money for his campaign . Both men had plates and mugs made which were given free to the voters , generally full of food and drink . A number of delft plates bearing the enscription " Sir John Pole for ever " still exist , and one such plate sold for over £ 2 @,@ 000 in 2011 . A drinking glass with a similar inscription is housed at the British Museum in London . The public houses became aligned to one of the two candidates , and much of the campaign money was placed into these to gain their support . Toulmin lamented that " the houses of entertainment were kept open during all this time ; [ ... ] habits of idleness and licentiousness were formed . " In a letter to Lord Sackville , Maxwell wrote that the election campaign involved " a great deal of smoking , some drinking , and kissing some hundreds of women . "
Maxwell travelled down to Taunton in August to contest the seat , and the vacancy was nationally advertised in October . Despite this , the voting did not commence until 10 December 1754 . The voting ran for thirteen days , and closed on 24 December ; Maxwell received 198 votes to Pole 's 142 , giving Maxwell a majority of 56 . During the course of the voting , over 700 votes were discounted , and it has been referred to as being " notoriously corrupt " .
When the result was announced , the public showed " their displeasure by assaulting the friends of Mr Maxwell . " Maxwell himself had to be escorted back to where he was staying , but during the rioting that ensued , the houses of those known to support Maxwell were attacked . The Derby Mercury reported that Robert Pearsall , a Dissenter minister who had been prominent in Maxwell 's campaign , was threatened with having his house pulled down and being sacrificed . Two people , a man and a woman , were killed during the rioting , which prompted two troops of dragoons to be sent to the town , placed at the command of the Mayor , in case of emergency . One of the murderers was caught and sent to the County Jail in Ilchester , but the other escaped .
= = Aftermath = =
Maxwell , who became the 2nd Baron Farnham upon his father 's death in 1759 , and then Viscount Farnham in 1760 , was returned unopposed at the 1761 general election . He pressed for a position in parliament , suggesting " being in the Admiralty or being paymaster of the pensions . " However , this desire was only because he thought that such a position would provide a stepping stone to a higher peerage , and he was made the Earl of Farnham , in the Irish peerage in 1763 . He initially stood at the general election in 1768 , but withdrew from the election in the face of strong opposition .
The Market House Society was formed in Taunton in 1763 by a group who wished to avoid a repeat of the expensive and violent election in 1754 . They made it their aim to " prevent the evils and drunkenness of a contested election " , and vowed to spend the money that would have otherwise been spent on campaigning on improving Taunton . They put forward two candidates in 1768 , who after the withdrawal of Maxwell and another , were returned unopposed for Taunton .
= Augusta , Lady Gregory =
Isabella Augusta , Lady Gregory ( née Persse ; 15 March 1852 – 22 May 1932 ) was an Irish dramatist , folklorist and theatre manager . With William Butler Yeats and Edward Martyn , she co @-@ founded the Irish Literary Theatre and the Abbey Theatre , and wrote numerous short works for both companies . Lady Gregory produced a number of books of retellings of stories taken from Irish mythology . Born into a class that identified closely with British rule , her conversion to cultural nationalism , as evidenced by her writings , was emblematic of many of the political struggles to occur in Ireland during her lifetime .
Lady Gregory is mainly remembered for her work behind the Irish Literary Revival . Her home at Coole Park , County Galway , served as an important meeting place for leading Revival figures , and her early work as a member of the board of the Abbey was at least as important for the theatre 's development as her creative writings . Lady Gregory 's motto was taken from Aristotle : " To think like a wise man , but to express oneself like the common people . "
= = Early life and marriage = =
Gregory was born at Roxborough , County Galway , the youngest daughter of the Anglo @-@ Irish gentry family Persse . Her mother , Frances Barry , was related to Viscount Guillamore , and her family home , Roxborough , was a 6 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 24 km ² ) estate located between Gort and Loughrea , the main house of which was later burnt down during the Irish Civil War . She was educated at home , and her future career was strongly influenced by the family nurse ( i.e. nanny ) , Mary Sheridan , a Catholic and a native Irish speaker , who introduced the young Augusta to the history and legends of the local area .
She married Sir William Henry Gregory , a widower with an estate at Coole Park , near Gort , on 4 March 1880 in St Matthias ' Church , Dublin . Sir William , who was 35 years her elder , had just retired from his position as Governor of Ceylon ( now Sri Lanka ) , having previously served several terms as Member of Parliament for County Galway . He was a well @-@ educated man with many literary and artistic interests , and the house at Coole Park housed a large library and extensive art collection , both of which Lady Gregory was eager to explore . He also had a house in London , where the couple spent a considerable amount of time , holding weekly salons frequented by many leading literary and artistic figures of the day , including Robert Browning , Lord Tennyson , John Everett Millais and Henry James . Their only child , Robert Gregory , was born in 1881 . He was killed during the First World War , while serving as a pilot , an event which inspired Yeats ' poems " An Irish Airman Foresees His Death , " " In Memory of Major Robert Gregory , " and " Shepherd and Goatherd . "
= = Early writings = =
The Gregorys travelled in Ceylon , India , Spain , Italy and Egypt . While in Egypt , Lady Gregory had an affair with the English poet Wilfrid Scawen Blunt , during which she wrote a series of love poems , A Woman 's Sonnets .
Her earliest work to appear under her own name was Arabi and His Household ( 1882 ) , a pamphlet — originally a letter to The Times — in support of Ahmed Orabi Pasha , leader of what has come to be known as the Urabi Revolt , an 1879 Egyptian nationalist revolt against the oppressive regime of the Khedive and European domination of Egypt . She later said of this booklet , " whatever political indignation or energy was born with me may have run its course in that Egyptian year and worn itself out " . Despite this , in 1893 she published A Phantom 's Pilgrimage , or Home Ruin , an anti @-@ Nationalist pamphlet against William Ewart Gladstone 's proposed second Home Rule Act .
She continued to write prose during the period of her marriage . During the winter of 1883 , while her husband was in Ceylon , she worked on a series of memoirs of her childhood home with a view to publishing them under the title An Emigrant 's Notebook , but this plan was abandoned . She wrote a series of pamphlets in 1887 called Over the River , in which she appealed for funds for the parish of St. Stephens in Southwark , south London . She also wrote a number of short stories in the years 1890 and 1891 , although these also never appeared in print . A number of unpublished poems from this period have also survived . When Sir William Gregory died in March 1892 , Lady Gregory went into mourning and returned to Coole Park where she edited her husband 's autobiography , which she published in 1894 . She was to write later , " If I had not married I should not have learned the quick enrichment of sentences that one gets in conversation ; had I not been widowed I should not have found the detachment of mind , the leisure for observation necessary to give insight into character , to express and interpret it . Loneliness made me rich — ' full ' , as Bacon says . "
= = Cultural nationalism = =
A trip to Inisheer in the Aran Islands in 1893 re @-@ awoke an interest in the Irish language and in the folklore of the area in which she lived . She organised Irish lessons at the school at Coole and began collecting tales from the area around her home , especially from the residents of Gort workhouse . One of the tutors she employed , was Norma Borthwick , who would visit Coole numerous times . This activity led to the publication of a number of volumes of folk material , including A Book of Saints and Wonders ( 1906 ) , The Kiltartan History Book ( 1909 ) , and The Kiltartan Wonder Book ( 1910 ) . She also produced a number of collections of " Kiltartanese " versions of Irish myths , including Cuchulain of Muirthemne ( 1902 ) and Gods and Fighting Men ( 1904 ) . ( " Kiltartanese " is Lady Gregory 's term for English with Gaelic syntax , based on the dialect spoken in Kiltartan . ) In his introduction to the former , Yeats wrote " I think this book is the best that has come out of Ireland in my time . " James Joyce was to parody this claim in the Scylla and Charybdis chapter of his novel Ulysses .
Towards the end of 1894 , encouraged by the positive reception of the editing of her husband 's autobiography , Lady Gregory turned her attention to another editorial project . She decided to prepare selections from Sir William Gregory 's grandfather 's correspondence for publication as Mr Gregory 's Letter @-@ Box 1813 – 30 ( 1898 ) . This entailed researching Irish history of the period , and one outcome of this work was a shift in her own position from the " soft " Unionism of her earlier writing on Home Rule to a definite support of Irish nationalism and Republicanism and what she was later to describe as " a dislike and distrust of England " .
= = Founding of the Abbey = =
Edward Martyn was a neighbour of Lady Gregory 's , and it was during a visit to his home , Tullira Castle , in 1896 that she first met W. B. Yeats . Discussions between the three of them over the following year or so led to the founding of the Irish Literary Theatre in 1899 . Lady Gregory undertook fundraising , and the first programme consisted of Martyn 's The Heather Field and Yeats 's The Countess Cathleen .
The Irish Literary Theatre project lasted until 1901 , when it collapsed due to lack of funding . In 1904 , Lady Gregory , Martyn , Yeats , John Millington Synge , Æ , Annie Horniman and William and Frank Fay came together to form the Irish National Theatre Society . The first performances staged by the society took place in a building called the Molesworth Hall . When the Hibernian Theatre of Varieties in Lower Abbey Street and an adjacent building in Marlborough Street became available , Horniman and William Fay agreed to their purchase and refitting to meet the needs of the society .
On 11 May 1904 , the society formally accepted Horniman 's offer of the use of the building . As Horniman was not normally resident in Ireland , the Royal Letters Patent required were paid for by her but granted in the name of Lady Gregory . One of her own plays , Spreading the News was performed on the opening night , 27 December 1904 . At the opening of Synge 's The Playboy of the Western World in January 1907 , a significant portion of the crowd rioted , causing the remainder of the performances to be acted out in dumbshow . Lady Gregory did not think as highly of the play as Yeats did , but she defended Synge as a matter of principle . Her view of the affair is summed up in a letter to Yeats where she wrote of the riots : " It is the old battle , between those who use a toothbrush and those who don 't . "
= = Later career = =
Lady Gregory remained an active director of the theatre until ill health led to her retirement in 1928 . During this time she wrote more than 19 plays , mainly for production at the Abbey . Many of these were written in an attempted transliteration of the Hiberno @-@ English dialect spoken around Coole Park that became widely known as Kiltartanese , from the nearby village of Kiltartan . Her plays had been among the most successful at the Abbey in the earlier years , but their popularity declined . Indeed , the Irish writer Oliver St John Gogarty once wrote " the perpetual presentation of her plays nearly ruined the Abbey " . In addition to her plays , she wrote a two @-@ volume study of the folklore of her native area called Visions and Beliefs in the West of Ireland in 1920 . She also played the lead role in three performances of Cathleen Ni Houlihan in 1919 .
During her time on the board of the Abbey , Coole Park remained her home and she spent her time in Dublin staying in a number of hotels . At the time of the 1911 national census for example , she was staying in a hotel at 16 South Frederick Street . In these , she ate frugally , often on food she brought with her from home . She frequently used her hotel rooms to interview would @-@ be Abbey dramatists and to entertain the company after opening nights of new plays . She spent many of her days working on her translations in the National Library of Ireland . She gained a reputation as being a somewhat conservative figure . For instance , when Denis Johnston submitted his first play Shadowdance to the Abbey , it was rejected by Lady Gregory and returned to the author with " The Old Lady says No " written on the title page . Johnson decided to rename the play , and The Old Lady Says ' No ' was eventually staged by the Gate Theatre in 1928 .
= = Retirement and death = =
When she retired from the Abbey board , Lady Gregory returned to live in Galway , although she continued to visit Dublin regularly . The house and demesne at Coole Park had been sold to the Irish Forestry Commission in 1927 , with Lady Gregory retaining life tenancy . Her Galway home had long been a focal point for the writers associated with the Irish Literary Revival and this continued after her retirement . On a tree in what were the grounds of the now demolished house , one can still see the carved initials of Synge , Æ , Yeats and his artist brother Jack , George Moore , Seán O 'Casey , George Bernard Shaw , Katharine Tynan and Violet Martin . Yeats wrote five poems about or set in the house and grounds : " The Wild Swans at Coole " , " I walked among the seven woods of Coole " , " In the Seven Woods " , " Coole Park , 1929 " and " Coole Park and Ballylee , 1931 " .
The woman Shaw once described as " the greatest living Irishwoman " died at home aged 80 from breast cancer , and is buried in the New Cemetery in Bohermore , County Galway . The entire contents of Coole Park were auctioned three months after her death and the house demolished in 1941 .
Her plays fell out of favour after her death and are now rarely performed . Many of the diaries and journals she kept for most of her adult life have been published , providing a rich source of information on Irish literary history during the first three decades of the 20th century .
= Persona 3 The Movie : No. 1 , Spring of Birth =
Persona 3 The Movie : # 1 Spring of Birth ( 劇場版 「 ペルソナ3 」 第１章 , Gekijōban Perusona 3 Dai Ichi Shō ) is a 2013 Japanese animated film and the first installment in a film series based on the Shin Megami Tensei : Persona 3 video game by Atlus . Directed by Noriaki Akitaya and written by Jun Kumagai , it is based on the original story by Atlus and distributed by Aniplex . It stars voice actors Akira Ishida , Megumi Toyoguchi , Kōsuke Toriumi , Rie Tanaka , Hikaru Midorikawa and Mamiko Noto . Set in 2009 , the film follows the exploits of transfer student Makoto Yuki who , upon moving to Iwatodai City , discovers the Shadow creatures which feed on human psyche during the Dark Hour midnight phenomenon . After awakening to an ability called Persona , Yuki finds himself intertwined in the battle against the Shadows with his new schoolmates .
Development of the film was first announced in a teaser trailer during the limited theatrical release of Persona 4 The Animation : The Factor of Hope on June 9 , 2012 . Aniplex later announced a Fall 2013 release date and that the main voice acting cast of the original PlayStation 2 game would reprise their roles in the film . The committee that was involved in Persona 4 : The Animation was selected for the film and included music composer Shoji Meguro and supervisor Seiji Kishi , both veterans in works of the Megami Tensei franchise . The film was animated by AIC ASTA . The characterization of Makoto Yuki was noted as being particularly difficult during production due to his concept in the original game .
A promotional campaign was launched by Aniplex which also included the release of trailers and merchandise by making use of various mechanisms of the Persona 3 game as they applied to the real world . The film premiered at Tokyo 's Shinjuku Wald 9 cinema on November 16 , 2013 followed by its release across Japan on November 23 , 2013 . It made a gross earning of over US $ 1 @.@ 9 million at the end of 2013 . Critics praised the animation techniques used in the film with focus on its dark visual style . However it was described as being a simple and straightforward movie which lacked a suitable sense of closure . The film was released in Japan on Blu @-@ ray and DVD editions on May 14 , 2014 , and internationally on imported editions on May 20 , 2014 . A sequel titled Persona 3 The Movie : # 2 Midsummer Knight 's Dream was released on June 7 , 2014 .
= = Plot = =
Due to an unfortunate accident during the Spring of April 6 , 2009 , Makoto Yuki ( Akira Ishida ) arrives in the city late at night on a delayed train . Upon disembarking at midnight , a strange phenomenon grips the city — shutting down all forms of technology and causing humans to become encased in coffins . Unperturbed , Makoto casually makes his way to the Iwatodai Dormitory where a mysterious boy ( Akira Ishida ) greets him with a contract after which he meets fellow dormmates , Yukari Takeba ( Megumi Toyoguchi ) and Mitsuru Kirijo ( Rie Tanaka ) , albeit the pair weary of his arrival at midnight .
The next day , Makoto enrolls at Gekkoukan High School as a sophomore with Yukari and fellow classmate Junpei Iori ( Kōsuke Toriumi ) . Afterwards the school 's Chairman of the board , Shuji Ikutsuki ( Hideyuki Hori ) , asks Yukari to keep a close eye on Makoto due to his uncanny characteristics which hint at his " potential " and coincidental circumstances involving the death of his parents during an accident in the city some ten years previous . Meanwhile Makoto finds himself in a place called the Velvet Room and becomes acquainted with Igor ( Isamu Tanonaka ) and Elizabeth ( Miyuki Sawashiro ) .
During the full moon of April 9 , while Ikutsuki , Mitsuru and Yukari are observing Makoto during the midnight phenomenon , Akihiko Sanada ( Hikaru Midorikawa ) rushes back to the dorm just as it comes under the attack of a swarm of monstrous creatures . Yukari immediately grabs Makoto and flees to the roof . However they are cornered by a giant creature who knocks Yukari out . Much to everyone 's amazement though , Makoto awakens to the power of Persona , calling forth Orpheus . However another Persona known as Thanatos , rips out of Orpheus and grotesquely destroys the creature before Makoto faints .
After having been unconscious for over a week , Makoto awakens in the hospital to find Yukari , who explains their similarity in having both lost parents during the accident in the past . The next day Ikutsuki , Akihiko and Mitsuru recruit Makoto to the Specialized Extracurricular Execution Squad — SEES to help them fight the Shadow creatures responsible for the Apathy Syndrome by preying on humans during the Dark Hour midnight phenomenon . Not long after as Junpei also joins SEES , Akihiko deduces that they have enough members to begin exploring their school 's Dark Hour form , a Shadow @-@ infested labyrinth called Tartarus , where they hope to unearth the mystery of the Dark Hour . Makoto also befriends Fuka Yamagishi ( Mamiko Noto ) and learns of her strained relationship with class bully , Natsuki Moriyama ( Yuka Komatsu ) .
During the full moon on May 9 , Mitsuru detects an abnormally large Shadow presence aboard a train and deploys Makoto , Yukari and Junpei to investigate . However the trio are ambushed by the Shadows just as the train begins accelerating . Junpei charges ahead and encounters the Priestess Arcana which overwhelms him . However as the train nears an inevitable collision , Makoto evokes the Wild Card ability to defeat the Priestess with Junpei before stopping the runaway train .
On the night of May 30 , two girls fall victim to the Apathy Syndrome in front of the school which prompts widespread rumors . Yukari , Junpei and Makoto go looking for answers from the delinquents behind Port Island Station and learn from Shinjiro Aragaki ( Kazuya Nakai ) that the girls had been bullying Fuka before the latter suddenly disappeared that same night . On June 8 , Natsuki confesses to Mitsuru that she and her friends had locked Fuka inside the school 's gymnasium . However when her friends went to check on Fuka that same night , she had mysteriously vanished while the latter developed the Apathy cases after being preyed on by Shadows . That night the SEES members deduce that Fuka may be trapped inside the Tartarus tower and plan to rescue her . However when Mitsuru asks Makoto to accompany them , Yukari grows frustrated at his ambivalence and he excludes himself from the mission . Instead , Mitsuru elects him to protect Natsuki at the dorm where he listens to Natsuki 's reasoning for bullying Fuka and relates that Fuka genuinely considers her as a friend .
Afterwards the SEES members break into the school and indeed find Fuka inside Tartarus when the Dark Hour strikes . However when Akihiko pieces together the connection between the full moon and the powerful Shadows , Mitsuru and Yukari come under attack by the Emperor and Empress Arcanas at Tartarus ' entrance . Junpei , Akihiko and Fuka rush to their aid however the Arcanas easily overwhelm all of their Personas . In the midst of the battle , Fuka also awakens a Persona , Lucia , to defend an entranced Natsuki . However when the Emperor moves to attack her , Makoto arrives in the nick of time and launches a barrage of Persona attacks despite his teammates begging him to flee for his safety . With everyone approaching their physical limits , Fuka uses Lucia to sense the Arcanas ' weaknesses and coordinates the SEES members in a collaborative effort which results in the Shadows ' defeat . A few days later , Fuka moves into the Iwatodai dorm and repairs her relations with Natsuki , while life returns to a level of normalcy .
In a post @-@ credits scene , the mysterious boy appears to Makoto and introduces himself as Pharos . Meanwhile at an undisclosed location , a girl awakens from a slumber .
= = Cast = =
= = = Main = = =
Akira Ishida as :
Makoto Yuki :
Having lost his parents in a tragic accident at an early age , Makoto began living in the suburbs with his relatives . In the Spring of April 2009 he returns to Iwatodai City after having lived there ten years previously , and moves into the Iwatodai Dormitory upon enrolling at Gekkoukan High School . However he soon finds life is not as normal as he was expecting when he awakens to a mysterious power called " Persona " and becomes intertwined in a struggle against monsters called " Shadows " whilst simultaneously delving into the mystery that shrouds Iwatodai City . He possesses an ability known as the " Wild Card " which enables him to wield multiple Personas , although his main Persona is Orpheus . Ishida stated that he was quite surprised when he learned of the movie adaptation since a considerable amount of time had passed since its [ Persona 3 ] release . He further noted that he had enjoyed recording the scene of Makoto 's initial meeting with Pharos , since he was presented with the roles of both characters .
Pharos :
A mysterious boy who appears to Makoto upon arrival at the Iwatodai Dormitory and presents him with a contract . He is usually dressed in black and white striped clothing . Akira Ishida also dubbed voice of Pharos and was fond of recording the interaction between both of his characters .
Megumi Toyoguchi as Yukari Takeba :
Yukari is a sophomore at Gekkoukan High School and a classmate and dormmate of Makoto at the Iwatodai Dormitory . In the past , Yukari lost her father in a tragic incident and enrolled at Gekkoukan High in order to investigate the details surrounding his death . She is a member of the Specialized Extracurricular Execution Squad . Her Persona is Io . Toyoguchi described her character as being an honest " straight shooter " and enjoyed dubbing Yukari 's scenes with Makoto . Director Noriyaki Akitaya stated that Yukari was his favorite character and jokingly hinted at a romance between her and Makoto in future films .
Kōsuke Toriumi as Junpei Iori :
Junpei is a rather upbeat sophomore at Gekkoukan High School who loves cracking jokes . He resides in the same class with Makoto and Yukari and relates to Makoto since being a transfer student himself . Junpei has a habit of charging headfirst into situations without much thought for the consequences of his actions . He develops a rivalry with Makoto despite sharing a close bond with him . Junpei 's Persona is Hermes . Toriumi stated that since his character was the same role given to him in the Persona 3 game , he had not changed much of his voice mechanics . He also credited the script for having a " well summarized storyline of the game " and was further impressed by how well the film 's depictions of social life and battling were balanced together .
Rie Tanaka as Mitsuru Kirijo :
Mitsuru is a third @-@ year student at Gekkoukan High School where her popularity amongst the student body gained her the position of Student Council President . She is heir to the Kirijo Group , a multinational corporation which built Tatsumi Port Island and sponsors Gekkoukan High School . Mitsuru awakened to the power of Persona at a young age and is the founder of the Specialized Extracurricular Execution Squad . Her Persona is Penthesilea . Tanaka described her character as a strong lead female because of her [ Mitsuru ] exceptional leadership skills and feminine dignity . Tanaka also described the Persona summoning scenes as being quite enjoyable .
Hikaru Midorikawa as Akihiko Sanada :
Akihiko is a third year student at Gekkoukan High School and resident at the Iwatodai Dormitory . He had been friends with Mitsuru since middle school and upon learning of the Shadows , he too awakened to the power of Persona and joined her cause . Belonging to the boxing team at Gekkoukan High , Akihiko is constantly training to become a stronger fighter . His Persona is Polydeuces . Midorikawa noted that the Persona summoning scenes were his favorite . Midorikawa 's co @-@ cast members from the Shin Megami Tensei : Digital Devil Saga video game were also featured for the supporting cast of the film .
Mamiko Noto as Fuka Yamagishi :
Sophomore at Gekkoukan High School . Her quiet and gentle personality coupled with a rather weak @-@ looking appearance made her fall victim to constant bullying from her classmates . Her Persona is Lucia . Noto stated that the film brings with it the theme of comradery amongst friends working together for a common cause and cited the battle scenes as being " powerful " . Noto was also interested in the interaction between Fuka and Natsuki although she did not elaborate further on this .
Kazuya Nakai as Shinjiro Aragaki :
Ex @-@ third year Gekkoukan High student and SEES member , who dropped out of both for his own reasons . He is old friends with Akihiko and Mitsuru , but tends to keep their relationship at arm 's length . Nakai was initially surprised at the timing of the film in relation to the release of the game [ Persona 3 ] but noted that the film 's story kept true to the game . Nakai also expressed interest in the relationship between the characters Fūka and Natsuki .
Isamu Tanonaka as Igor :
Master of the Velvet Room , a place which exists in the realm between dreams and reality . Due to Tanonaka 's death in 2010 , archived audio recordings of his role as " Igor " in the Persona 3 game are used for the film . He was credited as giving a special performance .
Miyuki Sawashiro as Elizabeth :
Igor 's aide in the Velvet Room . She is usually dressed as an elevator attendant and carries around a book known as the " Persona Compendium " . Sawashiro described her scenes with Igor as deeply " nostalgic and sad " but was happy to once again reprise her role as Elizabeth from the game . She fondly described " the funky disco " [ Club Escapade ] as her favorite place in the Persona 3 world , although stated that " it is not depicted in the film " .
= = = Supporting = = =
Hideyuki Hori as Shuji Ikutsuki :
Chairman of the board committee at Gekkoukan High School and club adviser to the Specialized Extracurricular Execution Squad . Hori , along with his fellow cast members from Shin Megami Tensei : Digital Devil Saga and the Persona 3 Drama CDs , reprised their characters in the film .
Atsumi Tanezaki as Natsuki Moriyama :
A girl at Gekkoukan High School who bullies Fuka . A few of the actors drew significance in the relationship established between the characters Natsuki and Fuka .
Yuka Komatsu as Isako Toriumi :
The homeroom teacher of class 2F at Gekkoukan High School .
Hiroaki Miura as Hidetoshi Odagiri :
He is the rather strict student council vice @-@ president of Gekkoukan High with a zero tolerance policy on rule breaking . Miura reprised his role in the film from the Persona 3 Drama CDs along with his fellow cast members from Shin Megami Tensei : Digital Devil Saga .
Kenji Nojima as Kenji Tomochika :
A student of class 2F who befriends Makoto . Nojima reprised his role from the Persona 3 Drama CDs along with his fellow cast members from Shin Megami Tensei : Digital Devil Saga .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Persona 3 The Movie : No. 1 , Spring of Birth was animated by AIC ASTA . The main staff consisted of the same people behind Persona 4 : The Animation along with a few modifications . The film was directed by Noriaki Akitaya , following his directional work on the Bakuman and Code Geass anime series . Akitaya remarked that he had ' jumped ' onto the idea of the film adaptation ever since he was included in talks due to his love of games created by Atlus . He described the game as something which gave fans direct input in the events which take place and hence made it a goal to help them enjoy the adaptation as much as possible from their perspective of only being able to view the film .
" I believe that Persona 3 's charm lies within the coolness of the characters , more than anything . We pride ourselves in having made a movie that might just make you want to play the game after watching it ... "
Seiji Kishi , a veteran director of the Megami Tensei franchise was approached to supervise the overall production process and hence brought his experience from directing the anime adaptations of two well known games in the franchise — Persona 4 and Devil Survivor 2 . Kishi had proposed a new " visual combat system " to be employed in the film rather than the one used for Persona 4 : The Animation since he felt that the darker themes of Persona 3 required such a change .
At the same time , script writer Jun Kumagai , had nothing but praise for the Persona 3 game and stated that " the original game is a masterpiece which can be called the innovation of RPG " . Kumagai had also expressed his hope that the screenplay would be compelling both to fans of the game and those new to the Persona series . From the visual perspective , the original character designs of the game were completely revamped for the film by animation director Keisuke Watabe , who retained the characters ' likeness . The various Personas and Shadows were designed by Kyouma Aki while art direction was handled by Toshihiro Kohama . Kaoru Aoki aided with the art designs while Junpei Takatsu was in charge of the visual designs . Saori Goda held the position of color coordination while Shinobu Tsuneki designed the film 's props . Other staff directors included the executive animation directors Akiko Asaki and Mizuka Takahashi , action director Ryo Tanaka and composite director Hideki Imaizumi . Finally , Takashi Sakurai served as the film 's editor .
= = = = Characterization of Makoto Yuki = = = =
In a Famitsu interview , Akitaya explained that one of his biggest challenges was , " getting the protagonist , who is the [ human @-@ controlled ] ' player ' in the game , and making him into a character named Makoto Yuki for the film , then figuring out how to integrate him [ Makoto ] into the story . " Akitaya went about constructing Makoto 's character with extreme care in terms of speech , gestures and behavior all the while staying true to what was already established in the game . Akitaya admitted that he would not have been able to meet the expectations of the individual fans of the game since they were able to choose their own unique name and personality for the Protagonist . He instead incorporated the most general traits of the Protagonist from fan reaction to form Yuki 's character . Akitaya had joked that during initial pre @-@ production the Protagonist 's name was still not determined and had proposed the placeholder , " Tsukitarō Yamada " ( 山田 月太郎 , Yamada Tsukitarō ) until the first draft was developed . However even as Kumagai began working on the script , the placeholder went unchanged for the next four to five months and Akitaya found himself growing steadily attached despite eventually changing it . Akitaya stated that his favorite scene in the film occurred when Makoto summoned his Persona for the first time . He elaborated that Makoto 's maniacal laugh helped give depth to the scene and establish Watabe 's character designs as being one of the film 's main attractions .
= = = Music = = =
The soundtrack for No. 1 , Spring of Birth was composed by Shoji Meguro , while the sound director Satoki Iida helped in the track arrangement and selection . Meguro was initially thrilled at being selected as the film 's musical composer and remarked that its soundtrack would be his twelfth work for the Megami Tensei franchise . Meguro described the user interface of the Persona 3 game as having a " fancy atmosphere " which compelled him to create its unique pop @-@ like soundtrack . However he felt that he needed to give the film 's songs a deeper feeling and hence utilized string instruments to create such an effect .
The first music compilation titled " Persona 3 The Movie # 1 Spring of Birth Theme Song " was released by Aniplex on October 2 , 2013 . The disc features " More Than One Heart " by Yumi Kawamura which was used as the main theme song for the film . Kawamura had previously been the vocal contributor of many of the songs produced for the Persona 3 video game . She also provided the vocals for the " Spring of Birth " version of Persona 3 's " Burn My Dread " theme song , which also made its debut on the disc . The film 's original soundtrack was released together with the Blu @-@ ray on May 14 , 2014 .
= = Marketing = =
= = = Previews = = =
The Persona 3 The Movie project was first revealed during a thirty second post @-@ credits teaser trailer at the end of the limited theatrical release of the Persona 4 The Animation : The Factor of Hope feature film during its screening in Japan on June 9 , 2012 . The teaser noted that the project had been green lit for production . Featured in the teaser was the Persona 3 Protagonist holding an " Evoker " ( a unique game mechanic of summoning a " Persona " ) to his head and pulling the trigger , all showcased in Japanese @-@ style 2D animation . This left some speculation amongst the media as to whether the project would be an anime film or otherwise since at the time this was left to ambiguity . Following later confirmation of the project 's animated theatrical nature , a slightly altered fifteen @-@ second version of the teaser was streamed online .
The first official trailer saw its release on March 27 , 2013 and showcased a clock striking midnight which established the film 's key plot devices including the Dark Hour phenomenon , the primary antagonists — the Shadows and the main protagonist summoning his Persona , Orpheus . When the second trailer was released on July 22 , 2013 , it was also the first to feature dialogue as well as the main theme song for the film , titled " More Than One Heart " by Yumi Kawamura . The third trailer was released on October 19 , 2013 and introduced the Tartarus tower along with designs of the signature weapons used by each individual character . A reporter at Kotaku described the animation as " gorgeous " and felt as though the movie reflected the game 's [ Persona 3 ] cut @-@ scenes . The fourth and final trailer was released on November 18 , 2013 and was the lengthiest of its predecessors . It showcased new footage including the characters Igor and Elizabeth in the Velvet Room , more use of the Evokers , a bit of Makoto Yuki 's back story ( in flashbacks ) along with new dialogue . At the end of the trailer , a reference alluding to Makoto 's ambivalence is made by the character Junpei Iori who asks , " I wonder ... Just why is he [ Makoto ] fighting ? " — a trait later mentioned by film critics . The last trailer was also streamed every midnight outside Alta Studio Co . Ltd. in East Shinjuku until November 25 , 2013 .
An advanced sneak peek screening of Persona 3 The Movie : No. 1 , Spring of Birth was held at the Shinjuku Wald 9 cinema in Shinjuku , Tokyo on November 16 , 2013 . Akira Ishida , Megumi Toyoguchi and Kōsuke Toriumi participated in special talk show at the event to highlight some of the film 's features before its screening . The actors talked about the dubbing process for the film . For instance , Toyoguchi stated that their dubbing roles were recorded around Spring 2013 . Toriumi — the voice of ' Junpei Iori ' , explained how passage of time between the release of the Persona 3 game and the film affected his dubbing role since his present voice sounded more akin to an adult . However Satoki Iida had requested that he try to make himself sound younger for his character . Toyoguchi also joked that many of the 2006 @-@ era items were held true in the film , such as the use of Cathode ray tube TVs and mobile phones . A Q & A Twitter session was also part of the show during which the Protagonist 's characterization was questioned by fans and answered by producer , Kazuki Adachi .
= = = Promotion = = =
The official website and Twitter account for the project were both launched on July 3 , 2012 and confirmed the Persona 3 : The Movie project 's theatrical nature . The July 3 launch was scheduled so as to pay homage to the use of two major plot mechanics in the Persona 3 video game — namely the midnight Dark Hour phenomenon as well as correlation to the lunar phases with respect to the calendar full moon whereby an exceptionally powerful Shadow would appear on the night of its occurrence . This tactic was henceforth utilized by Aniplex to mark succeeding updates regarding the project and also aided by the Twitter account which updated at select lunar occurrences thereafter . When the official website was launched it featured the simple ambiguous caption " Coming soon " . This was later changed during the full moon of December 28 , 2012 when the website showcased the first promotional image along with the line , " Persona 3 the Movie # 1 2013 in theaters " — teasing a future film franchise . However word had yet to be announced on the number of planned films .
Three months later , during the full moon of March 27 , 2013 , the film project was confirmed to be a series of anime films and not just a single release — with the first film given the subtitle : " # 1 Spring of Birth " . This news came alongside the release of the first official trailer which also featured a list of the production staff and confirmed that the main voice acting cast of the original PlayStation 2 game would reprise their roles in the film . Almost four months later , at midnight during the full moon of July 22 , 2013 , the official website received a completely revamped design with the announcement that November 23 , 2013 would be film 's official release date . This came alongside a list of 26 theaters throughout Japan which would screen the film during its opening weekend . Almost a month later during the full moon of August 21 , 2013 at 12 : 00AM JST a minor update was released which detailed the track @-@ list for the film 's official music CD release titled " Persona 3 The Movie # 1 Spring of Birth Theme Song CD " . Aniplex soon began releasing updates at an accelerated pace as the film 's premiere date drew closer . For instance the next minor update was released during the new moon of September 5 , 2013 which announced that the 2011 anime series : Persona 4 : The Animation would begin re @-@ airing on Tokyo MX , GYT , GTV and BS11 as a follow up to the film .
A couple weeks later and during the full moon of September 19 , 2013 an update was released which revealed limited edition railcards featuring promotional images of the film . The cards were scheduled to go on sale at the Shimbashi and Toyosu train stations between October 1 and 31 , 2013 . They granted a bearer access to the New Transit Yurikamome train which connects to the artificial island of Odaiba in Tokyo Bay between Minato and Kōtō in Tokyo .
An animated feature was broadcast on Tokyo MX during the airing of Disco Train at noon on October 13 , 2013 . The segment paid homage to a shopping infomercial titled " Tanaka 's Amazing Commodities " , an event usually triggered on Sundays in the Persona 3 game . The program featured the Persona 3 character President Tanaka , advertising the ticket bundle for the " Persona 3 The Movie Theme Song CD " set . An official website for Tanaka 's in @-@ game company — Jika Net was also set up for a limited time to accept pre @-@ orders of the set which included an exclusive bonus sticker . The website also featured other products obtainable in the Persona 3 game but were all listed as " sold out " .
Another update was released during the full moon of October 19 , 2013 and included the third movie trailer along with a host of new artwork . A dynamic lunar calendar of the same design used in the Persona 3 game was also added to the main page of the official website and began featuring new artwork on a daily basis — some of which included production storyboards . It was also announced that a Persona 3 @-@ themed " mystery event " would take place at the Odaiba VenusFort from November 23 - December 1 , 2013 . Known as the " Persona3 The Movie # 1 Spring of Birth x Nazomate " , the interactive event was set up by Nazomate and required participants to role @-@ play as a resident of the Iwatodai Dormitory just as it comes under the attack of a Shadow . The participants needed to awaken their Personas and take a test to become a member of the Specialized Extracurricular Execution Squad . Those who were able to complete the event were awarded with a randomly chosen exclusive Nazomate Character Card featuring the film 's main characters . Those who failed were given another card featuring the character " Elizabeth " as proof of participation . In addition , other merchandise was made available for purchase at the event . An exclusive store Persona @-@ themed store was also opened at the Marui department store 's " Space ONE " area in Shinjuku , Tokyo from November 21 , 2013 to December 15 , 2013 .
One week before the film 's release and during the full moon of November 17 , 2013 , different cast members began posting their autographs on the official website once per day . This was also accompanied by special digital wallpapers released in the same manner which featured the film 's main characters .
= = = Merchandising = = =
Aniplex began distributing official movie merchandise during the 2013 Anime Contents Expo event at the Makuhari Messe convention center on March 30 – 31 . Along with screening the film 's first teaser , a dish sold at the Hagakure ramen restaurant in the Persona 3 game called the " Hidden Leaf Bowl " was made available at the food area of the event . Almost four months later on July 22 , 2013 , Aniplex launched phase one of a special ticket promotion whereby movie @-@ goers who pre @-@ ordered early tickets between August 10 and September 20 , 2013 would receive special collectable folders containing leaflets which sported depictions of the characters Makoto Yuki , Yukari Takeba and , Junpei Iori along with their respective Personas chosen at random . The second phase of the promotion was continued on September 5 , 2013 and in the same manner , special folders and leaflets were given to those who pre @-@ ordered early tickets between September 21 and late October 2013 — this time featuring the characters Mitsuru Kirijo , Akihiko Sanada and , Fuka Yamagishi along with their respective Personas . The third phase of the promotion allowed movie @-@ goers access to a promotional poster with purchase of a ticket between the period of October 26 - November 22 , 2013 .
Animate and Gamers stores began their first wave of merchandise distribution between July 23 - September 26 , 2013 whereby an A3 Metal Poster was sold in a bundle with an advance movie ticket . The second wave of distribution began on November 2 , 2013 and in the same manner , included rubber mascots featuring the characters Makoto Yūki and Elizabeth . Happy @-@ Kuji also revealed a lottery contest on August 21 , 2013 which officially began on September 21 , 2013 . Official movie merchandise , consisting of mostly figurines were offered as prizes for the contest . During the film 's first three weeks of release in Japan , special Persona 3 themed Bikkuriman stickers were given out to movie goers . Each patron received one sticker at random out of the 29 piece set called " Super PS3 Seals " . The sticker artwork was illustrated by Minoru Yonezawa and Satoshi Hyodo of Green House Co . Ltd . Yonezawa remarked that he had not known of the [ Persona ] game series until he was approached by Aniplex for commissioning — rather only being aware of the original Megami Tensei games . Due to his unfamiliarity with the series Yonezawa ( and Hyodo ) found difficulty in deforming the characters . They also drew the design of the special " Tanaka " sticker given to those who placed orders on the Jika Net website . A host of other Persona 3 @-@ themed merchandise and accessories were also released to help promote the film .
= = Other media = =
= = = Drama CD = = =
Aniplex launched a limited edition drama CD at the 84th bi @-@ annual Japanese Comiket event on August 10 , 2013 at the Tokyo International Exhibition Center . Sales of the CD continued at the Persona Music FES Concert at the Nippon Budokan on August 13 , 2013 . However limited quantities quickly sold out due to its popularity at both events . Due to high demand , the disc was later made available for mail @-@ order purchase on Aniplex 's Plus webstore . The CD features the characters Mitsuru Kirijo , Akihiko Sanada and Shinjiro Aragaki in a side story titled " Seaside Vacation before Death ’ s Scythe " which took place during the year 2008 and before the events of the film .
= = = Publications = = =
Two promotional booklets were released in Japan in the months before the film 's release . The first was aimed primarily to those unfamiliar with the Persona 3 story and titled " Persona 3 The Movie Quick Start Guide . It was freely distributed at the 84th bi @-@ annual Japanese Comiket event on August 10 , 2013 . The second booklet was titled " Persona 3 The Movie Contact Book " . This one was distributed at the Tokyo Game Show event held at the Makuhari Messe on September 28 , 2013 .
An official art book was scheduled to be released for sale by the Famima convenience stores in Japan on August 24 , 2013 but the date was pushed back to September 21 , 2013 . The book contained a cel shaded image and included a general admission movie ticket .
= = Release = =
The entire film received an advanced midnight screening on November 16 , 2013 at the Shinjuku Wald 9 cinema in Shinjuku , Tokyo ahead of its November 23 release . During its release weekend , the film mostly attracted a young audience ranging from teenagers to those in their early thirties . Among this demographic , males were outnumbered by females at a ratio of 4 : 6 which suggested that the original game itself was mostly popular among women . In addition a significant number of patrons who were not familiar with the game were also present during the release weekend .
= = = Box office = = =
Persona 3 The Movie : No. 1 , Spring of Birth sold 39 @,@ 963 tickets across 26 theaters in Japan during its November 23 opening weekend and earned ¥ 60 @,@ 912 @,@ 300 ( US $ 599 @,@ 000 ) , making its debut at 7th in Japan as compared to The Tale of Princess Kaguya which placed 1st and grossed ¥ 284 @,@ 252 @,@ 550 ( US $ 2 @.@ 8 million ) from 222 @,@ 822 tickets across 456 theaters during the same weekend . During its second November 30 weekend , the film earned ¥ 30 @,@ 569 @,@ 795 ( US $ 297 @,@ 053 ) . The film eventually made a gross earning of US $ 1 @,@ 956 @,@ 267 and was ranked at 118 in Japan at the end of 2013 by Box Office Mojo .
= = = Reception = = =
Richard Eisenbeis of Kotaku described Makoto Yuki as being an initially " ambivalent , broken character " and added that the character 's growth took center stage in the film . He also remarked that the film could have " been a very dark , difficult @-@ to @-@ see movie " since the majority of it takes place at night but praised the lighting effects and contrasts which rendered the action easily visible while creating a " visual style all its own " . On the flip side , Eisenbeis explained that while the movie covers only the very beginning of the Persona 3 story , there was " the unfortunate side effect of a good chunk of the main cast and the majority of the antagonists not even being in the movie . " Adding that since none of the game 's key plot twists are reached , he felt that it was " a very simple , straight @-@ forward movie . " Eisenbeis also noted that the film had " more images of teen suicide than you can shake a stick at " . The " Evokers " which in the Persona 3 world allowed the characters to summon Personas by putting one to their heads and pulling the trigger , were likened to guns in this context . Despite not being actual weapons , Eisenbeis stated that " it still looks like they are blowing their brains out — often complete with spiritual brain and skull fragments . "
Elliot Gay of Japanator elaborated on the challenges that could have been faced in adapting a 50- to 80 @-@ hour RPG into a 90 @-@ minute film but praised its admirable job at pacing albeit a few issues . He noted that one such example was with as with the introduction of the Tartarus Tower which he felt was " rushed and somewhat under @-@ explained " . Gay also noted that the film " suffers from not having a strong narrative through @-@ line " and that there was no sense of closure since " nothing truly significant [ took ] place " . He argued that this was as an " unavoidable side effect of adapting Persona 3 " . Like Eisenbeis though , Gay felt that Makoto 's experiences ultimately result in his growth and that the subtitle Spring of Birth " refers to Makoto and the forward progress he makes as a person . " Gay went on to praise the film 's visuals , explaining that the " film captures the darker atmosphere of the game admirably . " Overall , Gay described the film as delivering " a nostalgic trip down memory lane for longtime fans , and an accessible entry point for folks curious about the franchise . "
= = = Home media = = =
Persona 3 The Movie : No. 1 , Spring of Birth was released on Blu @-@ ray and DVD in Japan on May 14 , 2014 in both Limited and Normal Editions . The Limited Edition versions of the discs included the Director 's Cut of the film with 7 minutes of previously unreleased footage . During the first week of the Limited Edition release in Japan , the Blu @-@ ray version sold 23 @,@ 514 copies while the DVD version sold 4 @,@ 693 copies . Aniplex of America went on to release the film with English subtitles in North America and other select parts of the world on the imports of the Japanese Blu @-@ ray editions on May 20 , 2014 . The imports were made available in Collector 's and Standard Editions and included bonus features such as the original theatrical version of the film , trailers , commercials and audio commentary . Bonus merchandise including artwork , a sizable booklet and the film 's Original Soundtrack were also included in the Collector 's Edition . Both editions included the original theatrical and extended Director 's Cut versions of the film .
= = = Sequel = = =
The film 's post @-@ credits sequence announced that a sequel titled Persona 3 The Movie : No. 2 would be " comming [ sic ] early summer 2014 " . It was later revealed on December 5 , 2013 that the full title of the sequel would be Persona 3 The Movie : # 2 Midsummer Knight 's Dream .
= Ellis Paul =
Ellis Paul ( born Paul Plissey ; January 14 , 1965 ) is an American singer @-@ songwriter and folk musician . Born in Aroostook County , Maine , Paul is a key figure in what has become known as the Boston school of songwriting , a literate , provocative and urbanely romantic folk @-@ pop style that helped ignite the folk revival of the 1990s . His pop music songs have appeared in movies and on television , bridging the gap between the modern folk sound and the populist traditions of Woody Guthrie and Pete Seeger .
Having grown up in a small town in Maine , Paul attended Boston College on a track scholarship where he majored in English . An athletic injury sustained during his junior year changed the course of his professional career . Paul picked up a guitar to pass the time while sidelined , and discovered that playing guitar and writing songs was the creative outlet he had been looking for . After graduating from college he began playing at open mic nights in the Boston area while working with inner @-@ city school children . Paul 's growing popularity at Boston coffeehouses , coupled with winning a Boston Acoustic Underground songwriter competition and national exposure on a Windham Hill Records compilation combined to give him the confidence to resign his day @-@ job and pursue a career as a professional musician .
To date , Paul has released 19 albums and has been the recipient of 14 Boston Music Awards , considered by some to be a pinnacle of contemporary acoustic music success . He has published a book of original lyrics , poems , and drawings and released a DVD that includes a live performance , guitar instruction , and a road @-@ trip documentary . In 2014 his children 's CD Hero in You was published as a book by Albert Whitman & Company . As a touring musician , Paul plays close to 200 dates each year and his extensive club and coffeehouse touring , together with radio airplay , has brought him a solid national following .
= = Growing up = =
Ellis Paul was born in Fort Kent , Maine , a small , rural potato @-@ farming town near the Canadian border . Paul 's family had strong connections to the potato industry — his father , Ed Plissey , was Executive Director of the Maine Potato Commission and his grandfather owned a 140 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 57 km2 ) potato farm . Schools in the area closed for three weeks each year so that school children could help with the potato harvest . Paul spent many hours working on his grandfather 's farm . Paul 's mother , the former Marilyn Bonney of Buckfield , Maine , is a University of Maine graduate and was an extension agent for northern Aroostook County . She and her husband often worked together on special projects for the service . In the 1960s , Mrs. Plissey produced her own television show " The Aroostook Homemaker " which aired every third week on Presque Isle television station WAGM @-@ TV .
While attending high school in Presque Isle , Maine , Paul listened to Top @-@ 40 radio and participated in track . He played trumpet in the school 's stage band where he was introduced to the big band jazz music of Stan Kenton and Maynard Ferguson . He excelled in track , becoming the Maine State champion in five @-@ kilometer distance running , a feat that garnered several scholarship offers , including an offer from Boston College . Having graduated high school with the class of 1983 , Paul relocated to Boston , leaving small @-@ town rural life behind . In an interview with Daniel Gewertz of the Boston Herald Paul stated , " It wasn 't until I went to Boston College on a track scholarship that I first heard folk . " Paul was particularly moved when he heard Bob Dylan singing " The House of the Rising Sun " . It was then that he began to take folk music seriously .
Paul was inducted into the Presque Isle High School Athletic Hall of Fame on Jan. 11 , 2013 .
= = Early career : 1987 – 1990 = =
Paul majored in English at Boston College where he continued to participate in track . His best time in the 10 @,@ 000 meters ( 30 : 18 : 50 ) remains the fourth best men 's outdoor record in Boston College history . When a knee injury
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1950s and 1960s , natives trapped this ground roller and dug out its nesting burrows . This bird has been featured on several of Madagascar 's stamps . Only one zoo , Germany 's Weltvogelpark Walsrode , keeps this species . It is considered by birdwatchers to be one of the world 's most elusive birds .
= The Convention ( The Office ) =
" The Convention " is the second episode of the third season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's thirtieth episode overall . Written by the writing team of Gene Stupnitsky and Lee Eisenberg , and directed by Ken Whittingham , the episode originally aired in the United States on September 28 , 2006 on NBC .
In the episode , Josh and Jim from Dunder Mifflin Stamford , as well as Michael and Dwight from Dunder Mifflin Scranton leave for Philadelphia for the annual office supply convention . Michael , angry at both Jim for leaving the Scranton branch , as well as Josh for being superior to him , tries to one @-@ up both Jim and Josh at every opportunity . Meanwhile , Kelly sets up Pam on a double date with one of her friends which goes nowhere . Toby 's interest in Pam is piqued , beginning an unrequited crush on his part .
= = Plot = =
Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) and Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) from the Scranton branch of Dunder Mifflin , Josh Porter ( Charles Esten ) and Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) from the Stamford branch , and Jan Levenson ( Melora Hardin ) from the corporate headquarters all descend upon Philadelphia for an office supply convention . Michael is bitter that Jim left Scranton for Stamford and tries to one @-@ up Josh at every opportunity . Michael also spreads the word that he is throwing a party in his hotel room that night . Later in the evening , Michael surprises everyone with the news that he has broken Staples 's exclusive hold on Hammermill products .
In Scranton , Kelly Kapoor ( Mindy Kaling ) sets up Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) on a double date with her neighbor Alan , a cartoonist for the local newspaper . Kelly is quietly disappointed that Pam intends to wear just her normal work clothes to the date . On the double date , Kelly appears to be the only one having a good time with Ryan Howard ( B.J. Novak ) . Pam chats awkwardly with the cartoonist , who at one point sneaks a peek down Pam 's shirt , and they fail to hit it off . At Michael 's party , Jim attends as the only guest , and explains that he did not leave Scranton because of Michael ( whom Jim claims is a great boss ) , but rather because Pam rejected him , twice . The two mend their friendship just as other guests arrive , and Michael promises he would take care of the situation .
= = Production = =
" The Convention " was the fourth episode of the series written by the writing team of Gene Stupnitsky and Lee Eisenberg , and the third episode of the series directed by Ken Whittingham . This episode originally had a scene with Angela and Dwight in the office kitchen . Producer Greg Daniels stated : " They had a couple lines , there was a pause , and then Angela said , ' I 'm late ' , turned around , and left . " This would imply that she may be pregnant . The scene was cut because Daniels ultimately concluded , " It was a big move , but we had it in a show that had a lot of other big moves . ... You don 't introduce a C plot line of an illicit office romance and then all of a sudden have one of the characters get knocked up ! " Executive producer and show runner Greg Daniels had hoped to get Mackenzie Crook , Martin Freeman , and Lucy Davis from the original British Office series to appear in the episode as their respective characters ( Gareth Keenan , Tim Canterbury , and Dawn Tinsley ) but was unsuccessful due to scheduling conflicts .
The third season DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from the episode , including Michael unsuccessfully inviting Ryan to attend the convention , Michael reminiscing on being abandoned by Todd Packer at a club and being attacked by bouncers , Michael telling Dwight he almost worked at a local factory , Dwight asking Josh if he has ever been convicted of a felony , Dwight asking Josh about his experiences in the coast guard and in Israel , and Dwight leaving Michael to go see Angela .
= = Reception = =
" The Convention " received a 3 @.@ 8 / 10 in the Nielsen ratings among persons aged 18 – 49 , meaning that 3 @.@ 8 percent of all people aged 18 – 49 watched the episode , and ten percent of all people in the age group watching TV at the time watched the episode . It received an estimated audience of 7 @.@ 8 million viewers overall , and ranked # 1 in its time period among men 18 – 34 .
The episode was received generally well by critics . Brian Zoromski of IGN stated that : " Any episode that places Michael and Dwight outside of their normal office environment is set up for some very funny ( and usually awkward ) situations and ' The Convention ' is no exception . Some of the episode 's best uncomfortable moments centered on Michael believing he 's the life of the party and that he 's Jim 's friend . Michael and Dwight pretending to laugh along to an inside joke made by Jim 's new boss , Josh , is a prime example . Michael 's comment , ' I love inside jokes . Love to be part of one someday , ' creates the kind of uncomfortable silence that The Office excels at . " Also on IGN , the show received a 9 @.@ 8 out of 10 " incredible " rating from the site 's editorial staff .
Abby West , of Entertainment Weekly , praised the interactions between characters as some of the highlights of the episode , stating " Jim is the show 's salt — he makes everyone else seem just a little better . He 's the perfect straight man to showcase Michael 's insanity ... " West also commented on the awkwardness of the relationship between Ryan and Kelly , stating that " Speaking of weird love connections , I 'm really starting to worry about Ryan , who 's now letting crazy Kelly force @-@ feed him . What happened to him ? " Mat Brewster , of BlogCritics Magazine , felt that the episode didn 't live up to the status set by the previous episode " Gay Witch Hunt " , stating " this week ’ s episode , “ The Convention , ” failed to live up to my expectations . "
= Tylopilus tabacinus =
Tylopilus tabacinus is a species of bolete fungus in the Boletaceae family . It is characterized by a tawny @-@ brown cap measuring up to 17 @.@ 5 cm ( 6 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter , and a reticulated stem up to 16 @.@ 5 cm ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) long by 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick . A characteristic microscopic feature is the distinctive crystalline substance encrusted on the hyphae in the surface of the cap . The species is known from the eastern United States from Florida north to Rhode Island , and west to Mississippi , and from eastern Mexico . It is a mycorrhizal species , and associates with oak and beech trees . The edibility of the mushroom is unknown .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first described by American mycologist Charles Horton Peck in 1896 under the name Boletus tabacinus . Peck collected the type specimens in red clay on the bank of a roadside ditch in Alabama . William Alphonso Murrill transferred the species to his then newly described genus Ceriomyces in 1909 ; this genus has since been subsumed into Boletus . Rolf Singer moved the species to Tylopilus in 1944 . Although Singer considered B. tabacinus to be the same species as Boletus pisciodorus , this opinion was contested by William Alphonso Murrill , who , after examining the type specimens of both species , considered them to be distinct . Murrill 's conclusion was later corroborated by Alexander H. Smith and Harry D. Thiers in the 1971 monograph of boletes . In 1945 , Singer defined the varieties amarus and dubius that he collected in Florida .
= = Description = =
The caps of the fruit body initially have a rounded shape , but later become broadly convex and eventually flattened in age ; they reach dimensions of 4 @.@ 5 – 17 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 8 – 6 @.@ 9 in ) wide . The color ranges from yellowish @-@ brown to orangish @-@ brown to tobacco brown . The cap surface is dry with a somewhat velvet @-@ like texture , although in larger specimens the surface is areolate ( divided into small areas by cracks ) . The cap margin is even and wavy .
The tubes on the underside of the cap ( comprising the hymenium ) are dark brown to cinnamon @-@ brown . The angular to circular pores are lighter in color than the tubes and number about 1 – 2 pores per millimeter , while the tubes are up to 1 @.@ 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 55 in ) long . The pore surface is depressed around the stem . The cap flesh is white , but typically stains purplish @-@ buff or pinkish @-@ buff when cut . The stipe typically measures 4 – 16 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 6 @.@ 5 in ) by 2 @.@ 5 – 6 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick . When young , it is bulbous , but matures to become more or less equal in width throughout . Its color is roughly the same as the cap , although it tends to be slightly darker in the upper portion , where it is reticulate ( covered with a net @-@ like patterns of ridges ) . The odor of the mushroom has been described variously as " not distinctive , fruity , fishy , or pungent " , while the taste is indistinct to slightly bitter . The edibility of the mushroom is unknown . The variety amarus is similar in appearance , but has bitter @-@ tasting flesh , while variety dubius has a lighter colored @-@ cap and less distinctive reticulations on the apex of the stem .
Fruit bodies produce a spore print ranging in color from pinkish @-@ brown to reddish @-@ brown . The spores measure 10 – 17 by 3 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 5 μm , and are fusoid ( somewhat spindle @-@ shaped ) to elliptical . Spores have a smooth surface , and a plage ( a depressed area where the spore was once attached to the basidium via the sterigma ) . The spore walls are thin , up to 0 @.@ 2 μm . They are pale yellow to cream green in a solution of potassium hydroxide , pale yellow @-@ rust in Melzer 's reagent , and blue in Methyl blue ; without stain , they appear hyaline to pale yellow . The cap cuticle is an interwoven trichodermium — a cellular arrangement whereby the hyphae are of roughly equal length and arranged perpendicularly to the surface . The terminal ( end ) cells of the trichodermium are 6 @.@ 5 – 11 @.@ 5 μm in diameter , and roughly equal in width throughout their length . They are encrusted with a crystalline substance , a feature that is uncommon in the Boletaceae . The hyphae of the tubes are 5 @.@ 0 – 13 @.@ 0 μm in diameter . Clamp connections are absent from the hyphae .
The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) of T. tabacinus are club @-@ shaped and measure 23 @.@ 5 – 37 @.@ 0 by 8 @.@ 5 – 13 @.@ 0 μm . The pleurocystidia ( cystidia found on the inner surface of the tubes ) are 45 @.@ 0 – 60 @.@ 0 by 6 @.@ 5 – 12 @.@ 5 μm , lanceolate ( lance @-@ shaped ) to narrowly fusoid @-@ ventricose ( enlarged in the middle and somewhat spindle @-@ shaped ) . Cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the outer edges of the tubes ) are absent . The caulocystidia ( cystidia on the stem ) form the reticulations on the stem ; they are usually club @-@ shaped and measure 21 @.@ 0 – 40 @.@ 5 by 6 @.@ 5 – 10 @.@ 5 μm .
= = = Similar species = = =
Boletus pisciodorus is similar in form to Tylopilus tabacinus . Unlike , T. tabacinus however , B. pisciodorus has spores that are hyaline in mass , and dark yellowish @-@ brown rather than hyaline when viewed with a light microscope . Further , B. pisciodorus has a fishy odor that is apparent in both fresh and dried specimens .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Tylopilus tabacinus forms ectomycorrhizal associations with oaks , and fruit bodies are usually found solitarily , scattered , or in groups on sandy soil under oaks or in mixed oak @-@ pine woods from July to September . In the United States , the mushroom is distributed from Florida north to Rhode Island , and west to Mississippi . It has also been collected from a montane cloud forest of Mexican Beech ( Fagus grandifolia var. mexicana ) in the state of Hidalgo , Mexico . The occurrence of the mushroom is " occasional to fairly common " . The varieties amarus and dubius are rare , known only from their original collection locations in Gainesville , Florida .
= Artist 's Studio — Look Mickey =
Artist 's Studio — Look Mickey ( sometimes Artist 's Studio , Look Mickey , Artist 's Studio – Look Mickey or Artist 's Studio No. 1 ( Look Mickey ) ) is a 1973 painting by Roy Lichtenstein . It is one of five large @-@ scale studio interior paintings in a series . The series is either referred to as the Artist 's Studio series or more colloquially as the Studios and sometimes is described as excluding the other 1973 painting , reducing the series to four .
The series refers to a set of works by Henri Matisse , with this work specifically referring to L 'Atelier Rouge . The work incorporates several other Lichtenstein 's works and gets its name from the large portion of Lichtenstein 's Look Mickey that is included . Lichtenstein used a much more realistic representation of his own works than is standard for most artists . Elements of the work also refer to works from both Fernand Léger and Matisse .
= = Background = =
Lichtenstein 's studios reference what are known as Matisse 's four Symphonic Interiors of 1911 ( The Pink Studio , The Painter 's Family , Interior with Eggplants , The Red Studio ) and an earlier Matisse The Dance . Artist 's Studio — Look Mickey was part of a series that included The Artist 's Studio – with Model , 1974 , Artist 's Studio , Foot Medication , 1974 , Artist 's Studio , the " Dance " , 1974 , Artist 's Studio / A Still Life , 1973 . Artist 's Studio — Look Mickey was the only one of the five to include a corner of the room , like The Red Studio . Many sources , including Lichtenstein himself only include four works in the series ( excluding Artist 's Studio / A Still Life , 1973 ) . In a 1995 lecture in conjunction with the Kyoto Prize , he said " I did a series of four large , about 8 ' x10 ' , paintings of interiors of artists ' studios . They were inspired by Matisse 's paintings ... " Artist 's Studio — Look Mickey is regarded as the first of the four Artist 's Studio works . From among the Artist 's Studio series works , this depicts " the deepest , most plainly articulated interior space . "
= = Description = =
The work , which is in part a retrospective , " conflated early modernism with emergent postmodernism " . Lichtenstein refers to some of his paintings , including Look Mickey in this work , which depicts his own studio as the ideal studio and implies that the public consensus ratifies his choice of popular culture subject matter . The series depicts individual Lichtenstein works as well as groups of works in closed room that is ironically devoid of paint brushes or easels . The series served as a review of Lichtenstein 's post 1961 work , with objects of his prior works decorating the room as furnishings . In Artist 's Studio — Look Mickey , the couch , door , wall frieze , telephone and fruit all are drawn from earlier works and serve this setting as interior decoration , while Look Mickey is almost presented undisturbed in its entirety . Less notable works include the mirror and the Trompe @-@ l 'œil painting of the rear side of the canvas . Two other paintings were works in progress at the time of this work and one became a painting within a year after the completion of this work : the gull and the dune landscape . The speech balloon was never produced as a separate work . However , its juxtaposition to the speech balloon from Donald Duck is intriguing . He references his Entablatures works as ceiling molding .
Lichtenstein 's approach to presenting his own works within his works was non @-@ traditional . The works were revisited as exact duplicates rather than the more standard distanced revisitation . This choice of exact duplication contrary to popular practice intrigued Lichtenstein . Lichtenstein liked this quality of his paintings within his paintings , saying " I like the combination of a very separate quality that each of my paintings has within the painting , and the fact that everything works as one painting too . " In fact , Lichtenstein commented on this as an attempt to eliminate any modulation :
A couple of years ago I started some paintings that had my own paintings in them , and which were similar to the Matisse studios . There was one difference that I think shows up mostly in the Look Mickey : When I reproduce one of my own paintings in my painting , it 's different from Matisse reproducing one of his paintings in his painting , because even though in both paintings the depicted painting is submerged for the good of the whole work , it 's much more so in Matisse . I wanted my paintings to read as individual paintings with the work , so that there would be some confusion . There ’ s no remove in my work , no modulation or subtlety of line , so the painting @-@ of @-@ a @-@ painting looks exactly like the painting it 's of . This is not true , of course , of many early — including Renaissance — depictions of paintings on walls , where there ’ s always a remove indicated through modulation , or some other way of showing that the depicted painting is not pasted on the picture or something like that .
The Studio series was inspired by Matisse paintings , and Diane Waldman claims that this particular effort was modelled upon Matisse 's L 'Atelier Rouge ( The Red Studio ) , although the Lichtenstein Foundation website credits two other Matisse works as inspiration as well as Fernand Léger 's The Baluster , 1925 , which is represented in the far right corner . Léger was one of Lichtenstein 's closest friends . By incorporating Matisse in his own studio setting , Lichtenstein is perceived as presenting himself as Matisse 's peer and in so doing repositions pop art as a historical style rather than a contemporary one .
A sketch for this work demonstrates Lichtenstein 's original intent to incorporate a " plant @-@ in @-@ vessel arrangement " as well as fruit on the table , but these Matisse references were instead depicted on the floor of the studio . The table instead includes the telephone from Lichtenstein 's own R @-@ R @-@ R @-@ R @-@ Ring ! ! with differences from the original that amount to puns . In the original , Lichtenstein depicted sound with motion lines that present a pronounced movement of the object . This contrasts with the same phone in the studio setting in " perfect stasis " , which contributes to the pacific still life setting .
= = Reception = =
According to Janis Hendrickson , " For someone familiar with the artist 's oeuvre , the Studios could become mental playgrounds . " Waldman notes that " Perhaps the most significant aspect of the work is its retrospective nature and the decision by the artist to reflect on his life , past and present . " The small portion of the original that was cropped out was the majority of Mickey Mouse , emphasizing Donald Duck , who Graham Bader sees as Lichtenstein 's metaphorical representation .
= Psycho ( 1960 film ) =
Psycho is a 1960 American psychological horror thriller directed and produced by Alfred Hitchcock , and written by Joseph Stefano , starring Anthony Perkins , Janet Leigh , John Gavin , Vera Miles and Martin Balsam , and was based on the 1959 novel of the same name by Robert Bloch . The film centers on the encounter between a secretary , Marion Crane ( Leigh ) , who ends up at a secluded motel after stealing money from her employer , and the motel 's disturbed owner @-@ manager , Norman Bates ( Perkins ) , and its aftermath .
When originally made , the film was seen as a departure from Hitchcock 's previous film North by Northwest , having been filmed on a low budget , with a television crew and in black and white . Psycho initially received mixed reviews , but outstanding box office returns prompted reconsideration which led to overwhelming critical acclaim and four Academy Award nominations , including Best Supporting Actress for Leigh and Best Director for Hitchcock . Psycho is now considered one of Hitchcock 's best films and praised as a work of cinematic art by international film critics and film scholars . Ranked among the greatest films of all time , it set a new level of acceptability for violence , deviant behavior and sexuality in American films , and is widely considered to be the earliest example of the slasher film genre .
After Hitchcock 's death in 1980 , Universal Studios began producing follow @-@ ups : three sequels , a remake , a television film spin @-@ off , and a TV series . In 1992 , the US Library of Congress deemed the film " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " and selected it for preservation in the National Film Registry .
= = Plot = =
During a lunchtime tryst in Phoenix , Arizona , a real estate secretary named Marion Crane discusses with her boyfriend , Sam Loomis , how they cannot afford to get married because of Sam 's debts . After lunch , Marion returns to work , where a client drops off a $ 40 @,@ 000 cash payment on a property . Her boss asks her to deposit the money in the bank , and she asks if she can take the rest of the afternoon off . Returning home , she begins to pack for an unplanned trip , deciding to steal the money and give it to Sam in Fairvale , California . She is seen by her boss on her way out of town , which makes her nervous . During the trip , she pulls over on the side of the road and falls asleep , only to be awakened by a state patrol officer . He is suspicious about her nervous behavior but allows her to drive on . Shaken by the encounter , Marion stops at an automobile dealership and trades in her Ford Mainline , with its Arizona license plates , for a Ford Custom 300 that has California tags . Her transaction is all for naught — the highway patrolman sees her at the car dealership and witnesses her purchase of the newer car .
Driving on , Marion encounters a sudden rainstorm and decides to stop for the night at the Bates Motel ; the proprietor , Norman Bates , invites her to a light dinner after she checks in . She accepts , but then hears an argument between Norman and his mother about bringing a woman into her house . They eat in the motel parlor , where he tells her about his hobby of taxidermy and his life with his mother , who is mentally ill and forbids him to have a life outside of her . Returning to her room , Marion decides to go back to Phoenix to return the stolen money . She prepares to take a shower , unaware that Norman is spying on her . As she is showering , a female figure suddenly appears and stabs her to death with a chef knife . Norman discovers the murder and meticulously cleans up the crime scene , putting Marion 's corpse and her possessions — including the embezzled money — into the trunk of her car and sinking it in the swamps near the motel .
A week later , Marion 's sister Lila arrives in Fairvale and confronts Sam about the whereabouts of her sister . A private investigator named Arbogast approaches them and confirms that Marion is wanted for stealing the $ 40 @,@ 000 from her employer . He eventually comes across the Bates Motel , where Norman 's behavior arouses his suspicions . After hearing that Marion had met with Norman 's mother , he asks to speak with her , but Norman refuses . Arbogast calls Lila and Sam , informing them of what he has discovered and saying he intends to speak with Norman 's mother . He goes to the Bates ' home in search of her ; as he reaches the top of the stairs , Mrs. Bates suddenly appears from the bedroom and murders him . When Lila and Sam do not hear from Arbogast , they go to the local sheriff , who informs them that Mrs. Bates has been dead for ten years ; she had killed herself and her lover . Concerned , Lila and Sam make their way to the motel . Meanwhile , Norman takes his unwilling mother from her room , telling her he needs to hide her for a while in the fruit cellar .
At the motel , Lila and Sam meet Norman . Sam distracts him by striking up a conversation while Lila sneaks up to the house . When Norman eventually realizes what they want , he knocks Sam out and rushes to the house . Lila sees Norman approaching and attempts to hide by going down steps that lead to a cellar . There she finds Mrs. Bates sitting in a chair . Lila turns her around and discovers that she is in fact a mummified corpse . Lila screams as a figure comes running into the cellar : Norman , holding a chef knife and wearing his mother 's clothes and a wig . Before Norman can attack Lila , Sam , having regained consciousness , subdues him .
At the local courthouse , a psychiatrist explains that Norman murdered Mrs. Bates and her lover 10 years prior out of jealousy . Unable to bear the guilt , he exhumed her corpse and began to treat it as if she were still alive . In order to preserve that illusion , he recreated his mother in his own mind as an alternate personality , often dressing in her clothes and talking to himself in her voice . The " Mother " personality is as jealous and possessive as the real Mrs. Bates had been : Whenever Norman feels attracted to another woman , " Mother " flies into a rage and kills her . As " Mother " , Norman had killed two missing girls prior to Marion , as well as Arbogast . The psychiatrist then says the " Mother " personality has taken permanent hold of Norman 's mind . While Norman sits in a holding cell , Mrs. Bates ' voice is heard protesting that the murders were Norman 's doing and that she " wouldn 't even harm a fly . " The final shot of the film shows Marion 's car being dragged from the swamp .
= = Cast = =
Anthony Perkins as Norman Bates
Janet Leigh as Marion Crane
Vera Miles as Lila Crane
John Gavin as Sam Loomis
Martin Balsam as Detective Milton Arbogast
John McIntire as Al Chambers
Simon Oakland as Dr. Fred Richmond
Frank Albertson as Tom Cassidy
Pat Hitchcock as Caroline
Vaughn Taylor as George Lowery
Lurene Tuttle as Mrs. Chambers
John Anderson as California Charlie ( used car salesman )
Mort Mills as Highway Patrol Officer
Virginia Gregg , Jeanette Nolan , and Paul Jasmin as voice of Norma Bates
Ted Knight as a policeman guarding Norman Bates ( uncredited )
The success of Psycho jump @-@ started Perkins ' career , but he soon began to suffer from typecasting . However , when Perkins was asked whether he would have still taken the role knowing that he would be typecast afterwards , he replied with a definite " yes " .
Until her death , Leigh continued to receive strange and sometimes threatening calls , letters , and even tapes detailing what they would like to do to Marion Crane . One letter was so " grotesque " that she passed it along to the FBI , two of whose agents visited Leigh and told her the culprits had been located and that she should notify the FBI if she received any more letters of that type .
Norman 's mother was voiced by Virginia Gregg , Paul Jasmin , and Jeanette Nolan , who also provided some screams for Lila 's discovery of the mother 's corpse . The three voices were thoroughly mixed , except for the last speech , which is all Gregg 's .
As Perkins was in New York working on a Broadway stage show when the shower sequence was filmed , actresses Anne Dore and Margo Epper stepped in as his body doubles for that scene .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Psycho is based on Robert Bloch 's 1959 novel of the same name , which was loosely inspired by the case of convicted Wisconsin murderer and grave robber Ed Gein . Both Gein , who lived just 40 miles from Bloch , and the story 's protagonist , Norman Bates , were solitary murderers in isolated rural locations . Each had deceased , domineering mothers , had sealed off a room in their home as a shrine to her , and dressed in women 's clothes . However , unlike Bates , Gein is not strictly considered a serial killer , having been charged with murder only twice .
Peggy Robertson , Hitchcock 's long @-@ time assistant , read Anthony Boucher 's positive review of the novel and decided to show the book to her employer , even though studio readers at Paramount Pictures had already rejected its premise for a film . Hitchcock acquired rights to the novel for $ 9 @,@ 500 and reportedly ordered Robertson to buy up copies to preserve the novel 's surprises . Hitchcock , who had come to face genre competitors whose works were critically compared to his own , was seeking new material to recover from two aborted projects with Paramount , Flamingo Feather and No Bail for the Judge . He disliked stars ' salary demands and trusted only a few people to choose prospective material , including Robertson .
Paramount executives balked at Hitchcock 's proposal and refused to provide his usual budget . In response , Hitchcock offered to film Psycho quickly and inexpensively in black and white using his Alfred Hitchcock Presents television series crew . Paramount executives rejected this cost @-@ conscious approach , claiming their sound stages were booked even though the industry was in a slump . Hitchcock countered he would personally finance the project and film it at Universal @-@ International using his Shamley Productions crew if Paramount would merely distribute . In lieu of his usual $ 250 @,@ 000 director 's fee he proposed a 60 % stake in the film negative . This combined offer was accepted and Hitchcock went ahead in spite of naysaying from producer Herbert Coleman and Shamley Productions executive Joan Harrison .
= = = Novel adaptation = = =
James P. Cavanagh , a writer on the Alfred Hitchcock Presents television series , penned the original screenplay . Hitchcock felt the script dragged and read like a television short horror story , an assessment shared by an assistant . Though Stefano had worked on only one film before , Hitchcock agreed to meet with him ; despite Stefano 's inexperience , the meeting went well and he was hired .
The screenplay is relatively faithful to the novel , with a few notable adaptations by Hitchcock and Stefano . Stefano found the character of Norman Bates — who , in the book , is middle @-@ aged , overweight , and more overtly unstable — unsympathetic , but became more intrigued when Hitchcock suggested casting Anthony Perkins . Stefano eliminated Bates ' drinking , which evidently necessitated removing Bates ' " becoming " the Mother personality when in a drunken stupor . Also gone is Bates ' interest in spiritualism , the occult and pornography . Hitchcock and Stefano elected to open the film with scenes in Marion 's life and not introduce Bates at all until 20 minutes into the film , rather than open with Bates reading a history book as Bloch does . Indeed , writer Joseph W. Smith notes that , " Her story occupies only two of the novel 's 17 chapters . Hitchcock and Stefano expanded this to nearly half the narrative " . He likewise notes there is no hotel tryst between Marion and Sam in the novel . For Stefano , the conversation between Marion and Norman in the hotel parlor in which she displays a maternal sympathy towards him makes it possible for the audience to switch their sympathies towards Norman Bates after Marion 's murder . When Lila Crane is looking through Norman 's room in the film she opens a book with a blank cover whose contents are unseen ; in the novel these are " pathologically pornographic " illustrations . Stefano wanted to give the audience " indications that something was quite wrong , but it could not be spelled out or overdone . " In his book of interviews with Hitchcock , François Truffaut notes that the novel " cheats " by having extended conversations between Norman and " Mother " and stating what Mother is " doing " at various given moments .
The first name of the female protagonist was changed from Mary to Marion , since a real Mary Crane existed in Phoenix . Also changed is the novel 's budding romance between Sam and Lila . Hitchcock preferred to focus the audience 's attention on the solution to the mystery , and Stefano thought such a relationship would make Sam Loomis seem cheap . Instead of having Sam explain Norman 's pathology to Lila , the film uses a psychiatrist . ( Stefano was in therapy dealing with his relationship with his own mother at the time of writing the film . ) The novel is more violent than the film ; for instance , Crane is beheaded in the shower as opposed to being stabbed to death . Minor changes include changing Marion 's telltale earring found after her death to a scrap of paper that failed to flush down the toilet . This provided some shock effect , since toilets were virtually never seen in American cinema in the 1960s . The location of Arbogast 's death was moved from the foyer to the stairwell . Stefano thought this would make it easier to conceal the truth about " Mother " without tipping that something was being hidden . As Janet Leigh put it , this gave Hitchcock more options for his camera .
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
Paramount , whose contract guaranteed another film by Hitchcock , did not want Hitchcock to make Psycho . Paramount was expecting No Bail for the Judge starring Audrey Hepburn , who became pregnant and had to bow out , leading Hitchcock to scrap the production . Their official stance was that the book was " too repulsive " and " impossible for films " , and nothing but another of his star @-@ studded mystery thrillers would suffice . They did not like " anything about it at all " and denied him his usual budget . In response Hitchcock financed the film 's creation through his own Shamley Productions , shooting at Universal Studios under the Revue television unit . The original Bates Motel and Bates house set buildings , which were constructed on the same stage as Lon Chaney Sr. ' s The Phantom of the Opera , are still standing at Universal Studios in Universal City near Hollywood and are a regular attraction on the studio 's tour . As a further result of cost cutting , Hitchcock chose to film Psycho in black and white , keeping the budget under $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . Other reasons for shooting in black and white were his desire to prevent the shower scene from being too gory and his admiration for Les Diaboliques 's use of black and white .
To keep costs down , and because he was most comfortable around them , Hitchcock took most of his crew from his television series Alfred Hitchcock Presents , including the cinematographer , set designer , script supervisor , and first assistant director . He hired regular collaborators Bernard Herrmann as music composer , George Tomasini as editor , and Saul Bass for the title design and storyboarding of the shower scene . In all , his crew cost $ 62 @,@ 000 .
Through the strength of his reputation , Hitchcock cast Leigh for a quarter of her usual fee , paying only $ 25 @,@ 000 ( in the 1967 book Hitchcock / Truffaut , Hitchcock said that Leigh owed Paramount one final film on her seven @-@ year contract which she had signed in 1953 ) . His first choice , Leigh agreed after having only read the novel and making no inquiry into her salary . Her co @-@ star , Anthony Perkins , agreed to $ 40 @,@ 000 . Both stars were experienced and proven box @-@ office draws .
Paramount did distribute the film , but four years later Hitchcock sold his stock in Shamley to Universal 's parent company ( MCA ) and his next six films were made at and distributed by Universal Pictures . After another four years , Paramount sold all rights to Universal .
= = = Filming = = =
The film , independently produced and financed by Hitchcock , was shot at Revue Studios , the same location as his television show . Psycho was shot on a tight budget of $ 807 @,@ 000 , beginning on November 11 , 1959 and ending on February 1 , 1960 . Filming started in the morning and finished by six p.m. or earlier on Thursdays ( when Hitchcock and his wife would dine at Chasen 's ) . Nearly the whole film was shot with 50 mm lenses on 35 mm cameras . This trick closely mimicked normal human vision , which helped to further involve the audience .
Before shooting began in November , Hitchcock dispatched assistant director Hilton A. Green to Phoenix to scout locations and shoot the opening scene . The shot was supposed to be an aerial shot of Phoenix that slowly zoomed into the hotel window of a passionate Marion and Sam . Ultimately , the helicopter footage proved too shaky and had to be spliced with footage from the studio . Another crew filmed day and night footage on Highway 99 between Gorman and Fresno , California for projection when Marion drives from Phoenix . Footage of her driving into Bakersfield to trade her car is also shown . They also provided the location shots for the scene in which she is discovered sleeping in her car by the highway patrolman . In one street scene shot in downtown Phoenix , Christmas decorations were discovered to be visible ; rather than re @-@ shoot the footage , Hitchcock chose to add a graphic to the opening scene marking the date as " Friday , December the Eleventh " .
Green also took photos of a prepared list of 140 locations for later reconstruction in the studio . These included many real estate offices and homes such as those belonging to Marion and her sister . He also found a girl who looked just like he imagined Marion and photographed her whole wardrobe , which would enable Hitchcock to demand realistic looks from Helen Colvig , the wardrobe supervisor . The look of the Bates house was modeled on Edward Hopper 's painting The House by the Railroad , a fanciful portrait of the Second Empire Victorian home at 18 Conger Avenue in Haverstraw , NY .
Both the leads , Perkins and Leigh , were given freedom to interpret their roles and improvise as long as it did not involve moving the camera . An example of Perkins ' improvisation is Norman 's habit of eating candy corn .
Throughout filming , Hitchcock created and hid various versions of the " Mother corpse " prop in Leigh 's dressing room closet . Leigh took the joke well , and she wondered whether it was done to keep her on edge and thus more in character or to judge which corpse would be scarier for the audience .
During shooting , Hitchcock was forced to uncharacteristically do retakes for some scenes . The final shot in the shower scene , which starts with an extreme close @-@ up on Marion 's eye and pulls up and out , proved very difficult for Leigh , since the water splashing in her face made her want to blink , and the cameraman had trouble as well since he had to manually focus while moving the camera . Retakes were also required for the opening scene , since Hitchcock felt that Leigh and Gavin were not passionate enough . Leigh had trouble saying " Not inordinately " for the real estate office scene , requiring additional retakes . Lastly , the scene in which the mother is discovered required complicated coordination of the chair turning around , Miles hitting the light bulb , and a lens flare , which proved to be the sticking point . Hitchcock forced retakes until all three elements were to his satisfaction .
According to Hitchcock , a series of shots with Arbogast going up the stairs in the Bates house before he is stabbed were helmed by assistant director Hilton A. Green , working with storyboard artist Saul Bass ' drawings only while Hitchcock was incapacitated with the common cold . However , upon viewing the dailies of the shots , Hitchcock was forced to scrap them . He claimed they were " no good " because they did not portray " an innocent person but a sinister man who was going up those stairs " . Hitchcock later re @-@ shot the scene , though a little of the cut footage made its way into the film . Filming the murder of Arbogast proved problematic owing to the overhead camera angle necessary to hide the film 's twist . A camera track constructed on pulleys alongside the stairway together with a chairlike device had to be constructed and thoroughly tested over a period of weeks .
Alfred Hitchcock 's cameo is a signature occurrence in most of his films . In Psycho , he can be seen through a window — wearing a Stetson hat — standing outside Marion Crane 's office . Wardrobe mistress Rita Riggs has said that Hitchcock chose this scene for his cameo so that he could be in a scene with his daughter ( who played one of Marion 's colleagues ) . Others have suggested that he chose this early appearance in the film in order to avoid distracting the audience .
= = = The shower scene = = =
The murder of Leigh 's character in the shower is the film 's pivotal scene and one of the best @-@ known in all of cinema . As such , it spawned numerous myths and legends . It was shot from December 17 – 23 , 1959 , and features 77 different camera angles . The scene runs 3 minutes and includes 50 cuts . Most of the shots are extreme close @-@ ups , except for medium shots in the shower directly before and directly after the murder . The combination of the close shots with their short duration makes the sequence feel more subjective than it would have been if the images were presented alone or in a wider angle , an example of the technique Hitchcock described as " transferring the menace from the screen into the mind of the audience " .
In order to capture the straight @-@ on shot of the shower head , the camera had to be equipped with a long lens . The inner holes on the shower head were blocked and the camera placed a sufficient distance away so that the water , while appearing to be aimed directly at the lens , actually went around and past it .
The soundtrack of screeching violins , violas , and cellos was an original all @-@ strings piece by composer Bernard Herrmann titled " The Murder " . Hitchcock originally intended to have no music for the sequence ( and all motel scenes ) , but Herrmann insisted he try his composition . Afterward , Hitchcock agreed it vastly intensified the scene , and nearly doubled Herrmann 's salary . The blood in the scene is reputed to have been Bosco chocolate syrup , which shows up better on black @-@ and @-@ white film , and has more realistic density than stage blood . The sound of the knife entering flesh was created by plunging a knife into a casaba melon .
There are varying accounts whether Leigh was in the shower the entire time or a body double was used for some parts of the murder sequence and its aftermath . In an interview with Roger Ebert and in the book Alfred Hitchcock and the Making of Psycho , Leigh stated she was in the scene the entire time and Hitchcock used a stand @-@ in only for the sequence in which Norman wraps Marion 's body in a shower curtain and places it in the trunk of her car . The 2010 book The Girl in Alfred Hitchcock 's Shower by Robert Graysmith contradicts this , identifying Marli Renfro as Leigh 's body double for some of the shower scene 's shots .
A popular myth emerged that , in order for Leigh 's scream in the shower to sound realistic , ice @-@ cold water was used . Leigh denied this on numerous occasions , saying the crew was very accommodating , supplying hot water throughout the week @-@ long shoot . All of the screams are Leigh 's .
Another myth concerns Saul Bass , the graphic designer who created many of the title sequences of Hitchcock 's films and storyboarded some of Psycho 's scenes , claiming he had directed the shower scene . This was refuted by several figures associated with the film , including Leigh , who stated : " absolutely not ! I have emphatically said this in any interview I 've ever given . I 've said it to his face in front of other people ... I was in that shower for seven days , and , believe me , Alfred Hitchcock was right next to his camera for every one of those seventy @-@ odd shots . " Hilton A. Green , the assistant director , also refutes Bass ' claim : " There is not a shot in that movie that I didn 't roll the camera for . And I can tell you I never rolled the camera for Mr. Bass . " Roger Ebert , a longtime admirer of Hitchcock 's work , summarily dismissed the rumor , stating , " It seems unlikely that a perfectionist with an ego like Hitchcock 's would let someone else direct such a scene . "
However , commentators such as Stephen Rebello and Bill Krohn have argued in favor of Bass ' contribution to the scene in his capacity as visual consultant and storyboard artist . Along with designing the opening credits , Bass is termed " Pictorial Consultant " in the credits . When interviewing Hitchcock in 1967 , François Truffaut asked about the extent of Bass ' contribution , to which Hitchcock replied that in addition to the titles , Bass had provided storyboards for the Arbogast murder ( which he claimed to have rejected ) , but made no mention of Bass providing storyboards for the shower scene . According to Bill Krohn 's Hitchcock At Work , Bass ' first claim to have directed the scene was in 1970 , when he provided a magazine with 48 drawings used as storyboards as proof of his contribution .
Krohn 's analysis of the production of Psycho in his book Hitchcock at Work , while refuting Bass ' claims for directing the scene , notes that these storyboards did introduce key aspects of the final scene — most notably , the fact that the killer appears as a silhouette , and details such as the close @-@ ups of the slashing knife , Leigh 's desperate outstretched arm , the shower curtain being torn down , and the transition from the hole of the drainage pipe to Marion Crane 's dead eyes . Krohn notes that this final transition is highly reminiscent of the iris titles that Bass created for Vertigo .
Krohn 's research also notes that Hitchcock shot the scene with two cameras : one a BNC Mitchell , the other a handheld French Éclair camera which Orson Welles had used in Touch of Evil ( 1958 ) . In order to create an ideal montage for the greatest emotional impact on the audience , Hitchcock shot a lot of footage of this scene which he trimmed down in the editing room . He even brought a Moviola on the set to gauge the footage required . The final sequence , which his editor George Tomasini worked on with Hitchcock 's advice , however did not go far beyond the basic structural elements set up by Bass ' storyboards .
According to Donald Spoto in The Dark Side of Genius , Hitchcock 's wife , Alma Reville , spotted a blooper in one of the last screenings of Psycho before its official release : after Marion was supposedly dead , one could see her blink . According to Patricia Hitchcock , talking in Laurent Bouzereau 's " making of " documentary , Alma spotted that Leigh 's character appeared to take a breath . In either case , the postmortem activity was edited out and was never seen by audiences . Although Marion 's eyes should be dilated after her death , the contact lenses necessary for this effect would have required six weeks of acclimation to wear them , so Hitchcock decided to forgo them .
It is often claimed that , despite its graphic nature , the " shower scene " never once shows a knife puncturing flesh . However , a frame by frame analysis of the sequence shows one shot in which the knife appears to penetrate Leigh 's abdomen , but the effect may have been created by lighting and reverse motion . Leigh herself was so affected by this scene when she saw it , that she no longer took showers unless she absolutely had to ; she would lock all the doors and windows and would leave the bathroom and shower door open . She never realized until she first watched the film " how vulnerable and defenseless one is " .
Leigh and Hitchcock fully discussed what the scene meant :
Marion had decided to go back to Phoenix , come clean , and take the consequence , so when she stepped into the bathtub it was as if she were stepping into the baptismal waters . The spray beating down on her was purifying the corruption from her mind , purging the evil from her soul . She was like a virgin again , tranquil , at peace .
Film theorist Robin Wood also discusses how the shower washes " away her guilt " . He comments upon the " alienation effect " of killing off the " apparent center of the film " with which spectators had identified .
= = Soundtrack = =
= = = Score = = =
Hitchcock insisted that Bernard Herrmann write the score for Psycho despite the composer 's refusal to accept a reduced fee for the film 's lower budget . The resulting score , according to Christopher Palmer in The Composer in Hollywood ( 1990 ) is " perhaps Herrmann 's most spectacular Hitchcock achievement . " Hitchcock was pleased with the tension and drama the score added to the film , later remarking " 33 % of the effect of Psycho was due to the music . " The singular contribution of Herrmann 's score may be inferred from the unusual penultimate placement of the composer 's name in the film 's opening credit sequence , as it is followed only by Hitchcock 's directing credit .
Herrmann used the lowered music budget to his advantage by writing for a string orchestra rather than a full symphonic ensemble , contrary to Hitchcock 's request for a jazz score . He thought of the single tone color of the all @-@ string soundtrack as a way of reflecting the black @-@ and @-@ white cinematography of the film . The strings play con sordini ( with a muting device placed across the bridge ) for all the music other than the shower scene , creating a darker and more intense effect . Hollywood composer Fred Steiner , in an analysis of the score to Psycho , points out that string instruments gave Herrmann access to a wider range in tone , dynamics , and instrumental special effects than any other single instrumental group would have .
The main title music , a tense , hurtling piece , sets the tone of impending violence , and returns three times on the soundtrack . Though nothing shocking occurs during the first 15 – 20 minutes of the film , the title music remains in the audience 's mind , lending tension to these early scenes . Herrmann also maintains tension through the slower moments in the film through the use of ostinato .
There were rumors that Herrmann had used electronic means , including amplified bird screeches to achieve the shocking effect of the music in the shower scene . The effect was achieved , however , only with violins in a " screeching , stabbing sound @-@ motion of extraordinary viciousness . " The only electronic amplification employed was in the placing of the microphones close to the instruments , to get a harsher sound . Besides the emotional impact , the shower scene cue ties the soundtrack to birds . The association of the shower scene music with birds also telegraphs to the audience that it is Norman , the stuffed @-@ bird collector , who is the murderer rather than his mother .
Herrmann biographer Steven C. Smith writes that the music for the shower scene is " probably the most famous ( and most imitated ) cue in film music , " but Hitchcock was originally opposed to having music in this scene . When Herrmann played the shower scene cue for Hitchcock , the director approved its use in the film . Herrmann reminded Hitchcock of his instructions not to score this scene , to which Hitchcock replied , " Improper suggestion , my boy , improper suggestion . " This was one of two important disagreements Hitchcock had with Herrmann , in which Herrmann ignored Hitchcock 's instructions . The second one , over the score for Torn Curtain ( 1966 ) , resulted in the end of their professional collaboration . A survey conducted by PRS for Music , in 2009 , showed that the British public consider the score from ' the shower scene ' to be the scariest theme from any film .
To honor the fiftieth anniversary of Psycho , in July 2010 , the San Francisco Symphony obtained a print of the film with the soundtrack removed , and projected it on a large screen in Davies Symphony Hall while the orchestra performed the score live . This was previously mounted by the Seattle Symphony in October 2009 as well , performing at the Benaroya Hall for two consecutive evenings .
= = = Recordings = = =
Several CDs of the film soundtrack have been released , including :
The 1970s soundtrack recording with Bernard Herrmann conducting the National Philharmonic Orchestra [ Unicorn CD , 1993 ] .
The 1997 Varèse Sarabande CD features a re @-@ recording of the complete score performed by the Royal Scottish National Orchestra and conducted by Joel McNeely .
The 1998 Soundstage Records SCD 585 CD claims to feature the tracks from the original master tapes . However , it has been asserted that the release is a bootleg recording .
The 2011 Doxy Records DOY650 ( Italy ) 180 gram LP release of the complete original 1960 score conducted by Herrmann .
= = Controversy = =
Psycho is a prime example of the type of film that appeared in the United States during the 1960s after the erosion of the Production Code . It was unprecedented in its depiction of sexuality and violence , right from the opening scene in which Sam and Marion are shown as lovers sharing the same bed , with Marion in a bra . In the Production Code standards of that time , unmarried couples shown in the same bed would be taboo .
According to the book Alfred Hitchcock and the Making of Psycho , the censors in charge of enforcing the Production Code wrangled with Hitchcock because some of them insisted they could see one of Leigh 's breasts . Hitchcock held onto the print for several days , left it untouched , and resubmitted it for approval . Each of the censors reversed their positions : those who had previously seen the breast now did not , and those who had not , now did . They passed the film after the director removed one shot that showed the buttocks of Leigh 's stand @-@ in . The board was also upset by the racy opening , so Hitchcock said that if they let him keep the shower scene he would re @-@ shoot the opening with them on the set . Since they did not show up for the re @-@ shoot , the opening stayed .
Another cause of concern for the censors was that Marion was shown flushing a toilet , with its contents ( torn @-@ up note paper ) fully visible . No flushing toilet had appeared in mainstream film and television in the United States at that time .
Internationally , Hitchcock was forced to make minor changes to the film , mostly to the shower scene . In Britain , the BBFC requested cuts to stabbing sounds and visible nude shots , and in New Zealand the shot of Norman washing blood from his hands was objected to . In Singapore , though the shower scene was left untouched , the murder of Arbogast , and a shot of Norman 's mother 's corpse were removed .
The most controversial move was Hitchcock 's " no late admission " policy for the film , which was unusual for the time . It was not entirely original as Clouzot had done the same in France for Diabolique . Hitchcock thought that if people entered the theater late and never saw the star actress Janet Leigh , they would feel cheated . At first theater owners opposed the idea , claiming that they would lose business . However , after the first day , the owners enjoyed long lines of people waiting to see the film .
= = Promotion = =
Hitchcock did most of the promotion on his own , forbidding Leigh and Perkins to make the usual television , radio , and print interviews for fear of their revealing the plot . Even critics were not given private screenings but rather had to see the film with the general public , which , despite possibly affecting their reviews , certainly preserved the secret .
The film 's original trailer features a jovial Hitchcock taking the viewer on a tour of the set , and almost giving away plot details before stopping himself . It is " tracked " with Herrmann 's Psycho theme , but also jovial music from Hitchcock 's comedy The Trouble with Harry ; most of Hitchcock 's dialogue is post @-@ synchronized . The trailer was made after completion of the film , and since Janet Leigh was no longer available for filming , Hitchcock had Vera Miles don a blonde wig and scream loudly as he pulled the shower curtain back in the bathroom sequence of the preview . Since the title , " Psycho " , instantly covers most of the screen , the switch went unnoticed by audiences for years . However , a freeze @-@ frame analysis clearly reveals that it is Miles and not Leigh in the shower during the trailer .
= = Release = =
The film was so successful that it was reissued to theaters in 1965 . A year later , CBS purchased the television rights for $ 450 @,@ 000 . CBS planned to televise the film on September 23 , 1966 , but three days earlier , Valerie Percy , daughter of Illinois senate candidate Charles H. Percy , was murdered . As her parents slept mere feet away , she was stabbed a dozen times with a double @-@ edged knife . In light of the murder , CBS agreed to postpone the screening , but as a result of the Apollo pad fire of January 27 , 1967 , the network washed its hands of Psycho , and shortly afterward Paramount included the film in its first syndicated package of post @-@ 1950 movies , " Portfolio I " . WABC @-@ TV in New York City was the first station in the country to air Psycho ( with some scenes significantly edited ) , on its late @-@ night movie series , The Best of Broadway , on June 24 , 1967 . Following another successful theatrical reissue in 1969 , the film finally made its way to general television airing in one of Universal 's syndicated programming packages for local stations in 1970 . Psycho was aired for twenty years in this format , then leased to cable for two years before returning to syndication as part of the " List of a Lifetime " package .
The film was re @-@ released on September 20 & 23 , 2015 , as part of the " TCM Presents " series by Turner Classic Movies and Fathom Events .
= = Reception = =
Initial reviews of the film were thoroughly mixed . Bosley Crowther of The New York Times wrote , " There is not an abundance of subtlety or the lately familiar Hitchcock bent toward significant and colorful scenery in this obviously low @-@ budget job . " Crowther called the " slow buildups to sudden shocks " reliably melodramatic but contested Hitchcock 's psychological points , reminiscent of Krafft @-@ Ebing 's studies , as less effective . While the film did not conclude satisfactorily for the critic , he commended the cast 's performances as " fair " . British critic C. A. Lejeune was so offended that she not only walked out before the end but permanently resigned her post as film critic for The Observer . Other negative reviews stated , " a blot on an honorable career " , " plainly a gimmick movie " , and " merely one of those television shows padded out to two hours . " Positive reviews stated , " Anthony Perkins ' performance is the best of his career ... Janet Leigh has never been better " , " played out beautifully " , and " first American movie since Touch of Evil to stand in the same creative rank as the great European films . " A good example of the mix is the New York Herald Tribune 's review , which stated , " ... rather difficult to be amused at the forms insanity may take ... keeps your attention like a snake @-@ charmer . "
The public loved the film , with lines stretching outside of theaters as people had to wait for the next showing . This , along with box office numbers , led to a reconsideration of the film by critics , and it eventually received a very large amount of praise . It broke box @-@ office records in Japan and the rest of Asia , France , Britain , South America , the United States , and Canada , and was a moderate success in Australia for a brief period . It was the most profitable black @-@ and @-@ white sound film ever made , and Hitchcock personally realized well in excess of $ 15 million ( about $ 120m today ) . He then swapped his rights to Psycho and his TV anthology for 150 @,@ 000 shares of MCA , making him the third largest shareholder in MCA Inc . , and his own boss at Universal , in theory ; however , this did not stop them from interfering with his later films . Psycho was , by a large margin , the most profitable film of Hitchcock 's career , earning over $ 12 million for the studio on release , and $ 15 million by the end of the year . Hitchcock 's second most profitable was Family Plot ( $ 7 @,@ 541 @,@ 000 ) , and third place was a tie between Torn Curtain ( 1966 ) and Frenzy ( 1972 ) , each earning $ 6 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 . Around the time of the run 's end , the film had grossed $ 32 million in domestic theaters .
In the United Kingdom , the film shattered attendance records at the London Plaza Cinema , but nearly all British critics panned it , questioning Hitchcock 's taste and judgment . Reasons cited for this were the critics ' late screenings , forcing them to rush their reviews , their dislike of the gimmicky promotion , and Hitchcock 's expatriate status . Perhaps thanks to the public 's response and Hitchcock 's efforts at promoting it , the critics did a re @-@ review , and the film was praised . TIME switched its opinion from " Hitchcock bears down too heavily in this one " to " superlative " and " masterly " , and Bosley Crowther put it on his Top Ten list of 1960 .
Psycho was initially criticized for making other filmmakers more willing to show gore ; three years later , Blood Feast , considered to be the first " splatter film " , was released . Psycho 's success financially and critically had others trying to ride its coattails . Inspired by Psycho , Hammer Film Productions launched a series of mystery thrillers including The Nanny ( 1965 ) starring Bette Davis and William Castle 's Homicidal ( 1961 ) was followed by a slew of more than thirteen other splatter films .
On the review aggregator website , RottenTomatoes.com , Psycho holds a ' Certified : Fresh ' score of 96 % , with the critics consensus reading : " Infamous for its shower scene , but immortal for its contribution to the horror genre . Because Psycho was filmed with tact , grace , and art , Hitchcock didn 't just create modern horror , he validated it " .
= = Interpretations = =
= = = Subversion of romance through irony = = =
In Psycho , Hitchcock subverts the romantic elements that are seen in most of his work . The film is instead ironic as it presents " clarity and fulfillment " of romance . The past is central to the film ; the main characters " struggle to understand and resolve destructive personal histories " and ultimately fail . Lesley Brill writes , " The inexorable forces of past sins and mistakes crush hopes for regeneration and present happiness . " The crushed hope is highlighted by the death of the protagonist , Marion Crane , halfway through the film . Marion is like Persephone of Greek mythology , who is abducted temporarily from the world of the living . The myth does not sustain with Marion , who dies hopelessly in her room at the Bates Motel . The room is wallpapered with floral print like Persephone 's flowers , but they are only " reflected in mirrors , as images of images — twice removed from reality " . In the scene of Marion 's death , Brill describes the transition from the bathroom drain to Marion 's lifeless eye , " Like the eye of the amorphous sea creature at the end of Fellini 's La Dolce Vita , it marks the birth of death , an emblem of final hopelessness and corruption . " Unlike heroines in Hitchcock 's other films , she does not reestablish her innocence or discover love .
Marion is deprived of " the humble treasures of love , marriage , home and family " , which Hitchcock considers elements of human happiness . There exists among Psycho 's secondary characters a lack of " familial warmth and stability " , which demonstrates the unlikelihood of domestic fantasies . The film contains ironic jokes about domesticity , such as when Sam writes a letter to Marion , agreeing to marry her , only after the audience sees her buried in the swamp . Sam and Marion 's sister Lila , in investigating Marion 's disappearance , develop an " increasingly connubial " relationship , a development that Marion is denied . Norman also suffers a similarly perverse definition of domesticity . He has " an infantile and divided personality " and lives in a mansion whose past occupies the present . Norman displays stuffed birds that are " frozen in time " and keeps childhood toys and stuffed animals in his room . He is hostile toward suggestions to move from the past , such as with Marion 's suggestion to put his mother " someplace " and as a result kills Marion to preserve his past . Brill explains , " ' Someplace ' for Norman is where his delusions of love , home , and family are declared invalid and exposed . "
Light and darkness feature prominently in Psycho . The first shot after the intertitle is the sunny landscape of Phoenix before the camera enters a dark hotel room where Sam and Marion appear as bright figures . Marion is almost immediately cast in darkness ; she is preceded by her shadow as she reenters the office to steal money and as she enters her bedroom . When she flees Phoenix , darkness descends on her drive . The following sunny morning is punctured by a watchful police officer with black sunglasses , and she finally arrives at the Bates Motel in near darkness . Bright lights are also " the ironic equivalent of darkness " in the film , blinding instead of illuminating . Examples of brightness include the opening window shades in Sam 's and Marion 's hotel room , vehicle headlights at night , the neon sign at the Bates Motel , " the glaring white " of the bathroom tiles where Marion dies , and the fruit cellar 's exposed light bulb shining on the corpse of Norman 's mother . Such bright lights typically characterize danger and violence in Hitchcock 's films .
= = = Motifs = = =
The film often features shadows , mirrors , windows , and , less so , water . The shadows are present from the very first scene where the blinds make bars on Marion and Sam as they peer out of the window . The stuffed birds ' shadows loom over Marion as she eats , and Norman 's mother is seen in only shadows until the very end . More subtly , backlighting turns the rakes in the hardware store into talons above Lila 's head .
Mirrors reflect Marion as she packs , her eyes as she checks the rear @-@ view mirror , her face in the policeman 's sunglasses , and her hands as she counts out the money in the car dealership 's bathroom . A motel window serves as a mirror by reflecting Marion and Norman together . Hitchcock shoots through Marion 's windshield and the telephone booth , when Arbogast phones Sam and Lila . The heavy downpour can be seen as a foreshadowing of the shower , and its cessation can be seen as a symbol of Marion making up her mind to return to Phoenix .
There are a number of references to birds . Marion 's last name is Crane and she is from Phoenix . Norman comments that Marion eats like a bird . The motel room has pictures of birds on the wall . Brigitte Peucker also suggests that Norman 's hobby of stuffing birds literalizes the British slang expressions for sex - " stuffing " - and desirable women - " birds " . Robert Allan suggests that Norman 's mother is his original " stuffed bird " , both in the sense of having preserved her body and the incestuous nature of Norman 's emotional bond with her .
= = = Psychoanalytic interpretation = = =
Psycho has been called " the first psychoanalytical thriller . " The sex and violence in the film were unlike anything previously seen in a mainstream film . " The shower scene is both feared and desired , " wrote French film critic Serge Kaganski . " Hitchcock may be scaring his female viewers out of their wits , but he is turning his male viewers into potential rapists , since Janet Leigh has been turning men on ever since she appeared in her brassiere in the first scene . "
In his documentary The Pervert 's Guide to Cinema , Slavoj Žižek remarks that Norman Bates ' mansion has three floors , paralleling the three levels of the human mind that are postulated by Freudian psychoanalysis : the top floor would be the superego , where Bates ' mother lives ; the ground floor is then Bates ' ego , where he functions as an apparently normal human being ; and finally , the basement would be Bates ' id . Žižek interprets Bates ' moving his mother 's corpse from top floor to basement as a symbol for the deep connection that psychoanalysis posits between superego and id .
= = Recognition = =
In 1992 , the film was deemed " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " by the United States Library of Congress and was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry .
In 1998 , TV Guide ranked it # 8 on their list of the 50 Greatest Movies on TV ( and Video ) .
Leigh asserted , " no other murder mystery in the history of the movies has inspired such merchandising . " Any number of items emblazoned with Bates Motel , stills , lobby cards , and highly valuable posters are available for purchase . In 1992 , it was adapted scene @-@ for @-@ scene into three comic books by the Innovative Corporation .
Psycho has appeared on a number of lists by websites , television channels , and magazines . The shower scene was featured as number four on the list of Bravo Network 's 100 Scariest Movie Moments , whilst the finale was ranked number four on Premiere 's similar list . Entertainment Weekly 's book titled The 100 Greatest Movies of All Time ranked the film as # 11 .
American Film Institute lists
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies – # 18
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Thrills – # 1
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Heroes and Villains :
Norman Bates – # 2 Villain
AFI 's 1
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the MCs , which they did later that year . " Hey Mama " , dedicated to his mother Donda West , was first recorded by West as early as 2000 . Brion ran into some obstruction while conducting a twenty @-@ piece orchestra for " Celebration " , as its musicians found themselves giggling at West 's humorous lyrics which hampered their playing . On " Roses , " West and Brion had some minor discord ; Brion initially layered it with keyboard arrangements , only for West to remove his keys along with the beat and completely reconfigure the entire song in such a way that its verses are built around the rhythm formed by his vocals and Brion 's arrangements arrive during the choruses . Brion later lightheartedly compared the indecision surrounding the construction of the track to that of Prince 's famous last @-@ minute removal of the bass line from " When Doves Cry . "
= = Music and production = =
On Late Registration , West drew inspiration from English trip hop band Portishead and collaborated with film score composer Jon Brion . The album 's music blends West 's primary soulful hip hop production with Brion 's elaborate chamber pop orchestration , and experimentally delves into a wide array of different genres , including jazz , blues , rock , R & B , spoken word , funk , turntablism , western classical , and psychedelic soul . With the presence of Brion , who conducts a twenty @-@ piece orchestra and plays instruments individually selected by West , the album is largely orchestral in nature , brandishing a euphony of string arrangements , piano chords , brass flecks , and horn riffs among other symphonic instrumentation . They also incorporated a myriad of foreign and vintage instruments not typical in popular music , let alone hip hop , such as a celesta , harpsichord , Chamberlin , CS @-@ 80 analog synthesizer , Chinese bells and berimbau , vibraphones , and marimba .
For Late Registration , Serena Kim of Vibe magazine took note of how West uses unconventional styles and sudden musical shifts in song structures , drawing comparisons to The Beatles during their experimental era . Rolling Stone described Late Registration as West claiming " the whole world of music as hip @-@ hop turf " chronicling the album as " his mad quest to explode every cliché about hip @-@ hop identity . " Kim concurred with this sentiment , stating , " West ambitiously attempts to depart from the street sensibilities of Dropout by giving Late Registration a shiny , quasi @-@ alt @-@ pop finish . "
The album 's opening track " Heard ' Em Say " exhibits a cascading piano melody provided by excerpts of " Someone That I Used To Love " as performed by Natalie Cole embellished over tumbling beats and warped bass as well as acoustic guitar . The song 's intricately composed outro , which adopts new sonic elements such as synthesizer and foreign bells , exemplifies the musical complexity of the album as a whole . " Touch the Sky " stands as the sole song on the entire album not to feature production by West . The song was produced by fellow Roc @-@ a @-@ Fella producer Just Blaze , who uses a slowed @-@ down sample of Curtis Mayfield 's " Move on Up " filled with jubilant Latin horn blares and dynamic drum patterns . " Gold Digger " contains an interpolation of " I Got a Woman " by Ray Charles and a bouncy beat formed from handclaps as well as scratches by West 's touring DJ A @-@ Trak . Towards the end , the song employs vintage 1970s synthesizers which emit a honking sound in cadence to Kanye 's voice . West 's production approach comes full circle within " Drive Slow " , a song that samples Hank Crawford 's " Wildflower " and distinctively retains a sluggish but smooth alto jazz @-@ infused drum loop , antithetical to his once essential sped @-@ up soul style .
The interlude " My Way Home " contains a sample of " Home is Where the Hatred Is " by Gil Scott @-@ Heron . This facet is accentuated by Common 's performance , which pays homage to the poet by the delivering its single verse in a distinctive proto @-@ rap manner reminiscent of Scott @-@ Heron 's influential vocal style . " Crack Music " is sparsely built on incessant snare drum hits and clipped horn blares . The track sees an ephemeral return of West 's old production attributes , as it possesses a syncopated martial beat , gospel choir symphony , and a spoken word passage within its coda . The poetic " Roses " is partially a cappella in structure , displaying verses rapped over sparse keyboards and a slowed rhythm with the music arriving at the chorus , which features additional vocals , trumpet riffs , electric guitar phrasings , and finally a vocal and piano sample from Bill Withers ' " Rosie " . " Bring Me Down " carries a bombast dramatic air , as it holds more orchestration than any other track on Late Registration . Additionally , it features an overdubbing of Brandy 's vocals to create a chorus effect , a recording technique in which her lone voice produces the illusion of a choir singing harmonies during the choruses . The up @-@ tempo arrangement of " Addiction " contains ambient , rhythmic guitar licks , congas , filtered hi @-@ hats and a sampled line from " My Funny Valentine " as performed by Etta James . All the while , West 's overdubbed vocals reverbs in and out of the track . For " Diamonds from Sierra Leone " , West used a music sample of the theme song for the 1971 James Bond film , Diamonds Are Forever as performed by Shirley Bassey and layered it with live drums , piano keys , harpsichord arpeggios , and string arrangements that all build in intensity with his voice .
Late Registration 's longest track , the seven minute @-@ long " We Major " , implements exuberant , amplified backing vocals and a " splashy disco groove " embellished by horn blares , droning bassline , and electric piano glissandos . The melody of " Hey Mama " is laced with a folksy looped " La @-@ la @-@ la " vocal sample from " Today Won 't Come Again " by Donal Leace while its beat is produced by a tin drum . Additionally , it contains vocoder @-@ processed background vocals , a xylophone solo and a cascading synth outro . Opening with an electronic twinkling sound , " Celebration " contains samples of " Heavenly Dream " by The KayGees . A columnist for The Guardian described it as evoking " the lavish 1970s psychedelic soul of Rotary Connection . " Some of the most elaborate orchestral arrangement expressed on the entire album is contained within its closing track " Gone . " The composition begins with a vocal sample of " It 's Too Late " by Otis Redding and a two @-@ chord piano ostinato , followed by a simplistic funk beat . As the song progresses , its structure gradually morphs and develops more and more musicality . Overtime , the composition assumes ten violins , four violas and four cellos in the midst of verses , all of which initially come in brief staccato bursts that simply punctuate the rhythm but eventually expand and consolidate into a fully formed string section by the arrival of the harmonic choruses . After its third verse , the song enters an instrumental passage before returning with a fourth verse from West , where the rise and fall of his voice is intricately emulated by the fluctuation of the string orchestra .
= = Lyrics and themes = =
According to Josh Tyrangiel of Time magazine , Late Registration serves as an exhibition of " the stealthy power of West 's storytelling . " West stated that his goal for the album was to touch on topics that people from all walks of life could find relatable , while remaining true to himself : " [ I wanted to have ] raps that were just as ill as Jadakiss and just as understandable as Will Smith . " The opening track " Heard ' Em Say " is a " mournfully contemplative " song that " talks about being honest with yourself in a world that is not . " The song is written from the perspective of an afflicted , impoverished American quietly lamenting the fallacies of society and questioning the ways of the world around him . West delivers a tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek lyrical narrative within " Gold Digger " in which he critically depicts the disastrous life of a man married to a woman who manipulates him for financial gain . However , another story arises within the third verse , which illustrates a once destitute black male who earns a fortune and decides to leave a loyal , unselfish girlfriend for a white woman .
" Crack Music " continues the avenue of socio @-@ political commentary initiated within " Heard ' Em Say . " However , two songs express polar opposite tones ; where " Heard ' Em Say " was self @-@ effacing and passive @-@ aggressive , " Crack Music " is audacious and straightforward . In the song , West dually discusses the spread and devastating impact of crack cocaine in black communities and champions the sovereignty of music pioneered by black musicians , metaphorically equating their contrarily addictive power and influence on American society . On the sentimental " Roses " , Kanye gives a firsthand account of the hospitalization of his ailing grandmother within a melancholic poem to produce a critique of the healthcare system .
The original version of " Diamonds from Sierra Leone " is largely free @-@ associative and is filled with a litany of lyrical punchlines which serve to loosely chronicle his past experiences being a part of the Roc @-@ A @-@ Fella family , from touring with Jay @-@ Z on his Blueprint Lounge Tour to the label 's subsequent fall out and revival . However , West uses the remix to " Diamonds from Sierra Leone " to directly address the issue of " blood diamonds " that people unknowingly wear every day are used to fund horrific civil wars in West Africa . Lyrically , the extensive , uplifting " We Major " is a spiritual exhultation of generational and personal success . " Hey Mama " is West 's dedication to his mother , Donda West . In the ballad , West recounts past hardships he and his mother suffered through together and expresses his love and devotion for her and appreciation for her tireless support , even when he was going directly against her expectations for him .
In addition , the album includes a series of humorous skits that involve West joining a fictional black fraternity , " Broke Phi Broke , " whose members pride themselves in living a life without money or worldly possessions , despite the glaring disadvantages such a lifestyle brings . His character is eventually expelled from the fraternity after their leader discovers that not only has West been making beats for cash on the side but has also been breaking some of its rules , such as eating meals everyday , buying new clothes , and taking showers . According to music writer Mickey Hess , the skits serve to encapsulate , " a contradiction at the core of contemporary American life : the need to belong , to fit in , with your fellow humans versus the Darwinistic mad grab at material things , success in the latter being the very definition of success in our culture . "
= = Release and promotion = =
West presented music audiences with the first taste of Late Registration on April 20 , 2005 while appearing on New York radio station Hot 97 , where he played his lead single " Diamonds from Sierra Leone . " The album was originally set to be released on July 12 , 2005 , but was shifted to August 16 by Roc @-@ A @-@ Fella / Def Jam . It was pushed back once more to August 30 by West himself as he needed more time to complete the album . Late Registration was anticipated to become the biggest @-@ selling record of the year and over 1 @.@ 6 million copies were distributed to stores in preparation of its first week of release . On the iTunes Store , the album became one of the most pre @-@ ordered titles in the online digital media store 's history . West filmed a live album featuring tracks from Late Registration and College Dropout , titled Late Orchestration which was released April 2006 .
A television advertisement for Late Registration was directed and animated by Maggie Rogers , Abby Johnson and Paul Tuersley of Mr & Mrs Smith Design Ltd . It featured a gigantic version of West 's teddy bear mascot Dropout Bear roaming through the streets of London . The advert received an award from British music magazine Music Week for Best Music TV Commercial . On the day of the album 's release , West made an in @-@ store appearance at New York 's Lincoln Center Tower Records to autograph copies for fans . That same day , Late Registration was released in its entirety for online streaming on AOL Music .
The art direction and music packaging for Late Registration was done by Brooklyn graphic design studio Morning Breath , Inc . Similar to its predecessor , the album artwork of the second album carries an educational motif . Where The College Dropout was designed in a manner reminiscent of a high school yearbook , the images contained within the liner notes of Late Registration were taken at Princeton University . West 's vision for the style of the pictures was inspired by the works of American satirical painter John Currin , one of his favorite artists . The liner notes also contain a banner that reads Tardus Subcriptio , which is Latin for Late Registration . The album artwork centers around " Dropout Bear " , West 's anthropomorphic teddy bear mascot , who is dressed in a collegian outfit . Entering Princeton on the front cover , Dropout wanders its hallways , sits in empty lecture halls , and reads multiple library books before departing from the institution the same way he came in on the back cover .
In its first week of release , Late Registration debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 and sold 860 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . This was nearly double that of The College Dropout 's first @-@ week sales . It also debuted at number one on the charts in Canada . In the United Kingdom , the album debuted and peaked at number two on the UK Albums Chart for the issue date of September 5 . On the Billboard 200 , Late Registration remained at number one for two consecutive weeks and , by its second week , had reached sales of 1 @.@ 14 million copies . By June 2013 , it had sold 3 @.@ 1 million copies in the US .
= = Critical reception = =
Late Registration received widespread acclaim from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications , the album received an average score of 85 , based on 31 reviews . Writing for Rolling Stone , Rob Sheffield deemed the record " an undeniable triumph , packed front to back , so expansive it makes the debut sound like a rough draft " , while calling West " a real MC " . Uncut magazine 's Simon Reynolds found most of the songs brilliant and highlighted by what he called an unparalleled use of vocal samples by West , while Josh Tyrangiel from Time said the sampling and string arrangements on " Gone " may persuade listeners to believe West 's own hype . In The Guardian , Alexis Petridis praised West 's topicality and subversive studio production , writing that " Late Registration suggests an artist effortlessly outstripping his peers : more ideas , better lyrics , bigger hooks , greater depth . " The Observer viewed the album as a significant milestone in hip hop while calling West " the Brian Wilson of hip @-@ hop " because he " plays up the struggle between conscience and covetousness , the pop mainstream and what can be achieved within the notional boundaries of hip hop " . Robert Hilburn of the Los Angeles Times compared West 's dignified execution of pop crossover to that of The Beatles , Johnny Cash , and Bob Marley . Sean Fennessey from Pitchfork Media felt West avoided the sophomore slump with an " expansive , imperfect masterpiece " that drew on his enthusiastic , ambitious , and scattered personality . Christgau , writing in The Village Voice , praised the album 's " exquisite details " , both lyrical and musical , and concluded that West is " as good as he thinks he is ... He wants everybody to buy this record . So do I " .
In a less enthusiastic review for The New York Times , Jon Pareles believed West 's elevated status undermines the underdog quality that accentuated his debut album : " for much of Late Registration , the striver has turned into a hip @-@ hop V.I.P. , and a cool arrogance has crept into the songs " . Spin magazine 's Jon Caramanica viewed that the augmented versatility and eccentricity of West 's flow still " pales in comparison to his sonic ambition " . Hattie Collins of NME was highly impressed by the beats in the music , which she called " pure cranium @-@ crushing boom bap at its best " , but lamented the lack of " rubbish lyrics " and clumsy charm that distinguished West 's debut album . Nathan Rabin wrote in The A.V. Club that it is as ambitious but " less successful " than The College Dropout because of melodramatic lyrics and " symphonics " without a " strong narrative " to hold the songs together .
= = = Accolades = = =
Late Registration topped numerous music critic polls and was called the best album of the year by numerous publications , including USA Today , Spin , and Time . Rolling Stone awarded the second effort the highest position on their year @-@ end top albums list and hailed it as a " sweepingly generous , absurdly virtuosic hip @-@ hop classic . " In The Village Voice 's 2005 Pazz & Jop nationwide poll of 795 popular music critics , Late Registration finished at number one by a wide margin over any of the other album nominees . This was the second year in a row that West topped the poll , a feat that had occurred only one other time over twenty years ago by The Clash . It was also named the year 's second best album by Pitchfork Media , and eighteenth best by PopMatters , Late Registration became West 's second consecutive album to be rated " XXL " by XXL , the magazine 's highest rank , which has been awarded to only sixteen other hip @-@ hop albums .
At the 2006 Grammy Awards , Late Registration received a nomination for Album of the Year and won Best Rap Album . West 's single " Gold Digger " was nominated for Record of the Year and received the award for Best Rap Solo Performance . He also won Best Rap Song for " Diamonds from Sierra Leone . " At the 37th NAACP Image Awards , the second album received a nomination for Outstanding Album . Late Registration was nominated for Album of the Year at the third annual Vibe Awards , but lost to Mariah Carey 's The Emancipation of Mimi . West received the awards for Top Rap Album for Late Registration as well as Hot Rap Track for " Gold Digger " at the 2006 Billboard R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Awards , where he also received nominations for Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Album and Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Song . Late Registration was nominated for best International Album at the 2006 BRIT Awards . In a decade @-@ end poll of critics and musicians , it finished number 40 on Rolling Stone 's list of the 100 Best Albums of the Decade . In his ballot for the magazine 's poll , Robert Christgau ranked it as the second best album of the 2000s decade . In 2012 , Rolling Stone ranked the album number 118 on its revised list of the 500 greatest albums of all time .
= = Track listing = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = = Track notes = = =
" Wake Up Mr. West " features additional vocals by Deray .
" Heard ' Em Say " features additional vocals by Tony " Penafire " Williams .
" Gold Digger " features additional vocals by Plain Pat and Don C.
" Drive Slow " features additional vocals by Tony " Penafire " Williams .
" Crack Music " features additional vocals by Tony " Penafire " Williams , Keyshia Cole and Charlie Wilson .
" Roses " features additional vocals by Tony " Penafire " Williams .
" Addiction " features additional vocals by Strings .
" We Major " features additional vocals by Tony " Penafire " Williams .
" Hey Mama " features additional vocals by John Legend .
" Celebration " features additional vocals by John Legend .
= = = Sample credits = = =
" Wake Up Mr. West " and " Heard Em Say " both contain excerpts of " Someone That I Used to Love " as performed by Natalie Cole
" Touch the Sky " contains samples of " Move On Up " as performed by Curtis Mayfield
" Gold Digger " contains samples of " I Got a Woman " as performed by Ray Charles
" Drive Slow " contains samples of " Wildflower " as performed by Hank Crawford
" My Way Home " contains samples of " Home Is Where the Hatred Is " as performed by Gil Scott @-@ Heron
" Crack Music " contains samples of " Since You Came in My Life " as performed by New York Community Choir
" Roses " contains samples of " Rosie " as performed by Bill Withers
" Addiction " contains elements of " My Funny Valentine " as performed by Etta James
" Diamonds from Sierra Leone " contains samples of " Diamonds Are Forever " as performed by Shirley Bassey
" We Major " contains samples of " Action " as performed by Orange Krush
" Hey Mama " contains samples of " Today Won 't Come Again " as performed by Donal Leace
" Celebration " contains samples of " Heavenly Dream " as performed by The KayGees
" Gone " contains samples of " It 's Too Late " as performed by Otis Redding
" Late " contains samples of " I 'll Erase Away Your Pain " by The Whatnauts .
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = = Vocalists = = =
Paul Wall – featured artist ( track 6 )
Cam 'ron – featured artist ( track 19 )
Brandy – featured artist ( track 10 )
Common – featured artist ( track 7 )
Consequence – featured artist ( track 19 )
Lupe Fiasco – featured artist ( track 3 )
The Game – featured artist ( track 8 )
GLC – featured artist ( track 6 )
Jay @-@ Z – featured artist ( track 13 )
Adam Levine – featured artist ( track 2 )
Nas – featured artist ( track 14 )
Really Doe – featured artist ( track 14 )
Jamie Foxx – featured artist ( track 4 )
Tony Williams – additional vocals ( track 9 )
Charlie Wilson – additional vocals ( track 8 )
Keyshia Cole – additional vocals ( track 8 )
DeRay Davis – additional vocals ( track 1 )
John Legend – additional vocals ( tracks 16 and 17 )
= = Charts = =
Chart precession and succession
= = Certifications = =
= Hurricane Henriette ( 2007 ) =
Hurricane Henriette was a minimal Category 1 hurricane that affected portions of Mexico in late August and early September 2007 . The storm , which caused nine fatalities , formed from an area of disturbed weather on August 30 , 2007 , and became a tropical storm the next day . The cyclone moved parallel to the Mexican Pacific coast , but its proximity to the shore resulted in heavy rainfall over land . The most affected city was Acapulco , Guerrero , where six people were killed by landslides , and where over 100 families had to be evacuated after the La Sabana River flooded . Henriette then turned north and headed towards the Baja California peninsula , and became a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . Henriette made its first landfall east of Cabo San Lucas at peak intensity , ( Eye witness reports state the first landfall was directly over Cabo ) causing the death of one woman due to high surf .
Hurricane Henriette then emerged over the Gulf of California , and made its second landfall near Guaymas , Sonora . After causing heavy rains in Sonora , the storm dissipated over the Sierra Madre Occidental and its remnants went on to cause flooding in New Mexico and Texas . Damage totaled about $ 275 million ( 2007 MXN , $ 25 million 2007 USD ) . It hit Mexico on the same day Hurricane Felix hit Nicaragua , only one of two occurrences in which a North Atlantic hurricane and a Pacific hurricane made landfall on the same day .
= = Meteorological history = =
Henriette originated from a tropical wave that departed the west coast of Africa on August 20 , 2007 . The wave produced some convection while in the Caribbean Sea but reached Central America on August 28 before any significant development could occur . Early on August 30 , the area of low pressure , now 400 miles ( 640 km ) south @-@ southeast of Acapulco , Mexico , started to gain clusters of strong convection . By the afternoon of August 30 the system continued to show strong convection and had developed a broad but well defined area of low to mid level cyclonic turning . By 0600 UTC that day the system became a tropical depression about 360 miles ( 579 km ) southeast of Acapulco and was designated as Tropical Depression Eleven @-@ E.
Convection continued but the cyclone was encountering extensive easterly to north @-@ easterly wind shear which stinted the strengthening of this storm throughout its history . The cyclone initially headed toward the west @-@ northwest around a subtropical ridge that was centered over the western Gulf of Mexico . The depression moved north west , parallel with the west coast of Mexico due to being steered by the mid / upper @-@ level ridge . On August 31 , it strengthened to become Tropical Storm Henriette , 85 miles ( 137 km ) south of Acapulco .
It continued to move along the Mexican coast bringing heavy rains . With continued strong convection , Henriette maintained its strengthening and was predicted to reach hurricane strength . However , despite the low wind shear and apparent warm waters . Henriette did not strengthen as expected . This is believed to be due to its proximity to land and colds waters being brought up due to Henriette 's slow movement . The convection and strengthening continued and maintained itself as it moved away from Jalisco . Henriette turned westward and away from the Pacific coast of Mexico late on September 1 as the subtropical ridge built westward over northern Mexico .
Henriette continued to improve in structure and with the formation of a distinct eye feature , reached hurricane strength on September 4 as it turned north @-@ northwestward toward the Baja California peninsula , ahead of a mid @-@ latitude trough approaching the west coast of the United States . The hurricane reached its peak intensity of 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) that morning while centered about 75 miles ( 120 km ) south @-@ southeast of Cabo San Lucas .
The center of Henriette made landfall just east of Cabo San Lucas on the afternoon of September 4 with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . It was over land for only about six hours before emerging into the Gulf of California . The brief interaction with land caused a slight weakening , but Henriette remained a Category 1 hurricane for most of that day . The next day it made final landfall near Guaymas in the state of Sonora . Henriette weakened quickly over land and dissipated over the mountains of northwestern Mexico early on September 6 . The remnants of Tropical Storm Henriette continued to track across west Texas and southeastern New Mexico as it was being absorbed by a cold front moving through New Mexico . The flow of moisture from originating from these remnants , moderate instability , and marginal shear contributed to flash flooding and severe thunderstorms .
= = Preparations = =
The formation of Henriette was not anticipated well in NHC Tropical Weather Outlooks . The incipient system was first mentioned only about 31 hours before it became a tropical depression , and the potential for the formation of a depression was explicitly stated beginning only about 13 hours prior to genesis .
On August 31 , 2007 the National Meteorological Service in Mexico decreed zone of alert from Lagunas de Chacahua , Oaxaca to Cabo Corrientes , Jalisco . It requested the public to take precautions before the possible coming of rain , intense winds and storm surges in the south and southwestern coasts of Mexico . The Ministry of Education of Guerrero canceled classes at all schools in the evening and close the port navigation . Faced with the prospect of Henriette strengthening , The Head of the Harbor Bay in Acapulco stopped all travel for small craft and coastal fisheries . Also blue and yellow flags were raised as a preventive measure for swimmers . On September 4 , the port of Mazatlán , Sinaloa had to be shut down to all navigation due to the inclement weather produced by the hurricane . The port authority reported that Henriette produced waves surpassing 4 meters ( 13 ft ) in height . The Carnival Pride cruise scheduled to arrive at the port had to be diverted out to sea as a result of the port 's closure . In the city itself , school was suspended for two days , and officials stated that approximately 600 families might have to be evacuated . Further north , the port of Topolobampo , Sinaloa was also closed due to Henriette 's threat , and 20 families were evacuated from their homes in an ejido .
In La Paz , the Municipal Direction of Civil defense informed that the first of 13 temporary shelters would be opened and anticipated the evacuation of more than 2000 people that lived in high @-@ risk zones . In some areas , the local police recommended to the population , mostly those living in areas of high risk , that they should take care not to leave their homes unless necessary and to find evacuation routes and temporary shelters . Both Manuel Márquez de León International Airport in La Paz and Los Cabos International Airport in San José del Cabo were shut down , stranding 7 @,@ 500 – 8 @,@ 500 tourists . Henriette also forced the ports in Los Cabos to close completely , and the port in La Paz to close to small craft .
= = Impact = =
Henriette struck hardest in the resort town of Acapulco . Though the storm never passed closer than 70 mi ( 110 km ) to the town , heavy rains along the coast saturated the ground , leading to mudslides . Six people were reported dead as a result of rockslides in two suburban neighborhoods of the city and in the port itself . Three were killed by a huge rock hitting their house , and the other three were killed when their dwellings partially collapsed . In addition , flooding from the overflowing of the River La Sabana , led to the evacuation of at least one hundred families from around the river by the Consejo Estatal de Proteccion Civil .
Jorge Antonio Pacheco Albert , Director of Civil Protection for the Port of Acapulco , reported that approximately 800 were injured during the passage of Henriette along the coast and that 337 people relocated to temporary shelters . In Michoacán , Henriette damaged 10 @,@ 000 square meters ( 107 @,@ 000 sq. ft ) of beach near Ixtapilla , destroying approximately 5 @,@ 000 Olive Ridley turtle nests , comprising 10 % of the endangered species 's nests in the state .
In Sonora , the hurricane destroyed 450 homes and damaged another 5 @,@ 000 dwellings in Etchojoa and Huatabampo , which both have large Mayo Indian populations . The storm 's precipitation flooded nearby agricultural fields , stopping wheat production , forcing local government to fumigate the region to try to prevent a dengue fever outbreak . In the Yaqui River valley , two people were killed , and another 70 homes were destroyed by Henriette 's winds . Throughout the state , 24 @,@ 000 families were left homeless .
One woman died due to high surf near Cabo San Lucas on the Baja California peninsula . Two fishermen were reported killed off the Sonora coast . The road connecting Guaymas to Ciudad Obregón was closed due to damage from the overflow of the brook Cocoraque which stranded around 600 cars . Lázaro Cárdenas was affected when the Acalpican River broke its banks . At least 50 houses located in the community of El Habillal , were flooded by water levels of up to 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) . The residents had to leave their houses and be relocated in provisional housing . The remnants of Henriette caused flash floods and surface water 8 – 12 inches ( 20 – 30 cm ) deep which covered roads with depths up to 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 4 cm ) in the U.S. States of New Mexico and Texas . Hail also accumulated on roadways . Damage in Mexico totaled about $ 275 million ( 2007 MXN , $ 25 million 2007 USD ) .
= The Boat Race 1881 =
The 38th Boat Race , an annual side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames , took place on 8 April 1881 . In a race umpired by Robert Lewis @-@ Lloyd , Oxford won by a margin of three lengths in a time of 21 minutes 51 seconds taking the overall record to 20 – 17 in their favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is an annual rowing eight competition between the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge . First held in 1829 , the competition is a 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) race along The Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions having won the previous year 's race by three @-@ and @-@ three @-@ quarter lengths , and held the overall lead , with 19 victories to Cambridge 's 17 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Cambridge were coached by Constantine William Benson ( who rowed for Cambridge in the 1872 , 1873 and 1875 races ) , Charles Gurdon ( a Blue four times from 1876 to 1879 ) , Thomas Edmund Hockin ( also rowed four times from 1876 to 1879 ) and Edward Henry Prest ( who represented Cambridge in the 1878 , 1879 and 1880 races ) . Oxford 's coaches were S. D. Darbishire ( who rowed for Oxford in the 1868 , 1869 and 1870 races ) , William Grenfell ( who rowed in 1877 and 1879 , and was non @-@ rowing boat club president in 1879 ) , H. B. Southwell ( a Blue three times from 1878 to 1880 ) and W. B. Woodgate ( who rowed twice , in the 1862 and 1863 races ) . The umpire for the race was Robert Lewis @-@ Lloyd ( who had rowed for Cambridge four times between 1856 and 1859 ) and the starter was Edward Searle .
The night before the race , an anniversary dinner was held to belatedly commemorate the fiftieth anniversary of the event .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 11 st 11 @.@ 75 lb ( 75 @.@ 0 kg ) , 2 pounds ( 0 @.@ 9 kg ) more than their opponents . Cambridge 's crew included two former Blues , with Humphrey Sandford making his third appearance in the event . Oxford saw five rowers with Boat Race experience return , including J. H. T. Wharton who was rowing for a third time .
= = Race = =
On the day of the race , Oxford 's number six David Edward Brown was ill – author and rower George Drinkwater suggested that " it was necessary for West [ Oxford 's stroke ] to nurse him as much as possible . " Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , handing the Surrey side of the river to Cambridge . In a cold north @-@ easterly wind , the race commenced at 8.24am with the Dark Blues outrating Cambridge and taking an early lead . Taking advantage of the favourable bend in the river , Oxford were half @-@ a @-@ length ahead by the Crab Tree pub .
Cambridge began to reduce the deficit as Oxford decreased their stroke rate , and by Harrods Furniture Depository the crews were nearly level . Although the bend of the river now was in favour of Cambridge , Oxford increased their rating once again and by Hammersmith Bridge held a three @-@ quarter @-@ length lead . They held off spurts from the Light Blues along Chiswick Reach and by Chiswick Eyot were clear . A two @-@ length lead at Barnes Railway Bridge was increased to three by the time Oxford passed the finishing post , winning in a time of 21 minutes 51 seconds . It was Oxford 's second consecutive victory and took the overall record to 20 – 17 in their favour .
= Beowulf : The Monsters and the Critics =
" Beowulf : The Monsters and the Critics " was a 1936 lecture given by J. R. R. Tolkien on literary criticism on the Old English heroic epic poem Beowulf . It was first published as a paper in that year in the Proceedings of the British Academy , and has since been reprinted in many collections .
Tolkien argues that the original poem has almost been lost under the weight of the scholarship on it ; that Beowulf must be seen as a poem , not just as a historical document ; and that the quality of its verse and its structure give it a powerful effect . He rebuts suggestions that the poem is an epic or exciting narrative , likening it instead to a strong masonry structure built of blocks that fit together . He points out that the poem 's theme is a serious one , mortality , and that the poem is in two parts : the first on Beowulf as a young man , defeating Grendel and his mother ; the second on Beowulf in old age , going to his death fighting the dragon .
The work has been praised by critics including the poet and Beowulf translator Seamus Heaney . Michael D. C. Drout called it the most important article ever written about the poem . Scholars of Anglo @-@ Saxon agree that the work was influential , transforming the study of Beowulf .
= = Overview = =
J. R. R. Tolkien 's essay " Beowulf : The Monsters and the Critics " , initially delivered as a lecture in 1936 , is regarded as a formative work in modern Beowulf studies . In it , Tolkien speaks against critics who play down the monsters in the poem , namely Grendel , Grendel 's mother , and the dragon , in favour of using Beowulf solely as a source for Anglo @-@ Saxon history . Tolkien argues that rather than being merely extraneous , these elements are key to the narrative and should be the focus of study . In doing so he drew attention to the previously neglected literary qualities of the poem and argued that it should be studied as a work of art , not just as a historical document . Later critics such as Hugh Magennis who agree with Tolkien on this point have cited him to defend their arguments .
The essay is a redacted version of a series of lectures that Tolkien delivered to Oxford undergraduates in the 1930s . Notes for these lectures exist in two manuscript versions published together in 2002 as Beowulf and the Critics , edited by Michael D. C. Drout ; these offer some insight into the development of Tolkien 's thinking on the poem , especially his much @-@ quoted metaphor of the material of the poem as a tower . " Beowulf : The Monsters and the Critics " is available in various collections including the 1983 The Monsters and the Critics and Other Essays edited by Christopher Tolkien .
= = Tolkien 's argument = =
= = = Rebuttal of earlier critics = = =
Tolkien begins by noting that the original book has almost been lost under the extensive " ' literature ' " ( his inverted commas ) on the subject . He explains that Beowulf had mainly been quarried as " an historical document " , and that most of the praise and censure of the poem was due to beliefs that it was " something that it was not – for example , primitive , pagan , Teutonic , an allegory ( political or mythical ) , or most often , an epic ; " or because the scholar would have liked it to be something else , such as " a heathen heroic lay , a history of Sweden , a manual of Germanic antiquities , or a Nordic Summa Theologica . " Tolkien gives an allegory of a man who inherits a field full of stone from an old hall . He builds a tower with some of it , but when people find the stones are older than the tower , they pull it down " to look for hidden carvings and inscriptions " .
Tolkien quotes at length what the scholar W. P. Ker thought of Beowulf , namely that " there is nothing much in the story " , and that " the great beauty , the real value , of Beowulf is in its dignity of style " . Tolkien notes that Ker 's opinion had been a powerful influence in favour of a paradoxical contrast between the poem 's supposed defect in speaking of monsters , and ( in Tolkien 's words ) its agreed " dignity , loftiness in converse , and well @-@ wrought finish " . Tolkien cites other critics , such as Raymond Wilson Chambers and Ritchie Girvan , who objected to the poem 's " wilderness of dragons " and its unworthy choice of theme . Tolkien finds it improbable that " a mind lofty and thoughtful " , as evidenced by the quality of the poetry , " would write more than three thousand lines ( wrought to a high finish ) on matter that is really not worth serious attention " . He notes that heroic human stories had been held to be superior to myth , but argues that myth has a special value : " For myth is alive at once and in all its parts , and dies before it can be dissected . " Finally Tolkien states directly " We do not deny the worth of the hero by accepting Grendel and the dragon . "
= = = Man in a hostile world = = =
In Tolkien 's view , the poem is essentially about a " man at war with the hostile world , and his inevitable overthrow in Time . " The essential tragedy is man 's brief mortal life . Grendel and the dragon are identified as enemies of a Christian God , unlike the monsters encountered by Odysseus on his travels . What had happened is that Northern courage , exultant , defiant in the face of inevitable defeat by " Chaos and Unreason " ( Tolkien cites Ker 's words ) , fuses with a Christian faith and outlook . The Beowulf poet uses both what he knew to be the old heroic tradition , darkened by distance in time , along with the newly acquired Christian tradition . The Christian , Tolkien notes , is " hemmed in a hostile world " , and the monsters are evil spirits : but as the transition was incomplete in the poem , the monsters remain real and the focus remains " an ancient theme : that man , each man and all men , and all their works shall die . "
Tolkien returns to the monsters , and regrets we know so little about pre @-@ Christian English mythology ; he resorts instead to Icelandic myth , which he argues must have had a similar attitude to monsters , men and gods . The Northern gods , like men , are doomed to die . The Southern ( Roman and Greek ) pagan gods were immortal , so to Tolkien ( a Christian ) , the Southern religion " must go forward to philosophy or relapse into anarchy " : death and the monsters are peripheral . But the Northern myths , and Beowulf , put the monsters , mortality and death in the centre . Tolkien is therefore very interested in the contact of Northern and Christian thought in the poem , where the scriptural Cain is linked to eotenas ( giants ) and ylfe ( elves ) , not through confusion but " an indication of the precise point at which an imagination , pondering old and new , was kindled . " The poem is , Tolkien states , " an historical poem about the pagan past , or an attempt at one " , obviously not with modern ideas of " literal historical fidelity " . The poet takes an old plot ( a marauding monster troubling the Scylding court ) paints a vivid picture of the old days , for instance using the Old Testament image of the shepherd patriarchs of Israel in the folces hyrde ( people 's shepherd ) of the Danes .
= = = Structure : youth versus age = = =
The general structure of the poem is then clear , writes Tolkien . " It is essentially a balance , an opposition of ends and beginnings . In its simplest terms it is a contrasted description of two moments in a great life , rising and setting ; an elaboration of the ancient and intensely moving contrast between youth and age , first achievement and final death . " Part A ( youth ) is lines 1 to 2199 ; part B ( age ) is lines 2200 to 3182 ( the end ) .
A secondary division of the poem occurs , Tolkien writes , at line 1887 , after which all the earlier story is summarized , so a complete account of Beowulf 's tragedy is given between 1888 and the end , but without the account of the gloomy court of Heorot , or of the contrast between the young Beowulf and the old Hrothgar .
The poem 's metre , too , is founded on a balance of two halves to each line , " more like masonry than music " . Tolkien argues that the poem is not meant to be an exciting narrative , nor a romantic story , but a word @-@ picture , " a method and structure that ... approaches rather to sculpture or painting . It is a composition not a tune . " Far from being weakly structured , it " is curiously strong " . It
is not an ' epic ' , nor even a magnified ' lay ' . No terms borrowed from Greek or other literatures exactly fit : there is no reason why they should . Though if we must have a term , we should choose rather ' elegy ' . It is an heroic @-@ elegiac poem ; and in a sense all its first 3 @,@ 136 lines are the prelude to a dirge .
= = = A singular effect = = =
Tolkien takes a moment to dismiss another criticism , that monsters should not have been made to appear in both halves . He replies he can see the point of no monsters , but not in complaining about their mere numbers ; the poet could not , he argues , have balanced Beowulf 's rise to fame through a war in Frisia , against death by dragon . Similarly , he dismisses notions that the poem is primitive : it is instead a late poem , using materials left over from a vanished age :
When new Beowulf was already antiquarian , in a good sense , and it now produces a singular effect . For it is now to us itself ancient ; and yet its maker was telling of things already old and weighted with regret , and he expended his art in making keen that touch upon the heart which sorrows have that are both poignant and remote . If the funeral of Beowulf moved once like the echo of an ancient dirge , far @-@ off and hopeless , it is to us as a memory brought over the hills , an echo of an echo . There is not much poetry in the world like this ;
Tolkien finishes by arguing that Beowulf " has its own individual character , and peculiar solemnity ; " and would still be powerful even if it came from some unknown time and place ; but that in fact its language , Old English ,
has still essential kinship with our own , it was made in this land , and moves in our northern world beneath our northern sky , and for those who are native to that tongue and land , it must ever call with a profound appeal – until the dragon comes .
= = Reception = =
= = = Scholars = = =
Scholars and critics agree on the work 's wide influence . Tom Shippey wrote that the essay " was seized upon eagerly , even gratefully , by generations of critics " . Alvin A. Lee wrote that " Tolkien 's manifesto and interpretation have had more influence on readers than any other single study , even thought it has been challenged on just about every one of its major points . " Seth Lerer wrote that the essay " may well be the originary piece of modern Beowulf criticism . . . . The strategies . . . control the fundamental assumptions of Old English scholarship for the next fifty years . " R.D. Fulk commented that " No one denies the historical importance of this lecture . ... opening the way to the formalist principles that played such a vital role in the subsequent development of further Beowulf scholarship . ... the methodology ... remains a model for emulation . " . Bruce Mitchell and Fred C. Robinson call it in their Beowulf , An Edition ( 1998 ) " the most influential literary criticism of the poem ever written " . George Clark calls it " The most influential critical essay on the poem " , stating it without qualification or justification as a known fact . Michael Lapidge similarly names it " his widely influential critical discussion of the poem " .
The scholar and translator Roy Liuzza commented that Tolkien 's essay " is usually credited with re @-@ establishing the fabulous elements and heroic combats at the center of the modern reader 's appreciation of the poem . " Liuzza at once went on to write , however , that " the separation of the poem into ' mythical ' and ' historical ' elements is a false dichotomy " . He argues that if myth can condense and hold the deepest sources of tension between self and the social order , and dramatises current ideologies by projecting them into the past , then even the hero Beowulf 's mythic fights are at the same time throwing light on society and history .
The historian Patrick Wormald wrote of the essay : " it would be no exaggeration to describe [ it ] as one of the most influential works of literary criticism of that century , and since which nothing in Beowulf studies has been quite the same . " However , Wormald continues : " The arguments of Tolkien 's paper were not universally accepted , and some of its effects would perhaps have been disowned by the author , but its general impact could be summarized by saying that most critics have learnt to take the Beowulf poet a great deal more seriously " . Wormald added that
Tolkien argued powerfully that , for the Germanic mentality that gave birth to the myth of Ragnarök , the monsters of the poem were the only appropriate enemies for a great hero , and thus shifted Beowulf from the irrelevant fringes to the very centre of the Anglo @-@ Saxon thought world . This naturally encouraged a pre @-@ existent tendency to square the poem with what else was known of the ' serious ' levels of Anglo @-@ Saxon thought - chiefly the Latin scholarship of the Church . Secondly , Tolkien went far towards vindicating the structure of the poem by arguing that it was a balance of contrasting and interlocking halves . His thesis not only convinced many critics but inspired them to follow his example , with the result that Tolkien 's own position has been outflanked . Whereas previous generations of scholars , Tolkien included , had been quite prepared to explain what they considered structural and stylistic blemishes as interpolations , modern writers seek evidence of artistic refinement in some of the poem 's least promising features .
Michael D. C. Drout similarly describes the essay 's importance and arguments , writing that it
is the most important article ever written about Beowulf ... Tolkien 's shadow looms long over Beowulf scholarship . Much of this influence is because of the enormous success of [ the essay ] , which is viewed as the beginning of modern Beowulf criticism . ... Tolkien was so influential ... because he developed a big @-@ picture reading of the poem that has found favour with several generations of critics . ... [ He ] made the first widely accepted case for viewing Beowulf as aesthetically successful , and he showed how the monsters in Beowulf were symbolic ( not allegorical ) representations of chaos and night , set in opposition to stability and civilization . ... Thus , Tolkien interpreted the theme of Beowulf to be that " man , each man and all men and all their works shall die , " a theme consistent with the heathen past but one that " no Christian need despise . " It was this theme , Tolkien argued , that brought the great dignity to the poem that even scholars who had regretted the monsters had noted .
Drout then remarks on the paradoxical success of the essay :
The massive influence of " The Homecoming " and " Beowulf : The Monsters and the Critics " is in some ways ironic . The great majority of Tolkien 's work on Beowulf was of the sort represented by the textual commentry in Finn and Hengest - detailed , philological , historical , and infinitely painstaking . Yet the most influential of Tolkien 's discussions of the poem are those in which he makes the greatest unsupported ( or lightly supported ) generalizations and in which he discusses the poem in the broadest possible terms . Tolkien would perhaps have seen a fundamental continuity between the detailed and philological and the broader and more interpret [ at ] ive work , but because
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or poorly tuned . In March 2013 , Famitsu ranked the top games of 2012 , and Innocence R reached 13th place . In July 2014 , Innocence R was ranked by Japanese website Inside Games among the top ten popular role @-@ playing games for the Vita .
= = Additional media = =
Multiple pieces of media have been created either to promote or complement the game before and after release . To promote the original title 's release , the company created an " Adventure Voice DVD " , featuring multiple characters from previous Tales games . Multiple books were created after the game 's release , including three guidebooks , a two @-@ part novel adaptation released between January and March 2008 , and a three @-@ part weekly series of instruction guidebooks released between November 30 and December 30 , 2007 . The guidebooks contain gameplay hints , concept art and staff interviews . The game was also adapted into a two @-@ part audio drama . Titled Tales of Innocence Drama CD ( テイルズオブイノセンス ドラマＣＤ , Teiruzu Obu Inosensu Dorama CD ) , the two volumes were released on June 25 and July 25 , 2008 .
Shortly after the release of Innocence R , Bandai Namco developed and released a free smartphone app and released it through iTunes on January 27 , 2012 . The app allowed users to play selected songs from Innocence R , as well as view concept art and character profiles . A rhythm game was also included for the tunes , allowing players to post their scores on Twitter . Innocene R was adapted into a manga . It was collected into a single volume and released on May 25 , 2012 as Tales of Innocence R Comic Anthology ( テイルズオブイノセンス R コミックアンソロジー , Teiruzu Obu Inosensu R Komikku Ansorojī ) .
= CMLL World Light Heavyweight Championship =
The CMLL World Light Heavyweight Championship ( Campeonato Mundial Semi Completo de CMLL in Spanish ) is a professional wrestling world heavyweight championship promoted by Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre ( CMLL ) since 1991 . As it is a professional wrestling championship , it is not won via legitimate competition ; it is instead won via a scripted ending to a match or on occasion awarded to a wrestler because of a storyline . The official definition of the light heavyweight division in Mexico is between 92 kg ( 203 lb ) and 97 kg ( 214 lb ) , but the weight limits are not always strictly adhered to . Because CMLL puts more emphasis on the lower weight classes , this division is considered more important than the heavyweight division , which is considered the most important championship by most promotions outside of Mexico .
The current CMLL World Light Heavyweight Champion in his first reign is La Máscara , who won it by defeating Ángel de Oro on April 8 , 2016 . La Máscara is the 15th overall champion and the 13th wrestler to officially hold the championship . The title has been vacated only once since its creation in 1991 , and has had one unofficial reign .
= = History = =
The Mexican professional wrestling promotion Empresa Mexicana de Lucha Libre ( EMLL ) was founded in 1933 and initially recognized a series of " Mexican National " wrestling championships , endorsed by the Comisión de Box y Lucha Libre Mexico D.F. ( Mexico City Boxing and Wrestling Commission ) . The Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship was created in 1942 as EMLL began promoting matches for that championship with the approval and oversight of the wrestling commission . In the 1950s EMLL became a member of the National Wrestling Alliance ( NWA ) and began promoting the NWA World Light Heavyweight Championship in the late 1950s . Previously that championship had been promoted in the US , but the NWA gave EMLL full control of the championship in 1958 , positioning the NWA title as the highest @-@ ranking title in the light heavyweight division with the Mexican National title positioned as the secondary championship .
In the late 1980s EMLL left the NWA to avoid the politics of the NWA and later rebranded themselves as " Consejo Mundal de Lucha Libre " ( CMLL ) . In 1991 CMLL decided to create a series of CMLL @-@ branded world championships , with the CMLL World Light Heavyweight Championship ( Campeonato Mundial Semi Completo de CMLL in Spanish ) created as the second CMLL @-@ branded championship , after the CMLL World Heavyweight Championship . Jerry Estrada was chosen as the first champion , with CMLL booking the tournament for the championship to end with Estrada defeating Pierroth Jr . In 1996 the then @-@ champion Dr. Wagner Jr. lost the championship to Aquarius on a show in Japan , but the title change was not approved by CMLL and thus was never officially recognized . Dr. Wagner Jr. won the title back eight days later before returning to Mexico . Since the title change was not officially recognized CMLL considers Dr. Wagner Jr. a two @-@ time champion , not a three @-@ time champion .
On January 15 , 2013 , then @-@ reigning champion Rush voluntarily gave up the CMLL World Light Heavyweight Championship as part of his ongoing storyline feud with then @-@ CMLL World Heavyweight Champion El Terrible . As part of the storyline El Terrible stated that he would not defend against someone who represented a lower weight class so Rush moved into the Heavyweight division for a title match . CMLL held a 16 @-@ man torneo cibernetico elimination match to determine which two wrestlers should compete in the finals for the vacant title . On January 29 , 2013 , Rey Escorpión defeated Volador Jr. in the tournament finals to become the 13th overall champion .
= = Reigns = =
La Máscara is the current CMLL World Light Heavyweight Champion in his first reign , since defeating Ángel de Oro on April 8 , 2016 . Overall , there have been 15 reigns shared between 13 wrestlers , which does not include one unofficial reign by Aquarius . Only two men have held the title more than once ; both Dr. Wagner Jr. and Atlantis have officially held the title twice . Dr. Wagner Jr. has the longest combined reigns with 1 @,@ 574 days , and Último Guerrero holds the record for the longest individual reign with 3 years , 213 days . Because Aquarius ' eight @-@ day reign in 1996 is not officially recognized by CMLL , the current champion La Máscara , at 109 days and counting , is the shortest reigning champion . If he remains the champion until October 2 , 2016 , he will surpass Estrada 's 175 @-@ day reign . Not only was Último Guerrero 's reign the longest of any individual reign , he is also credited with a record 28 successful championship defenses .
On one occasion CMLL declared the championship vacant , which meant that there was no champion for a period of time . Sometimes , a championship is vacated due to an injury to the reigning champion , or when a champion stops working for the promotion , but in the case of the CMLL World Light Heavyweight Championship , there was a storyline reason behind it being declared vacant . In late 2013 the light heavyweight champion Rush was working a long @-@ running storyline rivalry with El Terrible . When El Terrible won the CMLL World Heavyweight Championship CMLL decided to enhance the rivalry by having Rush voluntarily give up the light heavyweight championship in order to receive a CMLL World Heavyweight Championship match against El Terrible . This allowed CMLL to advance the storyline as well as move the championship off Rush without having Rush lose a match , allowing Rey Escorpión to become the next champion .
= = Rules = =
The official definition by the Mexican lucha libre commission for the light heavyweight division in Mexico is between 92 kg ( 203 lb ) and 97 kg ( 214 lb ) . In the 20th century CMLL were generally consistent and strict about enforcing the actual weight limits . In the 21st century the official definitions have at times been overlooked for certain champions . One example of this was when Mephisto , officially listed as 90 kg ( 200 lb ) , won the CMLL World Welterweight Championship , a weight class with a 78 kg ( 172 lb ) upper limit . Although the heavyweight championship is traditionally considered the most prestigious weight division in professional wrestling , CMLL places more emphasis on the lower weight divisions , often promoting those ahead of the CMLL World Heavyweight Championship .
With twelve CMLL @-@ promoted championships labelled as " World " titles , the promotional focus shifts from championship to championship over time with no single championship consistently promoted as the " main " championship ; instead CMLL 's various major shows feature different weight divisions and are most often headlined by a Lucha de Apuestas ( " Bet match " ) instead of a championship match . From 2013 until June 2016 only two major CMLL shows have featured championship matches , Sin Salida in 2013 and the 2014 Juicio Final show featuring the NWA World Historic Welterweight Championship . The last time a CMLL World Light Heavyweight Championship match was featured on a major CMLL show was on September 18 , 2004 , when Último Guerrero successfully defended the title at the CMLL 71st Anniversary Show . Championship matches usually take place under best two @-@ out @-@ of @-@ three falls rules . On occasion single fall title matches have taken place , especially when promoting CMLL title matches in Japan , conforming to the traditions of the local promotion . Outside of CMLL , the light heavyweight championship has been defended on joint CMLL / Universal Wrestling Association ( UWA ) shows in 1993 , on W * ING , Big Japan Wrestling , Dragondoor and New Japan Pro Wrestling shows in Japan .
= = Tournaments = =
= = = 1991 = = =
CMLL held a 16 @-@ man tournament from September 15 to October 26 , 1991 to crown the first light heavyweight champion . Documentation on Pierroth Jr . ' s path to the finals has not been found .
Tournament brackets
= = = 2013 = = =
CMLL held a tournament to determine the next CMLL World Light Heavyweight Champion starting on January 22 , 2013 , and the finals were held the following week . The first round of the tournament was a 16 @-@ man torneo cibernetico elimination match , with the last two men in the match qualifying for the finals the following week on January 29 . The torneo featured two teams of eight wrestling against each other ; Team A consisted of Delta , El Felino , La Máscara , Mephisto , Mr. Águila , Rey Escorpión , Stuka Jr. and Volador Jr. and Team B consisted of Atlantis , Blue Panther , Diamante , Euforia , Maximo , Morphosis , Psicosis and Sagrado . The match came down to Team A 's Rey Escorpión and Volado Jr. versus Team B 's Euforia . Escorpión pulled off Volador Jr . ' s mask and threw it to rival Euforia , causing Euforia to be disqualified , which meant that Escorpión and Volador Jr. qualified for the finals the following week . On January 29 , Escorpión defeated Volador Jr. in the finals to become the 13th overall CMLL World Light Heavyweight champion .
Cibernetico order of elimination
= Goodison Park =
Goodison Park is a football stadium located in Walton , Liverpool , England . The stadium has been home to Premier League club Everton F.C. since its completion in 1892 and is one of the world 's oldest purpose @-@ built football grounds . The stadium is built in a residential area served by regular rail and bus services two miles ( 3 km ) from Liverpool city centre .
Goodison has undergone many changes over the years and it presently has an all @-@ seated capacity of 39 @,@ 572 . Everton fans refer to the stadium as " The Grand Old Lady " and the abridged " Goodison " .
It has hosted more top @-@ flight games than any other stadium in England . Goodison has hosted the maximum number of league games since the Premier League was formed in 1992 , as Everton have remained in the top tier of English football since 1954 . The club has only been outside the top division for four seasons , having only been relegated twice ( in 1930 and 1951 ) .
As well as hosting Everton games , the stadium has been the venue for an FA Cup Final and numerous international fixtures , including several in the 1966 FIFA World Cup . The record for the highest attendance in women 's football was set at Goodison Park in 1920 , which stood for 92 years until 31 July 2012 .
= = History = =
= = = Before Goodison Park = = =
Everton originally played on an open pitch in the south @-@ east corner of the newly laid out Stanley Park , the same site where Liverpool F.C. planned a stadium , however abandoned the project . The first official match took place in 1879 . In 1882 , a Mr J. Cruit donated land at Priory Road with the necessary facilities required for professional clubs . Cruit asked the club to leave his land after two years because the crowds became far too large and noisy .
Everton moved to nearby Anfield Road , a site where proper covered stands were built . Everton played at the Anfield ground from 1884 until 1892 . During this time the club turned professional and entered teams in the FA Cup . They became founding members of the Football League and won their first championship at the ground in 1890 – 91 . Anfield 's capacity grew to over 20 @,@ 000 and the club hosted an international match between England and Ireland . During their time at Anfield , Everton became the first club to introduce goalnets to professional football .
In the 1890s , a dispute about how the club was to be owned and run emerged with John Houlding , Anfield 's majority owner and Everton 's Chairman , at the forefront . Houlding and the club 's committee initially disagreed about the full purchase of the land at Anfield from minor land owner Mr Orrell escalating into a principled disagreement of how the club was run . Two such disagreements included Houlding wanting Everton to sell only his brewery produce during an event and for the Everton players to use his public house The Sandon as changing room facilities .
The most famous of the disagreements concerns the level of increased rent Everton were asked to pay . In 1889 , Everton paid £ 100 to Houlding in rent and by the 1889 – 90 season he was charging Everton £ 250 . Everton had to pay for all work and stands . The dispute escalated to a rent of £ 370 per year being demanded . In the complicated lead up to the split in the club , the rent dispute is too simplistic to be singled out as the prime cause . The dispute was compounded by many minor disputed points .
The flashpoint was a covenant in the contract of land purchase by Houlding from Orrell causing further and deep friction . A strip of land at the Anfield ground bordering the adjacent land owned by Mr Orrell , could be used to provide a right of way access road for Orrell 's landlocked vacant site . In early 1891 the club erected a stand on this now proposed roadway , which was also overlapping Orrell 's land , unbeknown to the Everton F.C. Committee . In August 1891 Orrell announced intentions of developing his land next to the football ground and building an access road on the land owned by Houlding and occupied by Everton F.C.
Everton F.C. stated they knew nothing of the covenant , Houlding stated they did . This situation created great distrust and friction between Houlding and the Everton F.C. Committee . The rift and distrust between the committee and Houlding was on three levels , Houlding 's personal business intentions , politically and morally . Nevertheless , the club faced a dilemma of having to destroy the new revenue generating stand or compensate Orrell .
Houlding 's way around the problem was to propose a limited company with floatation of the club enabling the club to purchase Houlding 's and Orrell 's land outright , hoping to raise £ 12 @,@ 000 . Previous attempts to raise money from the community had failed miserably . This would have meant the club would need to find £ 6 @,@ 000 in cash with an additional £ 4 @,@ 875 mortgage . The Everton Committee initially accepted Houlding 's proposal in principle , yet voted against it at a meeting .
After much negotiating and brinkmanship on both sides Everton vacated Anfield , leaving Houlding with an empty stadium and no one to play in it . As a consequence , Houlding formed his own football club , Liverpool , to take up residence at the stadium .
The clubs themselves have differing versions of events of why it occurred .
Houlding explained why this situation arose in a match programme against Cliftonville in April 1893 . He pointed out that he had given Everton a rent free loan until the club started to make money . If the club had gone bust he would have lost it all .
Despite making no profit in this respect , the issue that upset the members at Everton most was his plan to sell Anfield and the land adjoining , with Houlding himself profiting . He felt it was a reasonable reward for the risk he had ventured in the club for nine years . Houlding , as the ambitious businessman he was , saw a great future for the club . He wanted the club to have its own home ground and wanted them to buy land so the club could expand in due course .
Unfortunately most of the Everton FC board members failed to share his forward thinking and lacked confidence . They wanted instead a long term rent deal on all the land , but for this to be acceptable to Houlding , he wanted a rent at a price considered too high for the Club . The members reacted to that by " offering " Houlding less rent . Houlding unsurprisingly refused to accept this stating that he did not want to be dictated : " I cannot understand why a gentleman that has done so much for the club ( Everton ) and its members should be given such treatment " .
During their spell at Anfield , John Houlding decided to charge the Club rent based on the increase of gate receipts from attendances and not , as was previously the case , at a fixed rate .
" This – along with other conflicts with Everton – led to the Club being expelled from Anfield in 1892 and in need of a new home .... fully expecting Houlding to dismiss Everton from their Anfield home , he [ George Mahon ] acquired land on a patch off Stanley Park called ' Mere Green Field ' and also made sure that the Club kept their name . "
= = = Genesis of Goodison Park = = =
On 15 September 1891 , a general meeting took place at Royal Street Hall , near Everton Valley . Everton 's chairman John Houlding proposed that a limited company be formed and that the company should purchase his land and local brewer Joseph Orrel 's adjacent land for a combined £ 9 @,@ 237 . A club run as a limited company was unusual for the time as football clubs were usually run as “ sports clubs ” with members paying an annual fee . The proposal was supported by William Barclay , the club secretary and a close friend of Houlding .
Liberal Party politician and Everton board member George Mahon fought the proposal and put forward his own amendment which was carried by the Everton board . At the time Everton 's board contained both Conservative and Liberal Party councillors . Houlding and Mahon had previously clashed during local elections .
Both men agreed that Everton should operate as an limited company ; however , they had different ideas about share ownership . Houlding suggested that 12 @,@ 000 shares be created with each Everton board member given one share and the other shares sold to the public or Everton board members . Mahon disagreed and proposed that 500 shares be created with no member carrying more than 10 shares and board members being given " 7 or 8 " shares . Mahon reasoned " we would rather have a large number of individual applications so that there will be more supporters of the club . "
A special general meeting was convened at the former Liverpool College building on Shaw Street on 25 January 1892 . John Houlding 's proposal was defeated once more and George Mahon suggested that Everton relocate to another site . A heckler shouted , " You can 't find one ! " Mahon responded " I have one in my pocket " revealing an option to lease Mere Green field , in Walton , Lancashire , the site of the current Goodison Park .
The Liverpool press were partisan . The proposal was deemed to be a positive move for the club by the Liberal @-@ leaning Liverpool Daily Post which described Houlding 's ousting as " having shaken off the incubus . " The Tory @-@ supporting Liverpool Courier and Liverpool Evening Express — owned by Conservative MP for Everton , John A. Willox , a Trustee of the Licensed Victuallers ' and Brewers ' Association — took Houlding 's side . The Courier published letters regularly criticising Mahon 's supporters — many of which were anonymous . Philanthropist William Hartley , a jam manufacturer and Robert William Hudson , a prominent soap @-@ manufacturer supported Mahon .
The stadium was named Goodison Park because the length of the site was built against Goodison Road . The road was named after a civil engineer named George Goodison who provided a sewage report to the Walton Local Board in the mid @-@ 1800s and later became a local land owner .
The Mere Green field was owned by Christopher Leyland with Everton renting until they were in a position to buy the site outright . Initially , the field needed work as parts of the site needed excavation , the field was levelled , a drainage system was installed and turf was laid . This work was considered to be a ' formidable initial expenditure ' with local contractor Mr Barton contracted to work on the 29 @,@ 471 square yards ( 25 @,@ 000 m2 ) site at 4 ½ d per square yard — a total cost of £ 552 . A J. Prescott was brought in as an architectural advisor and surveyor .
Walton @-@ based building firm Kelly Brothers were instructed to erect two uncovered stands that could each accommodate 4 @,@ 000 spectators . A third covered stand accommodating 3 @,@ 000 spectators was also requested . The combined cost of these stands was £ 1 @,@ 640 . Everton inserted a penalty clause into the contract in case the work was not completed by its 31 July deadline . Everton officials were impressed with the builder 's workmanship and agreed two further contracts : exterior hoardings were constructed at a cost of £ 150 and 12 turnstiles were installed at a cost of £ 7 each . In 1894 , Benjamin Kelly of Kelly Brothers was appointed as a director of Everton .
Dr. James Baxter of the Everton committee donated a £ 1 @,@ 000 interest @-@ free loan to build Goodison Park . The stadium was England 's first purpose @-@ built football ground , with stands on three sides . Goodison Park was officially opened on 24 August 1892 by Lord Kinnaird and Frederick Wall of the Football Association . No football was played ; instead the 12 @,@ 000 crowd watched a short athletics event followed by music and a fireworks display . Upon its completion the stadium was the first joint purpose @-@ built football stadium in the world ; Celtic 's basic Celtic Park ground in Glasgow , Scotland was inaugurated on the same day as Goodison Park .
The first football match at Goodison Park was on 2 September 1892 between Everton and Bolton Wanderers . Everton wore its new club colours of salmon and dark blue stripes and won the exhibition game 4 – 2 . The first league game at Goodison Park took place on 3 September 1892 against Nottingham Forest ; the game ended in a 2 – 2 draw . The stadium 's first competitive goal was scored by Forest 's Horace Pike and the first Everton goal scored by Fred Geary . Everton 's first league victory at their new ground came in the next home game with a 6 – 0 defeat of Newton Heath in front of an estimated 10 @,@ 000 spectators .
It was announced at a general meeting on 22 March 1895 that the club could finally afford to buy Goodison Park . Mahon revealed that Everton were buying Goodison Park for £ 650 less than the price of Anfield three years earlier , with Goodison Park having more land and a 25 % larger capacity . The motion to purchase Goodison Park was passed unanimously . Dr. Baxter also lent the club £ 5 @,@ 000 to redeem the mortgage early at a rate of 3 ½ % . By this time the redrawing of political boundaries put Walton , and hence Goodison Park , inside the City of Liverpool .
In 1999 , The Independent newspaper journalist David Conn unexpectedly coined the nickname " The Grand Old Lady " for the stadium when he wrote " Another potential suitor has apparently thought better of Everton , walking away on Tuesday from the sagging Grand Old Lady of English football , leaving her still in desperate need of a makeover . "
= = = Structural developments = = =
The Goodison Park structure was built in stages . In the summer of 1895 a new Bullens Road stand was built and a roof placed on the original Goodison Road stand but only after five directors , including Chairman , George Mahon had resigned over what was described in the club minutes as ' acute administrative difficulties ' . In 1906 , the doubled @-@ decker Goodison Avenue Stand was built behind the goal at the south end of the ground . The stand was designed by Liverpool architect Henry Hartley who went on to chair the Liverpool Architectural Society a year later . The club minutes from the time show that Hartley was unhappy with certain aspects of the stand and the poor sightlines meant that the goal line had to be moved seven metres north , towards Gwladys Street . In January 1908 , he complained that his fees had not been paid and the bill for the stand was near £ 13 @,@ 000 . There were 2 @,@ 657 seats on its upper tier with a terrace below .
Archibald Leitch designed the Goodison Road Stand with construction in 1909 . In September that year Ernest Edwards , the Liverpool Echo journalist who christened the terrace at Anfield the " Spion Kop " , wrote of the newly built stand , " The building as one looks at it , suggests the side of Mauretania at once . " The stand was occasionally referred to as the " Mauretania Stand " , in reference to the Liverpool @-@ registered RMS Mauretania , then the world 's largest ship , which operated from the Port of Liverpool .
The two @-@ tier steel frame and wooden floor Bullens Road Stand , designed by Archibald Leitch , was completed in 1926 . The upper tier was seated , with terracing below , a part of the ground called The Paddock . Few changes were made until 1963 when the rear of the Paddock was seated and an overhanging roof was added . The stand is known for Archibald Leitch 's highly distinctive balcony trusses which also act as handrails for the front row of seats in the Upper Bullens stand . Goodison Park is the only stadium with two complete trusses designed by Leitch . Of the 17 created , only Goodison Park , Ibrox and Fratton Park retain these trusses .
Everton constructed covered dugouts in 1931 . The idea was inspired by a visit to Pittodrie to play a friendly against Aberdeen , where such dugouts had been constructed at the behest of the Dons ' trainer Donald Colman . The Goodison Park dugouts were the first in England .
The ground become an entirely two @-@ tiered affair in 1938 with another Archibald Leitch stand at the Gwladys Street end . The stand completed at a cost of £ 50 @,@ 000 , being delayed because an old man would not move from his to be demolished home . The original Gwladys Street having had terraced houses on either side , with those backing on to the ground making way for the expansion . Architect Leitch and Everton Chairman Will Cuff became close friends with Cuff appointed as Leitch 's accountant with Leitch moving to nearby Formby .
In 1940 , during the Second World War , the Gwladys Street Stand suffered bomb damage . The bomb had landed directly in Gwladys Street and caused serious injury to nearby residents . The bomb splinter damage to the bricks on the stand is still noticeable . The cost of repair was £ 5 @,@ 000 and was paid for by the War Damage Commission .
The Director 's minutes read : " It was decided also that Messrs A. Leitch be instructed to value the cost of complete renewal of damaged properties and that a claim should be forwarded to the War Damage Claims department within the prescribed 30 days .
" The damage referred to included the demolition of a wide section of the new stand outer wall in Gwladys St , destruction of all glass in this stand , damage to every door , canteen , water and electricity pipe and all lead fittings : perforate roof in hundreds of places .
" On Bullens Road side , a bomb dropped in the school yard had badly damaged the exterior wall of this stand and the roof was badly perforated here also . A third bomb outside the practice ground had demolished the surrounding hoarding and had badly damaged glass in the Goodison Ave and Walton Lane property . "
The first floodlit match at Goodison Park took place when Everton hosted Liverpool on 9 October 1957 in front of 58 @,@ 771 spectators . Four pylons 185 feet ( 56 m ) each with 36 lamps installed were installed behind each corner of the pitch , at the time they were tallest in the country . There was capacity for 18 more lamps per pylon if it was felt the brightness was insufficient for the game . Each bulb was a 1 @,@ 500 watt tungsten bulb 15 inches in diameter and cost 25 shillings . It was recommended that the club made a habit of changing them after three to four seasons to save the club performing intermittent repairs . MANWEB installed a transformer sub @-@ station to cope with the 6 @,@ 000 volt @-@ load .
The first undersoil heating system in English football was installed at Goodison Park in 1958 , with 20 miles ( 30 km ) of electric wire laid beneath the playing surface at a cost of £ 16 @,@ 000 . The system was more effective than anticipated and the drainage system could not cope with the quantity of water produced from the melting of frost and snow . As a consequence the pitch had to be relaid in 1960 to allow a more suitable drainage system to be installed .
The Everton chairman Sir John Moores who presided over the club between 1960 and 1973 provided finances for the club in the form of loans to become involved in large @-@ scale redevelopment projects and compete with other clubs for the best players , for a period of time under his stewardship Everton were known as ' The Mersey Millionaires ' .
Goodison Park featured in the filming of The Golden Vision , a BBC film made for television . The matches featured in the film were Division One games against Manchester City on 4 November 1967 ( 1 – 1 draw ) and 18 November 1967 versus Sheffield United ( 1 – 0 win ) — the scorer of the winner that day was Alex Young , also known as The Golden Vision or Golden Ghost after whom the film was named .
Everton were the first club to have a scoreboard installed in England . On 20 November 1971 Everton beat Southampton 8 – 0 with Joe Royle scoring four , David Johnson three and Alan Ball one . The scoreboard did not have enough room to display the goal scorer 's names and simply read " 7 9 7 9 8 9 9 7 " as it displayed the goal scorers ' shirt numbers instead .
The Goodison Road Stand was partially demolished and rebuilt during the 1969 – 70 season with striking images of both old and new stands side by side . The new stand opened 1971 , at a cost of £ 1 million . The new stand housed the 500 and 300 members clubs and an escalator to the tallest stand in the ground — the Top Balcony . However , not everyone thought that the upgrade was necessary at the time . Journalist Geoffrey Green of The Times wrote " Goodison Park has always been a handsome fashionable stage for football , a living thing full of atmospherics @-@ like a theatre . And now it has stepped into the demanding seventies with a facelift it scarcely seemed to need compared with some of us I know . New giant stands in place of the old ; the latest in dazzling floodlight systems that cast not a shadow . A cathedral of a place indeed , fit for the gods of the game . "
The Safety of Sports Grounds Act 1975 saw the Bullens Road Stand extensively fireproofed with widened aisles , which entailed closure of parts of the stand . Because of the closure , Anfield was chosen over first choice Goodison Park for a Wales vs. Scotland World Cup qualifying tie .
Following Moores ' exit from Everton 's hierarchy , minimum changes have been made to Goodison Park 's structure due to costs , two British Government Acts ; the Safety of Sports Grounds Act 1975 and Football Spectators Act 1989 have forced the club 's hand into improving the facilities . Upon Moore 's death the club was sold to Peter Johnson .
Everton legends William Ralph ' Dixie ' Dean and former manager Harry Catterick both died at Goodison Park . Dean suffered from a heart attack aged 73 in 1980 , whilst Catterick died five years later , also suffering a heart attack aged 65 .
Everton F.C. celebrated the centenary of Goodison Park with a game against German club side Borussia Mönchengladbach in August 1992 . In addition , 200 limited edition medals were created and Liverpool based author and journalist Ken Rogers wrote a book One Hundred Years of Goodison Glory to commemorate the occasion .
= = = Post @-@ Taylor Report = = =
Following the publication of the 1990 Taylor Report , in the wake of the Hillsborough disaster , top @-@ flight English football grounds had to become all @-@ seated . At the time three of the four sides of the ground had standing areas . The Enclosure , fronting the main stand , had already been made all @-@ seated in time for the 1987 – 88 season and was given the new name of Family Enclosure . The Paddock , the Park End terrace and the Gwladys Street terrace , known as ' the Ground ' , were standing and had to be replaced . The fences around the perimeter of the ground fronting the terracing ( which were to prevent fans , notably hooligans , running onto the pitch ) were removed immediately post Hillsborough , in time for the rearranged league fixture with Liverpool . The Everton match versus Luton Town in May 1991 was the final time that Gwladys Street allowed standing spectators . Seats were installed in the Paddock , while the Lower Gwladys Street was later completely rebuilt to accommodate seating with new concrete steps .
Everton opted to demolish the entire Park End stand in 1994 and replace it with a single @-@ tier cantilever stand , with the assistance of a grant of £ 1 @.@ 3 million from the Football Trust .
= = Current structure = =
Goodison Park has a total capacity of 39 @,@ 572 all @-@ seated and comprises four separate stands : the Goodison Road Stand , Gwladys Street Stand , Bullens Road Stand , and the Park End Stand .
= = = Goodison Road Stand = = =
Built in sections from 1969 to 1971 , replacing the large double @-@ decker 1909 Archibald Leitch designed stand . The Goodison Road Stand is a double @-@ decker stand with the lower deck being two @-@ tier . Each level is given a separate name . The middle @-@ deck level is known as the Main Stand and is fronted by another seated section known as the Family Enclosure . The Enclosure was originally terracing prior to the advent of all @-@ seater stadia . The Top Balcony is the highest part of the stadium . The stand became all seated in 1987 and now has a capacity of 12 @,@ 664 .
The back wall of the stand cuts into the stand because of the non @-@ square nature of the Goodison Park site . The Goodison Road Stand is also home to the conference and hospitality facilities . On non @-@ match days Goodison Park holds conferences , weddings , meetings and parties on a daily basis .
= = = Bullens Road = = =
On the east side of the ground , the Bullens Road stand is divided into the Upper Bullens , Lower Bullens and The Paddock . The rear of the south end of the stand houses away supporters . The north corner of the stand is connected to the Gwladys Street Stand . The current capacity of the stand is 10 @,@ 546 . The stand takes its name from the adjacent Bullens Road . The Upper Bullens is decorated with Archibald Leitch 's distinctive truss design .
= = = Howard Kendall Gwladys Street End = = =
Behind the goal at the north end of Goodison Park , the Gwladys Street Stand is divided into Upper Gwladys and Lower Gwladys . This stand is the " Popular End " , holding the most boisterous and vociferous home supporters . It is known colloquially as " The Street End " . If Everton win the toss before kick @-@ off the captain traditionally elects to play towards the Gwladys Street End in the second half . One of the traditions of the stand is also to applaud the visiting goalkeeper as he runs out to the goal of the stand . The stand has a capacity of 10 @,@ 611 and gives its name to Gwladys Street 's Hall of Fame .
= = = Sir Philip Carter Park Stand = = =
At the south end of the ground , behind one goal , the Park End Stand backs onto Walton Lane which borders Stanley Park . The name of the stand was originally the Stanley Park End but it 's commonly referred to as the Park End . The single tiered stand broke from the multi @-@ tiered tradition of Goodison Park . The Park End has the smallest capacity at Goodison Park . The current layout of the stand was opened on 17 September 1994 with a capacity of 5 @,@ 750 . It was opened by David Hunt , a Member of Parliament . During the structure 's development , fans were able to watch matches by climbing trees in neighbouring Stanley Park .
In the late 1970s and 1980s the stand accommodated the away fans . Previously it was open to home supporters . The lower tier of the old stand was terracing and this was closed off by the turn of the 1980s due to it being a fire hazard as the terracing steps were wooden . The front concrete terracing remained and was one of the last standing areas at a Premiership ground . During the 1960s and 1970s , both ends of the ground featured a large arc behind the goals . This was created as a requirement for the 1966 World Cup because the crowd had to be a required distance from the goals .
The area around Goodison Park when built was a dense area full of terraced housing , and Goodison Avenue behind the Park End stand was no different . Oddly housing was built right into the stand itself ( as shown on old photographs of Goodison and in programmes ) . The club had previously owned many of the houses on the road and rented them to players . One of the players to live there , Dixie Dean later had a statue erected in his honour near the Park End on Walton Lane . By the 1990s the club had demolished virtually the whole street and this coincided with the redevelopment of the Park End stand . However at present the majority of the land is now an open car park for the club and its Marquee .
= = = St Luke 's Church = = =
Goodison Park is unique in the sense that a church , St Luke 's , protrudes into the site between the Goodison Road Stand and the Gwladys Street Stand only yards from the corner flag . Everton do not play early kick @-@ offs on Sundays in order to permit Sunday services at the church . The church is synonymous with the football club and a wooden church structure was in place when Goodison Park was originally built . Former Everton players such as Brian Harris have had their funeral service held there .
The church can be seen from the Park End and Bullens Road and has featured prominently over the years as a backdrop during live televised matches . It is also the home to the Everton Former Players ' Foundation of which the Reverend is a trustee .
The church has over the years curtailed development of the ground . Everton did attempt to pay for its removal in order to gain extra space for a larger capacity . One of two jumbotron screens ( both installed in 2000 ) has been installed between the Goodison Road stand and Gwladys Street stand partially obscuring the church from view . The other is situated between the Bullens Road and Park End .
Imaginative spectators would climb the church and watch a football game from the rooftop however they have now been deterred from doing so with the installation of security measures such as barbed wire and anti @-@ climb paint . In addition , the introduction of the ' all @-@ seater ' ruling following the Taylor Report has meant that spectators no longer resort to climbing nearby buildings for a glimpse of the event as a seat is guaranteed with a purchased ticket .
= = The future = =
Since the late 1990s the board of Everton have been seeking a new , alternative stadium to replace Goodison Park . Plans for a possible relocation were first mentioned in 1996 , when then chairman Peter Johnson announced his intention to build a new 60 @,@ 000 @-@ seat stadium for the club . At the time , no English league club had a stadium with such a high capacity .
In January 2001 , plans were drawn up to move to a 55 @,@ 000 @-@ seat purpose @-@ built arena on the site of the King 's Dock in Liverpool . The proposed stadium would have had a retractable roof enabling it to be used for concerts and chairman Bill Kenwright had hoped to have it ready for the 2005 – 06 season .
However , the plans were abandoned in April 2003 due to the club not being able to raise adequate funds . Following this , plans were made to move to Kirkby , just outside the city , in a joint venture with the supermarket chain Tesco . The scheme was greatly divisive amongst supporters and local authorities , but was rejected in late November 2009 following a decision by Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government .
The site of Goodison Park was earmarked in 1997 and 2003 for a food store by Tesco who offered £ 12 million which was valued at £ 4 million for the site but Liverpool City Council 's advisor 's advised against allowing planning permission . The club were advised that the planning permission required would not necessarily be granted , and chose not to take the scheme further .
Supporters ' groups have fought against the club moving to a new stadium twice . In 2007 a group was established called Keep Everton in Our City ( KEIOC ) whose aim is to keep Everton FC inside the city of Liverpool . The KEIOC attempted to prevent the club moving to a new stadium in Kirkby , just outside the city limits . The supporters ' groups have argued that it is possible to expand Goodison Park , despite the odd shaped landlocked site being surrounded by housing , local authority buildings , and have produced image renders , architectural drawings and costings for a redeveloped Goodison Park . The then Liverpool City Council leader Warren Bradley stated in November 2009 that a redevelopment of Goodison Park was his favoured option , and that relocation of the homes , infrastructure and businesses in streets adjoining the ground is " not a major hurdle " . The current Council leader Joe Anderson stated , " the setback for Everton was an opportunity for both clubs to go back to the drawing board " .
Everton 's current position regarding the future of Goodison Park is that they are considering all options , including relocation , redevelopment of the current ground , or a groundshare with Liverpool F.C. , in a new , purpose @-@ built stadium in Stanley Park , stressing that finance is the main factor affecting decision @-@ making .
In 2010 , Everton supporters approached University of Liverpool and Liverpool City Council to initiate a dedicated ' Football Quarter ' / ' Sports City ' zone around Goodison Park , Stanley Park and Anfield . The University and City Council met with the North West Development Agency , Everton and Liverpool F.C. representatives but no further action has been taken .
On 10 February 2011 , Liverpool City Council Regeneration and Transport Select Committee proposed to open the eastern section of the Liverpool Outer Loop line using " Liverpool Football Club and Everton Football Club as priorities , as economic enablers of the project " . This proposal would place both football clubs on a rapid @-@ transit Merseyrail line circling the city giving high throughput , fast transport access . This would entail Liverpool FC abandoning the relocation plans from their Anfield ground to the planned nearby Stanley Park Stadium .
= = = Walton Lane development = = =
In August 2010 , Everton announced plans to build a new development situated between the Park End stand and Walton Lane , the site is currently used for a hospitality marquee . The £ 9m scheme was designed by Manchester @-@ based Formroom Architects . In September 2010 the club submitted a planning application to Liverpool City Council .
The proposed development is a four @-@ storey building which include a retail store , ticket office , offices , conference and catering facilities and a museum . The project has been delayed twice and is currently on hold .
= = Transport = =
Goodison Park is located two miles ( 3 km ) north of Liverpool City Centre . Liverpool Lime Street railway station is the nearest mainline station . The nearest station to the stadium is Kirkdale railway station on the Merseyrail Northern Line which is located just over half a mile ( 800 m ) away . On match days there is also a frequent shuttle bus service from Sandhills railway station known as " SoccerBus " . In 2007 Sandhills underwent a £ 6million renovation to help encourage people to use the rail service .
Walton and Anfield railway station located on Walton Lane — the same road that the Park End backs onto — was the nearest station to Goodison Park until its closure in 1948 . It is possible that the station could be re @-@ opened should the freight only Canada Dock Branch line once again run passenger trains . A new Stanley Park railway station is proposed for nearby Liverpool FC , being near enough for use by both clubs .
There are on @-@ site parking facilities for supporters ( limited to 230 spaces ) and the streets around the ground allow parking only for residents with permits . The Car Parking resident parking scheme is operated by Liverpool City Council .
= = Records = =
Everton has staged more top @-@ flight football games than any other club in England , eight more seasons than second placed Aston Villa . Everton have played at Goodison Park for all but 4 of their 106 league seasons , giving Goodison Park the distinction of hosting more top @-@ flight games than any other ground in England . Goodison is the only English club ground to have hosted a FIFA World Cup semi final . Until the expansion of Old Trafford in 1996 Goodison Park held the record Sunday attendance on a Football League ground ( 53 @,@ 509 v West Bromwich Albion , FA Cup , 1974 ) .
Everton won 15 home league games in a row between 4 October 1930 and 4 April 1931 . In the 1931 – 32 season Goodison Park was the venue of the most goals scored at home in
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" to the real Kootenay in honor of his trading partners William and Duncan McGillivray . In his writings , the Columbia from Columbia Lake to the Big Bend was actually called the Kootenae .
The name " Kootenai " was also used by French Canadians to refer to the Ktunaxa in the 19th century . " Kootenai " is thought to be a word meaning " water people " in an Algonquian language . The river is still referred to as Kootenai in the United States , while in Canada , where two @-@ thirds of its length and 70 percent of its drainage basin lies , the river is spelled slightly different into Kootenay .
Comparisons of various U.S. Geological Survey ( USGS ) topographic maps from the 20th century show many misinterpretations or alternative names being applied to the segment of the river within the United States . These include " Kootanie " , " Kootenie " , and " Kootienay " . The Geographic Names Information System of the USGS lists " Swan River " as an alternate name although the origin of this name is uncertain . ( There , however , is a Swan River further southeast in Montana . )
= = Course = =
The Kootenay rises on the northeast slopes of the Beaverfoot Range of southeastern British Columbia , and flows initially southeast through the valleys of Kootenay National Park . Its first few kilometers ( miles ) are quiet , threading slowly through a series of marshes and small lakes . The river becomes significantly enlarged as it reaches the confluence with the Vermilion River , which is actually the larger of the two where they meet near the settlement of Kootenay Crossing . It continues southeast , receiving the Palliser River from the left , and swings southwards into a gorge at the confluence with the White River .
At the small town of Canal Flats , British Columbia it passes within 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) of Columbia Lake , the headwaters of the Columbia River , as it merges into the Rocky Mountain Trench and the eastern foothills of the Selkirk Mountains . It receives the Lussier River near Skookumchuck Station of the Canadian Pacific Railway and the St. Mary and Wild Horse rivers at the historic mining town of Fort Steele , then the Bull River at the settlement of the same name . At Wardner , British Columbia , the Kootenay widens into the Lake Koocanusa reservoir , formed by Libby Dam over 130 kilometres ( 81 mi ) downstream at Jennings , Montana . Lake Koocanusa , fed by the Elk River ( one of the Kootenay 's larger tributaries ) spans the U.S.-Canada border .
Below Libby Dam the river , now known as the Kootenai , surges around the south side of the Purcell Mountains in what is known as the Big Bend , where it receives the Fisher River from the left and veers to the west , passing the city of Libby . The Kootenai then drops over Kootenai Falls in a gorge , and veers northwest at the town of Troy . The Yaak River and Moyie River join from the north from headwaters in British Columbia , the latter near the village of Moyie Springs , before and after the Kootenai crosses the Montana @-@ Idaho state line . In Idaho the Kootenai 's current slows significantly as it enters the Kootenai Valley , passing the city of Bonners Ferry , where it turns north .
The Kootenai re @-@ enters Canada and becomes the Kootenay again south of Creston , British Columbia , and slows as it enters the Kootenay Flats before broadening into 100 @-@ kilometre ( 62 mi ) -long Kootenay Lake , where the Duncan River , the largest tributary , contributes its waters . Near Balfour an arm of the lake branches westwards into canyons near Nelson , where below Corra Linn Dam the Kootenay becomes a river again , but not for long . The river drops over several waterfalls at Bonnington Falls , all of which are taken advantage of to generate hydropower . Four run @-@ of @-@ the river dams impound the river in the 22 @-@ kilometre ( 14 mi ) stretch that follows . At Brilliant it widens into a small inland delta , then at Castlegar it joins with the Columbia River .
= = Watershed = =
At 50 @,@ 298 square kilometres ( 19 @,@ 420 sq mi ) in size , the Kootenay river 's watershed is one of the largest sub @-@ basins of the Columbia Basin . Its drainage basin encompasses an area almost 400 kilometres ( 250 mi ) from north to south and 250 kilometres ( 160 mi ) from east to west , roughly defining a region of the Pacific Northwest known as the Kootenays . In Canada , the term " Kootenays " is loosely defined although the Kootenay Land District , which includes the whole region , is formally defined ; the name indirectly refers to the territory of the Kootenay indigenous people spanning from the Rockies on the east and the , Selkirks and Purcells ( Percells in the U.S. ) on the west in southeastern British Columbia ( BC ) , and is used to mean more the area drained by the Kootenay River , namely including the lower Canadian stretches of the Columbia from Revelstoke to the US border , and also the reaches of the upper Columbia north from Canal Flats at least as far as Golden ( the Boundary Country is sometimes referred to as being part of the West Kootenay ) .
Over 70 percent of the Kootenay 's watershed is in Canada while the Montana and Idaho portions occupy 23 and 6 % , respectively . The Kootenay is one of the few major rivers in North America that begin in one country , cross into another , and return to the first — others include the Milk River , a tributary of the Missouri River ; the Souris River , a tributary of the Assiniboine River ; and the Kettle River , a tributary of the Columbia River . It is the third largest tributary of the Columbia by drainage basin and discharge .
The Kootenay River is defined by rocky uplands and steep mountains , and there is relatively little flat land in the watershed . Most of the reasonably level terrain lies in the narrow Kootenay River valley from Bonners Ferry to Kootenay Lake and in parts of the Rocky Mountain Trench from Canal Flats to Lake Koocanusa . Mountain ranges in the region generally trend from northwest to southeast and define drainage patterns with their steep and dramatic vertical relief , with the exception of the Kootenay itself which cuts westwards at its southern bend . Of the Kootenay 's many tributaries , the 206 @-@ kilometre ( 128 mi ) -long Duncan River is the largest . Hundreds of other tributaries join the river in its winding course , including the Vermilion , Cross , Palliser , White , Wild Horse , St. Mary , Elk , Fisher , Yaak , Moyie , Goat , and Slocan rivers .
Many river basins border on the Kootenay — some are part of the Columbia Basin , while others drain to distant shores of the North American continent . On the south and southeast , the divide formed by the Cabinet and Whitefish ranges separate the Kootenay and Flathead River watersheds . The Flathead is a tributary of the Clark Fork River @-@ Pend Oreille River system which borders the Kootenay watershed on the southwest . The upper Columbia River basin forms the boundary on the north , and the Kicking Horse River watershed also borders the north side of the Kootenay basin . To the southwest is the Priest River , a Pend Oreille tributary . On the east side , over the Continental Divide , the Bow River and Oldman River take rise . Both are tributaries of the South Saskatchewan River , which is part of the Hudson Bay drainage basin .
= = = Geology = = =
The geologic story of the Kootenay is strongly connected to the geology of the Columbia , Selkirk and Rocky Mountains . The mountains in much of the Kootenay River catchment are composed of Precambrian sedimentary rock of the Belt Supergroup , in turn stratified into several subgroups with slightly different characteristics and ages . However , most of the rocks have one thing in common ; the rocks are generally hard and erosion @-@ resistant . The Rocky Mountain Trench is thought to be a partial graben , or a long narrow strip of land that has dropped in elevation over time because of parallel faults on both sides . Faults in the Kootenay River watershed trend north @-@ northwest to south @-@ southeast as is common in much of British Columbia . The underlying rock is generally stable and contains more outcroppings of metamorphic and igneous rock as one progresses westwards . Formations of Cambrian and Devonian rock also appear in small amounts in the U.S. portion of the Kootenay .
Bedrock composes much of the streambed in the upper and lower reaches of the Kootenay , but in the middle portion , alluvial sediments allow the river to meander over a broader valley floor . The sediments probably originated through heavy glaciation during the previous Ice Age . About 15 @,@ 000 years ago , the Cordilleran Ice Sheet advanced southwards into present @-@ day BC , Montana and Idaho , blocking the Kootenay River at the outlet of Kootenay Lake , which did not yet exist . Glaciers covered most of the northern Kootenay River watershed and heavily shaped the peaks and valleys one sees today . The glacier that formed Kootenay Lake caused the river to back up into an enormous body of water that stretched all the way to Libby , Montana , near where the Libby Dam now stands , and possibly even connected to Lake Pend Oreille , which also was much enlarged at the time . Glacially deposited sediments buried the old streambed of the Kootenay River and created a natural dam where the Kootenay turns west out of Kootenay Lake . After the glaciers retreated , Kootenay Lake receded to its present level and the Kootenay Flats were formed .
= = History = =
= = = First inhabitants = = =
The first peoples of the Kootenay River valley were the Ktunaxa people ( often referred to as Kootenai ) from whom the river 's name derives . Ktunaxa creation myths state that their people were created by the Quilxka Nupika ( supreme being ) and have always lived in the region ; one reads " I have created you Kootenai people to look after this beautiful land , to honor and guard and celebrate my Creation here . " However , many historians believe that they are descended from Great Plains tribes that were driven out of their historic territory by the Blackfeet in the 16th century . The Ktunaxa are considered quite isolated from other Pacific Northwest and Great Plains tribes . Their language is an " isolate " , which is only distantly related ( if at all ) to the Salishan languages spoken by tribes of the Lake Pend d ' -Oreille area . They were semi @-@ nomadic people and inhabited a large area of the Kootenay valley from the headwaters to Kootenay Lake . Four villages provided their shelter in the winter , while in the rest of the year , they traveled between fishing , hunting and berry @-@ picking areas . The northern Ktunaxa hunted buffalo , while the southerners mainly fished . Notably , the Ktunaxa were the first tribe west of the Rockies to capture and use feral European @-@ introduced horses for their own use .
The origin and meaning of the name " Kootenai " is uncertain . Prior to their discovery by Europeans , they were known as Ksanka , " people of the standing arrow " . It is thought that French @-@ Canadian fur trappers of the Hudson 's Bay Company and other companies in the early 19th century were the first refer to them as Kootenai , which means " water people " in an Algonquian language . It may also mean " deer robes , " referring to their excellent skill for hunting deer . In some written records from the early 19th century , also by the French , the Ktunaxa were sometimes called the Flatbows ( Arcs plats ) and the river called the Flatbow River . Other inhabitants of the area included the Montana Salish ( in the south ) and Shuswap ( in the north ) , but these tribes were mostly not on the main river .
= = = Exploration = = =
In 1806 , explorer David Thompson set out from Saskatchewan to find the source of the Columbia . He crossed over the Canadian Rockies through Howse Pass and eventually arrived on the banks of the Kootenay , which he thought to be the Columbia . Thompson traveled down the river a ways but turned back when he was attacked by Native Americans . The following year , Thompson , his family , and several men made another attempt at finding the Columbia . They crossed over the Rockies at a more northerly spot and traveled down the Blaeberry River to the Columbia , eventually discovering Columbia Lake and establishing there the trading post Kootenae House . In the spring of 1808 , he set off down the Kootenay River , this time reaching present @-@ day Montana and Idaho where he established Kullyspell House and Saleesh House , trading posts on Lake Pend Oreille and the Clark Fork , respectively . After spending a winter in Montana , he tried to reach the Columbia by traveling down the Pend Oreille River but failed in this attempt , eventually returning to Kootenae House via the Kootenay River northwards the following spring .
Through the early 19th century , Thompson continued to trade furs throughout the Kootenay region for the North West Company , and for the few years when he had a total monopoly over the Canadian fur trade west of the Rockies , he outlawed alcoholic drinks altogether . He was known to have written " I had made it a law to myself that no alcohol should pass the mountains in my company " . When two of Thompson 's trading partners tried to make him take two barrels of rum to Kootanae House , Thompson " placed the two kegs on a vicious horse and by noon the kegs were empty and in pieces , the horse rubbing his load against the rocks to get rid of it … I told them what I had done , and that I would do the same to every keg of alcohol . " Of course , wine , beer , rum and other intoxicating drinks were imported in time .
John Palliser crossed the Rockies through a pass in 1858 that led to the headwaters of the Palliser River , a tributary of the Kootenay River now named in his honor . ( However , at first , his party referred to it as Palliser 's River . ) His expedition made it downstream to Columbia Lake , but had some trouble making their way back to Alberta ; the return route that they had chosen proved too dangerous to negotiate . After trading for some horses and new supplies from a band of Ktunaxa , they made it back over the Rockies later that year through North Kootenay Pass near Lower and Upper Kananaskis Lakes , after traveling up the Elk River . The series of expeditions he would later lead through 1859 were to be known as the Palliser Expeditions , or officially , the British North American Exploring Expedition , which although involved some travel west of the Rockies , was mostly limited to the east side of the Continental Divide . Palliser 's earlier travels were credited for being a " vital forerunner to the European settlement of the Prairies [ of central Canada ] , providing volumes of information on the resources of this vast region . "
In September 1859 , Palliser traveled into the Kootenay River valley to find a suitable path for a trade route and possibly a railroad . Instead of crossing the Rockies , as Thompson did , Palliser set out from Fort Colville , a Hudson 's Bay Company trading post near Kettle Falls on the Columbia River . He then proceeded up the Pend Oreille River ( noted as ' Pendoreilles ' ) and crossed into the Kootenay River valley , which in his records was either the " Kootanie " or " Flat Bow River " . Kootenay Lake was called " Flat Bow Lake " . Palliser was told by Ktunaxa tribal members that a trail already existed along the Kootenay River , terminating at Columbia Lake , but was in decrepit condition ( having been out of use for many years ) and " entirely impracticable for horses " . They re @-@ blazed the trail for many miles and returned to Kootenay Lake by mid @-@ October of the same year . The expedition 's findings were later to become important transportation routes through the Rockies to the Kootenays area , and the trail that they followed later became the route of the Canadian Pacific Railway .
= = = Gold and silver boom = = =
In 1863 , a gold strike at the confluence of the Wild Horse and Kootenay Rivers in the East Kootenay region resulted in the Wild Horse Gold Rush in which between three and ten thousand men descended upon the area and the gold rush town of Fisherville was built ; it had to be moved when it was discovered the town sat atop some of the richest deposits . Originally , the river ( and the area ) were known as " Stud Horse " by the early miners , but government officials changed it to Wild Horse . The new town 's site was officially named Kootenai ( though still known as Fisherville ) , also spelled Kootenay and Koutenais and also known as Wild Horse . Galbraith 's Ferry was established across the Kootenay near Fort Steele to facilitate crossing by the incoming rush of prospectors and merchants . Most of the gold was mined out by 1864 , in June of which one American prospector wrote that some 200 miners were arriving each day . By 1865 the peak of the rush was over and the diggings had been found not as rich as previously believed when news arrived in 1865 of the strikes in the Big Bend of the Columbia and the bulk of the mining population moved there en masse .
Fisherville , which had a Hudson 's Bay post and other businesses , continued on with a few hundred residents for a few years ( most of them Chinese by the end , as was the case with many other BC gold towns also ) but was eclipsed as a supply centre with the creation of nearby Fort Steele . The Chinese miners continued to work the " played @-@ out " claims abandoned by American and Canadian miners , taking what little gold was left . Fisherville eventually was abandoned , its buildings left to ruin , and little remains of the settlement today . Other gold rushes on the Moyie and Goat Rivers , tributaries of the Kootenay , were followed by the discovery of silver and galena mines in the Kootenay Lake and Slocan Valley areas ( Silvery Slocan ) , leading rapidly to the settlement of the region and the creation of various " silver city " boomtowns , notably Nelson , at the outlet of Kootenay Lake , Kaslo , midway up its north arm , New Denver , Silverton , Slocan City and Sandon in the 1880s and 1890s . By 1889 , a smelter had been constructed close to the mouth of the Kootenay , near Revelstoke , to process ore from the mines . Serving the mines and settlers , steamer companies plied the Kootenai River from Bonner 's Ferry , Idaho to Nelson and to the Lardeau or " Lardo " district at the north end of Kootenay Lake , and also on the upper Kootenay River between the Cranbrook @-@ Fort Steele area and points in Montana .
= = = Steamboats = = =
When the Canadian Pacific Railway ( CPR ) finished its transcontinental line across southern British Columbia , steamboats began to ply the upper Columbia and Kootenay Rivers , carrying passengers , produce , ore , and other trade items through the region to be distributed via the CPR 's line at Golden . The total run was about 500 kilometres ( 310 mi ) long , ranging from Golden to the north to Jennings , Montana in the south , with a portage at Canal Flats . The Kootenay 's steamboat era was short and lasted for only about 28 years . In 1882 , as part of an incentive to help navigation on the Golden @-@ Jennings run and possibly divert water northwards to the Interior of British Columbia in order to provide flood control for a low @-@ lying area south of Kootenay Lake , called Kootenay Flats , European adventurer William Adolf Baillie @-@ Grohman proposed the creation of a canal between the Kootenay River and Columbia Lake . Construction of the 2 @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) -long , 14 @-@ metre ( 46 ft ) -broad channel was finished in 1889 . The Baillie @-@ Grohman Canal , as it was called , had one lock which was 30 metres ( 98 ft ) long and 9 metres ( 30 ft ) wide .
Because of the rugged terrain and rough waters on the two rivers , especially on the glacier @-@ fed Kootenay , steamboat operation was extremely difficult and proved to be anything but cost effective . The roughest water was in Jennings Canyon , now mostly submerged in the Lake Koocanusa reservoir behind Libby Dam . Two of the first steamers , the Duchess and the Cline , both sank when transporting miners to the Wild Horse gold rush on the Kootenay . Both ships had not even reached Canal Flats when they hit rocks in the Columbia . The first steamboat to actually run the Kootenay was the Annerly in 1893 . Later vessels , such as the Gwendoline , had mixed success . Captain Frank P. Armstrong , who had piloted several earlier steamboats on the Golden @-@ Jennings run , was her builder and when she was about three @-@ quarters completed , Armstrong decided to take her to Golden to complete the job . Gwendoline sailed up to the canal , which unfortunately was unusable because the gates of the lock had been dynamited due to a Kootenay flood . Armstrong was forced to portage the vessel and eventually made it to Golden . Gwendoline eventually sailed back south to Jennings to haul iron ore on the Kootenay . She was also the only ship to ever travel through the canal by proper means , and made two of the only three steamboat trips through the canal .
The last ship ever to pass through the canal and one of the last on the Kootenay was the North Star , also piloted by Captain Armstrong . In 1902 , Armstrong decided to take North Star to sail on the Columbia instead , finding business on the Kootenay less and less profitable as the mines in the region played out , as the CPR established its Kootenay Central Railway branch , and for a variety of other reasons . In June of that year , Armstrong took North Star to the Baillie @-@ Grohman Canal , which was in decrepit condition . The lock was also too small to accommodate the vessel . Armstrong had two makeshift dams built to create a temporary lock 40 metres ( 130 ft ) long , and then the forward dam was blown up so the ship could ride the surge of water ahead into Columbia Lake . The transit of North Star to Columbia Lake was the last time the canal was ever used by a steamboat and marked the end of the steamboat era on the Kootenay .
= = = Doukhobor settlement = = =
In the 20th century , members of a Russian religious sect called the Doukhobors living in the plains of Saskatchewan in central Canada were facing persecution , internal problems and land confiscation by the Canadian government . Their leader , Peter Verigin , decided to move them to British Columbia in 1909 , seeking land and an improved life . He chose a townsite on the north bank of the Kootenay , where it joins the Columbia , across the big river from where the present @-@ day town of Castlegar now stands . In 1909 , he purchased about 14 @,@ 000 acres ( 57 km2 ) adjoining the mouth of the Kootenay River partly using funds raised by sale of farm equipment in Saskatchewan , and added to other lands acquired throughout BC , Doukhobor @-@ owned lands ultimately totaled 19 @,@ 000 acres ( 77 km2 ) . There was already a small settlement on the site , called Waterloo , but Verigin renamed it Brilliant , supposedly for the " sparkling waters " of the river . The whole area was known by the name , Dolina Ooteschenie , meaning " valley of consolation " . By 1913 , there were already more than 5 @,@ 000 Doukhobors living in the region .
When they first arrived in British Columbia , the Doukhobors began felling trees adjoining the Kootenay River to build their first homesteads . They also cleared areas of level ground in order to plant orchards and fields , and constructed sawmills on the Columbia and Kootenay rivers to process the logs into lumber . After more settlers began arriving , they built larger buildings that housed multiple families , instead of the small cabins then typical of the region . Each larger house or dom , holding 70 @-@ 100 persons each , was constructed on roughly 41 @-@ hectare ( 100 @-@ acre ) plots of land that Verigin had divided the entire community into back in 1911 . The Doukhobors then constructed a brick factory at the present @-@ day site of Grand Forks , from where they made bricks to be used mostly in the Brilliant settlement . Brilliant was also one of the first cities in the area to have running water — they constructed a reservoir to hold water from the Kootenay River and a local spring , and by 1912 , each household had running water . In 1913 , Verigin converted an abandoned factory in Nelson , about 35 kilometres ( 22 mi ) up the Kootenay from Brilliant , to produce jam and marmalade . The Doukhobors then established a ferry across the Columbia River , and a suspension bridge serving the same purpose was completed in 1913 . Brilliant continued to be a major player in the lumber industry of the region , and before long , the settlement of Brilliant was prospering .
However , Doukhobor views on education and the extremist actions of a Doukhobor group called the Sons of Freedom eventually brought down their prosperous empire . In the 1920s , unknown arsonists destroyed several public schools in Brilliant as an act against British Columbia law . Then in 1924 , on a routine rail trip to Grand Forks , Peter Verigin and seven other people were killed by a dynamite explosion that completely destroyed the coach that he was traveling in . Pieces of battery and alarm clock indicated that this was the work of people who intentionally wanted to kill Verigin , most likely members of the Sons of Freedom , or as some historians put it , by the lover of one of Verigin 's handmaidens . Over 7 @,@ 000 people attended Verigin 's funeral . The Doukhobor leader was buried in an elaborate tomb on a headland overlooking the city of Brilliant and the Kootenay and Columbia Rivers . Verigin was succeeded by his son , Peter P. Verigin , who arrived from Russia in 1927 . Unfortunately , despite the economic reforms he created in response to debt to the federal government , his arrival coincided with a terrible depression and bankruptcy which caused the Doukhobors to lose most of their lands . Verigin Jr. died in 1939 and by 1963 , almost all Doukhobor lands were sold to the government . Today , little remains of the former settlement at Brilliant except for Verigin 's tomb . The Doukhobor suspension bridge spanning the Kootenay River still exists , and was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1995 .
= = Ecology = =
The Northwest Power and Conservation Council divides the Kootenay River watershed into six biomes : aquatic ( rivers and lakes ) , riparian zones , wetlands , grassland / shrubs , moderately wet forest , and dry forest . The forested zones extend through the alpine and subalpine reaches of the watershed , while grasslands dominate the low terraces and plateaus surrounding the river , especially in the Lake Koocanusa area and the Montana @-@ Idaho portion of the watershed . In the Canada portion of the watershed , an alpine meadow ecozone occupies most of the high ridges and valleys of the mountains .
In the Canadian portion of the Columbia Basin , almost half of which is part of the Kootenay River basin , there are 447 species of terrestrial vertebrates . Most of the Kootenay basin lies within the Columbia Glaciated ecoregion which encompasses much of northeastern Washington , northern Idaho , northwestern Montana and southern British Columbia . Fish fauna in the region are largely shared with those of the Columbia Unglaciated ecoregion to the south , which has about fifty species of fish and only one endemic species . There are no endemic fish within the Columbia Glaciated region itself .
Riparian vegetation is mostly found along the lower two @-@ thirds of the Kootenay and many of the tributaries that join within the United States . The other sections of the river flow through far more rugged terrain and are characterized by braiding , low nutrient content , shifting channels and coarse sediments , making it difficult for riparian zones to be established , as is with most of its upper and lower tributaries . Wetlands are found primarily where the river broadens into a series of sloughs , side @-@ channels , marshes and small lakes before entering Kootenay Lake . This biologically diverse area , the Kootenay Flats , once supported over 1 million migratory birds every year , before the river was diked and many of the wetlands converted to agriculture .
Naturally , the Kootenay has a high sediment content because of high erosion of glacial sediments in the mountains . Because of the steep rapids and falls between Kootenay Lake and the river 's mouth , the Kootenay ( with the exception of its tributary , the Slocan River ) has never been a significant stream for the annual runs of Columbia River salmon . However , landlocked salmon inhabit the upper reaches of the river above and in Kootenay Lake . This is attributed to a Kootenay River flood a long time ago , before the construction of any dams on the Columbia ( Columbia River dams now block salmon from reaching any of the salmon run streams above Chief Joseph Dam ) which overflowed into Columbia Lake . It was with the creation of this temporary body of water that salmon somehow managed to swim over the submerged Canal Flats and into the Kootenay , where they became trapped .
Populations of large land mammals such as caribou , moose , deer , elk , have been declining dramatically since the reintroduction of wolves . Species almost entirely gone that were once common in the area include the white @-@ tailed jackrabbit , pygmy short @-@ horned lizard , band @-@ tailed pigeon and passenger pigeon . After exploitation of the Kootenay basin by fur trappers , the beaver population was nearly exterminated as well .
= = Economy = =
Even before non @-@ aboriginal people came to the region , the Kootenay River valley was an important path of trade and transport between the tribes of the Canadian Rockies and the Idaho Panhandle , mostly between the Ktunaxa ( who practiced agriculture and aquaculture ) and the Salish , Blackfeet and Pend d 'Oreilles of the south and east , and with the Shuswap in the north . The physiographic continuation of the Kootenai Valley southwards from present @-@ day Bonners Ferry , Idaho into the Pend Oreille basin via the Purcell Trench formed a natural corridor through which natives of the area could interact . The barrier formed by the Rocky Mountains to the east , however , meant that tribes of the area , especially the Ktunaxa , were economically and linguistically isolated from the Great Plains tribes ( with the exception of the Shoshone , whose territory spanned both sides of the Rockies ) .
Logging began in the 19th century as a result of white emigration to the Kootenay region , and remains one of the primary industries of the area . In fact , much of the economy of the Pacific Northwest and Columbia Basin has historically , and even today , is dependent on the lumber industry . Lumber was required for the construction of buildings , forts , railroad tracks , and boats , and today is exported from the region in great amounts providing jobs and income for inhabitants of the area . Even in relatively uninhabited regions of the watershed , logging roads criss @-@ cross the hills and mountainsides . Over 90 percent of the Kootenay basin is forested , but only about 10 percent of the area is not affected by some kind of lumber @-@ industry development , now defined as about twenty " roadless areas " or " blocks " , with 18 in the US .
To a limited extent , the Kootenay River has also been used for navigation . Commercial navigation began with steamboats in the 19th century to transport ores , lumber , passengers and other imported and exported products between the Kootenay River valley and the Canadian Pacific Railway station at Golden , British Columbia . Boat travel on the upper river ceased when a rail line was built along the Kootenay upstream of the big bend . Steamboats also operated briefly on the lower river and Kootenay Lake to service silver mines in the nearby mountains . In modern times , boats continue to ply Kootenay Lake and limited reaches of the Kootenay River .
Mining is also an important economic support of the Kootenay River area . Although originally valuable minerals such as gold and silver were unearthed , today coal is the primary resource extracted from underground . Conventional coal deposits underlie much of the East Kootenay , especially in the Elk River valley which is home to the Elk Valley Coalfield , and the Crowsnest Coalfield in the Purcell Mountains . The East Kootenay is the most important coal @-@ producing area of British Columbia , has since 1898 produced over 500 million tons , and about 25 percent of the world 's steel @-@ making coal comes from the region . Most of the coal from the East Kootenay coalfields is exported to Japan and Korea .
Lead , zinc , copper and silver are still mined at some places in the Kootenay River basin , notably at the giant Sullivan Mine near Kimberley , British Columbia , which is the largest in the Kootenay watershed . Agriculture , however , is a much less important industry , and many of the fertile riverside lands have been flooded by the construction of dams ( most notably Libby Dam in Montana , which backs water into Canada ) . Only about two percent of the entire Kootenay basin ( 1 @,@ 005 square kilometres ( 388 sq mi ) is used for agriculture , and much of that is for pasture and foraging ) . Crops such as oats , barley and wheat account for 62 percent of the agricultural output of the region , much of which is used locally or exported by rail . The primary agricultural region is the Kootenai Valley of northern Idaho just south of Kootenay Lake .
The West Kootenay , however , is transitioning from a coal @-@ mining to a tourism @-@ based economy , and the rest of the Kootenay region is also starting to do so . The economy of southeastern British Columbia is becoming increasingly reliant on tourism , and several Canadian national and state parks have already been established , and several national forests in the U.S.
= = River modifications = =
Dams , power plants and diversions of the Kootenay River , of which there are many , have been built for a variety of reasons throughout the 19th and 20th centuries . The seven dams on the Kootenay serve many purposes , ranging from generation of local electricity to regulation of Columbia River flow between Canada and the United States . None provide for navigation or fish passage . In former times , the Kootenay would rise each spring and early summers with " enormous freshets that every summer flood the Kootenay River valley " , but because of water regulation nowadays , such extreme variation in flow are no longer common on the lower river below Libby Dam .
= = = The Falls = = =
As early as 1898 , without building a dam , the original Lower Bonnington Power Plant was generating hydroelectricity from Bonnington Falls in the Kootenay River near the confluence of the Slocan River in order to supply water to mines in Rossland , British Columbia . For Upper Bonnington , the first dam built on the river , the original goal was to improve navigation between Kootenay Lake and the Kootenay 's mouth on the Columbia by drowning the dangerous Bonnigton Falls rapids that also blocked fish migration , and hopefully introducing fish to the upper river by constructing a fish ladder . None of these amenities for steamboats or salmon were ever constructed — in fact , the dam ended up being built above the falls instead of below them — and Upper Bonnington Dam , when completed in 1906 , only generated hydroelectric power , and has served that purpose ever since .
Commercial demand led to two more dams at the falls , these were South Slocan Dam in 1928 , and Corra Linn Dam , at the rapids above Bonnington in 1932 . Three of the dams are of the run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ river type , the 4 @.@ 5 km length of the falls is now impounded in small lakes . All except Corra Linn , which was built to raise and regulate the level of Kootenay Lake . The Kootenay Canal Generating Station , completed in 1976 by BC Hydro , has its inlet at Kootenay Lake next to Corra Linn . The canal travels several kilometers , parallel to and above the river to utilize the roughly 84 @-@ metre ( 276 ft ) high water drop in elevation between Kootenay Lake and South Slocan , bypassing the old dams . The canal is used to generate hydroelectricity , as are the four dams .
= = = The Lower River = = =
After the falls and the junction with the Slocan River the last 18 kilometres ( 11 mi ) of the river is a gradual slope to the merger with the Columbia . In 1944 the last privately owned development Brilliant Dam was built , just 2 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) before the Kootenay river flows into the Columbia River at Castlegar .
= = = Columbia River Treaty = = =
The Columbia Basin is noted for its spring floods , major flood years were 1876 , 1894 , 1948 and 1964 . As recently as the mid @-@ 1960s , the upper Columbia and Kootenay rivers in British Columbia were still free @-@ flowing and unaffected by dams and reservoirs , resulting in the 1948 Vanport Oregon flood . The uncontrolled discharge past the Canada @-@ U.S. border created problems for electricity generation in the US , and Canada also wanted to utilize the Columbia river for the production of hydroelectric power . Negotiated in 1961 between the governments of the two countries , the Columbia River Treaty attempted to ratify these problems . Construction of the first three of the four dams authorized by the treaty — Mica , Keenleyside and Duncan — was implemented in 1964 . Of the four dams , the first two are on the Columbia , the third is on the Duncan River , a tributary of the Kootenay , and the fourth Libby , on the Kootenay River proper . However , operation of the dams has led to environmental problems in both rivers because they have caused unnatural flow fluctuations , blocked fish migration , flooded fertile agricultural land , and forced over 2 @,@ 000 people to relocate .
Solely built for the purpose of regulating water flow into Kootenay Lake , Duncan Dam , the first dam built for the treaty , was raised in 1967 and increased the 25 @-@ kilometre ( 16 mi ) long size of Duncan Lake to a reservoir 45 kilometres ( 28 mi ) long . Because of its purpose , it has no power generation facilities . Libby Dam , the fourth and last dam built under the treaty , was completed in 1975 by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers . It is the first of the dams that the Kootenay encounters durings its journey and provides further regulation of the water that flows into Kootenay Lake . The other two dams built for the treaty , Keenleyside and Mica , are both on the Columbia River . Kootenay basin reservoirs provide nearly 8 @.@ 6 cubic kilometres ( 7 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acre · ft ) of storage which constitutes almost half of the 19 @.@ 1 cubic kilometres ( 15 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 acre · ft ) stored in Columbia River Treaty reservoirs .
= = = Diversion proposal = = =
In the 1970s , it was proposed that the Kootenay River be diverted into the Columbia River ( the two rivers are separated by a distance of no more than 2 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) in the Rocky Mountain Trench in southeastern British Columbia ) . This would allow for the generation of increased hydroelectric power on the Columbia . It would also make easier the reclamation of the Kootenay Flats , an area south of Kootenay Lake , for agricultural purposes — spring freshets once raised the level of the lake by up to 8 metres ( 26 ft ) , inundating the lowlands around it . There were also never @-@ implemented plans to divert part of the Kootenay enlarged Columbia River through a tunnel to the headwaters of the Thompson River in the northwest , and thence to the Fraser River valley of southwestern British Columbia .
The proposal was strongly opposed by both environmentalists as well as local residents . The economy of southeastern British Columbia is strongly dependent on tourism , with the Columbia River , including Columbia Lake and Windermere Lake , being very popular for summer swimming and boating activities . Diversion of the glacier @-@ fed Kootenay River would have resulted in the Columbia River becoming much deeper and colder , flooding riverside communities and damaging tourism . At the opposite end of the scale , it would dry the bed of the Kootenay River downstream of Canal Flats , cutting off water supply to residents of the upper Kootenay Valley and invalidating the effectiveness of Libby Dam , whose construction was to begin in a few years . As a result , this proposed river diversion was never undertaken .
= = Recreation = =
Many national , provincial and state parks , wilderness preserves , protected areas and national forests lie partially or wholly within the Kootenay River watershed . In Canada , these include those listed below as well as many others .
Popular Banff National Park lies just across the BC @-@ Alberta border , Yoho National Park sits to the north , and Glacier National Park in the northeast . The U.S. portion of the watershed includes Kootenai National Forest and Kaniksu National Forest ( part of the Idaho Panhandle National Forests , which stretch southwards into the state ) .
In Kootenay National Park alone , there are over 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) of hiking trails , ranging from short day hikes to long backpacking trips . Cross @-@ country skiing and snowshoeing are popular on the park 's trails in the winter . Mount Assiniboine Provincial Park , which sits right next to Kootenay in the Rocky Mountains , also has an extensive trail system affording extensive views of the surrounding ranges . Kikomun Creek Provincial Park , on the northeast shore of Lake Koocanusa , includes campgrounds and access to boat launches on the east shore of the lake . The Kootenai River Trail along the Montana section of the river , about 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) long , follows the river from Libby to Kootenai Falls and the well known Swinging Bridge across the Kootenai . Skattebo Reach Trail , on the lower river , is about 14 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) long , running from Brilliant to Glade . Further downstream , five separate sites around Kootenay Lake form the Kootenay Lake Provincial Park . West Arm Provincial Park is on the impounded stretch of the Kootenay River just west of Kootenay Lake , and to the northeast of Nelson . Smaller Kokanee Creek Provincial Park , one of the more popular recreation areas in the West Kootenay , sits across the river from West Arm .
Fishing is generally good on the middle reaches of the Kootenay River and in Kootenay Lake . Westslope cutthroat trout , bull trout , kokanee
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In 1904 , Friedrich Meves , made the first recorded observation of mitochondria in plants in cells of the white waterlily , Nymphaea alba and in 1908 , along with Claudius Regaud , suggested that they contain proteins and lipids . Benjamin F. Kingsbury , in 1912 , first related them with cell respiration , but almost exclusively based on morphological observations . In 1913 , particles from extracts of guinea @-@ pig liver were linked to respiration by Otto Heinrich Warburg , which he called " grana " . Warburg and Heinrich Otto Wieland , who had also postulated a similar particle mechanism , disagreed on the chemical nature of the respiration . It was not until 1925 , when David Keilin discovered cytochromes , that the respiratory chain was described .
In 1939 , experiments using minced muscle cells demonstrated that cellular respiration using one oxygen atom can form two adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ) molecules , and , in 1941 , the concept of the phosphate bonds of ATP being a form of energy in cellular metabolism was developed by Fritz Albert Lipmann . In the following years , the mechanism behind cellular respiration was further elaborated , although its link to the mitochondria was not known . The introduction of tissue fractionation by Albert Claude allowed mitochondria to be isolated from other cell fractions and biochemical analysis to be conducted on them alone . In 1946 , he concluded that cytochrome oxidase and other enzymes responsible for the respiratory chain were isolated to the mitchondria . Eugene Kennedy and Albert Lehninger discovered in 1948 that mitochondria are the site of oxidative phosphorylation in eukaryotes . Over time , the fractionation method was further developed , improving the quality of the mitochondria isolated , and other elements of cell respiration were determined to occur in the mitochondria .
The first high @-@ resolution electron micrographs appeared in 1952 , replacing the Janus Green stains as the preferred way of visualising the mitochondria . This led to a more detailed analysis of the structure of the mitochondria , including confirmation that they were surrounded by a membrane . It also showed a second membrane inside the mitochondria that folded up in ridges dividing up the inner chamber and that the size and shape of the mitochondria varied from cell to cell .
The popular term " powerhouse of the cell " was coined by Philip Siekevitz in 1957 .
In 1967 , it was discovered that mitochondria contained ribosomes . In 1968 , methods were developed for mapping the mitochondrial genes , with the genetic and physical map of yeast mitochondrial DNA being completed in 1976 .
= = Origin and evolution = =
There are two hypotheses about the origin of mitochondria : endosymbiotic and autogenous . The endosymbiotic hypothesis suggests that mitochondria were originally prokaryotic cells , capable of implementing oxidative mechanisms that were not possible for eukaryotic cells ; they became endosymbionts living inside the eukaryote . In the autogenous hypothesis , mitochondria were born by splitting off a portion of DNA from the nucleus of the eukaryotic cell at the time of divergence with the prokaryotes ; this DNA portion would have been enclosed by membranes , which could not be crossed by proteins . Since mitochondria have many features in common with bacteria , the most accredited theory at present is endosymbiosis .
A mitochondrion contains DNA , which is organized as several copies of a single , circular chromosome . This mitochondrial chromosome contains genes for redox proteins , such as those of the respiratory chain . The CoRR hypothesis proposes that this co @-@ location is required for redox regulation . The mitochondrial genome codes for some RNAs of ribosomes , and the 22 tRNAs necessary for the translation of messenger RNAs into protein . The circular structure is also found in prokaryotes . The proto @-@ mitochondrion was probably closely related to the Rickettsia . However , the exact relationship of the ancestor of mitochondria to the alphaproteobacteria and whether the mitochondrion was formed at the same time or after the nucleus , remains controversial .
A recent study by researchers of the University of Hawaii at Manoa and the Oregon State University indicates that the SAR11 clade of bacteria shares a relatively recent common ancestor with the mitochondria existing in most eukaryotic cells .
The ribosomes coded for by the mitochondrial DNA are similar to those from bacteria in size and structure . They closely resemble the bacterial 70S ribosome and not the 80S cytoplasmic ribosomes , which are coded for by nuclear DNA .
The endosymbiotic relationship of mitochondria with their host cells was popularized by Lynn Margulis . The endosymbiotic hypothesis suggests that mitochondria descended from bacteria that somehow survived endocytosis by another cell , and became incorporated into the cytoplasm . The ability of these bacteria to conduct respiration in host cells that had relied on glycolysis and fermentation would have provided a considerable evolutionary advantage . This symbiotic relationship probably developed 1 @.@ 7 to 2 billion years ago .
A few groups of unicellular eukaryotes have only vestigial mitochondria or derived structures : the microsporidians , metamonads , and archamoebae . These groups appear as the most primitive eukaryotes on phylogenetic trees constructed using rRNA information , which once suggested that they appeared before the origin of mitochondria . However , this is now known to be an artifact of long @-@ branch attraction — they are derived groups and retain genes or organelles derived from mitochondria ( e.g. , mitosomes and hydrogenosomes ) .
Monocercomonoides appear to have lost their mitochondria completely and at least some of the mitochondrial functions seem to be carried out by cytoplasmic proteins now .
= = Structure = =
A mitochondrion contains outer and inner membranes composed of phospholipid bilayers and proteins . The two membranes have different properties . Because of this double @-@ membraned organization , there are five distinct parts to a mitochondrion . They are :
the outer mitochondrial membrane ,
the intermembrane space ( the space between the outer and inner membranes ) ,
the inner mitochondrial membrane ,
the cristae space ( formed by infoldings of the inner membrane ) , and
the matrix ( space within the inner membrane ) .
Mitochondria stripped of their outer membrane are called mitoplasts .
= = = Outer membrane = = =
The outer mitochondrial membrane , which encloses the entire organelle , is 60 to 75 angstroms ( Å ) thick . It has a protein @-@ to @-@ phospholipid ratio similar to that of the eukaryotic plasma membrane ( about 1 : 1 by weight ) . It contains large numbers of integral membrane proteins called porins . These porins form channels that allow molecules of 5000 daltons or less in molecular weight to freely diffuse from one side of the membrane to the other . Larger proteins can enter the mitochondrion if a signaling sequence at their N @-@ terminus binds to a large multisubunit protein called translocase of the outer membrane , which then actively moves them across the membrane . Mitochondrial pro @-@ proteins are imported through specialised translocation complexes . The outer membrane also contains enzymes involved in such diverse activities as the elongation of fatty acids , oxidation of epinephrine , and the degradation of tryptophan . These enzymes include monoamine oxidase , rotenone @-@ insensitive NADH @-@ cytochrome c @-@ reductase , kynurenine hydroxylase and fatty acid Co @-@ A ligase . Disruption of the outer membrane permits proteins in the intermembrane space to leak into the cytosol , leading to certain cell death . The mitochondrial outer membrane can associate with the endoplasmic reticulum ( ER ) membrane , in a structure called MAM ( mitochondria @-@ associated ER @-@ membrane ) . This is important in the ER @-@ mitochondria calcium signaling and is involved in the transfer of lipids between the ER and mitochondria . Outside the outer membrane there are small ( diameter : 60Å ) particles named sub @-@ units of Parson .
= = = Intermembrane space = = =
The intermembrane space is the space between the outer membrane and the inner membrane . It is also known as perimitochondrial space . Because the outer membrane is freely permeable to small molecules , the concentrations of small molecules , such as ions and sugars , in the intermembrane space is the same as in the cytosol . However , large proteins must have a specific signaling sequence to be transported across the outer membrane , so the protein composition of this space is different from the protein composition of the cytosol . One protein that is localized to the intermembrane space in this way is cytochrome c .
= = = Inner membrane = = =
The inner mitochondrial membrane contains proteins with five types of functions :
Those that perform the redox reactions of oxidative phosphorylation
ATP synthase , which generates ATP in the matrix
Specific transport proteins that regulate metabolite passage into and out of the matrix
Protein import machinery
Mitochondrial fusion and fission protein
It contains more than 151 different polypeptides , and has a very high protein @-@ to @-@ phospholipid ratio ( more than 3 : 1 by weight , which is about 1 protein for 15 phospholipids ) . The inner membrane is home to around 1 / 5 of the total protein in a mitochondrion . In addition , the inner membrane is rich in an unusual phospholipid , cardiolipin . This phospholipid was originally discovered in cow hearts in 1942 , and is usually characteristic of mitochondrial and bacterial plasma membranes . Cardiolipin contains four fatty acids rather than two , and may help to make the inner membrane impermeable . Unlike the outer membrane , the inner membrane doesn 't contain porins , and is highly impermeable to all molecules . Almost all ions and molecules require special membrane transporters to enter or exit the matrix . Proteins are ferried into the matrix via the translocase of the inner membrane ( TIM ) complex or via Oxa1 . In addition , there is a membrane potential across the inner membrane , formed by the action of the enzymes of the electron transport chain .
= = = = Cristae = = = =
The inner mitochondrial membrane is compartmentalized into numerous cristae , which expand the surface area of the inner mitochondrial membrane , enhancing its ability to produce ATP . For typical liver mitochondria , the area of the inner membrane is about five times as large as the outer membrane . This ratio is variable and mitochondria from cells that have a greater demand for ATP , such as muscle cells , contain even more cristae . These folds are studded with small round bodies known as F1 particles or oxysomes . These are not simple random folds but rather invaginations of the inner membrane , which can affect overall chemiosmotic function .
One recent mathematical modeling study has suggested that the optical properties of the cristae in filamentous mitochondria may affect the generation and propagation of light within the tissue .
= = = Matrix = = =
The matrix is the space enclosed by the inner membrane . It contains about 2 / 3 of the total protein in a mitochondrion . The matrix is important in the production of ATP with the aid of the ATP synthase contained in the inner membrane . The matrix contains a highly concentrated mixture of hundreds of enzymes , special mitochondrial ribosomes , tRNA , and several copies of the mitochondrial DNA genome . Of the enzymes , the major functions include oxidation of pyruvate and fatty acids , and the citric acid cycle .
Mitochondria have their own genetic material , and the machinery to manufacture their own RNAs and proteins ( see : protein biosynthesis ) . A published human mitochondrial DNA sequence revealed 16 @,@ 569 base pairs encoding 37 genes : 22 tRNA , 2 rRNA , and 13 peptide genes . The 13 mitochondrial peptides in humans are integrated into the inner mitochondrial membrane , along with proteins encoded by genes that reside in the host cell 's nucleus .
= = = Mitochondria @-@ associated ER membrane ( MAM ) = = =
The mitochondria @-@ associated ER membrane ( MAM ) is another structural element that is increasingly recognized for its critical role in cellular physiology and homeostasis . Once considered a technical snag in cell fractionation techniques , the alleged ER vesicle contaminants that invariably appeared in the mitochondrial fraction have been re @-@ identified as membranous structures derived from the MAM — the interface between mitochondria and the ER . Physical coupling between these two organelles had previously been observed in electron micrographs and has more recently been probed with fluorescence microscopy . Such studies estimate that at the MAM , which may comprise up to 20 % of the mitochondrial outer membrane , the ER and mitochondria are separated by a mere 10 – 25 nm and held together by protein tethering complexes .
Purified MAM from subcellular fractionation has been shown to be enriched in enzymes involved in phospholipid exchange , in addition to channels associated with Ca2 + signaling . These hints of a prominent role for the MAM in the regulation of cellular lipid stores and signal transduction have been borne out , with significant implications for mitochondrial @-@ associated cellular phenomena , as discussed below . Not only has the MAM provided insight into the mechanistic basis underlying such physiological processes as intrinsic apoptosis and the propagation of calcium signaling , but it also favors a more refined view of the mitochondria . Though often seen as static , isolated ' powerhouses ' hijacked for cellular metabolism through an ancient endosymbiotic event , the evolution of the MAM underscores the extent to which mitochondria have been integrated into overall cellular physiology , with intimate physical and functional coupling to the endomembrane system .
= = = = Phospholipid transfer = = = =
The MAM is enriched in enzymes involved in lipid biosynthesis , such as phosphatidylserine synthase on the ER face and phosphatidylserine decarboxylase on the mitochondrial face . Because mitochondria are dynamic organelles constantly undergoing fission and fusion events , they require a constant and well @-@ regulated supply of phospholipids for membrane integrity . But mitochondria are not only a destination for the phospholipids they finish synthesis of ; rather , this organelle also plays a role in inter @-@ organelle trafficking of the intermediates and products of phospholipid biosynthetic pathways , ceramide and cholesterol metabolism , and glycosphingolipid anabolism .
Such trafficking capacity depends on the MAM , which has been shown to facilitate transfer of lipid intermediates between organelles . In contrast to the standard vesicular mechanism of lipid transfer , evidence indicates that the physical proximity of the ER and mitochondrial membranes at the MAM allows for lipid flipping between opposed bilayers . Despite this unusual and seemingly energetically unfavorable mechanism , such transport does not require ATP . Instead , in yeast , it has been shown to be dependent on a multiprotein tethering structure termed the ER @-@ mitochondria encounter structure , or ERMES , although it remains unclear whether this structure directly mediates lipid transfer or is required to keep the membranes in sufficiently close proximity to lower the energy barrier for lipid flipping .
The MAM may also be part of the secretory pathway , in addition to its role in intracellular lipid trafficking . In particular , the MAM appears to be an intermediate destination between the rough ER and the Golgi in the pathway that leads to very @-@ low @-@ density lipoprotein , or VLDL , assembly and secretion . The MAM thus serves as a critical metabolic and trafficking hub in lipid metabolism .
= = = = Calcium signaling = = = =
A critical role for the ER in calcium signaling was acknowledged before such a role for the mitochondria was widely accepted , in part because the low affinity of Ca2 + channels localized to the outer mitochondrial membrane seemed to fly in the face of this organelle 's purported responsiveness to changes in intracellular Ca2 + flux . But the presence of the MAM resolves this apparent contradiction : the close physical association between the two organelles results in Ca2 + microdomains at contact points that facilitate efficient Ca2 + transmission from the ER to the mitochondria . Transmission occurs in response to so @-@ called " Ca2 + puffs " generated by spontaneous clustering and activation of IP3R , a canonical ER membrane Ca2 + channel .
The fate of these puffs — in particular , whether they remain restricted to isolated locales or integrated into Ca2 + waves for propagation throughout the cell — is determined in large part by MAM dynamics . Although reuptake of Ca2 + by the ER ( concomitant with its release ) modulates the intensity of the puffs , thus insulating mitochondria to a certain degree from high Ca2 + exposure , the MAM often serves as a firewall that essentially buffers Ca2 + puffs by acting as a sink into which free ions released into the cytosol can be funneled . This Ca2 + tunneling occurs through the low @-@ affinity Ca2 + receptor VDAC1 , which recently has been shown to be physically tethered to the IP3R clusters on the ER membrane and enriched at the MAM . The ability of mitochondria to serve as a Ca2 + sink is a result of the electrochemical gradient generated during oxidative phosphorylation , which makes tunneling of the cation an exergonic process . Normally , mild calcium influx from cytosol into the mitochondrial matrix causes transient depolarization that is corrected by pumping out protons .
But transmission of Ca2 + is not unidirectional ; rather , it is a two @-@ way street . The properties of the Ca2 + pump SERCA and the channel IP3R present on the ER membrane facilitate feedback regulation coordinated by MAM function . In particular , the clearance of Ca2 + by the MAM allows for spatio @-@ temporal patterning of Ca2 + signaling because Ca2 + alters IP3R activity in a biphasic manner . SERCA is likewise affected by mitochondrial feedback : uptake of Ca2 + by the MAM stimulates ATP production , thus providing energy that enables SERCA to reload the ER with Ca2 + for continued Ca2 + efflux at the MAM . Thus , the MAM is not a passive buffer for Ca2 + puffs ; rather it helps modulate further Ca2 + signaling through feedback loops that affect ER dynamics .
Regulating ER release of Ca2 + at the MAM is especially critical because only a certain window of Ca2 + uptake sustains the mitochondria , and consequently the cell , at homeostasis . Sufficient intraorganelle Ca2 + signaling is required to stimulate metabolism by activating dehydrogenase enzymes critical to flux through the citric acid cycle . However , once Ca2 + signaling in the mitochondria passes a certain threshold , it stimulates the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis in part by collapsing the mitochondrial membrane potential required for metabolism . Studies examining the role of pro- and anti @-@ apoptotic factors support this model ; for example , the anti @-@ apoptotic factor Bcl @-@ 2 has been shown to interact with IP3Rs to reduce Ca2 + filling of the ER , leading to reduced efflux at the MAM and preventing collapse of the mitochondrial membrane potential post @-@ apoptotic stimuli . Given the need for such fine regulation of Ca2 + signaling , it is perhaps unsurprising that dysregulated mitochondrial Ca2 + has been implicated in several neurodegenerative diseases , while the catalogue of tumor suppressors includes a few that are enriched at the MAM .
= = = = Molecular basis for tethering = = = =
Recent advances in the identification of the tethers between the mitochondrial and ER membranes suggest that the scaffolding function of the molecular elements involved is secondary to other , non @-@ structural functions . In yeast , ERMES , a multiprotein complex of interacting ER- and mitochondrial @-@ resident membrane proteins , is required for lipid transfer at the MAM and exemplifies this principle . One of its components , for example , is also a constituent of the protein complex required for insertion of transmembrane beta @-@ barrel proteins into the lipid bilayer . However , a homologue of the ERMES complex has not yet been identified in mammalian cells . Other proteins implicated in scaffolding likewise have functions independent of structural tethering at the MAM ; for example , ER @-@ resident and mitochondrial @-@ resident mitofusins form heterocomplexes that regulate the number of inter @-@ organelle contact sites , although mitofusins were first identified for their role in fission and fusion events between individual mitochondria . Glucose @-@ related protein 75 ( grp75 ) is another dual @-@ function protein . In addition to the matrix pool of grp75 , a portion serves as a chaperone that physically links the mitochondrial and ER Ca2 + channels VDAC and IP3R for efficient Ca2 + transmission at the MAM . Another potential tether is Sigma @-@ 1R , a non @-@ opioid receptor whose stabilization of ER @-@ resident IP3R may preserve communication at the MAM during the metabolic stress response .
= = = = Perspective = = = =
The MAM is a critical signaling , metabolic , and trafficking hub in the cell that allows for the integration of ER and mitochondrial physiology . Coupling between these organelles is not simply structural but functional as well and critical for overall cellular physiology and homeostasis . The MAM thus offers a perspective on mitochondria that diverges from the traditional view of this organelle as a static , isolated unit appropriated for its metabolic capacity by the cell . Instead , this mitochondrial @-@ ER interface emphasizes the integration of the mitochondria , the product of an endosymbiotic event , into diverse cellular processes .
= = Organization and distribution = =
Mitochondria ( and related structures ) are found in all eukaryotes ( except one — the Oxymonad Monocercomonoides sp . ) . Although commonly depicted as bean @-@ like structures they form a highly dynamic network in the majority of cells where they constantly undergo fission and fusion . Mitochondria vary in number and location according to cell type . A single mitochondrion is often found in unicellular organisms . Conversely , numerous mitochondria are found in human liver cells , with about 1000 – 2000 mitochondria per cell , making up 1 / 5 of the cell volume . The mitochondrial content of otherwise similar cells can vary substantially in size and membrane potential , with differences arising from sources including uneven partitioning at cell divisions , leading to extrinsic differences in ATP levels and downstream cellular processes . The mitochondria can be found nestled between myofibrils of muscle or wrapped around the sperm flagellum . Often , they form a complex 3D branching network inside the cell with the cytoskeleton . The association with the cytoskeleton determines mitochondrial shape , which can affect the function as well : different structures of the mitochondrial network may afford the population a variety of physical , chemical , and signalling advantages or disadvantages . Mitochondria in cells are always distributed along microtubules and the distribution of these organelles is also correlated with the endoplasmic reticulum . Recent evidence suggests that vimentin , one of the components of the cytoskeleton , is also critical to the association with the cytoskeleton .
= = Function = =
The most prominent roles of mitochondria are to produce the energy currency of the cell , ATP ( i.e. , phosphorylation of ADP ) , through respiration , and to regulate cellular metabolism . The central set of reactions involved in ATP production are collectively known as the citric acid cycle , or the Krebs cycle . However , the mitochondrion has many other functions in addition to the production of ATP .
= = = Energy conversion = = =
A dominant role for the mitochondria is the production of ATP , as reflected by the large number of proteins in the inner membrane for this task . This is done by oxidizing the major products of glucose : pyruvate , and NADH , which are produced in the cytosol . This type of cellular respiration known as aerobic respiration , is dependent on the presence of oxygen . When oxygen is limited , the glycolytic products will be metabolized by anaerobic fermentation , a process that is independent of the mitochondria . The production of ATP from glucose has an approximately 13 @-@ times higher yield during aerobic respiration compared to fermentation . Recently it has been shown that plant mitochondria can produce a limited amount of ATP without oxygen by using the alternate substrate nitrite . ATP crosses out through the inner membrane with the help of a specific protein , and across the outer membrane via porins . ADP returns via the same route .
= = = = Pyruvate and the citric acid cycle = = = =
Pyruvate molecules produced by glycolysis are actively transported across the inner mitochondrial membrane , and into the matrix where they can either be oxidized and combined with coenzyme A to form CO2 , acetyl @-@ CoA , and NADH , or they can be carboxylated ( by pyruvate carboxylase ) to form oxaloacetate . This latter reaction ” fills up ” the amount of oxaloacetate in the citric acid cycle , and is therefore an anaplerotic reaction , increasing the cycle ’ s capacity to metabolize acetyl @-@ CoA when the tissue 's energy needs ( e.g. in muscle ) are suddenly increased by activity .
In the citric acid cycle , all the intermediates ( e.g. citrate , iso @-@ citrate , alpha @-@ ketoglutarate , succinate , fumarate , malate and oxaloacetate ) are regenerated during each turn of the cycle . Adding more of any of these intermediates to the mitochondrion therefore means that the additional amount is retained within the cycle , increasing all the other intermediates as one is converted into the other . Hence , the addition of any one of them to the cycle has an anaplerotic effect , and its removal has a cataplerotic effect . These anaplerotic and cataplerotic reactions will , during the course of the cycle , increase or decrease the amount of oxaloacetate available to combine with acetyl @-@ CoA to form citric acid . This in turn increases or decreases the rate of ATP production by the mitochondrion , and thus the availability of ATP to the cell .
Acetyl @-@ CoA , on the other hand , derived from pyruvate oxidation , or from the beta @-@ oxidation of fatty acids , is the only fuel to enter the citric acid cycle . With each turn of the cycle one molecule of acetyl @-@ CoA is consumed for every molecule of oxaloacetate present in the mitochondrial matrix , and is never regenerated . It is the oxidation of the acetate portion of acetyl @-@ CoA that produces CO2 and water , with the energy thus released captured in the form of ATP .
In the liver , the carboxylation of cytosolic pyruvate into intra @-@ mitochondrial oxaloacetate is an early step in the gluconeogenic pathway , which converts lactate and de @-@ aminated alanine into glucose , under the influence of high levels of glucagon and / or epinephrine in the blood . Here , the addition of oxaloacetate to the mitochondrion does not have a net anaplerotic effect , as another citric acid cycle intermediate ( malate ) is immediately removed from the mitochondrion to be converted into cytosolic oxaloacetate , which is ultimately converted into glucose , in a process that is almost the reverse of glycolysis .
The enzymes of the citric acid cycle are located in the mitochondrial matrix , with the exception of succinate dehydrogenase , which is bound to the inner mitochondrial membrane as part of Complex II . The citric acid cycle oxidizes the acetyl @-@ CoA to carbon dioxide , and , in the process , produces reduced cofactors ( three molecules of NADH and one molecule of FADH2 ) that are a source of electrons for the electron transport chain , and a molecule of GTP ( that is readily converted to an ATP ) .
= = = = NADH and FADH2 : the electron transport chain = = = =
The redox energy from NADH and FADH2 is transferred to oxygen ( O2 ) in several steps via the electron transport chain . These energy @-@ rich molecules are produced within the matrix via the citric acid cycle but are also produced in the cytoplasm by glycolysis . Reducing equivalents from the cytoplasm can be imported via the malate @-@ aspartate shuttle system of antiporter proteins or feed into the electron transport chain using a glycerol phosphate shuttle . Protein complexes in the inner membrane ( NADH dehydrogenase ( ubiquinone ) , cytochrome c reductase , and cytochrome c oxidase ) perform the transfer and the incremental release of energy is used to pump protons ( H + ) into the intermembrane space . This process is efficient , but a small percentage of electrons may prematurely reduce oxygen , forming reactive oxygen species such as superoxide . This can cause oxidative stress in the mitochondria and may contribute to the decline in mitochondrial function associated with the aging process .
As the proton concentration increases in the intermembrane space , a strong electrochemical gradient is established across the inner membrane . The protons can return to the matrix through the ATP synthase complex , and their potential energy is used to synthesize ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate ( Pi ) . This process is called chemiosmosis , and was first described by Peter Mitchell who was awarded the 1978 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work . Later , part of the 1997 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Paul D. Boyer and John E. Walker for their clarification of the working mechanism of ATP synthase .
= = = = Heat production = = = =
Under certain conditions , protons can re @-@ enter the mitochondrial matrix without contributing to ATP synthesis . This process is known as proton leak or mitochondrial uncoupling and is due to the facilitated diffusion of protons into the matrix . The process results in the unharnessed potential energy of the proton electrochemical gradient being released as heat . The process is mediated by a proton channel called thermogenin , or UCP1 . Thermogenin is a 33 kDa protein first discovered in 1973 . Thermogenin is primarily found in brown adipose tissue , or brown fat , and is responsible for non @-@ shivering thermogenesis . Brown adipose tissue is found in mammals , and is at its highest levels in early life and in hibernating animals . In humans , brown adipose tissue is present at birth and decreases with age .
= = = Storage of calcium ions = = =
The concentrations of free calcium in the cell can regulate an array of reactions and is important for signal transduction in the cell . Mitochondria can transiently store calcium , a contributing process for the cell 's homeostasis of calcium . In fact , their ability to rapidly take in calcium for later release makes them very good " cytosolic buffers " for calcium . The endoplasmic reticulum ( ER ) is the most significant storage site of calcium , and there is a significant interplay between the mitochondrion and ER with regard to calcium . The calcium is taken up into the matrix by the mitochondrial calcium uniporter on the inner mitochondrial membrane . It is primarily driven by the mitochondrial membrane potential . Release of this calcium back into the cell 's interior can occur via a sodium @-@ calcium exchange protein or via " calcium @-@ induced @-@ calcium @-@ release " pathways . This can initiate calcium spikes or calcium waves with large changes in the membrane potential . These can activate a series of second messenger system proteins that can coordinate processes such as neurotransmitter release in nerve cells and release of hormones in endocrine cells .
Ca2 + influx to the mitochondrial matrix has recently been implicated as a mechanism to regulate respiratory bioenergetics by allowing the electrochemical potential across the membrane to transiently " pulse " from ΔΨ @-@ dominated to pH @-@ dominated , facilitating a reduction of oxidative stress . In neurons , concomitant increases in cytosolic and mitochondrial calcium act to synchronize neuronal activity with mitochondrial energy metabolism . Mitochondrial matrix calcium levels can reach the tens of micromolar levels , which is necessary for the activation of isocitrate dehydrogenase , one of the key regulatory enzymes of the Kreb 's cycle .
= = = Additional functions = = =
Mitochondria play a central role in many other metabolic tasks , such as :
Signaling through mitochondrial reactive oxygen species
Regulation of the membrane potential
Apoptosis @-@ programmed cell death
Calcium signaling ( including calcium @-@ evoked apoptosis )
Regulation of cellular metabolism
Certain heme synthesis reactions ( see also : porphyrin )
Steroid synthesis .
Hormonal signaling Mitochondria are sensitive and responsive to hormones , in part by the action of mitochondrial estrogen receptors ( mtERs ) . These receptors have been found in various tissues and cell types , including brain and heart
Some mitochondrial functions are performed only in specific types of cells . For example , mitochondria in liver cells contain enzymes that allow them to detoxify ammonia , a waste product of protein metabolism . A mutation in the genes regulating any of these functions can result in mitochondrial diseases .
= = Cellular proliferation regulation = =
The relationship between cellular proliferation and mitochondria has been investigated using cervical cancer HeLa cells . Tumor cells require an ample amount of ATP ( Adenosine triphosphate ) in order to synthesize bioactive compounds such as lipids , proteins , and nucleotides for rapid cell proliferation . The majority of ATP in tumor cells is generated via the oxidative phosphorylation pathway ( OxPhos ) . Interference with OxPhos have shown to cause cell cycle arrest suggesting that mitochondria play a role in cell proliferation . Mitochondrial ATP production is also vital for cell division in addition to other basic functions in the cell including the regulation of cell volume , solute concentration , and cellular architecture . ATP levels differ at various stages of the cell cycle suggesting that there is a relationship between the abundance of ATP and the cell 's ability to enter a new cell cycle . ATP 's role in the basic functions of the cell make the cell cycle sensitive to changes in the availability of mitochondrial derived ATP . The variation in ATP levels at different stages of the cell cycle support the hypothesis that mitochondria play an important role in cell cycle regulation . Although the specific mechanisms between mitochondria and the cell cycle regulation is not well understood , studies have shown that low energy cell cycle checkpoints monitor the energy capability before committing to another round of cell division .
= = Genome = =
The human mitochondrial genome is a circular DNA molecule of about 16 kilobases . It encodes 37 genes : 13 for subunits of respiratory complexes I , III , IV and V , 22 for mitochondrial tRNA ( for the 20 standard amino acids , plus an extra gene for leucine and serine ) , and 2 for rRNA . One mitochondrion can contain two to ten copies of its DNA .
As in prokaryotes , there is a very high proportion of coding DNA and an absence of repeats . Mitochondrial genes are transcribed as multigenic transcripts , which are cleaved and polyadenylated to yield mature mRNAs . Not all proteins necessary for mitochondrial function are encoded by the mitochondrial genome ; most are coded by genes in the cell nucleus and the corresponding proteins are imported into the mitochondrion . The exact number of genes encoded by the nucleus and the mitochondrial genome differs between species . Most mitochondrial genomes are circular , although exceptions have been reported . In general , mitochondrial DNA lacks introns , as is the case in the human mitochondrial genome ; however , introns have been observed in some eukaryotic mitochondrial DNA , such as that of yeast and protists , including Dictyostelium discoideum . Between protein @-@ coding regions , tRNAs are present . During transcription , the tRNAs acquire their characteristic L @-@ shape that gets recognized and cleaved by specific enzymes . Mitochondrial tRNA genes have different sequences from the nuclear tRNAs but lookalikes of mitochondrial tRNAs have been found in the nuclear chromosomes with high sequence similarity .
In animals , the mitochondrial genome is typically a single circular chromosome that is approximately 16 kb long and has 37 genes . The genes , while highly conserved , may vary in location . Curiously , this pattern is not found in the human body louse ( Pediculus humanus ) . Instead , this mitochondrial genome is arranged in 18 minicircular chromosomes , each of which is 3 – 4 kb long and has one to three genes . This pattern is also found in other sucking lice , but not in chewing lice . Recombination has been shown to occur between the minichromosomes . The reason for this difference is not known .
While slight variations on the standard code had been predicted earlier , none was discovered until 1979 , when researchers studying human mitochondrial genes determined that they used an alternative code . Although , the mitochondria of many other eukaryotes , including most plants , use the standard code . Many slight variants have been discovered since , including various alternative mitochondrial codes . Further , the AUA , AUC , and AUU codons are all allowable start codons .
Some of these differences should be regarded as pseudo @-@ changes in the genetic code due to the phenomenon of RNA editing , which is common in mitochondria . In higher plants , it was thought that CGG encoded for tryptophan and not arginine ; however , the codon in the processed RNA was discovered to be the UGG codon , consistent with the standard genetic code for tryptophan . Of note , the arthropod mitochondrial genetic code has undergone parallel evolution within a phylum , with some organisms uniquely translating AGG to lysine .
Mitochondrial genomes have far fewer genes than the bacteria from which they are thought to be descended . Although some have been lost altogether , many have been transferred to the nucleus , such as the respiratory complex II protein subunits . This is thought to be relatively common over evolutionary time . A few organisms , such as the Cryptosporidium ,
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nuclear mutations of oxidative phosphorylation enzymes , such as coenzyme Q10 deficiency and Barth syndrome . Environmental influences may interact with hereditary predispositions and cause mitochondrial disease . For example , there may be a link between pesticide exposure and the later onset of Parkinson 's disease . Other pathologies with etiology involving mitochondrial dysfunction include schizophrenia , bipolar disorder , dementia , Alzheimer 's disease , Parkinson 's disease , epilepsy , stroke , cardiovascular disease , chronic fatigue syndrome , retinitis pigmentosa , and diabetes mellitus .
Mitochondria @-@ mediated oxidative stress plays a role in cardiomyopathy in Type 2 diabetics . Increased fatty acid delivery to the heart increases fatty acid uptake by cardiomyocytes , resulting in increased fatty acid oxidation in these cells . This process increases the reducing equivalents available to the electron transport chain of the mitochondria , ultimately increasing reactive oxygen species ( ROS ) production . ROS increases uncoupling proteins ( UCPs ) and potentiate proton leakage through the adenine nucleotide translocator ( ANT ) , the combination of which uncouples the mitochondria . Uncoupling then increases oxygen consumption by the mitochondria , compounding the increase in fatty acid oxidation . This creates a vicious cycle of uncoupling ; furthermore , even though oxygen consumption increases , ATP synthesis does not increase proportionally because the mitochondria is uncoupled . Less ATP availability ultimately results in an energy deficit presenting as reduced cardiac efficiency and contractile dysfunction . To compound the problem , impaired sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium release and reduced mitochondrial reuptake limits peak cytosolic levels of the important signaling ion during muscle contraction . The decreased intra @-@ mitochondrial calcium concentration increases dehydrogenase activation and ATP synthesis . So in addition to lower ATP synthesis due to fatty acid oxidation , ATP synthesis is impaired by poor calcium signaling as well , causing cardiac problems for diabetics .
= = = Possible relationships to aging = = =
Given the role of mitochondria as the cell 's powerhouse , there may be some leakage of the high @-@ energy electrons in the respiratory chain to form reactive oxygen species . This was thought to result in significant oxidative stress in the mitochondria with high mutation rates of mitochondrial DNA ( mtDNA ) . Hypothesized links between aging and oxidative stress are not new and were proposed in 1956 , which was later refined into the mitochondrial free radical theory of aging . A vicious cycle was thought to occur , as oxidative stress leads to mitochondrial DNA mutations , which can lead to enzymatic abnormalities and further oxidative stress .
A number of changes can occur to mitochondria during the aging process . Tissues from elderly patients show a decrease in enzymatic activity of the proteins of the respiratory chain . However , mutated mtDNA can only be found in about 0 @.@ 2 % of very old cells . Large deletions in the mitochondrial genome have been hypothesized to lead to high levels of oxidative stress and neuronal death in Parkinson 's disease .
= = In popular culture = =
Madeleine L 'Engle 's 1973 science fantasy novel A Wind in the Door prominently features the mitochondria of main character Charles Wallace Murry , as being inhabited by creatures known as the farandolae . The novel also features other characters travelling inside one of Murry 's mitochondria .
The 1995 horror fiction novel Parasite Eve by Hideaki Sena depicts mitochondria as having some consciousness and mind control abilities , attempting to use these to overtake eukaryotes as the dominant life form . This text was adapted into an eponymous film , video game , and video game sequel all involving a similar premise .
In the Star Wars franchise , microorganisms referred to as " midi @-@ chlorians " give some characters the ability to sense and use the Force . George Lucas , director of the 1999 film Star Wars : Episode I – The Phantom Menace , in which midi @-@ chlorians were introduced , described them as " a loose depiction of mitochondria " . The non @-@ fictional Midichloria genus of bacteria was later named after the midi @-@ chlorians of Star Wars .
As a result of the mitochondrion 's prominence in modern science education , the phrase " mitochondria is [ sic ] the powerhouse of the cell " became a popular Internet meme . The meme is used to imply that secondary education places an insufficient focus on life skills , compared to academic knowledge such as the role of the mitochondrion , which has been considered comparatively impractical .
= 1965 FA Cup Final =
The 1965 FA Cup Final was an association football match between Liverpool and Leeds United on 1 May 1965 at Wembley Stadium , London . It was the final match of the 1964 – 65 FA Cup , the 93rd season of England 's primary cup competition , the Football Association Challenge Cup , better known as the FA Cup . Liverpool were appearing in their third final , they had lost the previous two in 1914 and 1950 , while Leeds were appearing in their first .
Both teams entered the competition in the third round . The majority of Liverpool 's matches were close affairs , they didn 't score more than two goals in any of their matches and this was also their biggest margin of victory . Leeds ' matches ranged from close affairs to comfortable victories . They won their third round tie against Stockport County 3 – 0 , while they beat Manchester United 1 – 0 in a semi @-@ final replay following a 0 – 0 draw in the initial match .
Watched by a crowd of 100 @,@ 000 , the first 90 minutes of the match were goalless as both sides struggled to create goalscoring chances . Liverpool defender Gerry Byrne broke his collarbone early in the match but carried on as there were no substitutes . He was involved in the opening goal in extra time . Byrne found striker Roger Hunt in the 93rd minute , with a cross from the right @-@ hand side of the pitch , which Hunt headed into the Leeds goal to give Liverpool the lead . Leeds equalised seven minutes later when Billy Bremner scored . However , Liverpool regained the lead in the 113th minute when striker Ian St. John headed in a pass from Ian Callaghan . Liverpool won the match 2 – 1 to win the FA Cup for the first time .
Liverpool manager Bill Shankly was delighted with his team 's victory and hailed it as his greatest moment in management . His Leeds counterpart , Don Revie , conceded Liverpool had been the better team , but was determined to make amends the following season . The national media was critical of the final , labelling it ' boring ' .
= = Route to the final = =
= = = Liverpool = = =
Liverpool entered the competition in the third round , where they were drawn with West Bromwich Albion . Roger Hunt gave Liverpool the lead in the match held at West Bromwich 's home ground , The Hawthorns , in the 44th minute . They extended their lead in the 63rd minute when Ian St. John scored . West Bromwich were awarded a penalty in the 77th minute , after Liverpool defender Ron Yeats handled the ball , thinking the referee had blown for a free @-@ kick . Cram missed the subsequent penalty , but West Bromwich scored three minutes later through Jeff Astle . However , they were unable to score a second and Liverpool won 2 – 1 to progress to the fourth round . Stockport County were the opposition in the fourth round . The match , at Anfield , finished 1 – 1 , Gordon Milne equalised for Liverpool after Len White had given Stockport the lead in the 18th minute . Liverpool won the replay , at Edgeley Park , 2 – 0 courtesy of two goals from Hunt .
Bolton Wanderers were the opposition in the fifth round . The match at Bolton 's home ground , Burnden Park , remained goalless until the 85th minute when Liverpool midfielder Ian Callaghan scored . The goal caused the Liverpool fans behind the goal to surge forward , which resulted in the collapse of a wooden railing . There were no serious injuries and the referee continued with the match , which Liverpool won 1 – 0 , to progress to the sixth round . They faced Leicester City in the sixth round . Despite chances for both teams throughout the match at Filbert Street , neither team scored and the match finished 0 – 0 . The match was replayed at Anfield four days later , which Liverpool won 1 – 0 when Hunt scored in the 72nd minute .
Liverpool opponents in the semi @-@ final at Villa Park were Chelsea . Before the match , Liverpool manager Bill Shankly found a brochure designed for Chelsea 's appearance in the final should they win . He pinned it on the team 's dressing room wall and told his players to " stuff those wee cocky south buggers . " The first half was goalless , but Liverpool opened the scoring in the 63rd minute when Peter Thompson scored . A penalty by Willie Stevenson , secured a 2 – 0 victory for Liverpool and their place in the final .
= = = Leeds United = = =
Leeds entered the competition in the third round and were drawn against Fourth Division team Southport . Jimmy Greenhoff opened the scoring for Leeds in the 26th minute at their home ground , Elland Road . Albert Johanneson added a second in the 81st minute and Terry Cooper scored a third before the end of the match to secure a 3 – 0 win for Leeds . Everton were the opposition in the fourth round . The match finished 1 – 1 at Elland Road , with Jim Storrie scoring Leeds ' goal in the 50th minute . A replay was held at Everton 's home ground , Goodison Park , three days later . Goals from Don Weston and Jack Charlton secured a 2 – 1 victory for Leeds and progression to the fifth round .
Shrewsbury Town were the opposition in the fifth round . Leeds won 2 – 0 at Elland Road , courtesy of goals from Johnny Giles and Albert Johanneson to secure their passage to the sixth round . Their opposition was Crystal Palace , in a match played at their home ground , Selhurst Park . Leeds won 3 – 0 with two goals from Alan Peacock and one from Storrie . Local rivals Manchester United were the opposition in the semi @-@ finals . Neither side was able to score in a fiery match at Hillsborough , which The Guardian referred to as " a sordid shambles that would have been flattered by being played on an ashpit . " The match was replayed a few days later at the City Ground . The match was goalless until the 89th minute when Bremner headed in a free @-@ kick by Giles to secure a 1 – 0 victory for Leeds . The replay was not without incident , following the end of the match , hundreds of fans ran onto the pitch . A 16 @-@ year @-@ old Manchester United supporter knocked the referee Dick Windle unconscious , he was subsequently caught and handed into the police .
= = Background = =
The match was Liverpool 's third appearance in the final . They had reached the final in 1914 , when they lost 1 – 0 to Burnley and in 1950 , when they were beaten 2 – 0 by Arsenal . Leeds were appearing in their first final , the furthest they had reached before was the quarter @-@ finals of the 1949 – 50 FA Cup , when they lost to Arsenal . The two previous meetings between the teams during the season resulted in a win each . Leeds won the first match 4 – 2 in August , at Elland Road . The return fixture at Anfield was won 2 – 1 by Liverpool .
Liverpool played Wolverhampton Wanderers a week before the final in their last match of the 1964 – 65 Football League First Division . Shankly rested most of the first @-@ choice players , but Liverpool still won the match 3 – 1 , with goals from Geoff Strong , John Sealey and Alf Arrowsmith , the victory meant they finished the season in seventh place . Leeds went into their final match of the league season with a chance of winning the championship . However , they drew their match with Birmingham City 3 – 3 , which meant they were level on points with Manchester United , who had a match remaining . As United had a superior goal average only a defeat of 17 – 0 or greater would result in Leeds being champions . United lost 2 – 1 to Aston Villa in their final match and won the title by a goal average of 0 @.@ 686 .
Liverpool manager Bill Shankly was complimentary of Leeds United in the build @-@ up to the final , stating : " Our opponents , Leeds United , have proved themselves beyond doubt to be a great team , clearly the whole set up at Leeds is one of the finest . But the better the opposition , the better we play . " Liverpool 's coach was caught in heavy traffic on the way to Wembley Stadium and there was a possibility that the start of the final would have to be delayed . However , they managed to organise an escort when a police motorcycle was spotted and arrived in time for the kick @-@ off . Midfielder Gordon Milne was injured in the days before the final and would miss the match , he was expected to be replaced by Geoff Strong .
Leeds midfielder Albert Johanneson would become the first black player to play in an FA Cup final . However , before walking out onto the pitch Johanneson suffered racial abuse : “ When we walked out , all I could hear was a cacophony of Zulu @-@ like noises coming from the terraces . It was dreadful , I could barely hear myself think for those screams . I wanted to run back down the tunnel . "
= = Match = =
= = = First half = = =
Both teams started with a 4 – 4 – 2 formation and it was Liverpool that kicked the final off . Five minutes into the match , Liverpool defender Gerry Byrne and Leeds captain Bobby Collins collided , which resulted in Bryne breaking his collarbone . As substitutions were not allowed , Byrne decided to continue playing . He was unaware of the extent of his injury , as manager Shankly decided against telling him . The first action of the match was from a Liverpool free @-@ kick , which Willie Stevenson played into the Leeds penalty area . Leeds goalkeeper Gary Sprake and defender Jack Charlton did not deal with it and it went out of play for a Liverpool corner . Liverpool captain Ron Yeats headed the ball on from the corner and striker Ian St. John was close to reaching it , before it was gathered by Sprake . Leeds were trying to get winger Albert Johanneson into the match , but a pass to him from Johnny Giles was intercepted by Liverpool defender Tommy Smith . He passed to Ian Callaghan , who advanced before passing to Stevenson , he and Smith exchanged passes before Stevenson passed to Callaghan , whose shot was saved by Sprake .
Liverpool had another attack in the early minutes , but Strong 's shot from distance deflected off Charlton for a corner . The opening sixteen minutes saw three Leeds players , Billy Bremner , Charlton and Jim Storrie require treatment as they struggled to impose themselves on the match . Liverpool continued to press forward and an attack was thwarted when St. John was dispossessed by Collins , who passed the ball back to Sprake . Leeds striker Alan Peacock fouled Smith following Sprake 's clearance and Liverpool were able to build another attack , but St. John 's subsequent shot went wide of the Leeds goal . Leeds had an attack in the eighteenth minute , but Bremner 's pass to Paul Reaney was intercepted by Liverpool goalkeeper Tommy Lawrence . Leeds began to grow in confidence and minutes later , Collins had a chance , but his shot from 35 yards ( 32 m ) went wide of the Liverpool goal . Minutes later , Leeds had another chance to score . Callaghan nullified an attack from Willie Bell and the ball went out for a Leeds corner . However , Peacock 's header from the corner went wide .
Liverpool had another chance on 25 minutes . A pass from Callaghan into the Leeds Penalty area was missed by Sprake , but Giles managed to clear the ball before Liverpool striker Roger Hunt could reach it . The game started to become scrappy , both sides struggled to find a way through their opposition defences and were misplacing passes . Three minutes before the end of the half , Liverpool had an attack . Strong passed to Smith , whose first touch caused the ball to bounce upwards , his subsequent shot went over the Leeds goal . A minute before the end of the half , Liverpool another chance , but Hunt 's shot from 25 yards ( 23 m ) was saved by Sprake .
= = = Second half = = =
Early in the second half , Liverpool had a chance to score . Callaghan took a throw @-@ in , which he threw to Lawler , his cross into the Leeds penalty area was met by Hunt , but his header went wide of the goal . Liverpool continued to pressure and only an interception from Bremner , before Stevenson could reach the ball , prevented a Liverpool goal . Leeds had a free @-@ kick a few minutes later , but Giles ' effort was saved by Lawrence . A few minutes later , St. John found Peter Thompson , who ran past Bremner and shot , but it was diverted wide by Sprake . The ball found dropped to hunt , but his cross was gathered by the Leeds goalkeeper .
Charlton received treatment midway throughout the second half after he ran into a photographer chasing an over @-@ hit pass . Leeds had an attack soon after , but after Storrie received the ball from Bremner , his pass went behind the Liverpool goal . Liverpool had more chances , but St. John slipped at the back post when a Callaghan cross was diverted towards him . Then Thompson saw a shot saved by Sprake . Leeds reacted to the increased pressure , by moving Bremner to centre @-@ forward and Giles reverting to midfield . Johanneson switched positions with Storrie , moving from the right to the left . Liverpool continued to press for a winner as the half drew to a close , but Thompson and Strong saw shots saved by Sprake . Neither team managed to score before full @-@ time and the match went to extra time , the first time this happened since the 1947 final .
= = = Extra time = = =
It only took three minutes of extra time for the first goal to be scored . Thompson passed to Bryne , who cross was headed into the Leeds goal by Hunt . Liverpool 's lead was short @-@ lived as Leeds equalised eight minutes later . Norman Hunter crossed the ball into the Liverpool penalty area from the left @-@ hand side of the pitch . Charlton headed the ball down to Bremner , whose shot beat Lawrence in the Liverpool goal to level the score at 1 – 1 .
Liverpool pressed and Thompson forced Sprake into a number of saves . Leeds had another chance as Bremner had a shot saved by Lawrence after receiving the ball from Reaney . A few minutes later , Strong forced Sprake into a save , which resulted in a corner . St. John came close to scoring from the subsequent corner , but his shot went over the Leeds goal . However , with three minutes of extra time remaining , St. John scored . Smith found Callaghan , who ran past two Leeds defenders , his cross into the Leeds penalty area was headed into the goal by St. John to give Liverpool a 2 – 1 lead .
= = = Details = = =
= = Post @-@ match = =
Liverpool captain Yeats collected the trophy from Queen Elizabeth II in the Royal box at Wembley Stadium . The victory was the club 's first in the competition . Liverpool manager Shankly was delighted with the result and hailed the achievement : " To think a team like Liverpool had never won the FA up was unbelievable , so many had prayed for it to happen over all the years , but it had never come to pass . So when we beat Leeds , the emotion was unforgettable . " Despite breaking his collarbone in the opening minutes , Liverpool defender Gerry Byrne completed the whole match . Shankly was full of praise for the defender stating : " Byrne was absolutely fantastic . He played the best game of his life . " Bryne was concerned about collecting his medal , stating : " I was worried about going up to collect my medal , so many of our fans wanted to slap me on the back . I had to keep twisting and turning to avoid the congratulations . "
The final was criticised by the media , with both teams receiving flak . Ken Jones of The Mirror wrote , " Discipline was destroyed by tiredness , determination blunted by the pain of having to run some more . Behind the boredom was the failure of individuals like Leeds left winger Albert Johanneson and Liverpool left winger Peter Thompson , men who could and should have lifted the game with their talent . " The Times was slightly less critical of the match : " In spite of much lateral ' method ' play it was a tense battle of human qualities . The opening half , in particular , was a quiet prelude . This was the careful shadow boxing that led up to a pulsating finish . Indeed , there was a certain hypnotic element about the whole thing . The fascination lay in trying to assess which side would first break the stalemate . "
Liverpool manager Bill Shankly was asked after the match whether Leeds United had failed during the season : " Failed ? Second in the championship . Cup finalists . Ninety percent of managers would pray for ' failures ' like that . " Leeds manager Don Revie was disappointed to lose , but praised his players efforts in defeat : " There 's no doubt about it , the better side won , but , at least the lads played their guts out for me . He admitted it was disappointing to finish second in both the League and FA Cup : " It 's a bit disappointing to finish second in both Cup and League , but we have had a wonderful first season back in Division One , and I am very pleased with the team . " Captain Collins echoed his manager 's sentiments : " We have had a great season , but lost both honours . We shall be having a go again next season . "
The Liverpool team were welcomed back to the city by approximately half a million people , as the open @-@ top bus drove through the city to the town hall . Three days after the final , Liverpool faced Italian team Internazionale in the first leg of the semi @-@ finals of the 1964 – 65 European Cup . Before the match kicked off , Bryne and Gordon Milne paraded the FA Cup around the stadium . Liverpool won the match 3 – 1 , but they perform as well in the second leg at the San Siro , as they lost 3 – 0 to exit the competition 4 – 3 on aggregate .
= Homestead Extension of Florida 's Turnpike =
The Homestead Extension of Florida 's Turnpike ( HEFT ) , designated as the Ronald Reagan Turnpike and originally known as the West Dade Expressway , is a north – south free @-@ flow toll road southern extension of the similarly tolled Florida 's Turnpike . The 48 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 77 km ) expressway runs around the west and north sides of the Greater Miami area , extending from U.S. Route 1 in Florida City ( near Homestead ) to the Turnpike mainline four miles north of the Golden Glades Interchange . The road carries the hidden designation of State Road 821 ( SR 821 ) . It was opened in stages between 1973 and 1974 , after the main line of the Turnpike was completed , and is used by both commuters and travelers to the Florida Keys and Everglades National Park . Due to its path , it acts as a de facto outer beltway for Miami . Unlike other Florida 's Turnpike Enterprise highways , it is treated as if it were part of Florida 's Turnpike mainline by highway signs and exit numbers , despite its separate state road number .
= = Route description = =
The road begins at a partial interchange with US 1 in Florida City next to the Florida Keys Outlet Center , where the road heads northeast as a four lane expressway . Travelers to here from the northern parts of the Turnpike Extension can continue south along US 1 to the Florida Keys or the Everglades National Park ( via SR 9336 ) . This point also marks the beginning of the HEFT 's hidden designation of State Road 821 .
Between Florida City and Cutler Bay , the HEFT acts as a bypass for the communities along US 1 . The first 16 miles of the tollway are located within mostly new residential developments that were constructed after Hurricane Andrew , which destroyed most of the area in 1992 . Some farms line the rest of this stretch . The first interchange northbound is Campbell Drive / Southwest 312th Street in Homestead , which allows travelers to access the Homestead Hospital and the Homestead @-@ Miami Speedway . The Turnpike then has an exit with Southwest 288th Street at mile 5 , providing a connection to the Homestead Air Reserve Base , before leaving Homestead and entering parts of unincorporated Miami @-@ Dade County . At mile 6 , the tollway has a southbound exit and northbound entry for Southwest 137th Avenue , with the HEFT heading east @-@ northeast until the exit with SR 989 ( Allapattah Road / Southwest 112th Avenue ) at mile 9 . The road then curves to a northerly direction towards the Homestead Toll Gantry , the first of four on the route , at mile 10 . It then enters Cutler Bay , where the highway is also known as the John F. Cosgrove Highway for the next five miles . The first exit in Cutler Bay is with Southwest 216th Street / Cutler Ridge Blvd at mile 11 , followed by another at Caribbean Blvd at mile 12 . Following exit 11 , the turnpike widens to six lanes . The tollway then crosses back over US 1 at the Southland Mall and leaves Cutler Bay . Continuing north , the HEFT serves SR 994 ( Quail Roost Drive ) at exit 13 and gains another lane in each direction . This is followed by SR 992 ( Coral Reef Drive ( Southwest 152nd Street ) ) at exit 16 , which marks the northern terminus of the John F. Cosgrove Highway .
The tollway passes through older , predominantly residential areas for the next ten miles . Between exits 16 and 17 , the Turnpike Extension swells to ten lanes ; this section of the tollway also has the highest traffic count at 172 @,@ 000 vehicles per day ( as of 2014 ) . Past exit 17 , where SR 874 ( Don Shula Expressway ) leaves the HEFT to connect to SR 826 ( Palmetto Expressway ) , the tollway drops back to six lanes and soon reaches an interchange with Southwest 120th Street at mile 19 . Just north of the Southwest 120th Street exit , still at mile 19 , lies the Snapper Creek Service plaza , which is located on the center median with access from both directions and is the only plaza on the extension ; unlike the more robust services along the mainline , it only offers a convenience store inside the gas station . The next exit is with SR 94 ( Kendall Drive ) , followed by the Bird Road Toll Gantry at mile 23 ; from here , the HEFT takes a beeline path north for the next ten miles . The next exit is with SR 976 ( Southwest 40th Street ) , after which the HEFT gains two extra lanes in preparation for the next two exits . After the tollway forms the western end of the Florida International University campus , it meets the Tamiami Trail ( US 41 ) at exit 25 , and then SR 836 ( Dolphin Expressway ) at exit 26 in Fontainebleau , which provides access to Miami International Airport eastbound .
North of this interchange , the Turnpike Extension enters a stretch where it forms the border between undeveloped Miami @-@ Dade County to the west and residential developments to the east for the rest of its journey in the county , its width varying between six and eight lanes , with exits at Northwest 12th Street at mile 26 , Northwest 41st Street at mile 29 , and at Northwest 74th Street at mile 31 . Half a mile north of Northwest 74th Street lies the Okeechobee Toll gantry , with the HEFT then intersecting Northwest 106th Street / Beacon Station Boulevard at mile 34 . The tollway starts to curve in a north @-@ easterly direction and comes to exit 35 with US 27 . Afterwards , the expressway fully enters an undeveloped portion of Miami @-@ Dade County until the next exit at I @-@ 75 northbound at exit 39 , which is a northbound only exit , with the southbound direction of the Turnpike Extension receiving some traffic from I @-@ 75 south . North of the I @-@ 75 interchange , the HEFT becomes a four @-@ laned highway again . It crosses the Broward County line , entering the suburban community of Miramar , and then curves eastward . The expressway has an interchange with SR 823 ( Red Road ) at exit 43 , after which the Turnpike Extension is just one block north of the Miami @-@ Dade County line for the remainder of the tollway 's length . Residential and commercial developments line both sides of the HEFT through here . The next exit is with SR 817 ( University Drive ) at exit 46 , allowing access to Sun Life Stadium and the Calder Race Course . The Miramar Toll gantry then follows the interchange before the Turnpike Extension ends four miles north of the Golden Glades Interchange at the mainline of Florida 's Turnpike .
= = Tolls = =
The HEFT is an all @-@ electronic toll road that only accepts tolls via SunPass transponders or billing by the toll @-@ by @-@ plate at a higher cost . The toll road does not accept cash . The toll gantries are located at the former toll plazas , which closed on February 19 , 2011 . As of July 1 , 2015 , the total cost for a two @-@ axled vehicle to drive the whole length of the Turnpike Extension is $ 4 @.@ 24 with SunPass and $ 5 @.@ 28 via the toll @-@ by @-@ plate system . The HEFT has a toll gantry approximately every 12 miles ( 19 km ) , compared to toll plazas every 45 miles ( 72 km ) on average on the mainline . In addition to the mainline toll gantries , most interchanges have individual toll gantries for entering or exiting vehicles ; typically , these can be found either on the northbound entry and southbound exit , or the southbound entry and northern exit . Most of these gantries charge $ 0 @.@ 53 via SunPass or $ 0 @.@ 79 via toll @-@ by @-@ plate per entry or exit , but the Allapattah Road , Northwest 74th Street and Northwest 27th Avenue interchanges charge $ 0 @.@ 79 via SunPass or $ 1 @.@ 06 via toll @-@ by @-@ plate .
= = Services = =
The Snapper Creek service plaza is the lone service plaza on the HEFT , located at mile 19 in the median of the expressway . It is accessible from both directions . The service plaza is open 24 hours a day , featuring a gas station and a convenience store .
= = History = =
After the Turnpike mainline was completed in 1964 , the Turnpike Authority ( precursor to Florida 's Turnpike Enterprise ) explored several extensions to the Turnpike system , including an expressway in western Dade County from Florida City to the Turnpike mainline at the Dade / Broward county line . Construction on the tollway began in July 1971 . The northernmost thirteen miles of the tollway between US 27 and the Turnpike mainline was open to traffic on May 1 , 1973 , at a cost of $ 22 million and a $ 0 @.@ 40 toll to motorists . During the first half of 1974 , the expressway between Campbell Drive ( SW 312th Street ) and US 27 was opened in five stages , with the road running uninterrupted from the Turnpike in Miramar to Homestead on May 20 , 1974 , with the last section to Florida City connecting to US 1 completed later in 1974 . The total toll of the expressway was $ 0 @.@ 80 .
The HEFT has used mile @-@ based exit numbers and an open toll collection system since its opening ; both concepts that were implemented on the Turnpike mainline in the late 1980s and early 1990s .
On April 27 , 1986 , the Okeechobee toll plaza opened with a $ .25 toll , with the toll plaza at the US 27 exit being removed , and tolls at the Miramar plaza being lowered from $ .40 to $ .25 . On February 2 , 1989 , tolls on the Expressway doubled from $ 1 @.@ 00 to $ 2 @.@ 00 , with $ .50 being charged at each toll plaza . Toll hikes , raising the cost of travelling the expressway from $ 2 to $ 3 were supposed to take effect on the Homestead Extension in 1993 to match the rest of the Turnpike , but Hurricane Andrew 's impact in the area in 1992 had the state delay toll hikes on the highway until July 9 , 1995 . In 1997 , the Bird Road toll plaza was reconfigured to its current two part form to accommodate the then @-@ bottleneck section of the expressway . The SunPass electronic toll collection system was implemented during 1999 , with the toll plazas being reconfigured to allow lanes dedicated to transponder users . A toll hike took effect on March 7 , 2004 , increasing the toll rate for non SunPass users to $ 4 for a full length trip , with SunPass users still using the 1995 toll rates .
The portion of the HEFT between Exits 11 ( Cutler Ridge Boulevard ) and 16 ( State Road 992 ) was designated the " John F. Cosgrove Highway " in 2008 by the Florida Legislature , following his death in 2006 . A lawyer and former legislator , Cosgrove was also the first mayor of Cutler Bay , a city along the HEFT . He was instrumental in passing legislation to keep insurers from leaving the state following Hurricane Andrew .
On February 19 , 2011 , the HEFT ceased cash toll collections , becoming an exclusively electronic toll road , a move that was announced in November 2009 . The manned toll plazas were converted into all electronic toll gantries , and the only ways to pay are either by SunPass transponders or billing by the toll @-@ by @-@ plate program .
In 2007 , legislation was passed in Florida to index toll rates across the state to the national Consumer price index ( CPI ) , to be enacted by the end of June , 2012 . As a result , the toll rates on the HEFT were raised on June 24 , 2012 , an increase of 11 @.@ 7 % to reflect the previous five years . In keeping with the legislation , SunPass and toll @-@ by @-@ plate rates were then raised again on July 1 , 2013 by 2 @.@ 1 % . Since the indexing of tolls to the national CPI , the entry and exit toll rates have risen by approximately 30 cents , in some cases more than double their pre @-@ 2012 rates .
= = Exit list = =
Despite being designated by the Florida Department of Transportation as a separate route ( SR 821 ) from the main portion of Florida 's Turnpike ( SR 91 ) , the HEFT 's exit numbers are regarded to be a continuation of the Turnpike 's mainline .
= What 's Cooking ? with Jamie Oliver =
What 's Cooking ? with Jamie Oliver is a cooking video game for the Nintendo DS narrated by celebrity chef Jamie Oliver . It was developed and published by Atari , Inc . ( Atari , SA subsidiary ) and released in North America on October 21 , 2008 , and in Europe on October 24 .
The game features several recipes , each listing preparation times , ingredients and courses . In addition , What 's Cooking ? can be used as a shopping list to remind players what items to purchase , and it can act as a timer to count down from a specified time and make an audible sound when it is done .
The game was first revealed by Atari at the Games Convention 2008 . The game was poorly received after its release ; video game critics gave it an aggregated score of 49 % at Metacritic . Reviewers generally agreed that presenting a cooking guide as a video game was a good idea , but they found that the game was poorly executed and mediocre as a result .
= = Gameplay = =
What 's Cooking ? is an interactive cookbook and food preparation video game with recipes that each list preparation times , ingredients and courses . Recipes can be sorted by criteria such as dishes that take less than 20 minutes to prepare , or vegetarian @-@ only meals . After opening a recipe , an ingredient list is presented . Items on the list can be earmarked and added to a shopping list as a reminder to purchase in the future . A timer option is also available , which counts down from a specified time and makes an audible sound when it is done . Before doing any real cooking , a virtual representation of each step in the recipe is given on the screen that must be performed by the player . The Nintendo DS touchscreen and stylus are used to perform tasks such as whisking eggs , pouring sauces and cutting vegetables . Tutorials are also available to teach the player how to perform simple cooking preparation tasks . While cooking , the Nintendo DS responds to audible commands ; saying " next " into the device 's microphone will move the recipe on to the next step . One hundred recipes are included in the game , and players can create their own dishes in the game . Afterward , they can share them with others via Wi @-@ Fi . In addition to the game 's cooking aspects , What 's Cooking ? features challenges in which the player uses the stylus to chop , stir , and serve as quickly as possible .
= = Development = =
What 's Cooking ? was first revealed by Atari at the Games Convention 2008 . The game is narrated by Jamie Oliver . In an interview with Official Nintendo Magazine , Oliver noted that he tries to make his games as " three dimensional as possible " , and he wanted to " make it relevant " to the player . The developers also wanted to make the game as interactive as possible .
= = Reception = =
What 's Cooking ? was generally poorly received by video game critics , receiving a 49 % aggregated score on Metacritic . IGN 's Daemon Hatfield called disguising a cooking tutorial as a video game a " pretty brilliant idea " , but only as long as it was done well . He stated that both the cookbook and food preparation halves of the game were not strong enough to make the game worth purchasing . Hatfield commented that the game 's controls are " terribly unintuitive , and the cookbook doesn 't offer anything its physical counterpart can 't for cheaper " . He was also disappointed that there were no pictures to illustrate each step , and not every cooking process is explained . Eurogamer 's Ellie Gibson was satisfied with the number of recipes available , most of which were " pretty easy to follow " . Gibson , however , preferred to see instructional videos to observe how a recipe was made before making it .
In their review of the game , Official Nintendo Magazine commented that the stylus @-@ controlled cooking tutorials are not user @-@ friendly , and the recipe sharing is as good as it could be since players can only use ingredients and methods from recipes that they have unlocked through playing the game . They felt that the game attempts to appeal to gamers rather than aspiring chefs , concluding , " [ The game has ] some great recipes but the experience is marred by some fiddly cooking games . "
= Star Wars Battlefront : Renegade Squadron =
Star Wars Battlefront : Renegade Squadron is the third entry in the Star Wars : Battlefront series of video games , first released on October 9 , 2007 in North America and later in Australia and Europe . The game was designed as a PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) exclusive and features the eponymous Rebel Alliance covert ops unit Renegade Squadron , previously unmentioned in Star Wars canon . Renegade Squadron was one of the first games available in a bundle pack with the newly released PSP redesign .
The single @-@ player campaign follows the exploits of Renegade Squadron from its inception by Han Solo throughout its operational history , until its dissolution after the Battle of Endor . During play the Renegades participate in several battles , including those of Yavin and Hoth . The game also features several types of multiplayer modes . In contrast with previous titles in the series that require characters to have a set class , players in Renegade Squadron are able to build their character as they see fit .
Renegade Squadron received a mixed reaction from the video gaming community . The game was considered superior to its predecessor ( the PSP version of Star Wars : Battlefront II ) and it was praised for its customization options and online play , but the single @-@ player campaign was criticized for being brief and shallow . Opinions on the graphics were mixed , and the controls were generally described as inadequate .
= = Gameplay = =
The overall structure of Renegade Squadron is similar to other games in the Battlefront series in that it is a war game played primarily from a third @-@ person view . Battles take place on the ground and in space and require the player to capture command posts , specific areas of territory represented by floating icons on the playing field and colored dots on the player 's heads @-@ up display . Each map has a set number of command posts , and it is beneficial for the player to occupy as many as possible ( space battles use a modified command post system ) . Each side has a set number of reinforcement tickets at the beginning of the battle — any time a soldier dies , that team loses one ticket when that soldier respawns . To win a match , a player must capture every command post or reduce their opponent 's ticket count to zero .
At the ending of each mission , every time the character respawns , and when at a command post , it is possible for the player to adjust their character ’ s weapons , appearance , and other traits to their liking . The player gets 100 credits to purchase weapons and equipment for their character . In previous games in the series , players chose a character 's class before battle from a list of pre @-@ made options , such as pilot or other regular infantry units . Each class had a specific combination of weapons and equipment . Before Renegade Squadron 's release , LucasArts stated that the customization engine would allow millions of different character combinations . Another new feature allows players to enter asteroid bases on some space maps . In addition , players can earn medals by achieving set objectives , such as destroying a certain number of spaceships .
= = = Single @-@ player = = =
There are three options for single play : the campaign , instant action , and galactic conquest . During the story campaign , the player takes control of Renegade Squadron , under the command of Col Serra and occasionally Han Solo . Serra describes the formation of the unit in the beginning cutscene of the campaign ; the player then starts a series of missions with a range of different objectives , with voiced cutscenes in a static , comic book style between the missions to provide background information and move the story along . The final mission features the Battle of Endor , where the objectives are similar to the corresponding footage in Return of the Jedi .
With instant action , players are able to take part in battles against computer @-@ controlled opponents . There are four types of missions . Conquest is the Battlefront standard and pits two opposing forces against each other on a space or ground map , with the objective of controlling all of the command posts on the map , or defeating every member of the opposing force . There are also three variants of capture the flag , including a new mode called Hero flag , whereby players are permitted to control famous Star Wars characters during standard flag battles by physically carrying their team 's flag . These heroes span the Clone Wars and Civil War periods and include Asajj Ventress , Jango Fett , and Kit Fisto .
A holdover from previous Battlefront games , galactic conquest is played as a type of turn @-@ based board game with segmented turns , similar to Risk . The board is a simplified representation of the Star Wars galaxy , with four quadrants containing several planets each . The player and the AI opponent each start with several planets ( including a headquarters planet which has more reinforcements ) , which generate revenue each turn in the form of galactic credits . Credits are used to purchase reinforcements and hire special commanders , who are leaders like Admiral Ackbar and Tarkin . During each turn , a player is allowed to move reinforcements around their controlled planets and attack opponent @-@ controlled planets . Attacking a planet initiates either a ground or space battle , which can be fought manually or automatically . The player wins by conquering all of their opponent 's planets .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
In addition to the single @-@ player story missions , Renegade Squadron allows up to 16 players to compete via the PSP 's infrastructure mode , which is a wi @-@ fi internet connection . It can also support eight @-@ person matches with ad @-@ hoc , which is a local connectivity option for players in close physical proximity . The multiplayer game types are limited to conquest and capture the flag . A GameSpy network account is required to play using infrastructure , and offers players a rankings system so they can track their performance .
= = Plot = =
Renegade Squadron takes place during the second chronological trilogy of the Star Wars films , mostly during and in @-@ between The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi . Some time after the events of the Galactic Civil War as portrayed in Return of the Jedi , the New Jedi Order is formed by Luke Skywalker . The game begins with Tionne Solusar , the New Jedi Order 's chief historian , researching the forces of the Rebel Alliance during the Galactic Civil War . Tionne finds several vague references to a " Renegade Squadron " and its commander , Col Serra , who were apparently involved in covert ops missions during the war . Tionne manages to contact Serra and he candidly relates the entire history of the unit . The single @-@ player campaign follows the major exploits of Renegade Squadron throughout the war , as told in flashbacks by Serra to Tionne .
Renegade Squadron was formed shortly before the Battle of Yavin at the request of Han Solo and General Jan Dodonna , who were looking for experienced warriors that required no additional training . Solo contacted one of his former smuggling associates , Col Serra , and asked him to help . Serra agreed to Solo 's request and put together a unit of mercenaries , bounty hunters , smugglers , and other Fringe types that would work behind @-@ the @-@ scenes to further the goals of the Alliance . All of the members of the aptly named Renegade Squadron were wanted by the Empire and generally harbored an intense hatred for it , ensuring that they would remain loyal to the Alliance .
Under Serra 's command , the unit was responsible for several operations undertaken for the Alliance throughout the war . The unit operated in secrecy and was able to work anonymously at several major incidents , including the battles of Yavin , Hoth , and Endor . The unit was made up of skilled pilots in addition to ground operatives , and so was able to assist in missions both in @-@ space and planetside . The unit was considered elite by the Alliance , and despite its anonymity , took part in several high @-@ profile battles against Imperial luminaries , including IG @-@ 88 and Darth Vader . After the Battle of Endor , the squadron was disbanded , its purpose fulfilled . Its surviving members disappeared , many of them returning to their former criminal roots .
= = Development = =
LucasArts announced Renegade Squadron in May 2007 . The announcement stated that the game would be the only original Battlefront game of 2007 , and it was to be developed by British @-@ based independent game design company Rebellion Developments . Despite having never worked on a Star Wars game , Rebellion had prior development experience with other PlayStation Portable titles , such as a port of the third @-@ person shooter game Gun .
The game 's developers made it clear that it was being designed specifically for the PSP . LucasArts made this decision after Rebellion convinced them that the PSP 's multiplayer capabilities were well @-@ suited to another Battlefront game , in addition to the strong sales of Battlefront II on the PSP . The game 's lead designer , Mike Hosser , stated that the development team tried to retain some aspects of Battlefront II , specifically its " fast and furious action " . Other elements borrowed from Battlefront II included the controls — LucasArts solicited feedback from players of the previous game and subsequently decided to make Renegade Squadron 's controls more " arcadey " so players could learn them faster . After screenshots of the game were released , several forum posts from fans complained about the game 's visuals compared to its predecessor . In response , Hosser claimed that Renegade Squadron " boasts a longer view distance , higher resolution textures and better lighting " .
The design team stated repeatedly that the focus of Renegade Squadron was its customization system . There were initially concerns in Rebellion that the feature would lead to unbalanced gameplay ; lead programmer Richard May stated he was " worried it might lead to uber @-@ classes and be a balancing nightmare , losing some of the trade @-@ off structure that the old class system provided . " Prolific testing of the game eventually assured LucasArts that the system had been implemented appropriately .
The game 's setting was based primarily on the Clone Wars and Civil War eras of Star Wars history . Rebellion took inspiration for several missions from comments made in passing from the Star Wars films . Hosser stated in an interview , " For instance , a diversionary attack on Sullust is mentioned during a conversation between Vader and the Emperor in Return of the Jedi . In Renegade Squadron , you 'll get to take part in that attack . " The planet of Boz Pity was similarly mentioned in Star Wars : Episode III – Revenge of the Sith but wasn 't portrayed in the movie , so Renegade Squadron 's artists took the opportunity to create the planet based on ancient Cambodian architecture like Angkor Wat . Concept art for the game was provided by Rebellion 's comic artists , and the cutscenes were based on the company 's comic properties like 2000 AD . While storyboarding the in @-@ game cinematics , Rebellion assistant producer James Valls was careful to ensure that Renegade Squadron was in accordance with established Star Wars canon .
= = = Release = = =
Renegade Squadron was featured at the LucasArts booth at Comic @-@ Con 2007 as part of the " 25 Years of LucasArts Games " display , along with other upcoming games like Lego Indiana Jones : The Original Adventures and The Force Unleashed . The game was released on October 9 , 2007 in North America , and on October 10 and 12 in Australia and Europe respectively . LucasArt 's official launch event was at the Sony PlayStation Store in the Metreon shopping center in San Francisco . Star Wars fans attended in costume , including the 501st Squadron , a large Star Wars cosplaying fanclub . Attendees were eligible to win several prizes . In addition , the first 200 customers to purchase Sony 's new Star Wars PSP bundle were given a Han Solo @-@ in @-@ carbonite case for their PSP . The bundle was announced in July 2007 as the second available PSP @-@ 2000 bundle ( after Daxter ) and titled the Star Wars Battlefront PSP Entertainment Pack . Bundled PSPs were presented in a white case with a black silkscreen of Darth Vader on the battery cover , in addition to the copy of Renegade Squadron .
LucasArts and Rebellion have discussed downloadable content for Renegade Squadron , but were not strongly invested in exploring the prospect during the game 's development . LucasArts has also stated that issues with Sony have hindered its implementation . Rebellion has considered the possibility of a comic book or novel based on Renegade Squadron .
= = Reception = =
Critical reception of the game was mixed , and as of March 2009 it holds a score of 73 % on media aggregator site Metacritic , which indicates " mixed or average reviews . " Reviewers praised the game 's customization options and multiplayer , and it was accepted as marginally superior to Battlefront II on PSP , though one reviewer stated " it 's not a true sequel . " The game won the Reader 's PSP Game of the Month Award from IGN for October 2007 , with one fan stating that the game was more " Star Wars @-@ like " than its predecessor . It was the second best @-@ selling PSP game in the US the week of its release and was still among the list of GameFly 's most @-@ rented PSP games in December 2007 . It continued to be a top seller in the US and UK several months after its release . The game was later re @-@ released as a Greatest Hits title , indicating that it had sold at least 250 @,@ 000 copies .
Comments about Renegade Squadron 's controls were mostly negative , and they were typically described as clumsy or sluggish . GameZone referred to the space dogfights as " unplayable " and Eurogamer called the lock @-@ on feature " a waste of time " . One reviewer complained about the PSP 's lack of a second analog nub . Despite the criticism , a few reviewers were more favorable towards the controls , with GameSpot noting that they were an improvement over Battlefront II .
Reviewers were polarized on the game 's graphics . The cutscenes during the single @-@ player campaign were accepted positively , but reception of the in @-@
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" Allegheny " Johnson 's and Jubal Early 's Second Corps divisions were to make a demonstration against Culp 's and Cemetery Hills ( again , to prevent the shifting of U.S. troops ) , and to turn the demonstration into a full @-@ scale attack if a favorable opportunity presented itself .
Lee 's plan , however , was based on faulty intelligence , exacerbated by Stuart 's continued absence from the battlefield . Instead of moving beyond the U.S. left and attacking their flank , Longstreet 's left division , under McLaws , would face Maj. Gen. Daniel Sickles 's III Corps directly in their path . Sickles had been dissatisfied with the position assigned him on the southern end of Cemetery Ridge . Seeing higher ground more favorable to artillery positions a half mile ( 800 m ) to the west , he advanced his corps — without orders — to the slightly higher ground along the Emmitsburg Road . The new line ran from Devil 's Den , northwest to the Sherfy farm 's Peach Orchard , then northeast along the Emmitsburg Road to south of the Codori farm . This created an untenable salient at the Peach Orchard ; Brig. Gen. Andrew A. Humphreys 's division ( in position along the Emmitsburg Road ) and Maj. Gen. David B. Birney 's division ( to the south ) were subject to attacks from two sides and were spread out over a longer front than their small corps could defend effectively .
Longstreet 's attack was to be made as early as practicable ; however , Longstreet got permission from Lee to await the arrival of one of his brigades , and while marching to the assigned position , his men came within sight of a Union signal station on Little Round Top . Countermarching to avoid detection wasted much time , and Hood 's and McLaws 's divisions did not launch their attacks until just after 4 p.m. and 5 p.m. , respectively .
= = = Attacks on the Union left flank = = =
As Longstreet 's divisions slammed into the Union III Corps , Meade was forced to send 20 @,@ 000 reinforcements in the form of the entire V Corps , Brig. Gen. John C. Caldwell 's division of the II Corps , most of the XII Corps , and small portions of the newly arrived VI Corps . The Confederate assault deviated from Lee 's plan since Hood 's division moved more to the east than intended , losing its alignment with the Emmitsburg Road , attacking Devil 's Den and Little Round Top . McLaws , coming in on Hood 's left , drove multiple attacks into the thinly stretched III Corps in the Wheatfield and overwhelmed them in Sherfy 's Peach Orchard . McLaws 's attack eventually reached Plum Run Valley ( the " Valley of Death " ) before being beaten back by the Pennsylvania Reserves division of the V Corps , moving down from Little Round Top . The III Corps was virtually destroyed as a combat unit in this battle , and Sickles 's leg was amputated after it was shattered by a cannonball . Caldwell 's division was destroyed piecemeal in the Wheatfield . Anderson 's division , coming from McLaws 's left and starting forward around 6 p.m. , reached the crest of Cemetery Ridge , but it could not hold the position in the face of counterattacks from the II Corps , including an almost suicidal bayonet charge by the small 1st Minnesota regiment against a Confederate brigade , ordered in desperation by Hancock to buy time for reinforcements to arrive .
As fighting raged in the Wheatfield and Devil 's Den , Col. Strong Vincent of V Corps had a precarious hold on Little Round Top , an important hill at the extreme left of the Union line . His brigade of four relatively small regiments was able to resist repeated assaults by Brig. Gen. Evander M. Law 's brigade of Hood 's division . Meade 's chief engineer , Brig. Gen. Gouverneur K. Warren , had realized the importance of this position , and dispatched Vincent 's brigade , an artillery battery , and the 140th New York to occupy Little Round Top mere minutes before Hood 's troops arrived . The defense of Little Round Top with a bayonet charge by the 20th Maine , initiated by Lt. Holman S. Melcher , was one of the most fabled episodes in the Civil War and propelled Col. Joshua L. Chamberlain into prominence after the war .
= = = Attacks on the Union right flank = = =
About 7 : 00 p.m. , the Second Corps ' attack by Johnson 's division on Culp 's Hill got off to a late start . Most of the hill 's defenders , the Union XII Corps , had been sent to the left to defend against Longstreet 's attacks , and the only portion of the corps remaining on the hill was a brigade of New Yorkers under Brig. Gen. George S. Greene . Because of Greene 's insistence on constructing strong defensive works , and with reinforcements from the I and XI Corps , Greene 's men held off the Confederate attackers , although the Southerners did capture a portion of the abandoned U.S. works on the lower part of Culp 's Hill .
Just at dark , two of Jubal Early 's brigades attacked the Union XI Corps positions on East Cemetery Hill where Col. Andrew L. Harris of the 2nd Brigade , 1st Division , came under a withering attack , losing half his men ; however , Early failed to support his brigades in their attack , and Ewell 's remaining division , that of Maj. Gen. Robert E. Rodes , failed to aid Early 's attack by moving against Cemetery Hill from the west . The Union army 's interior lines enabled its commanders to shift troops quickly to critical areas , and with reinforcements from II Corps , the U.S. troops retained possession of East Cemetery Hill , and Early 's brigades were forced to withdraw .
Jeb Stuart and his three cavalry brigades arrived in Gettysburg around noon but had no role in the second day 's battle . Brig. Gen. Wade Hampton 's brigade fought a minor engagement with newly promoted 23 @-@ year @-@ old Brig. Gen. George Armstrong Custer 's Michigan cavalry near Hunterstown to the northeast of Gettysburg .
= = Third day of battle = =
= = = Lee 's plan = = =
General Lee wished to renew the attack on Friday , July 3 , using the same basic plan as the previous day : Longstreet would attack the U.S. left , while Ewell attacked Culp 's Hill . However , before Longstreet was ready , Union XII Corps troops started a dawn artillery bombardment against the Confederates on Culp 's Hill in an effort to regain a portion of their lost works . The Confederates attacked , and the second fight for Culp 's Hill ended around 11 a.m. Harry Pfanz judged that , after some seven hours of bitter combat , " the Union line was intact and held more strongly than before . "
Lee was forced to change his plans . Longstreet would command Pickett 's Virginia division of his own First Corps , plus six brigades from Hill 's Corps , in an attack on the U.S. II Corps position at the right center of the Union line on Cemetery Ridge . Prior to the attack , all the artillery the Confederacy could bring to bear on the U.S. positions would bombard and weaken the enemy 's line .
= = = The largest artillery bombardment of the war = = =
Around 1 p.m. , from 150 to 170 Confederate guns began an artillery bombardment that was probably the largest of the war . In order to save valuable ammunition for the infantry attack that they knew would follow , the Army of the Potomac 's artillery , under the command of Brig. Gen. Henry Jackson Hunt , at first did not return the enemy 's fire . After waiting about 15 minutes , about 80 U.S. cannons added to the din . The Army of Northern Virginia was critically low on artillery ammunition , and the cannonade did not significantly affect the Union position .
= = = Pickett 's Charge = = =
Around 3 p.m. , the cannon fire subsided , and 12 @,@ 500 Southern soldiers stepped from the ridgeline and advanced the three @-@ quarters of a mile ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) to Cemetery Ridge in what is known to history as " Pickett 's Charge " . As the Confederates approached , there was fierce flanking artillery fire from Union positions on Cemetery Hill and north of Little Round Top , and musket and canister fire from Hancock 's II Corps . In the Union center , the commander of artillery had held fire during the Confederate bombardment ( in order to save it for the infantry assault , which Meade had correctly predicted the day before ) , leading Southern commanders to believe the Northern cannon batteries had been knocked out . However , they opened fire on the Confederate infantry during their approach with devastating results . Nearly one half of the attackers did not return to their own lines . Although the U.S. line wavered and broke temporarily at a jog called the " Angle " in a low stone fence , just north of a patch of vegetation called the Copse of Trees , reinforcements rushed into the breach , and the Confederate attack was repulsed . The farthest advance of Brig. Gen. Lewis A. Armistead 's brigade of Maj. Gen. George Pickett 's division at the Angle is referred to as the " High @-@ water mark of the Confederacy " , arguably representing the closest the South ever came to its goal of achieving independence from the Union via military victory . Union and Confederate soldiers locked in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat , attacking with their rifles , bayonets , rocks and even their bare hands . Armistead ordered his Confederates to turn two captured cannons against Union troops , but discovered that there was no ammunition left , the last double canister shots having been used against the charging Confederates . Armistead was shortly after wounded three times .
There were two significant cavalry engagements on July 3 . Stuart was sent to guard the Confederate left flank and was to be prepared to exploit any success the infantry might achieve on Cemetery Hill by flanking the U.S. right and hitting their trains and lines of communications . Three miles ( 5 km ) east of Gettysburg , in what is now called " East Cavalry Field " ( not shown on the accompanying map , but between the York and Hanover Roads ) , Stuart 's forces collided with U.S. cavalry : Brig. Gen. David McMurtrie Gregg 's division and Brig. Gen. Custer 's brigade . A lengthy mounted battle , including hand @-@ to @-@ hand sabre combat , ensued . Custer 's charge , leading the 1st Michigan Cavalry , blunted the attack by Wade Hampton 's brigade , blocking Stuart from achieving his objectives in the U.S. rear . Meanwhile , after hearing news of the day 's victory , Brig. Gen. Judson Kilpatrick launched a cavalry attack against the infantry positions of Longstreet 's Corps southwest of Big Round Top . Brig. Gen. Elon J. Farnsworth protested against the futility of such a move , but obeyed orders . Farnsworth was killed in the attack , and his brigade suffered significant losses .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Casualties = = =
The two armies suffered between 46 @,@ 000 and 51 @,@ 000 casualties . Union casualties were 23 @,@ 055 ( 3 @,@ 155 killed , 14 @,@ 531 wounded , 5 @,@ 369 captured or missing ) , while Confederate casualties are more difficult to estimate . Many authors have referred to as many as 28 @,@ 000 Confederate casualties , and Busey and Martin 's more recent 2005 work , Regimental Strengths and Losses at Gettysburg , documents 23 @,@ 231 ( 4 @,@ 708 killed , 12 @,@ 693 wounded , 5 @,@ 830 captured or missing ) . Nearly a third of Lee 's general officers were killed , wounded , or captured . The casualties for both sides during the entire campaign were 57 @,@ 225 .
The following tables summarize casualties by corps for the Union and Confederate forces during the three @-@ day battle .
Bruce Catton wrote , " The town of Gettysburg looked as if some universal moving day had been interrupted by catastrophe . " But there was only one documented civilian death during the battle : Ginnie Wade ( also widely known as Jennie ) , 20 years old , was hit by a stray bullet that passed through her kitchen in town while she was making bread . Nearly 8 @,@ 000 had been killed outright ; these bodies , lying in the hot summer sun , needed to be buried quickly . Over 3 @,@ 000 horse carcasses were burned in a series of piles south of town ; townsfolk became violently ill from the stench .
= = = Confederate retreat = = =
The armies stared at one another in a heavy rain across the bloody fields on July 4 , the same day that the Vicksburg garrison surrendered to Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant . Lee had reformed his lines into a defensive position on Seminary Ridge the night of July 3 , evacuating the town of Gettysburg . The Confederates remained on the battlefield , hoping that Meade would attack , but the cautious Union commander decided against the risk , a decision for which he would later be criticized . Both armies began to collect their remaining wounded and bury some of the dead . A proposal by Lee for a prisoner exchange was rejected by Meade .
Lee started his Army of Northern Virginia in motion late the evening of July 4 towards Fairfield and Chambersburg . Cavalry under Brig. Gen. John D. Imboden was entrusted to escort the miles @-@ long wagon train of supplies and wounded men that Lee wanted to take back to Virginia with him , using the route through Cashtown and Hagerstown to Williamsport , Maryland . Meade 's army followed , although the pursuit was half @-@ spirited . The recently rain @-@ swollen Potomac trapped Lee 's army on the north bank of the river for a time , but when the Union troops finally caught up , the Confederates had forded the river . The rear @-@ guard action at Falling Waters on July 14 added some more names to the long casualty lists , including General Pettigrew , who was mortally wounded .
In a brief letter to Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck written on July 7 , Lincoln remarked on the two major Union victories at Gettysburg and Vicksburg . He continued :
Now , if Gen. Meade can complete his work so gloriously prosecuted thus far , by the literal or substantial destruction of Lee 's army , the rebellion will be over .
Halleck then relayed the contents of Lincoln 's letter to Meade in a telegram . Despite repeated pleas from Lincoln and Halleck , which continued over the next week , Meade did not pursue Lee 's army aggressively enough to destroy it before it crossed back over the Potomac River to safety in the South . The campaign continued into Virginia with light engagements until July 23 , in the minor Battle of Manassas Gap , after which Meade abandoned any attempts at pursuit and the two armies took up positions across from each other on the Rappahannock River .
= = = Union reaction to the news of the victory = = =
The news of the Union victory electrified the North . A headline in The Philadelphia Inquirer proclaimed " VICTORY ! WATERLOO ECLIPSED ! " New York diarist George Templeton Strong wrote :
The results of this victory are priceless . ... The charm of Robert E. Lee 's invincibility is broken . The Army of the Potomac has at last found a general that can handle it , and has stood nobly up to its terrible work in spite of its long disheartening list of hard @-@ fought failures . ... Copperheads are palsied and dumb for the moment at least . ... Government is strengthened four @-@ fold at home and abroad .
However , the Union enthusiasm soon dissipated as the public realized that Lee 's army had escaped destruction and the war would continue . Lincoln complained to Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles that " Our army held the war in the hollow of their hand and they would not close it ! " Brig. Gen. Alexander S. Webb wrote to his father on July 17 , stating that such Washington politicians as " Chase , Seward and others , " disgusted with Meade , " write to me that Lee really won that Battle ! "
= = = Effect on the Confederacy = = =
In fact , the Confederates had lost militarily and also politically . During the final hours of the battle , Confederate Vice President Alexander Stephens was approaching the Union lines at Norfolk , Virginia , under a flag of truce . Although his formal instructions from Confederate President Jefferson Davis had limited his powers to negotiate on prisoner exchanges and other procedural matters , historian James M. McPherson speculates that he had informal goals of presenting peace overtures . Davis had hoped that Stephens would reach Washington from the south while Lee 's victorious army was marching toward it from the north . President Lincoln , upon hearing of the Gettysburg results , refused Stephens 's request to pass through the lines . Furthermore , when the news reached London , any lingering hopes of European recognition of the Confederacy were finally abandoned . Henry Adams wrote , " The disasters of the rebels are unredeemed by even any hope of success . It is now conceded that all idea of intervention is at an end . "
The immediate reaction of the Southern military and public sectors was that Gettysburg was a setback , not a disaster . The sentiment was that Lee had been successful on July 1 and had fought a valiant battle on July 2 – 3 , but could not dislodge the Union Army from the strong defensive position to which it fled . The Confederates successfully stood their ground on July 4 and withdrew only after they realized Meade would not attack them . The withdrawal to the Potomac that could have been a disaster was handled masterfully . Furthermore , the Army of the Potomac had been kept away from Virginia farmlands for the summer and all predicted that Meade would be too timid to threaten them for the rest of the year . Lee himself had a positive view of the campaign , writing to his wife that the army had returned " rather sooner than I had originally contemplated , but having accomplished what I proposed on leaving the Rappahannock , viz . , relieving the Valley of the presence of the enemy and drawing his Army north of the Potomac . " He was quoted as saying to Maj. John Seddon , brother of the Confederate secretary of war , " Sir , we did whip them at Gettysburg , and it will be seen for the next six months that that army will be as quiet as a sucking dove . " Some Southern publications , such as the Charleston Mercury , criticized Lee 's actions in the campaign and on August 8 he offered his resignation to President Davis , who quickly rejected it .
Gettysburg became a postbellum focus of the " Lost Cause " , a movement by writers such as Edward A. Pollard and Jubal Early to explain the reasons for the Confederate defeat in the war . A fundamental premise of their argument was that the South was doomed because of the overwhelming advantage in manpower and industrial might possessed by the North . However , they claim it also suffered because Robert E. Lee , who up until this time had been almost invincible , was betrayed by the failures of some of his key subordinates at Gettysburg : Ewell , for failing to seize Cemetery Hill on July 1 ; Stuart , for depriving the army of cavalry intelligence for a key part of the campaign ; and especially Longstreet , for failing to attack on July 2 as early and as forcefully as Lee had originally intended . In this view , Gettysburg was seen as a great lost opportunity , in which a decisive victory by Lee could have meant the end of the war in the Confederacy 's favor .
= = = Gettysburg Address = = =
The ravages of war were still evident in Gettysburg more than four months later when , on November 19 , the Soldiers ' National Cemetery was dedicated . During this ceremony , President Abraham Lincoln honored the fallen and redefined the purpose of the war in his historic Gettysburg Address .
= = Historical assessment = =
= = = Decisive victory controversies = = =
The nature of the result of the Battle of Gettysburg has been the subject of controversy for years . Although not seen as overwhelmingly significant at the time , particularly since the war continued for almost two years , in retrospect it has often been cited as the " turning point " , usually in combination with the fall of Vicksburg the following day . This is based on the observation that after Gettysburg Lee 's army conducted no more strategic offensives — his army merely reacted to the initiative of Ulysses S. Grant in 1864 and 1865 — and by the speculative viewpoint of the Lost Cause writers that a Confederate victory at Gettysburg might have resulted in the end of the war .
It is currently a widely held view that Gettysburg was a decisive victory for the Union , but the term is considered imprecise . It is inarguable that Lee 's offensive on July 3 was turned back decisively and his campaign in Pennsylvania was terminated prematurely ( although the Confederates at the time argued that this was a temporary setback and that the goals of the campaign were largely met ) . However , when the more common definition of " decisive victory " is intended — an indisputable military victory of a battle that determines or significantly influences the ultimate result of a conflict — historians are divided . For example , David J. Eicher called Gettysburg a " strategic loss for the Confederacy " and James M. McPherson wrote that " Lee and his men would go on to earn further laurels . But they never again possessed the power and reputation they carried into Pennsylvania those palmy summer days of 1863 . "
However , Herman Hattaway and Archer Jones wrote that the " strategic impact of the Battle of Gettysburg was ... fairly limited . " Steven E. Woodworth wrote that " Gettysburg proved only the near impossibility of decisive action in the Eastern theater . " Edwin Coddington pointed out the heavy toll on the Army of the Potomac and that " after the battle Meade no longer possessed a truly effective instrument for the accomplishments of his task . The army needed a thorough reorganization with new commanders and fresh troops , but these changes were not made until Grant appeared on the scene in March 1864 . " Joseph T. Glatthaar wrote that " Lost opportunities and near successes plagued the Army of Northern Virginia during its Northern invasion , " yet after Gettysburg , " without the distractions of duty as an invading force , without the breakdown of discipline , the Army of Northern Virginia [ remained ] an extremely formidable force . " Ed Bearss wrote , " Lee 's invasion of the North had been a costly failure . Nevertheless , at best the Army of the Potomac had simply preserved the strategic stalemate in the Eastern Theater ... "
Peter Carmichael refers to the military context for the armies , the " horrendous losses at Chancellorsville and Gettysburg , which effectively destroyed Lee 's offensive capacity , " implying that these cumulative losses were not the result of a single battle . Thomas Goss , writing in the U.S. Army 's Military Review journal on the definition of " decisive " and the application of that description to Gettysburg , concludes : " For all that was decided and accomplished , the Battle of Gettysburg fails to earn the label ' decisive battle ' . " The military historian John Keegan agrees . Gettysburg was a landmark battle , the largest of the war and it would not be surpassed . The Union had restored to it the belief in certain victory , and the loss dispirited the Confederacy . If " not exactly a decisive battle " , Gettysburg was the end of Confederate use of Northern Virginia as a military buffer zone , the setting for Grant 's Overland Campaign .
= = = Lee vs. Meade = = =
Prior to Gettysburg , Robert E. Lee had established a reputation as an almost invincible general , achieving stunning victories against superior numbers — although usually at the cost of high casualties to his army — during the Seven Days , the Northern Virginia Campaign ( including the Second Battle of Bull Run ) , Fredericksburg , and Chancellorsville . Only the Maryland Campaign , with its tactically inconclusive Battle of Antietam , had been less than successful . Therefore , historians have attempted to explain how Lee 's winning streak was interrupted so dramatically at Gettysburg . Although the issue is tainted by attempts to portray history and Lee 's reputation in a manner supporting different partisan goals , the major factors in Lee 's loss arguably can be attributed to : ( 1 ) his overconfidence in the invincibility of his men ; ( 2 ) the performance of his subordinates , and his management thereof ; ( 3 ) his failing health , and ( 4 ) the performance of his opponent , George G. Meade , and the Army of the Potomac .
Throughout the campaign , Lee was influenced by the belief that his men were invincible ; most of Lee 's experiences with the Army of Northern Virginia had convinced him of this , including the great victory at Chancellorsville in early May and the rout of the Union troops at Gettysburg on July 1 . Since morale plays an important role in military victory when other factors are equal , Lee did not want to dampen his army 's desire to fight and resisted suggestions , principally by Longstreet , to withdraw from the recently captured Gettysburg to select a ground more favorable to his army . War correspondent Peter W. Alexander wrote that Lee " acted , probably , under the impression that his troops were able to carry any position however formidable . If such was the case , he committed an error , such however as the ablest commanders will sometimes fall into . " Lee himself concurred with this judgment , writing to President Davis , " No blame can be attached to the army for its failure to accomplish what was projected by me , nor should it be censured for the unreasonable expectations of the public — I am alone to blame , in perhaps expecting too much of its prowess and valor . "
The most controversial assessments of the battle involve the performance of Lee 's subordinates . The dominant theme of the Lost Cause writers and many other historians is that Lee 's senior generals failed him in crucial ways , directly causing the loss of the battle ; the alternative viewpoint is that Lee did not manage his subordinates adequately , and did not thereby compensate for their shortcomings . Two of his corps commanders — Richard S. Ewell and A.P. Hill — had only recently been promoted and were not fully accustomed to Lee 's style of command , in which he provided only general objectives and guidance to their former commander , Stonewall Jackson ; Jackson translated these into detailed , specific orders to his division commanders . All four of Lee 's principal commanders received criticism during the campaign and battle :
James Longstreet suffered most severely from the wrath of the Lost Cause authors , not the least because he directly criticized Lee in postbellum writings and became a Republican after the war . His critics accuse him of attacking much later than Lee intended on July 2 , squandering a chance to hit the Union Army before its defensive positions had firmed up . They also question his lack of motivation to attack strongly on July 2 and 3 because he had argued that the army should have maneuvered to a place where it would force Meade to attack them . The alternative view is that Lee was in close contact with Longstreet during the battle , agreed to delays on the morning of July 2 , and never criticized Longstreet 's performance . ( There is also considerable speculation about what an attack might have looked like before Dan Sickles moved the III Corps toward the Peach Orchard . )
J.E.B. Stuart deprived Lee of cavalry intelligence during a good part of the campaign by taking his three best brigades on a path away from the army 's . This arguably led to Lee 's surprise at Hooker 's vigorous pursuit ; the meeting engagement on July 1 that escalated into the full battle prematurely ; and it also prevented Lee from understanding the full disposition of the enemy on July 2 . The disagreements regarding Stuart 's culpability for the situation originate in the relatively vague orders issued by Lee , but most modern historians agree that both generals were responsible to some extent for the failure of the cavalry 's mission early in the campaign .
Richard S. Ewell has been universally criticized for failing to seize the high ground on the afternoon of July 1 . Once again the disagreement centers on Lee 's orders , which provided general guidance for Ewell to act " if practicable . " Many historians speculate that Stonewall Jackson , if he had survived Chancellorsville , would have aggressively seized Culp 's Hill , rendering Cemetery Hill indefensible , and changing the entire complexion of the battle . A differently worded order from Lee might have made the difference with this subordinate .
A.P. Hill has received some criticism for his ineffective performance . His actions caused the battle to begin and then escalate on July 1 , despite Lee 's orders not to bring on a general engagement ( although historians point out that Hill kept Lee well informed of his actions during the day ) . However , Hill 's illness minimized his personal involvement in the remainder of the battle , and Lee took the explicit step of removing troops from Hill 's corps and giving them to Longstreet for Pickett 's Charge .
In addition to Hill 's illness , Lee 's performance was affected by heart troubles , which would eventually lead to his death in 1870 ; he had been diagnosed with pericarditis by his staff physicians in March 1863 , though modern doctors believe he had in fact suffered a heart attack . He wrote to Jefferson Davis that his physical condition prevented him from offering full supervision in the field , and said , " I am so dull that in making use of the eyes of others I am frequently misled . "
As a final factor , Lee faced a new and formidable opponent in George G. Meade , and the Army of the Potomac fought well on its home territory . Although new to his army command , Meade deployed his forces relatively effectively ; relied on strong subordinates such as Winfield S. Hancock to make decisions where and when they were needed ; took great advantage of defensive positions ; nimbly shifted defensive resources on interior lines to parry strong threats ; and , unlike some of his predecessors , stood his ground throughout the battle in the face of fierce Confederate attacks . Lee was quoted before the battle as saying Meade " would commit no blunders on my front and if I make one ... will make haste to take advantage of it . " That prediction proved to be correct at Gettysburg . Stephen Sears wrote , " The fact of the matter is that George G. Meade , unexpectedly and against all odds , thoroughly outgeneraled Robert E. Lee at Gettysburg . " Edwin B. Coddington wrote that the soldiers of the Army of the Potomac received a " sense of triumph which grew into an imperishable faith in [ themselves ] . The men knew what they could do under an extremely competent general ; one of lesser ability and courage could well have lost the battle . "
Meade had his own detractors as well . Similar to the situation with Lee , Meade suffered partisan attacks about his performance at Gettysburg , but he had the misfortune of experiencing them in person . Supporters of his predecessor , Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker , lambasted Meade before the U.S. Congress 's Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War , where Radical Republicans suspected that Meade was a Copperhead and tried in vain to relieve him from command . Daniel E. Sickles and Daniel Butterfield accused Meade of planning to retreat from Gettysburg during the battle . Most politicians , including Lincoln , criticized Meade for what they considered to be his half @-@ hearted pursuit of Lee after the battle . A number of Meade 's most competent subordinates — Winfield S. Hancock , John Gibbon , Gouverneur K. Warren , and Henry J. Hunt , all heroes of the battle — defended Meade in print , but Meade was embittered by the overall experience .
= = Battlefield preservation = =
Today , the Gettysburg National Cemetery and Gettysburg National Military Park are maintained by the U.S. National Park Service as two of the nation 's most revered historical landmarks . Although Gettysburg is one of the best known of all Civil War battlefields , it too faces threats to its preservation and interpretation . Many historically significant locations on the battlefield lie outside the boundaries of Gettysburg National Military Park and are vulnerable to residential or commercial development .
On July 20 , 2009 , a Comfort Inn and Suites opened on Cemetery Hill , adjacent to Evergreen Cemetery , just one of many modern edifices infringing on the historic field . The Baltimore Pike corridor attracts development that concerns preservationists .
Some preservation successes have emerged in recent years . Two proposals to open a casino at Gettysburg were defeated in 2006 and most recently in 2011 , when public pressure forced the Pennsylvania Gaming Control Board to reject the proposed gambling hub at the intersection of Routes 15 and 30 , near East Cavalry Field . The Civil War Trust also successfully purchased and transferred 95 acres at the former site of the Gettysburg Country Club to the control of the U.S. Department of the Interior in 2011 .
Less than half of the over 11 @,@ 500 acres on the old Gettysburg Battlefield have been preserved for posterity thus far . The Civil War Trust has preserved 815 acres around the site , some of which is now part of the 4 @,@ 998 acres of Gettysburg National Military Park .
= = Commemoration in U.S. postage and coinage = =
During the Civil War Centennial , the U.S. Post Office issued five postage stamps commemorating the 100th anniversaries of famous battles , as they occurred over a four @-@ year period , beginning with the Battle of Fort Sumter Centennial issue of 1961 . The Battle of Shiloh commemorative stamp was issued in 1962 , the Battle of Gettysburg in 1963 , the Battle of the Wilderness in 1964 , and the Appomattox Centennial commemorative stamp in 1965 .
A commemorative half dollar for the battle was produced in 1936 . As was typical for the period , mintage was very low , just 26 @,@ 928 . On January 24 , 2011 , the America the Beautiful quarters released a 25 @-@ cent coin commemorating Gettysburg National Military Park and the Battle of Gettysburg . The reverse side of the coin depicts the monument on Cemetery Ridge to the 72nd Pennsylvania Infantry .
= = In popular culture = =
Film records survive of two Gettysburg reunions , held on the battlefield . At the 50th anniversary ( 1913 ) , veterans re @-@ enacted Pickett 's Charge in a spirit of reconciliation , a meeting that carried great emotional force for both sides . At the 75th anniversary ( 1938 ) , 2500 veterans attended , and there was a ceremonial mass hand @-@ shake across a stone wall . This was recorded on sound film , and some Confederates can be heard giving the Rebel Yell .
Iced Earth 's three @-@ part song cycle " Gettysburg " , published in 2004 , dramatizes the battle .
The Battle of Gettysburg was depicted in the 1993 film Gettysburg , based on Michael Shaara 's 1974 novel The Killer Angels . The film and novel focused primarily on the actions of Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain , John Buford , Robert E. Lee , and James Longstreet during the battle . The first day focused on Buford 's cavalry defense , the second day on Chamberlain 's defense at Little Round Top , and the third day on Pickett 's Charge .
The south winning the Battle of Gettysburg is a popular premise for a point of divergence in American Civil War alternate histories . Here are some examples which either depict or make significant reference to an alternate Battle of Gettysburg ( sometimes simply inserting fantasy or sci @-@ fi elements in an account of the battle ) :
Novels : Bring the Jubilee by Ward Moore ; If the South Had Won the Civil War by Mackinlay Kantor ; Civil War Trilogy ( Gettysburg , Grant Comes East , Never Call Retreat ) by Newt Gingrich , William R. Forstchen , and Albert S. Hanser ; Stonewall Jackson at Gettysburg by Douglas Lee Gibboney ; By Force of Arms by Billy Bennett . Also : Harry Turtledove 's Southern Victory series has an analogous battle taking place at Camp Hill , another southeast Pennsylvania town .
Short fiction : " If Lee Had NOT Won the Battle of Gettysburg " by Winston Churchill in If It Had Happened Otherwise and If , or History Rewritten , " Sidewise in Time " by Murray Leinster in various collections , " A Hard Day for Mother " by William R. Forstchen in Alternate Generals 1 , " An Old Man 's Summer " by Esther Friesner also in AG 1 , " If the Lost Order Hadn 't Been Lost " by James M. McPherson in What If ? and What Ifs ? of American History , " East of Appomattox " by Lee Allred in Alternate Generals 3 . Also : In " Maureen Birnbaum on the Art of War " ( tribute to Horseclans ) within George Alec Effinger 's sword and sorcery spoof Maureen Birnbaum , Barbarian Swordsperson , two armies in a post @-@ apocalyptic world fight a battle at the Gettysburg site sometime in our distant future .
Film and television : The Time Tunnel episode 25 " The Death Merchant , " Twin Peaks Season 2 ( as a play within a play acted out by characters in the 1990s ) , C.S.A. : The Confederate States of America , Abraham Lincoln : Vampire Hunter .
Ultimate General : Gettysburg is a tactical battle simulator video game released in October 2014 that allows the user to lead thousands of soldiers in the Battle of Gettysburg . It was developed by Game Labs and designed by the creator of " DarthMod " ( a series of mods that improve AI in the Total War games ) and one of the most celebrated modders in the Total War modding community .
= = = Memoirs and primary sources = = =
Paris , Louis @-@ Philippe @-@ Albert d 'Orléans . The Battle of Gettysburg : A History of the Civil War in America . Digital Scanning , Inc . , 1999 . ISBN 1 @-@ 58218 @-@ 066 @-@ 0 . First published 1869 by Germer Baillière .
New York ( State ) , William F. Fox , and Daniel Edgar Sickles . New York at Gettysburg : Final Report on the Battlefield of Gettysburg . Albany , NY : J.B. Lyon Company , Printers , 1900 . OCLC 607395975 .
U.S. War Department , The War of the Rebellion : a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies . Washington , DC : U.S. Government Printing Office , 1880 – 1901 .
= Bryce Dallas Howard =
Bryce Dallas Howard ( born March 2 , 1981 ) is an American actress , filmmaker , and writer . She made her acting debut as an extra in her father Ron Howard 's film Parenthood ( 1989 ) and went on to have small roles in films and make stage appearances for the next several years . During this time , Howard also attended New York University 's Tisch School of the Arts , later receiving a BFA and moving on to professional drama schools . After she came to the attention of M. Night Shyamalan , he cast her in what would be her breakout film , the psychological thriller The Village ( 2004 ) and then in the fantasy thriller Lady in the Water ( 2006 ) . Her performance in As You Like It ( 2006 ) , directed by Kenneth Branagh and based on the play of the same name by William Shakespeare , earned her a Golden Globe Award nomination . In 2006 , she co @-@ wrote and directed the short film Orchids .
Howard became more recognizable to audiences as Victoria in The Twilight Saga : Eclipse ( 2010 ) . This project , as well as Terminator Salvation ( 2009 ) , was financially successful , but both films garnered mixed reviews from the press . In 2011 , she had supporting roles in 50 / 50 and The Help . She also played a lead role , Claire Dearing , in the science fiction adventure film Jurassic World ( 2015 ) , the fourth installment in the Jurassic Park film series and her most financially successful film to date . She has signed on to reprise her role in the sequel to Jurassic World .
= = Early life = =
Howard was born in Los Angeles , California , to writer Cheryl Howard Crew ( née Alley ) and actor @-@ director Ron Howard , on March 2 , 1981 . Through her father , she is a granddaughter of actors Rance Howard ( born Harold Rance Beckenholdt ) and Jean Speegle Howard and a niece of actor Clint Howard . Her godfather is actor Henry Winkler , who co @-@ starred on Happy Days with her father .
She has two younger sisters , twins Jocelyn and Paige ( born 1985 ) , and a younger brother named Reed ( born 1987 ) . All of the Howard children were raised away from the world of show business . Their parents did not allow them access to television and instead encouraged outdoor activities and hobbies . At the age of 7 , however , she was allowed to be an extra in her father 's movies . In an appearance on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno , she mentioned that she and her siblings were babysat by family friend Tom Cruise on several occasions . She was raised in Westchester County , New York and on a farm in Greenwich , Connecticut .
Howard attended Stagedoor Manor , a performing arts camp in upstate New York , with actress Natalie Portman . After attending Greenwich Country Day School until 1996 and then graduating from Byram Hills High School in 1999 , Howard studied at New York University 's ( NYU ) Tisch School of the Arts for three years , during which time she also attended the Stella Adler Conservatory , The Experimental Wing , and International Theatre Wing in Amsterdam . During her schooling , she took part in the concept recording of the Broadway @-@ bound musical A Tale of Two Cities . She graduated with her BFA in Drama in 2003 . Howard is also an alumna of the Steppenwolf Theatre Company 's School at Steppenwolf in Chicago , and of The Actors Center in New York City . During her time in New York , Howard was also a member of downtown theater company Theater Mitu , in residence at New York Theatre Workshop , who are known for their exploration of theatrical forms . When she had applied to drama schools she dropped her last name to avoid special treatment because of her father . She later had second thoughts because she felt her first and middle name combined made her sound like a porn star .
= = Career = =
= = = 1989 – 2006 = = =
After her film debut , Parenthood , as an uncredited extra , Howard played an extra in her father 's critically lauded Apollo 13 ( 1995 ) and the 2000 holiday live action Universal Studios film How the Grinch Stole Christmas . While on her father 's film sets , she would often socialize with the crew rather than the actors . For the next several years , Howard appeared in New York plays . Among these were House and Garden , a 2002 Alan Ayckbourn production held at the Manhattan Theatre Club , in which she portrayed a disdainful , flirtatious teen . While performing as Rosalind in the critically acclaimed 2003 William Shakespeare comedy production As You Like It , Howard caught the eye of director M. Night Shyamalan . Howard was not familiar with the play and was cast just one day before it started . She then starred in the Alan Brown @-@ directed 2004 drama Book of Love , about a young woman having an affair with a lonely teenage boy , destroying her marriage . It was generally ignored by critics and movie goers alike .
Her breakthrough role came in Shyamalan 's fantasy thriller The Village ( 2004 ) . When Kirsten Dunst could not commit to the schedule , Howard was cast without having to audition two weeks after Shyamalan first saw her onstage . Its story is about a " turn @-@ of @-@ the @-@ 20th @-@ century " village whose residents live in fear of the creatures inhabiting the woods beyond it . She plays the female lead , the chief 's blind daughter and love interest to Joaquin Phoenix 's part . Her performance was applauded by critics and Howard was nominated for several awards , mostly in the category of " Best Breakthrough Performance " . The Village did well commercially , but had a mixed reception . Following that , Howard was cast by Lars Von Trier to replace Nicole Kidman as Grace Mulligan in Manderlay , the 2005 sequel to Dogville ( 2003 ) . The director said that it is " quite clear " his movie , set in a plantation , can be seen as an allusion to the Iraq War . Manderlay was a box office bomb , making only $ 674 @,@ 000 of its $ 14 @.@ 2 million production budget .
Howard reunited with Shyamalan for Lady in the Water , in which she acts as Story , a type of water nymph called a narf . The 2006 fantasy film release also stars Paul Giamatti as the co @-@ lead . Shyamalan 's project follows the story of Giamatti 's character rescuing what he thinks is a young woman ( Howard ) from his pool . Once he discovers that she is actually a character from a bedtime story who is trying to get back home , he teams up with his tenants to protect her from creatures that try to keep her in their world . It underperformed at the box office , falling short of its $ 75 million budget , and got largely negative reviews from critics . Next , she once again played Rosalind in Kenneth Branagh 's 2006 film version of Shakespeare 's As You Like It . It played in theatres in Europe before going directly to cable in the United States , premiering on HBO . Howard was nominated for a Golden Globe Award at the 2008 ceremony . The project got soundly negative reviews from the British media , while American reviewers gave it more favorable notice . Writing in USA Today , Robert Bianco observed : " As Rosalind , the show 's leading lady , Bryce Dallas Howard is a bit uncontrolled , particularly compared with such more precise co @-@ stars as Alfred Molina , David Oyelowo and Brian Blessed . But she 's incredibly appealing , and that in itself sells the love story . " That year , she wrote and directed a short film , Orchids , as part of Glamour magazine 's " Reel Moments " series funded by Cartier and FilmAid International .
= = = 2007 – present = = =
In 2007 , Howard starred in her first blockbuster , Spider @-@ Man 3 as Peter Parker 's classmate Gwen Stacy , a fan favorite . A challenge that came with playing Gwen was reminding fans of the good @-@ intentioned character who was Peter 's first love in the comics , yet came off as " the other woman " in the movie . Howard dyed her naturally red hair blonde for the role and performed many of her own stunts , unaware that she was several months pregnant . Grossing $ 890 million.Terminator Salvation was her next project . Cast in June 2008 , she replaced Claire Danes as Kate Connor . Howard was already a fan of the series . It grossed a total of $ 370 million , but was not well received critically .
Howard starred as the lead character in The Loss of a Teardrop Diamond in 2009 . Based on a 1957 screenplay by Tennessee Williams , it did not play at many theaters . She played the role of Victoria , a vampire seeking revenge , in the Twilight series ' third installment The Twilight Saga : Eclipse . She landed the part after Rachelle Lefevre was dropped due to a scheduling conflict and filming started in August 2009 . Howard had already been a huge fan of the books and considered Victoria to be an " incredible character " . Released on June 30 , 2010 the film made nearly $ 700 million and although reviews were mixed , Critics gave very positive reviews for Howard in the role .
In December 2009 , Howard was cast in Clint Eastwood 's Hereafter ( 2010 ) , as a burgeoning love interest of Matt Damon 's character . When Howard first read the script to Hereafter , she was hooked on it , having been attracted to its central character ( Damon ) – a reclusive man with the ability to speak to the deceased . " It 's personal for me because a lot of my family members actually have that ability . It 's kind of wild , " Howard said .
In early January 2011 , Howard became the first celebrity ambassador for purse designer Kate Spade . Her first film of 2011 was The Help , a movie adaption of Kathryn Stockett 's 2009 best @-@ selling novel of the same name . She received critical acclaim for her performance in the film , and was nominated for many Best Supporting Actress Awards , along with winning awards shared with the rest of the cast . Howard then teamed up with her father to help produce Gus Van Sant 's Restless , a dark coming of age movie about a teenage boy and girl who are engrossed with death . She had a supporting role opposite Joseph Gordon @-@ Levitt in the cancer dramedy 50 / 50 , which was based on a true story . " It 's viewing that experience through a very truthful lens of humour " , she stated of 50 / 50 's take on its heavy subject matter . Both films had September releases . Also in 2011 , she announced that she would be directing a film called The Originals . She co @-@ wrote the screenplay with her brother @-@ in @-@ law Dane Charbonneau and described it as " a Breakfast Club for my generation " . This would mark her feature directorial debut .
Howard has recently finished directorial duties for the short film When You Find Me , a social film developed through a collaboration with Canon . The film was developed under the premise of gathering inspiration through images selected from a photography contest . 96 @,@ 362 entries were accepted , while only eight final images were selected to be utilized for the production of the film .
In 2015 , Howard appeared in the lead role , alongside Chris Pratt , in Jurassic World as the park 's operations manager Claire Dearing . In 2016 , she is set to appear in two films , Gold and the remake of the 1977 film Pete 's Dragon .
= = Personal life = =
Howard became a devoted vegan when Joaquin Phoenix , a co @-@ star in The Village , showed her a documentary on animal cruelty called Earthlings . However , in August 2006 , Howard announced that she had switched her diet from vegan to vegetarian in order to help boost her amino acid levels in preparation for her pregnancy . Due to a rare medical condition she developed after her pregnancy , she began eating meat .
During her senior year of high school , Howard learned of existentialism . " I was like , ' This is it ! This is my religion . ' I had never felt a connection to any sort of spirituality before that . It was very basic – you 're responsible for the choices that you make – but it was mind @-@ blowing at the time . " Her hobby is writing and she is good friends with Kirsten Dunst , Natalie Portman and Jake Gyllenhaal . Howard has said that she gets " freaked out " by " the Hollywood scene " and has never had a sip of alcohol in her entire life . She credits seeing the negative effects of alcoholism in her family as the reason behind the decision . " When I was in high school , I would never go to parties because I would be embarrassed to say no . Consequently , I had almost no social group , " Howard recalled .
= = = Marriage and family = = =
Howard met actor Seth Gabel at New York University and the two dated for five years before marrying on June 17 , 2006 . She had only one previous boyfriend and claims to have pursued Gabel vigorously after first meeting him . They had planned to start a family together in their 30s ; however , seven days after their wedding , she learned that she was expecting their first child . Howard gave birth to their child , a son named Theodore , nicknamed Theo , in February 2007 . Theo 's godfather is actor Josh Gad . Howard openly discussed having experienced post @-@ partum depression . Howard had difficulty breast @-@ feeding , which she found to be more painful than experiencing natural child birth and would
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often cry in the shower . She was often disgusted when she saw her son ; rather than refer to him by name , she would call him " it " . Feeling overwhelmed and unable to make decisions , Howard also felt not only disconnected from her husband and baby , but herself as well . With the help of a physician and a therapist she recovered from the depression , which lasted for about 18 months . Howard said of the depression in 2010 @,@
Do I wish I had never endured post @-@ partum depression ? Absolutely . But to deny the experience is to deny who I am . I still mourn the loss of what could have been , but I also feel deep gratitude for those who stood by me , for the lesson that we must never be afraid to ask for help , and for the feeling of summer that still remains .
Howard gave birth to the couple 's second child , daughter Beatrice , in January 2012 .
= = Filmography = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
= Sd.Kfz. 9 =
The Sd.Kfz. 9 ( also known as " Famo " ) was a German half @-@ track that saw widespread use in World War II , and the heaviest half @-@ track vehicle of any type built in quantity in Nazi Germany during the war years . Its main roles were as a prime mover for very heavy towed guns such as the 24 cm Kanone 3 and as a tank recovery vehicle . Approximately 2 @,@ 500 were produced between 1938 and 1945 .
= = Description = =
The Sd.Kfz. 9 had a ladder frame chassis . Power was provided by a Maybach 12 @-@ cylinder , water @-@ cooled , 10 @.@ 838 litres ( 661 @.@ 4 cu in ) HL 108 gasoline engine of 270 horsepower ( 270 PS ) . It had a syncromesh ZF G 65 VL 230 transmission with four forward and one reverse gears . It had two fuel tanks , one of 90 litres ( 24 US gal ) and the other of 230 litres ( 61 US gal ) capacity .
Both tracks and wheels were used for steering . The steering system was set up so that shallow turns used only the wheels , but brakes would be applied to the tracks the further the steering wheel was turned . The drive sprocket , like all German halftracks , had rollers rather than the more common teeth . The rear suspension consisted of six double sets of overlapping , interleaved Schachtellaufwerk layout roadwheels mounted on swing arms sprung by torsion bars . An idler wheel , mounted at the rear of the vehicle , was used to control track tension . The front wheels had leaf springs and shock absorbers .
The upper body had a crew compartment common to all versions . This had bench seats , one for the driver and his assistant , and another for the crew . The rear portion of the upper body was adapted for the vehicle 's intended role . The artillery model had two extra bench seats for the gun 's crew and space for its ammunition . The cargo version had just two storage compartments mounted in the front of the cargo compartment , one on each side , that opened to the outside . The windshield could fold forward and was also removable . A convertible canvas top was mounted at the upper part of the rear body . It fastened to the windshield when erected .
The Sd.Kfz. 9 was designed to have a towing capacity of 28 tonnes ( 28 long tons ; 31 short tons ) . This was adequate for medium tanks like the Panzer IV , but two or even three or four were necessary for heavier vehicles like the Tiger I , Panther or King Tiger . It towed Sd.Anh 116 low @-@ loader trailers to carry disabled vehicles .
All were equipped with a winch , mounted at the middle of the vehicle , just under the cargo platform .
= = Design and development = =
Preliminary design of all the German half @-@ tracks of the early part of the war was done by Dipl.Ing. Ernst Kniepkamp of the Military Automotive Department ( Wa Prüf 6 ) before the Nazis took power in 1933 . His designs were then turned over to commercial firms for development and testing . Fahrzeug- und Motorenbau GmbH ( FAMO ) of Breslau received the contract for the 18 t ( 18 long tons ; 20 short tons ) heavy towing tracked vehicle . Their first prototype , the FM gr 1 , was completed in 1936 . It had a 200 horsepower ( 200 PS ) Maybach HL 98 TUK engine and was only 7 @.@ 7 metres ( 25 ft ) long . The F 2 prototype appeared in 1938 , but differed only in detail from its predecessor .
The F 3 appeared in 1939 and was the production version . The design was simplified over the course of the war to reduce costs and the use of strategic metals . Some vehicles produced by Tatra had its 12 @-@ cylinder , air @-@ cooled Type 103 diesel engine fitted . Large spades were added at the rear of the chassis during the war to improve the vehicle 's ability to recover tanks and other heavy vehicles .
= = = Variants = = =
A new upper body was used for the Sd.Kfz. 9 / 1 which mounted a 6 t ( 5 @.@ 9 long tons ; 6 @.@ 6 short tons ) capacity crane in lieu of the crew 's bench seat and the cargo compartment . It was issued to tank maintenance units beginning in September 1941 . A larger , gasoline @-@ electric , 10 t ( 9 @.@ 8 long tons ; 11 short tons ) crane was fitted on the later Sd.Kfz. 9 / 2 , but this required outriggers to stabilize the vehicle before operations could begin . There was also a tank recovery version with a giant spade @-@ like metal plate connected to the rear of the frame . The spade holding frame could be lifted straight up for transport . It was meant to stabilize the vehicle while winching a heavy object on soft ground .
8 @.@ 8 cm Flak 18 anti @-@ aircraft guns were mounted on fifteen Sd.Kfz. 9s in 1940 as the 8 @.@ 8 cm Flak 18 ( Sfl . ) auf Zugkraftwagen 18t ( Sd.Kfz. 9 ) for anti @-@ tank duties . The crew and engine compartments were lightly ( 14 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 57 in ) ) , but completely , armored , which limited the gun 's ability to fire directly ahead . A platform with drop @-@ down sides was fitted for the gun . Outriggers were necessary to brace the platform sides to support the weight of the gun crew . The vehicle weighed 25 tonnes ( 25 long tons ; 28 short tons ) , was 9 @.@ 32 metres ( 30 @.@ 6 ft ) long , 3 @.@ 67 metres ( 12 @.@ 0 ft ) tall and 2 @.@ 65 metres ( 8 @.@ 7 ft ) wide . One source claims that these vehicles were produced as prototypes in 1943 .
= = Production = =
Vomag of Plauen began producing the Sd.Kfz. 9 in 1940 and Tatra joined in the last years of the war . 855 were on hand on 20 December 1942 . 643 were built in 1943 and 834 in 1944 . Approximately 2 @,@ 500 were built in total .
= New Jersey Route 324 =
Route 324 is an isolated state highway in Logan Township in the U.S. state of New Jersey . The two @-@ lane concrete route runs along the 1 @.@ 51 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 2 @.@ 43 km ) alignment of Old Ferry Road from the shore of the Delaware River to a cul @-@ de @-@ sac near the interchange between U.S. Route 322 and U.S. Route 130 in Logan Township . The route does not intersect with any state routes or county routes along its entire alignment .
Route 324 was a former alignment of U.S. Route 322 that served the Bridgeport @-@ Chester ferry between Bridgeport , New Jersey , and Chester , Pennsylvania . The ferry first ran on July 1 , 1930 , with Route 322 being designated along the ferry and its access road in 1936 from Pennsylvania . The highway and ferry also shared the co @-@ designation of State Highway Route S @-@ 44 , a spur off State Highway Route 44 in Bridgeport . Route S @-@ 44 was decommissioned in the state highway renumbering while Route 322 remained intact until the opening of the Commodore Barry Bridge in February 1974 . The ferry made its last run at 8 p.m. on February 1 , and closed down for good . Route 322 was realigned onto the Commodore Barry Bridge while the former ferry alignment became Route 324 .
= = Route description = =
Route 324 begins at a dead @-@ end along the shoreline of the Delaware River and the wreckage of the old ferry dock in Logan Township . Route 324 heads eastward along Old Ferry Road , a two @-@ lane concrete roadway surrounded by trees and fields . The two @-@ lane concrete highway remains such for a distance , paralleling U.S. Route 322 to the south , passing a business . The route heads to the east , crossing south of a pond and intersecting with Springer Lane and a dirt road in Logan Township .
At Springer Lane , which is a former alignment of Route 44 , the highway comes into the open , crossing under power lines and intersecting with former alignments of roadway , overgrown with grass . A short distance from Springers Lane , the highway continues to the only other intersection along the route , which is for Island Road , a connector to U.S. Route 130 . The highway , however , continues through the desolate portions of Logan Township along a power line . A short distance later , the route passes to the south of the only development along the highway , a boat marina and two homes . Route 324 continues as a two @-@ lane concrete road eastward until reaching a cul @-@ de @-@ sac just short of the U.S. Route 130 / U.S. Route 322 interchange in Logan Township , where the designation ends .
= = History = =
The ferry route that Route 324 serviced first made its crossings of the Delaware River on July 1 , 1930 , from Chester , Pennsylvania , to Bridgeport , New Jersey . The ferry service was run with two boats , Chester , a large boat with a capacity of 60 motor vehicles , and Bridgeport , a smaller boat with a capacity of 48 . The ferry system was seen as an advantage across the Delaware , providing drivers a backup from the few bridges that existed along the river . In 1936 , the Bridgeport – Chester Ferry was granted the alignment for the extension of U.S. Route 322 from Pennsylvania and into New Jersey . Along with the U.S. Route 322 designation , the New Jersey State Highway Department designated the alignment of Route 322 from the ferry to U.S. Route 130 , then designated as State Highway Route 44 , as State Highway Route S @-@ 44 .
Route 322 survived the state highway renumbering because of the fact that it was a U.S. Route . However , the co @-@ designation on the ferry stretch , State Highway Route S @-@ 44 was decommissioned in favor of just one designation . U.S. Route 322 remained on the ferry route for several years , and plans arose during the 1960s to construct a new bridge between the Delaware Memorial and Walt Whitman bridges . Construction began that year , and on February 1 , 1974 , the newly named Commodore Barry Bridge opened for traffic . At 8 p.m. that evening , the Bridgeport – Chester Ferry ran its final 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) boat ride across the Delaware , and the service was closed down for good . The alignment of U.S. Route 322 was moved onto the Commodore Barry Bridge , while the former alignment was redesignated Route 324 . The route has remained virtually intact since then .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Logan Township , Gloucester County .
= Daddy ( Beyoncé song ) =
" Daddy " is a song recorded by American singer Beyoncé for her debut studio album , Dangerously in Love ( 2003 ) . It was composed by Beyoncé as well as Mark Batson . The song was not originally intended to be featured on the final track listing of the album . Beyoncé was able to record the song as the release date of her debut album had been postponed . " Daddy " was released to US iTunes Store as a digital single on June 3 , 2003 , through Columbia Records .
Beyoncé explained that the song 's development was motivated by the devotion and the loyalty her father / manager , Mathew Knowles has towards his family members . Many of the songs on the album examine aspects of relationships . However , " Daddy " was considered to be an element analyzing the kinship ties between a father and his offspring from a different and more powerful perspective . Music critics , who generally received the song with positive reception , commented that the song was a way for Beyoncé to pay tribute to her father .
= = Background and development = =
" Daddy " was written by Beyoncé as well as Mark Batson . It is the final song on Dangerously in Love , and is a hidden track on some copies . Beyoncé initially was not going to include the song on the album , however after undergoing multiple push @-@ backs , she was able to work on extra material for the album which included " Daddy " . Over forty @-@ three songs were recorded for Dangerously in Love , all of which were overseen by father Mathew , however Beyoncé secretly planted the song on the album as a hidden track which left Mathew speechless out of shock and appreciation . He later revealed during an interview with Billboard magazine in 2009 : " My favorite songs is ... ' Daddy ' ... It basically says ' Thank you for all you 've given me and when I marry a man , it will be like my daddy ' " . Preceding the album 's release , the song was released to iTunes Store exclusively in the United States on June 23 , 2003 , through Columbia Records . It is also featured on the soundtrack of Tyler Perry 's Daddy 's Little Girls ( 2007 ) .
Concerning the conception of " Daddy " , Beyoncé told MTV News :
= = Composition = =
" Daddy " is a nearly five @-@ minute long R & B song . The first verse of the song begins with Beyoncé reminiscing about the times she and her father / manager , Mathew Knowles shared as a child and through her adolescence . She sings about wanting to be with a man and a child who has similar qualities as her father . This is illustrated in the lyrics : " I treasure every irreplaceable memory and that 's why I want my unborn son to be like my daddy , I want my husband to be like my daddy , there is no one else like my daddy . " According to Marc Anthony Neal of the PopMatters , Beyoncé also confidently embraces her womanhood in the song . In a way , Beyoncé pays tribute to her father through this song .
= = Critical reception = =
Mark Edward Nero of About.com stated that " Daddy " was probably written specifically for the soundtrack album of Daddy 's Little Girls and that it may even " play a part in a pivotal scene . " Making reference to Beyoncé long @-@ time relationship with Jay @-@ Z and then recent rumors about them possibly getting married , Nero added that the song might leave several numerous fans wondering what could happen next . Marc Anthony Neal of the international webzine PopMatters considered " Daddy " to be the " most affecting song on Dangerously in Love . " He went on writing that the song is an extraordinary tribute to her father Mathew Knowles , stating that Beyoncé " embraces [ ... ] the man that has helped take the kind of artistic leap that Dangerously in Love represents . " He ended up by adding that " By the time listeners get to the fifteenth and final track , they will have been so pleasantly surprised and impressed by Beyoncé 's performance throughout , that ' Daddy ' seems less corny " but it is in this song that she finally accepts the state of being a woman , rather than a girl . Erika Ramirez of Billboard magazine described the song as an ode dedicated to the man that " instilled perseverance " .
Anthony DeCurtis of Rolling Stone commented that the album , which starts with " [ a ] cauldron of energy " on " Crazy in Love " ( 2003 ) , ends by contrast with " Daddy " which he described as a five @-@ minute tribute to her manager @-@ father , and considered to be " an anthology of vocal and lyrical cliches . " MTV News wrote that " Daddy " is different from the other relationship songs on Dangerously in Love , and added that it has a powerful message . By contrast , Allison Stewart of The Washington Post and Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times both called " Daddy " a " creepy bonus track " . Similarly , Spence D. , writing for IGN Music stated that " Daddy " is not really worth uncovering , as it follows suit in terms of being " a by @-@ the @-@ books contempo R & B rendition " , and he commented that " there is something oddly eerie about an attractive woman such as Beyoncé crooning the words ' I want my husband to be like my Daddy . ' " Mike Wass of the website Idolator called the song one of the " duds " on the album and added that it was a " best forgotten ode to the superstar 's father complete with stomach @-@ churning lyrics like ' I want my husband to be like my daddy ' " . In 2014 , Louis Virtel of the website HitFix reviewed the song negatively , calling it the worst on Dangerously in Love and describing its lyrics as " seriously simplistic " . " Daddy " peaked at number 26 on the Billboard Hot RingMasters charts in the United States in 2014 .
= Oil tanker =
An oil tanker , also known as a petroleum tanker , is a merchant ship designed for the bulk transport of oil . There are two basic types of oil tankers : the crude tanker and the product tanker . Crude tankers move large quantities of unrefined crude oil from its point of extraction to refineries . Product tankers , generally much smaller , are designed to move refined products from refineries to points near consuming markets .
Oil tankers are often classified by their size as well as their occupation . The size classes range from inland or coastal tankers of a few thousand metric tons of deadweight ( DWT ) to the mammoth ultra large crude carriers ( ULCCs ) of 550 @,@ 000 DWT . Tankers move approximately 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 2 @.@ 2 × 109 short tons ) of oil every year . Second only to pipelines in terms of efficiency , the average cost of oil transport by tanker amounts to only two or three United States cents per 1 US gallon ( 3 @.@ 8 L ) .
Some specialized types of oil tankers have evolved . One of these is the naval replenishment oiler , a tanker which can fuel a moving vessel . Combination ore @-@ bulk @-@ oil carriers and permanently moored floating storage units are two other variations on the standard oil tanker design . Oil tankers have been involved in a number of damaging and high @-@ profile oil spills . As a result , they are subject to stringent design and operational regulations .
= = History = =
The technology of oil transportation has evolved alongside the oil industry . Although anthropogenic use of oil reaches to prehistory , the first modern commercial exploitation dates back to James Young 's manufacture of paraffin in 1850 . In the early 1850s , oil began to be exported from Upper Burma , then a British colony . The oil was moved in earthenware vessels to the river bank where it was then poured into boat holds for transportation to Britain .
In the 1860s , Pennsylvania oil fields became a major supplier of oil , and a center of innovation after Edwin Drake had struck oil near Titusville , Pennsylvania . Break @-@ bulk boats and barges were originally used to transport Pennsylvania oil in 40 @-@ US @-@ gallon ( 150 l ) wooden barrels . But transport by barrel had several problems . The first problem was weight : the standard empty barrel weighed 64 pounds ( 29 kg ) , representing 20 % of the total weight of a full barrel . Other problems with barrels were their expense , their tendency to leak , and the fact that they were generally used only once . The expense was significant : for example , in the early years of the Russian oil industry , barrels accounted for half the cost of petroleum production .
= = = Early designs = = =
In 1863 , two sail @-@ driven tankers were built on England 's River Tyne . These were followed in 1873 by the first oil @-@ tank steamer , the Vaderland , which was built by Palmers Shipbuilding and Iron Company for Belgian owners . The vessel 's use was curtailed by U.S. and Belgian authorities citing safety concerns . By 1871 , the Pennsylvania oil fields were making limited use of oil tank barges and cylindrical railroad tank @-@ cars similar to those in use today .
= = = Modern oil tankers = = =
The modern oil tanker was developed in the period from 1877 to 1885 . In 1876 , Ludvig and Robert Nobel , brothers of Alfred Nobel , founded Branobel ( short for Brothers Nobel ) in Baku , Azerbaijan . It was , during the late 19th century , one of the largest oil companies in the world .
Ludvig was a pioneer in the development of early oil tankers . He first experimented with carrying oil in bulk on single @-@ hulled barges . Turning his attention to self @-@ propelled tankships , he faced a number of challenges . A primary concern was to keep the cargo and fumes well away from the engine room to avoid fires . Other challenges included allowing for the cargo to expand and contract due to temperature changes , and providing a method to ventilate the tanks .
The first successful oil tanker was the Zoroaster , which carried its 242 long tons of kerosene cargo in two iron tanks joined by pipes . One tank was forward of the midships engine room and the other was aft . The ship also featured a set of 21 vertical watertight compartments for extra buoyancy . The ship had a length overall of 184 feet ( 56 m ) , a beam of 27 feet ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) , and a draft of 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) . Unlike later Nobel tankers , the Zoroaster design was built small enough to sail from Sweden to the Caspian by way of the Baltic Sea , Lake Ladoga , Lake Onega , the Rybinsk and Mariinsk Canals and the Volga River .
In 1883 , oil tanker design took a large step forward . Working for the Nobel company , British engineer Colonel Henry F. Swan designed a set of three Nobel tankers . Instead of one or two large holds , Swan 's design used several holds which spanned the width , or beam , of the ship . These holds were further subdivided into port and starboard sections by a longitudinal bulkhead . Earlier designs suffered from stability problems caused by the free surface effect , where oil sloshing from side to side could cause a ship to capsize . But this approach of dividing the ship 's storage space into smaller tanks virtually eliminated free @-@ surface problems . This approach , almost universal today , was first used by Swan in the Nobel tankers Blesk , Lumen , and Lux .
Others point to the Glückauf , another design of Colonel Swan , as being the first modern oil tanker . It adopted the best practices from previous oil tanker designs to create the prototype for all subsequent vessels of the type . It was the first dedicated steam @-@ driven ocean @-@ going tanker in the world and was the first ship in which oil could be pumped directly into the vessel hull instead of being loaded in barrels or drums . It was also the first tanker with a horizontal bulkhead ; its features included cargo valves operable from the deck , cargo main piping , a vapor line , cofferdams for added safety , and the ability to fill a ballast tank with seawater when empty of cargo . The ship was built in Britain. and was purchased by Wilhelm Anton Riedemann , an agent for the Standard Oil Company along with several of her sister ships . After the Glückauf was lost in 1893 after being grounded in fog , Standard Oil purchased the sister ships .
= = = Asian trade = = =
The 1880s also saw the beginnings of the Asian oil trade . The idea that led to moving Russian oil to the Far East via the Suez Canal was the brainchild of two men : importer Marcus Samuel and shipowner / broker Fred Lane . Prior bids to move oil through the canal had been rejected by the Suez Canal Company as being too risky . Samuel approached the problem a different way : asking the company for the specifications of a tanker it would allow through the canal .
Armed with the canal company 's specifications , Samuel ordered three tankers from William Gray & Company in northern England . Named the Murex , the Conch and the Clam , each had a capacity of 5 @,@ 010 long tons of deadweight . These three ships were the first tankers of the Tank Syndicate , forerunner of today 's Royal Dutch Shell company .
With facilities prepared in Jakarta , Singapore , Bangkok , Saigon , Hong Kong , Shanghai , and Kobe , the fledgling Shell company was ready to become Standard Oil 's first challenger in the Asian market . On August 24 , 1892 , the Murex became the first tanker to pass through the Suez Canal . By the time Shell merged with Royal Dutch Petroleum in 1907 , the company had 34 steam @-@ driven oil tankers , compared to Standard Oil 's four case @-@ oil steamers and 16 sailing tankers .
= = = The supertanker era = = =
Until 1956 , tankers were designed to be able to navigate the Suez Canal . This size restriction became much less of a priority after the closing of the canal during the Suez Crisis of 1956 . Forced to move oil around the Cape of Good Hope , shipowners realized that bigger tankers were the key to more efficient transport . While a typical T2 tanker of the World War II era was 532 feet ( 162 m ) long and had a capacity of 16 @,@ 500 DWT , the ultra @-@ large crude carriers ( ULCC ) built in the 1970s were over 1 @,@ 300 feet ( 400 m ) long and had a capacity of 500 @,@ 000 DWT . Several factors encouraged this growth . Hostilities in the Middle East which interrupted traffic through the Suez Canal contributed , as did nationalization of Middle East oil refineries . Fierce competition among shipowners also played a part . But apart from these considerations is a simple economic advantage : the larger an oil tanker is , the more cheaply it can move crude oil , and the better it can help meet growing demands for oil .
In 1955 the world 's largest supertanker was 30 @,@ 708 GRT and 47 @,@ 500 LT DWT : the SS Spyros Niarchos launched that year by Vickers Armstrongs Shipbuilders Ltd in England for Stavros Niarchos .
In 1958 United States shipping magnate Daniel K. Ludwig broke the record of 100 @,@ 000 long tons of heavy displacement . His Universe Apollo displaced 104 @,@ 500 long tons , a 23 % increase from the previous record @-@ holder , Universe Leader which also belonged to Ludwig .
The world 's largest supertanker was built in 1979 at the Oppama shipyard by Sumitomo Heavy Industries , Ltd. as the Seawise Giant . This ship was built with a capacity of 564 @,@ 763 DWT , a length overall of 458 @.@ 45 metres ( 1 @,@ 504 @.@ 1 ft ) and a draft of 24 @.@ 611 metres ( 80 @.@ 74 ft ) . She had 46 tanks , 31 @,@ 541 square metres ( 339 @,@ 500 sq ft ) of deck , and at her full load draft , could not navigate the English Channel .
Seawise Giant was renamed Happy Giant in 1989 , Jahre Viking in 1991 , and Knock Nevis in 2004 ( when she was converted into a permanently moored storage tanker ) . In 2009 she was sold for the last time , renamed Mont , and scrapped .
As of 2011 , the world 's two largest working supertankers are the TI class supertankers TI Europe and TI Oceania . These ships were built in 2002 and 2003 as the Hellespont Alhambra and Hellespont Tara for the Greek Hellespont Steamship Corporation . Hellespont sold these ships to Overseas Shipholding Group and Euronav in 2004 . Each of the sister ships has a capacity of over 441 @,@ 500 DWT , a length overall of 380 @.@ 0 metres ( 1 @,@ 246 @.@ 7 ft ) and a cargo capacity of 3 @,@ 166 @,@ 353 barrels ( 503 @,@ 409 @,@ 900 l ) . They were the first ULCCs to be double @-@ hulled . To differentiate them from smaller ULCCs , these ships are sometimes given the V @-@ Plus size designation .
With the exception of the pipeline , the tanker is the most cost @-@ effective way to move oil today . Worldwide , tankers carry some 2 billion barrels ( 3 @.@ 2 × 1011 l ) annually , and the cost of transportation by tanker amounts to only US $ 0 @.@ 02 per gallon at the pump .
= = Size categories = =
In 1954 Shell Oil developed the average freight rate assessment ( AFRA ) system which classifies tankers of different sizes . To make it an independent instrument , Shell consulted the London Tanker Brokers ’ Panel ( LTBP ) . At first , they divided the groups as General Purpose for tankers under 25 @,@ 000 tons deadweight ( DWT ) ; Medium Range for ships between 25 @,@ 000 and 45 @,@ 000 DWT and Large Range for the then @-@ enormous ships that were larger than 45 @,@ 000 DWT . The ships became larger during the 1970s , which prompted rescaling .
The system was developed for tax reasons as the tax authorities wanted evidence that the internal billing records were correct . Before the New York Mercantile Exchange started trading crude oil futures in 1983 , it was difficult to determine the exact price of oil , which could change with every contract . Shell and BP , the first companies to use the system , abandoned the AFRA system in 1983 , later followed by the US oil companies . However , the system is still used today . Besides that , there is the flexible market scale , which takes typical routes and lots of 500 @,@ 000 barrels ( 79 @,@ 000 m3 ) .
Merchant oil tankers carry a wide range of hydrocarbon liquids ranging from crude oil to refined petroleum products . Their size is measured in deadweight metric tons ( DWT ) . Crude carriers are among the largest , ranging from 55 @,@ 000 DWT Panamax @-@ sized vessels to ultra @-@ large crude carriers ( ULCCs ) of over 440 @,@ 000 DWT .
Smaller tankers , ranging from well under 10 @,@ 000 DWT to 80 @,@ 000 DWT Panamax vessels , generally carry refined petroleum products , and are known as product tankers . The smallest tankers , with capacities under 10 @,@ 000 DWT generally work near @-@ coastal and inland waterways . Although they were in the past , ships of the smaller Aframax and Suezmax classes are no longer regarded as supertankers .
= = = Supertankers ( VLCC and ULCC ) = = =
" Supertankers " are the largest tankers , including very large crude carriers ( VLCC ) and ULCCs with capacities over 250 @,@ 000 DWT . These ships can transport 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 barrels ( 320 @,@ 000 m3 ) of oil / 318 @,@ 000 metric tons . By way of comparison , the United Kingdom consumed about 1 @.@ 6 million barrels ( 250 @,@ 000 m3 ) of oil per day in 2009 . ULCCs , commissioned in the 1970s , were the largest vessels ever built , but the longest ones have already been scrapped . By 2013 only a few ULCCs remain in service , none of which are more than 400 meters long .
Because of their great size , supertankers often cannot enter port fully loaded . These ships can take on their cargo at off @-@ shore platforms and single @-@ point moorings . On the other end of the journey , they often pump their cargo off to smaller tankers at designated lightering points off @-@ coast . A supertanker 's routes are generally long , requiring it to stay at sea for extended periods , up to and beyond seventy days at a time .
= = Chartering = =
The act of hiring a ship to carry cargo is called chartering . Tankers are hired by four types of charter agreements : the voyage charter , the time charter , the bareboat charter , and contract of affreightment . In a voyage charter the charterer rents the vessel from the loading port to the discharge port . In a time charter the vessel is hired for a set period of time , to perform voyages as the charterer directs . In a bareboat charter the charterer acts as the ship 's operator and manager , taking on responsibilities such as providing the crew and maintaining the vessel . Finally , in a contract of affreightment or COA , the charterer specifies a total volume of cargo to be carried in a specific time period and in specific sizes , for example a COA could be specified as 1 million barrels ( 160 @,@ 000 m3 ) of JP @-@ 5 in a year 's time in 25 @,@ 000 @-@ barrel ( 4 @,@ 000 m3 ) shipments . A completed chartering contract is known as a charter party .
One of the key aspects of any charter party is the freight rate , or the price specified for carriage of cargo . The freight rate of a tanker charter party is specified in one of four ways : by a lump sum rate , by rate per ton , by a time charter equivalent rate , or by Worldscale rate . In a lump sum rate arrangement , a fixed price is negotiated for the delivery of a specified cargo , and the ship 's owner / operator is responsible to pay for all port costs and other voyage expenses . Rate per ton arrangements are used mostly in chemical tanker chartering , and differ from lump sum rates in that port costs and voyage expenses are generally paid by the charterer . Time charter arrangements specify a daily rate , and port costs and voyage expenses are also generally paid by the charterer .
The Worldwide Tanker Normal Freight Scale , often referred to as Worldscale , is established and governed jointly by the Worldscale Associations of London and New York . Worldscale establishes a baseline price for carrying a metric ton of product between any two ports in the world . In Worldscale negotiations , operators and charterers will determine a price based on a percentage of the Worldscale rate . The baseline rate is expressed as WS 100 . If a given charter party settled on 85 % of the Worldscale rate , it would be expressed as WS 85 . Similarly , a charter party set at 125 % of the Worldscale rate would be expressed as WS 125 .
= = = Recent markets = = =
As of 2007 , the chartering market is persistently volatile across all tanker sectors . The market is affected by a wide variety of variables such as the supply and demand of oil as well as the supply and demand of oil tankers . Some particular variables include winter temperatures , excess tanker tonnage , supply fluctuations in the Persian Gulf , and interruptions in refinery services .
In 2006 , the sustained rise in oil prices had only a limited impact on demand . It was a good year across all segments of the tanker market segments , but not as good as 2004 and 2005 . Amidst high oil prices , geopolitical tension , and fears of disruptions to the oil supply , growing demand was the main driving force in the tanker shipping market for the year . As demand grew moderately in the United States and Western Europe , expanding economies such as China fueled exponential growth in demand . Despite these strengths , each of the five tanker freight indices dropped during 2006 . Product tanker demand increased in 2006 due to economic expansion in Asia , especially China and India , however , average time charter equivalent earnings for these ships decreased compared with the two prior years .
In 2006 , time @-@ charters tended towards long term . Of the time charters executed in that year , 58 % were for a period of 24 or more months , 14 % were for periods of 12 to 24 months , 4 % were from 6 to 12 months , and 24 % were for periods of less than 6 months . The average one @-@ year time charter rate for a 5 @-@ year @-@ old tanker of 280 @,@ 000 metric tons of deadweight varied from $ 56 @,@ 500 per day in December 2005 to $ 53 @,@ 000 per day in September 2007 with a high of $ 64 @,@ 500 per day in September 2006 .
The first half of 2007 was relatively strong , but in the second half rates dropped significantly . A sudden rise in oil production , longer transport routes , and slow steaming because of high bunker prices led to a shortage in tonnage towards the end of the year . Overnight , VLCC rates climbed from $ 20 @,@ 000 per day to $ 200 – $ 300 @,@ 000 per day , and even higher numbers were recorded .
From 2003 , the demand for new ships started to grow , resulting in 2007 in a record breaking order backlog for shipyards , exceeding their capacity with rising newbuilding prices as a result . This resulted in a glut of ships when demand dropped due to a weakened global economy and dramatically reduced demand in the United States . The charter rate for very large crude carriers , which carry two million barrels of oil , had peaked at $ 309 @,@ 601 per day in 2007 , and has dropped , as of 2012 , to $ 7 @,@ 085 per day , far below the operating costs of these ships . As a result , several tanker operators laid up their ships .
Owners of large oil tanker fleets include Teekay Corporation , A P Moller Maersk , DS Torm , Frontline , MOL Tankship Management , Overseas Shipholding Group , and Euronav .
= = Fleet characteristics = =
In 2005 , oil tankers made up 36 @.@ 9 % of the world 's fleet in terms of deadweight tonnage . The world 's total oil tankers deadweight tonnage has increased from 326 @.@ 1 million DWT in 1970 to 960 @.@ 0 million DWT in 2005 . The combined deadweight tonnage of oil tankers and bulk carriers , represents 72 @.@ 9 % of the world 's fleet .
= = = Cargo movement = = =
In 2005 , 2 @.@ 42 billion metric tons of oil were shipped by tanker . In 2006 , 76 @.@ 7 % of this was crude oil , and the rest consisted of refined petroleum products . This amounted to 34 @.@ 1 % of all seaborne trade for the year . Combining the amount carried with the distance it was carried , oil tankers moved 11 @,@ 705 billion metric @-@ ton @-@ miles of oil in 2005 .
By comparison , in 1970 1 @.@ 44 billion metric tons of oil were shipped by tanker . This amounted to 34 @.@ 1 % of all seaborne trade for that year . In terms of amount carried and distance carried , oil tankers moved 6 @,@ 487 billion metric @-@ ton @-@ miles of oil in 1970 .
The United Nations also keeps statistics about oil tanker productivity , stated in terms of metric tons carried per metric ton of deadweight as well as metric @-@ ton @-@ miles of carriage per metric ton of deadweight . 2006 In 2005 , for each 1 DWT of oil tankers , 6 @.@ 7 metric tons of cargo was carried . Similarly , each 1 DWT of oil tankers was responsible for 32 @,@ 400 metric @-@ ton miles of carriage .
The main loading ports in 2005 were located in Western Asia , Western Africa , North Africa , and the Caribbean , with 196 @.@ 3 , 196 @.@ 3 , 130 @.@ 2 and 246 @.@ 6 million metric tons of cargo loaded in these regions . The main discharge ports were located in North America , Europe , and Japan with 537 @.@ 7 , 438 @.@ 4 , and 215 @.@ 0 million metric tons of cargo discharged in these regions .
= = = Flag states = = =
International law requires that every merchant ship be registered in a country , called its flag state . A ship 's flag state exercises regulatory control over the vessel and is required to inspect it regularly , certify the ship 's equipment and crew , and issue safety and pollution prevention documents . As of 2007 , the United States Central Intelligence Agency statistics count 4 @,@ 295 oil tankers of 1 @,@ 000 long tons deadweight ( DWT ) or greater worldwide . Panama was the world 's largest flag state for oil tankers , with 528 of the vessels in its registry . Six other flag states had more than 200 registered oil tankers : Liberia ( 464 ) , Singapore ( 355 ) , China ( 252 ) , Russia ( 250 ) , the Marshall Islands ( 234 ) and the Bahamas ( 209 ) . The Panamanian , Liberian , Marshallese and Bahamian flags are open registries and considered by the International Transport Workers ' Federation to be flags of convenience . By comparison , the United States and the United Kingdom only had 59 and 27 registered oil tankers , respectively .
= = = Vessel life cycle = = =
In 2005 , the average age of oil tankers worldwide was 10 years . Of these , 31 @.@ 6 % were under 4 years old and 14 @.@ 3 % were over 20 years old . In 2005 , 475 new oil tankers were built , accounting for 30 @.@ 7 million DWT . The average size for these new tankers was 64 @,@ 632 DWT . Nineteen of these were VLCC size , 19 were suezmax , 51 were aframax , and the rest were smaller designs . By comparison , 8 @.@ 0 million DWT , 8 @.@ 7 million DWT , and 20 @.@ 8 million DWT worth of oil tanker capacity was built in 1980 , 1990 , and 2000 respectively .
Ships are generally removed from the fleet through a process known as scrapping . Ship @-@ owners and buyers negotiate scrap prices based on factors such as the ship 's empty weight ( called light ton displacement or LDT ) and prices in the scrap metal market . In 1998 almost 700 ships went through the scrapping process at shipbreakers in places like Alang , India and Chittagong , Bangladesh . In 2004 and 2005 , 7 @.@ 8 million DWT and 5 @.@ 7 million DWT respectively of oil tankers were scrapped . Between 2000 and 2005 , the capacity of oil tankers scrapped each year has ranged between 5 @.@ 6 million DWT and 18 @.@ 4 million DWT . In this same timeframe , tankers have accounted for between 56 @.@ 5 % and 90 @.@ 5 % of the world 's total scrapped ship tonnage . In this period the average age of scrapped oil tankers has ranged from 26 @.@ 9 to 31 @.@ 5 years .
= = = Vessel pricing = = =
In 2005 , the price for new oil tankers in the 32 @,@ 000 – 45 @,@ 000 DWT , 80 @,@ 000 – 105 @,@ 000 DWT , and 250 @,@ 000 – 280 @,@ 000 DWT ranges were US $ 43 million , $ 58 million , and $ 120 million respectively . In 1985 these vessels would have cost $ 18 million , $ 22 million , and $ 47 million respectively .
Oil tankers are often sold second @-@ hand . In 2005 , 27 @.@ 3 million DWT worth of oil tankers were sold used . Some representative prices for that year include $ 42.5M for a 40 @,@ 000 DWT tanker , $ 60 @.@ 7 million for a 80 @,@ 000 – 95 @,@ 000 DWT , $ 73 million for a 130 @,@ 000 – 150 @,@ 000 DWT , and $ 116 million for 250 @,@ 000 – 280 @,@ 000 DWT tanker . For a concrete example , in 2006 , Bonheur subsidiary First Olsen paid US $ 76 @.@ 5 million for Knock Sheen , a 159 @,@ 899 DWT tanker .
The cost of operating the largest tankers , the Very Large Crude Carriers , is currently between $ 10 @,@ 000 and $ 12 @,@ 000 per day .
= = Current structural design = =
Oil tankers generally have from 8 to 12 tanks . Each tank is split into two or three independent compartments by fore @-@ and @-@ aft bulkheads . The tanks are numbered with tank one being the forwardmost . Individual compartments are referred to by the tank number and the athwartships position , such as " one port " , " three starboard " , or " six center . "
A cofferdam is a small little space left open between two bulkheads , to give protection from heat , fire , or collision . Tankers generally have cofferdams forward and aft of the cargo tanks , and sometimes between individual tanks . A pumpable room houses all the pumps connected to a tanker 's cargo lines . Some larger tankers have two pumprooms . A pumproom generally spans the total breadth of the ship .
= = = Hull designs = = =
A major component of tanker architecture is the design of the hull or outer structure . A tanker with a single outer shell between the product and the ocean is said to be " single @-@ hulled " . Most newer tankers are " double hulled " , with an extra space between the hull and the storage tanks . Hybrid designs such as " double @-@ bottom " and " double @-@ sided " combine aspects of single and double @-@ hull designs . All single @-@ hulled tankers around the world will be phased out by 2026 , in accordance with the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships , 1973 ( MARPOL ) . The United Nations has decided to phase out single hull oil tankers by 2010 .
In 1998 , the Marine Racecar Board of the National Academy of Science conducted a survey of industry experts regarding the pros and cons of double @-@ hull design . Some of the advantages of the double @-@ hull design that were mentioned include ease of ballasting in emergency situations , reduced practice of saltwater ballasting in cargo tanks decreases corrosion , increased environmental protection , cargo discharge is quicker , more complete and easier , tank washing is more efficient , and better protection in low @-@ impact collisions and grounding .
The same report lists the following as some drawbacks to the double @-@ hull design , including higher build costs , greater operating expenses ( e.g. higher canal and port tariffs ) , difficulties in ballast tank ventilation , the fact that ballast tanks need continuous monitoring and maintenance , increased transverse free surface , the greater number of surfaces to maintain , the risk of explosions in double @-@ hull spaces if a vapor detection system not fitted , and that cleaning ballast tanks is more difficult for double hull ships .
In all , double @-@ hull tankers are said to be safer than a single @-@ hull in a grounding incident , especially when the shore is not very rocky . The safety benefits are less clear on larger vessels and in cases of high speed impact .
Although double @-@ hull design is superior in low energy casualties and prevents spillage in small casualties , in high energy casualties where both hulls are breached , oil can spill through the double @-@ hull and into the sea and spills from a double @-@ hull tanker can be significantly higher than designs like the mid @-@ deck tanker , the Coulombi egg tanker and even a pre @-@ MARPOL tanker , as the last one has a lower oil column and reaches hydrostatic balance sooner .
= = = Inert gas system = = =
An oil tanker 's inert gas system is one of the most important parts of its design . Fuel oil itself is very difficult to ignite , but its hydrocarbon vapors are explosive when mixed with air in certain concentrations . The purpose of the system is to create an atmosphere inside tanks in which the hydrocarbon oil vapors cannot burn .
As inert gas is introduced into a mixture of hydrocarbon vapors and air , it increases the lower flammable limit or lowest concentration at which the vapors can be ignited . At the same time it decreases the upper flammable limit or highest concentration at which the vapors can be ignited . When the total concentration of oxygen in the tank reaches about 11 % , the upper and lower flammable limits converge and the flammable range disappears .
Inert gas systems deliver air with an oxygen concentration of less than 5 % by volume . As a tank is pumped out , it is filled with inert gas and kept in this safe state until the next cargo is loaded . The exception is in cases when the tank must be entered . Safely gas @-@ freeing a tank is accomplished by purging hydrocarbon vapors with inert gas until the hydrocarbon concentration inside the tank is under about 1 % . Thus , as air replaces the inert gas , the concentration cannot rise to the lower flammable limit and is safe .
= = Cargo operations = =
Operations aboard oil tankers are governed by an established body of best practices and a large body of international law . Cargo can be moved on or off of an oil tanker in several ways . One method is for the ship to moor alongside a pier , connect with cargo hoses or marine loading arms . Another method involves mooring to offshore buoys , such as a single point mooring , and making a cargo connection via underwater cargo hoses . A third method is by ship @-@ to @-@ ship transfer , also known as lightering . In this method , two ships come alongside in open sea and oil is transferred manifold to manifold via flexible hoses . Lightering is sometimes used where a loaded tanker is too large to enter a specific port .
= = = Pre @-@ transfer preparation = = =
Prior to any transfer of cargo , the chief officer must develop a transfer plan detailing specifics of the operation such as how much cargo will be moved , which tanks will be cleaned , and how the ship 's ballasting will change . The next step before a transfer is the pretransfer conference . The pretransfer conference covers issues such as what products will be moved , the order of movement , names and titles of key people , particulars of shipboard and shore equipment , critical states of the transfer , regulations in effect , emergency and spill @-@ containment procedures , watch and shift arrangements , and shutdown procedures .
After the conference is complete , the person in charge on the ship and the person in charge of the shore installation go over a final inspection checklist . In the United States , the checklist is called a Declaration of Inspection or DOI . Outside the U.S. , the document is called the " Ship / Shore Safety Checklist . " Items on the checklist include proper signals and signs are displayed , secure mooring of the vessel , choice of language for communication , securing of all connections , that emergency equipment is in place , and that no repair work is taking place .
= = = Loading cargo = = =
Loading an oil tanker consists primarily of pumping cargo into the ship 's tanks . As oil enters the tank , the vapors inside the tank must be somehow expelled . Depending on local regulations , the vapors can be expelled into the atmosphere or discharged back to the pumping station by way of a vapor recovery line . It is also common for the ship to move water ballast during the loading of cargo to maintain proper trim .
Loading starts slowly at a low pressure to ensure that equipment is working correctly and that connections are secure . Then a steady pressure is achieved and held until the " topping @-@ off " phase when the tanks are nearly full . Topping off is a very dangerous time in handling oil , and the procedure is handled particularly carefully . Tank @-@ gauging equipment is used to tell the person in charge how much space is left in the tank , and all tankers have at least two independent methods for tank @-@ gauging . As the tanker becomes full , crew members open and close valves to direct the flow of product and maintain close communication with the pumping facility to decrease and finally stop the flow of liquid .
= = = Unloading cargo = = =
The process of moving oil off of a tanker is similar to loading , but has some key differences . The first step in the operation is following the same pretransfer procedures as used in loading . When the transfer begins , it is the ship 's cargo pumps that are used to move the product ashore . As in loading , the transfer starts at low pressure to ensure that equipment is working correctly and that connections are secure . Then a steady pressure is achieved and held during the operation . While pumping , tank levels are carefully watched and key locations , such as the connection at the cargo manifold and the ship 's pumproom are constantly monitored . Under the direction of the person in charge , crew members open and close valves to direct the flow of product and maintain close communication with the receiving facility to decrease and finally stop the flow of liquid .
= = = Tank cleaning = = =
Tanks must be cleaned from time to time for various reasons . One reason is to change the type of product carried inside a tank . Also , when tanks are to be inspected or maintenance must be performed within a tank , it must be not only cleaned , but made gas @-@ free .
On most crude @-@ oil tankers , a special crude oil washing ( COW ) system is part of the cleaning process . The COW system circulates part of the cargo through the fixed tank @-@ cleaning system to remove wax and asphaltic deposits . Tanks that carry less viscous cargoes are washed with water . Fixed and portable automated tank cleaning machines , which clean tanks with high @-@ pressure water jets , are widely used . Some systems use rotating high @-@ pressure water jets to spray hot water on all the internal surfaces of the tank . As the spraying takes place , the liquid is pumped out of the tank .
After a tank is cleaned , provided that it is going to be prepared for entry , it will be purged . Purging is accomplished by pumping inert gas into the tank until hydrocarbons have been sufficiently expelled . Next the tank is gas freed which is usually accomplished by blowing fresh air into the space with portable air powered or water powered air blowers . " Gas freeing " brings the oxygen content of the tank up to 20 @.@ 8 % O2 . The inert gas buffer between fuel and oxygen atmospheres ensures they are never capable of ignition . Specially trained personnel monitor the tank 's atmosphere , often using hand @-@ held gas indicators which measure the percentage of hydrocarbons present . After a tank is gas @-@ free , it may be further hand @-@ cleaned in a manual process known as mucking . Mucking requires protocols for entry into confined spaces , protective clothing , designated safety observers , and possibly the use of airline respirators .
= = Special @-@ use oil tankers = =
Some sub @-@ types of oil tankers have evolved to meet specific military and economic needs . These sub @-@ types include naval replenishment ships , oil @-@ bulk @-@ ore combination carriers , floating storage and offloading units ( FSOs ) and floating production storage and offloading units ( FPSOs ) .
= = = Replenishment ships = = =
Replenishment ships , known as oilers in the United States and fleet tankers in Commonwealth countries , are ships that can provide oil products to naval vessels while on the move . This process , called underway replenishment , extends the length of time a naval vessel can stay at sea , as well as her effective range . Prior to underway replenishment , naval vessels had to enter a port or anchor to take on fuel . In addition to fuel , replenishment ships may also deliver water , ammunition , rations , stores and personnel .
= = = Ore @-@ bulk @-@ oil carriers = = =
An ore @-@ bulk @-@ oil carrier , also known as combination carrier or OBO , is a ship designed to be capable of carrying wet or dry bulk cargoes . This design was intended to provide flexibility in two ways . Firstly , an OBO would be able to switch between the dry and wet bulk trades based on market conditions . Secondly , an OBO could carry oil on one leg of a voyage and return carrying dry bulk , reducing the number of unprofitable ballast voyages it would have to make .
In practice , the flexibility which the OBO design allows has gone largely unused , as these ships tend to specialize in either the liquid or dry bulk trade . Also , these ships have endemic maintenance problems . On one hand , due to a less specialized design , an OBO suffers more from wear and tear during dry cargo onload than a bulker . On the other hand , components of the liquid cargo system , from pumps to valves to piping , tend to develop problems when subjected to periods of disuse . These factors have contributed to a steady reduction in the number of OBO ships worldwide since the 1970s .
One of the more famous OBOs was the MV Derbyshire of 180 @,@ 000 DWT which in September 1980 became the largest British ship ever lost at sea . It sank in a Pacific typhoon while carrying a cargo of iron ore from Canada to Japan .
= = = Floating storage units = = =
Floating storage and offloading units ( FSO ) are used worldwide by the offshore oil industry to receive oil from nearby platforms and store it until it can be offloaded onto oil tankers . A similar system , the floating production storage and offloading unit ( FPSO ) , has the ability to process the product while it is on board . These floating units reduce oil production costs and offer mobility , large storage capacity , and production versatility .
FPSO and FSOs are often created out of old , stripped @-@ down oil tankers , but can be made from new @-@ built hulls Shell España first used a tanker as an FPSO in August 1977 . An example of a FSO that used to be an oil tanker is the Knock Nevis . These units are usually moored to the seabed through a spread mooring system . A turret @-@ style mooring system can be used in areas prone to severe weather . This turret system lets the unit rotate to minimize the effects of sea @-@ swell and wind .
= = Pollution = =
Oil spills have devastating effects on the environment . Crude oil contains polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons ( PAHs ) which are very difficult to clean up , and last for years in the sediment and marine environment . Marine species constantly exposed to PAHs can exhibit developmental problems , susceptibility to disease , and abnormal reproductive cycles .
By the sheer amount of oil carried , modern oil tankers must be considered a threat to the environment . As discussed above , a VLCC tanker can carry 2 million barrels ( 320 @,@ 000 m3 ) of crude oil . This is about eight times the amount spilled in the widely known Exxon Valdez incident . In this spill , the ship ran aground and dumped 10 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 41 @,@ 000 m3 ) of oil into the ocean in March 1989 . Despite efforts of scientists , managers , and volunteers over 400 @,@ 000 seabirds , about 1 @,@ 000 sea otters , and immense numbers of fish were killed . Considering the volume of oil carried by sea , however , tanker owners ' organisations often argue that the industry 's safety record is excellent , with only a tiny fraction of a percentage of oil cargoes carried ever being spilled . The International Association of Independent Tanker Owners has observed that " accidental oil spills this decade have been at record low levels — one third of the previous decade and one tenth of the 1970s — at a time when oil transported has more than doubled since the mid 1980s . "
Oil tankers are only one source of oil spills . According to the United States Coast Guard , 35 @.@ 7 % of the volume of oil spilled in the United States from 1991 to 2004 came from tank vessels ( ships / barges ) , 27 @.@ 6 % from facilities and other non @-@ vessels , 19 @.@ 9 % from non @-@ tank vessels , and 9 @.@ 3 % from pipelines ; 7 @.@ 4 % from mystery spills . On the other hand , only 5 % of the actual spills came from oil tankers , while 51 @.@ 8 % came from other kinds of vessels . The detailed statistics for 2004 shown in the table below show tank vessels responsible for somewhat less than 5 % of the number of total spills but more than 60 % of the volume . In summary , spills are much more rare but much more serious on tank vessels than on non @-@ tank vessels .
The International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation has tracked 9 @,@ 351 accidental spills that have occurred since 1974 . According to this study , most spills result from routine operations such as loading cargo , discharging cargo , and taking on fuel oil . 91 % of the operational oil spills are small , resulting in less than 7 metric tons per spill . On the other hand , spills resulting from accidents like collisions , groundings , hull failures , and explosions are much larger , with 84 % of these involving losses of over 700 metric tons .
Following the Exxon Valdez spill , the United States passed the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 ( OPA @-@ 90 ) , which excluded single @-@ hull tank vessels of 5 @,@ 000 gross tons or more from US waters from 2010 onward , apart from those with a double bottom or double sides , which may be permitted to trade to the United States through 2015 , depending on their age . Following the sinkings of the Erika ( 1999 ) and Prestige ( 2002 ) , the European Union passed its own stringent anti @-@ pollution packages ( known as Erika I , II , and III ) , which also require all tankers entering its waters to be double @-@ hulled by 2010 . The Erika packages are controversial because they introduced the new legal concept of " serious negligence " .
= = = Air pollution = = =
Air pollution from normal tanker engines operation and from cargo fires is another serious concern . Large ships are often run on low quality fuel oils , such as bunker oil which are highly polluting and have been shown to be a health risk . Ship fires may not only result in the loss of the ship due to lack of specialized firefighting gear and techniques but the fires sometimes burn for days and require evacuations of nearby residents due to the dangerous smoke .
= National Museum of Beirut =
The National Museum of Beirut ( Arabic : متحف بيروت الوطنيّ ) is the principal museum of archaeology in Lebanon . The collection was begun after World War I , and the museum was officially opened in 1942 . The museum has collections totaling about 100 @,@ 000 objects , most of which are antiquities and medieval finds from excavations undertaken by the Directorate General of Antiquities . About 1300 artifacts are exhibited , ranging in date from prehistoric times to the medieval Mamluk period .
During the 1975 Lebanese Civil War , the museum stood on the front line that separated the warring factions . The museum 's Egyptian Revival building and its collection suffered extensive damage in the war , but most of the artifacts were saved by last @-@ minute preemptive measures .
Today , after a major renovation , the National Museum of Beirut has regained its former position , especially as a leading collector for ancient Phoenician objects .
= = History = =
= = = Origin = = =
In 1919 , a small group of ancient artifacts collected by Raymond Weill , a French officer stationed in Lebanon , was exhibited at a provisional museum in the Kaiserswerth Deaconesses ' building in Georges Picot Street , Beirut . Meanwhile , a forerunner of the Archaeological and Fine Arts Service began to assemble items from the region round Beirut . The initial collection was rapidly expanded under successive antiquity directors with the addition of finds from the excavations led by Dr. Georges Contenau at Saida and Ernest Renan at Saida , Tyre and Byblos . Donations of private collections included those of Henry Seyrig ’ s coin collection , General Weygand in 1925 and Dr George Ford , the Director of the American Mission School of Sidon , in 1930 .
= = = Foundation = = =
In 1923 , the " Friends of the Museum Committee " , headed by Bechara El Khoury , then Prime Minister and minister of education and fine arts , was created to raise funds to build a national museum . The founding committee included : Alfred Sursok , Marios Hanimoglo , Albert Bassoul , Omar Daouk , Kamil Eddeh , Ali Jumblat , Henry Pharaoun , George Faissy , Assad Younes , Hassan Makhzoumi , Joseph Farahi , George Korom , Jean Debs , Wafik Beydoun and Jack Tabet . The committee accepted the plans presented by architects Antoine Nahas and Pierre Leprince @-@ Ringuet . Construction began in 1930 on a plot of land donated by the municipality near the Beirut Hippodrome , and was completed in 1937 . The opening of the museum was scheduled for 1938 , but was postponed because of the political situation in the lead @-@ up to World War II . The National Museum of Beirut was finally opened on May 27 , 1942 by President Alfred Naqqache . Until 1928 , the conservation of the Lebanese National Museum was put in the hands of Charles Virolleaud , the director of the service of antiquities and Philippe de Tarazzi , the Lebanese conservator of the National Library . The collection continued to grow under the direction of Mir Maurice Chehab , head curator for 33 years , until the start of the Lebanese Civil War in 1975 .
= = = Closing and devastation = = =
In 1975 , with the outbreak of the Lebanese war , Beirut was split into two opposing areas . The national museum and the directorate general of antiquities were on the demarcation line known as “ Museum alley ” which separated the warring militias and armies . Conditions in the immediate vicinity of the museum rapidly worsened , as the museum endured shelling and bombing , and was turned into a barracks for combatants . " Museum alley " became a checkpoint controlled by various Lebanese militias , or the Syrian or Israeli armies , who opened and closed the road under short @-@ lived truces . The authorities decided to close the museum . The first protective measures inside the museum were initiated by Mir Maurice Chehab and his wife during alternating fire @-@ fights and moments of truce . The vulnerable small artifacts were removed from their showcases and hidden in storerooms in the basement , which was then walled up , banning any access to the lower floors . On the ground floor , mosaics which had been installed in the floor were covered with a layer of concrete . Statues and sarcophagi were protected by sandbags . When the situation reached its worst in 1982 , the heavier artifacts were encased in wood and concrete .
When the final cease @-@ fire was declared in 1991 , the museum and the Directorate General of Antiquities were in a state of near @-@ destruction . The museum was flooded with rainwater and the outer facade was badly marked by bullets and craters from shells . Militiamen who occupied the premises had covered the internal walls with graffiti . The state of the museum collection was also very serious : the small objects had been left in the storerooms for more than fifteen years in a totally inappropriate environment . The national museum had been built on a high water table , which caused a dangerous increase in humidity , and collection of water inside the storerooms . The large stone artifacts has been left in their emergency casings without any ventilation and traces of corrosion from salts were visible on the lower edges of the stone monuments . The wing adjacent to the Directorate General of Antiquities was devastated by shells which started a fire , destroying documents such as maps , photographs , and records , as well as 45 boxes containing archaeological objects . All of the laboratory equipment was lost . During the war
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, some items were looted and are now exhibited in Turkish museums , whilst others have been auctioned . Ironically , these had been stolen from external stores , mainly in Byblos and Sidon , in which they were kept to avoid damage and looting .
= = = Reopening and renovation = = =
The first plans to restore the national museum came in 1992 from Michel Edde , then Minister of Culture and Higher Education . The proposal to tear down the concrete walls and cases which protected the national treasures was turned down by the general director of antiquities , Camille Asmar , since the museum still had no doors or windows to prevent further looting . Ghassan Tueni donated the funds for the museum 's massive new main door . Once the doors and windows were put in , the decision was made to pull down the concrete wall that protected the entrance to the basement . Restoration work started in 1995 and focused on the building itself , and the inventorying and restoration of the collection . The museum was officially inaugurated on November 25 , 1997 by then president Elias Hrawi but only parts of the ground floor and basement were made accessible since the remainder of the building was still under repair and important modifications were needed to meet the requirements of modern museology standards . The museum was again closed to the public in July 1998 to achieve restoration works . On October 8 , 1999 , the museum re @-@ opened its doors to the public under the patronage of president Emile Lahoud .
The rehabilitation of the National Museum was undertaken by the Ministry of Culture , the Directorate General of Antiquities and the National Heritage Foundation , to the plans of the French architect , urban planner and designer Jean @-@ Michel Wilmotte . In 1999 the Lebanese government started a massive campaign to recover antiquities that were stolen or traded during the civil war . Many artifacts were recovered from warehouses or private homes since Lebanese law dictates that any item more than 300 years old belongs to the state .
= = = Basement reopening = = =
Opening of the basement floor was scheduled for November 2010 , but as of June 2011 , only the ground and first floors are open to the public .
= = Architecture = =
The museum was designed in a French inspired Egyptian Revival style by the architects Antoine Nahas and Pierre Leprince Ringuet , and built with Lebanese ochre limestone . It comprises a basement , a ground floor , a mezzanine floor and a terrace ; the central block is covered by a glass roof , above the mezzanine , giving natural overhead light .
The whole site is approximately 5 @,@ 500 square metres ( 59 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , and the exhibition floor space totals 6 @,@ 000 square metres ( 65 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . The immediately adjoining museum annexes and administrative offices occupy about 1 @,@ 000 square metres ( 11 @,@ 000 sq ft ) .
= = Collections = =
The National Museum of Beirut currently exhibits 1300 artifacts from its collection of approximately 100 @,@ 000 objects . The museum displays follow a chronological circuit beginning in Prehistory and ending in the Ottoman era . The circuit begins on the ground floor where 83 large objects are displayed , these include sarcophagi , mosaics statues and reliefs . The upper floor displays 1243 small and medium @-@ sized artifacts arranged by chronological order and by theme in modern showcases with soft lighting and magnifying glasses that emphasize the aesthetic aspect of the artifacts .
= = = Prehistory = = =
The collection has prehistoric artifacts from early hunter @-@ gatherer societies ranging from the Lower Paleolithic ( 1M.-150.000 BC ) to the Neolithic ( 9000 – 3200 BC ) , typically spearheads , flints , hooks and pottery . These were found in caves and rock shelters all over Lebanese territory . Around five hundred prehistoric sites have been surveyed in Lebanon as a whole , and around fifty sites in Beirut itself .
= = = Bronze age = = =
The Bronze Age ( 3200 – 1200 BC ) saw the birth of Lebanon 's first fortified villages , the development of commercial and maritime activities and the invention of the world 's first alphabet in Byblos . This collection includes the Museum 's masterpiece : the sarcophagus of Ahiram , which holds the oldest text written in the Phoenician alphabet .
Collection highlights :
Sarcophagus of King Ahiram : limestone , Byblos royal cemetery , 10th century B.C.
Votive statuettes : gilded bronze , Obelisk temple – Byblos , 19 @-@ 18th century B.C.
Decorated knife : gold and ivory , Obelisk temple – Byblos , 19 @-@ 18th century B.C.
Fenestrated axes : gold , Obelisk temple – Byblos , 19 @-@ 18th century B.C.
King Ip Shemu Abi 's crown and scepter : gold and bronze , Royal cemetery , Byblos , 18th century B.C.
King Abi Shemu 's jewelry collection : gold and precious stones , Royal cemetery , Byblos , 18th century B.C.
Statuette of Reshep : gilded bronze , Obelisk temple – Byblos , 19 @-@ 18th century B.C.
Duck shaped cosmetic box : ivory , Sidon , 14th century B.C.
= = = Iron age = = =
The Iron Age ( 1200 – 333 BC ) in Lebanon saw the climax of the Phoenician civilization , which culminated in its maritime expansion and the transmission to other cultures of the alphabet ( which was attributed by the Greek legend to the Tyrian Cadmus ) . During this period , after an era of autonomy , the city @-@ states of the area came under Assyrian , Babylonian and Persian hegemony . The occupying civilizations influenced Phoenician ceramics , jewelry and ivory work , statues , and sarcophagi .
Key highlights of the collections include :
the Ford collection of anthropoid sarcophagi : marble , 4th century B.C.
votive statues from the Eshmun temple : marble , Bustan esh Sheikh , 4th century B.C.
capital with bull protomes , : marble , Sidon , 5th century B.C.
= = = Hellenistic period = = =
The Hellenistic period ( 333 – 64 BC ) In 333 BC , the decisive victory won by Alexander the Great over the Persian king Darius III opened Phoenicia to the Greek conqueror .
After Alexander 's death , Phoenicia first came under Ptolemaic rule from Egypt , then , after the Battle of Panium , under the Seleucids based in modern Iraq . The Seleucids abolished local monarchies , and appointed governors ( bearing Greek names ) to rule the Phoenician cities .
Greek influence , which had made its way to Phoenicia during the Persian period , now became stronger . Figurines found in Kharayeb show Aegean influence on local craftsmen . This spreading Hellenization interacted with the local Semitic population substratum , which remained faithful to its gods and its language . It resulted in an artistic and architectural symbiosis best illustrated in the artifacts of Umm el ' Amed and Bustan esh Sheikh .
Collection highlights :
Sanctuary of Eshmun tribune : marble , Bustan esh Sheikh ( near Sidon ) , ca . 350 B.C.
Statue of Aphrodite : marble , Beirut
Greek gods figurines : terracotta , Kharayeb
= = = Roman period = = =
In 64 BC , the military expedition of the Roman general Pompey put an end to the anarchy prevailing in the Seleucid Empire , and Phoenicia became part of the Roman world . But Roman civil wars continued to disrupt the region until 31 BC , after which , with the reign of Augustus , the pax romana extended over the area . The pax romana favored international trade , and local industries in silversmithing , glass , textiles and ceramics developed .
Roman Period ( 64 BC – 395 AD ) section collection highlights include :
Achilles sarcophagus : marble , Tyre , 2nd century A.D.
drunken Cupids sarcophagus : marble , Tyre , 2nd century A.D.
Abduction of Europe mosaic : Byblos , 3rd century A.D.
statue of Hygieia : marble , Byblos
Calliope and the seven wise men mosaic : Baalbeck , 3rd century A.D.
Dionysus bust : marble , Tyre , 3rd century A.D.
= = = Byzantine period = = =
After the death of Theodosius I in 395 AD , the Roman Empire was divided into a western and an eastern empire . The Lebanese cities were attached to the latter , and converted to Christianity which became the state religion in 392 . The emperor ordered the destruction of pagan temples , but cults like those of Adonis and Jupiter Heliopolitanus were kept alive by the local population and survived in some form for centuries .
Artifacts from the Byzantine period ( 395 – 636 AD ) include :
the " Jealousy " mosaic : Beirut
elements of a church chancel : marble , Beirut
coins and jewelry collection
= = = Arab conquest , Mamluk period = = =
The Arab conquest of Lebanon was completed in 637 AD . The expansion of the coastal cities , which had slowed down after earthquakes in the 6th century , revived during the Umayyad period . Their harbors and shipyards showed renewed activity , and the hinterland saw extensive irrigation work for agriculture .
Lebanon was directly affected by the various dynastic changes which brought to power successively the Umayyads , Abbasids , Fatimids , Seljuks , Ayyubids and Mamluks . During this long period , Islam spread and Arabic became the language of the administration , then progressively replaced local dialects among the population . Artifacts from the Mamluk period ( 636 – 1516 AD ) include coins , gold jewelry , and glazed terracotta bowls .
= = Publications = =
Maurice Chehab initiated in 1936 the museum 's first publication , the Bulletin du Musée de Beyrouth ( " Beirut Museum Bulletin " ) , which reached 36 volumes before publication was stopped in 1986 by the civil war . The journal covered archaeological finds , sites and ancient civilizations . In 1995 the Museum and the Lebanese British Friends of the National Museum foundation resumed publication of a bi @-@ annual journal entitled Archaeology and History in Lebanon ( ISSN 1475 @-@ 5564 ) . BAAL ( " Bulletin d ’ Archéologie et d ’ Architecture Libanaise " – Lebanese Archaeology and Architecture Bulletin ) is an annual journal issued by the Directorate General of Antiquities in cooperation with the Lebanese Ministry of Culture in keeping in the tradition of the Beirut Museum Bulletin . The first volume of BAAL was issued in 1996 ; the journal publishes research papers , excavations and archaeological surveys and reports .
= = Location and facilities = =
The museum is located in Beirut 's Mazra 'a district on the intersection of Abdallah al @-@ Yafi avenue and Damascus road ; it is flanked by the Beirut hippodrome and the Directorate General of Antiquities building . The museum 's ground floor houses a restoration lab , a small theater and a gift shop . < / ref name = " Museum " >
= = Gallery = =
= You Don 't Know Anything =
" You Don 't Know Anything " is a song recorded by American indie rock band Ivy . It was released by Atlantic Records on April 29 , 1999 as the fourth and final single from their second studio album , Apartment Life ( 1997 ) . The single was made available exclusively in Europe and featured the same two B @-@ sides as previous single , " This Is the Day " , which had been released by 550 Music in Austria . The track was written by Dominique Durand , Adam Schlesinger and Andy Chase while production was handled by the latter two and Peter Nashel .
Released alongside " This Is the Day " , " You Don 't Know Anything " received promotion by Atlantic Records after the former track was included on the soundtrack for the 1998 film , There 's Something About Mary . The recording received generally favorable reviews from music critics who compared the song to the works of Irish rock group My Bloody Valentine .
= = Background and composition = =
" You Don 't Know Anything " was written by Ivy band members Dominique Durand , Adam Schlesinger and Andy Chase . The production of the track was handled by Chase and Schlesinger , with additional production provided by Peter Nashel . Musically , " You Don 't Know Anything " is a pop rock / indie rock song , also incorporating elements of indie pop and guitar accords . Lyrically , the song discusses a lover being " clueless " and " in the wrong " .
The single was heavily compared to My Bloody Valentine ; in their review of the track , Sputnikmusic stated that it " comes off like a My Bloody Valentine song with intelligible vocals , with a sliding , reverb heavy hook and pummeling drums " , while AllMusic writer Jack Rabid drew similar comparisons . Patrick Carmosino of West Net stated that with " You Don 't Know Anything " , Ivy " have an indie @-@ ethic rock side that compliments their pop sensibilities to the tee " .
= = Release = =
The recording was released simultaneously with the release of the single " This Is the Day " ; this occurred after the latter track was featured in the 1998 film , There 's Something About Mary . " You Don 't Know Anything " was released as a CD single exclusively in European countries ; the CD included two B @-@ side tracks , " Sleeping Late " and " Sweet Mary " .
= = Critical reception = =
" You Don 't Know Anything " received generally positive reviews from music critics . Stephen Thompson of The A.V. Club praised the track and Apartment Life for " sound [ ing ] slickly pretty and mannered " . A reviewer from Sputnikmusic also enjoyed the recording , calling it a " mid @-@ album stand out " , while AllMusic named the song " a knockout " and praised it for having " the guitars get mean " . Reviewer Scott Floman was more mixed with his review , finding the track to " pass by pleasantly but unremarkably " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits and personnel adapted from " You Don 't Know Anything " liner notes and Andy Chase 's discography .
Recording
Recorded at The Place , New York City ; Duotone Studios , New York City ; and Compositions , New York City
Personnel
= = Release history = =
= Heartbreak Hotel =
" Heartbreak Hotel " is a song recorded by American singer Elvis Presley . It was released as a single on January 27 , 1956 , Presley 's first on his new record label RCA Victor . It was written by Tommy Durden and Mae Boren Axton .
A newspaper article about the suicide of a lonely man who jumped from a hotel window inspired the lyrics . Axton presented the song to Presley in November 1955 at a country music convention in Nashville . Presley agreed to record it , and did so on January 10 , 1956 , in a session with his band , the Blue Moon Boys , the guitarist Chet Atkins , and the pianist Floyd Cramer . " Heartbreak Hotel " comprises an eight @-@ bar blues progression , with heavy reverberation throughout the track , to imitate the character of Presley 's Sun recordings .
The single topped Billboard 's Top 100 chart for seven weeks , Cashbox 's pop singles chart for six weeks , was number one on the Country and Western chart for seventeen weeks and reached number three on the R & B chart , becoming Presley 's first million @-@ seller , and one of the best @-@ selling singles of 1956 . " Heartbreak Hotel " achieved unheard of feats as it reached the top 5 of Country and Western , pop , and Rhythm ' n ' Blues charts simultaneously . It would eventually be certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America . Presley had first performed " Heartbreak Hotel " during a live show in December 1955 during a tour of the Louisiana Hayride , but the song gained strong popularity after his appearance on Stage Show in March 1956 . It became a staple of Presley 's repertoire in live appearances , last performed by him on May 29 , 1977 , at the Civic Center in Baltimore , Maryland .
In 1995 " Heartbreak Hotel " was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame , and in 2004 Rolling Stone magazine named it one of the " 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " . That year it was also included in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's " 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll " . A rock and roll standard , since its original release " Heartbreak Hotel " has been covered by several rock and pop acts , including Willie Nelson and Leon Russell , who recorded a duet version that topped the Country charts in 1979 .
= = Background and writing = =
The song was written in 1955 , by Mae Boren Axton , a high school teacher with a background in musical promotion , and Jacksonville based singer – songwriter Tommy Durden . The lyrics were based on a report supposedly in The Miami Herald about a man who had destroyed all his identity papers and jumped to his death from a hotel window , leaving a suicide note with the single line , " I walk a lonely street " . In 2016 , an article in Rolling Stone magazine suggested that the story in reality originated from a report about a painter and petty criminal , Alvin Krolik , whose marriage had failed and who wrote a partial autobiography including the line " This is the story of a person who walked a lonely street . " Krolik 's story was published in news media , and received further publicity after he was shot and killed in an attempted robbery in El Paso , Texas . On August 25 , 1955 , the El Paso Times reported Krolik 's death under the headline " Story Of Person Who Walked Lonely Street " .
Axton and Durden give different accounts of how the song was written . Durden 's account is that he had already written the song and performed it with his band the Swing Billys before he presented it to Axton . Axton 's account is that Durden had only written a few lines of the song and asked her to help him finish it . She says that the report of the suicide " stunned " her , and she told Durden , " Everybody in the world has someone who cares . Let 's put a Heartbreak Hotel at the end of this lonely street " . They were interrupted by the arrival of Glen Reeves , a local performer who had previously worked with Axton . The duo asked Reeves to help with the song , but after hearing the title he remarked that it was " the silliest thing I 've ever heard " , and left them to finish it themselves . The song was written within an hour , and Durden recorded it onto Axton 's tape recorder . Reeves returned , and after hearing the song he was asked to provide a voice demo for Axton in the style of Elvis Presley . Reeves obliged , but once again turned down the offer of a writing credit for his input .
Axton approached the popular singing duo the Wilburn Brothers , and offered them the chance to record " Heartbreak Hotel " . However , Doyle and Teddy Wilburn declined , describing the song as " strange and almost morbid " . Axton , however , agreed to a publishing deal with Buddy Killen , a young Nashville bass player , who had recently set up his own publishing company called Tree Publishing . With a publishing deal in place , Axton arranged through Presley 's manager Colonel Tom Parker to present the song to Presley at the annual Country Music Disc Jockey Convention in Nashville , Tennessee , where he was to be named the most promising male country star of 1955 . Axton had been hired earlier in the year to publicise the Hank Snow Jamboree concerts at the Gator Bowl Stadium in Jacksonville , Florida , which included Presley in the line up . During one concert Axton observed the reaction of the audience to Presley 's performance , in which a crowd of screaming fans chased him back to his dressing room and ripped his clothes off to take as souvenirs . Axton followed Presley 's career closely after this incident , and met him at a July 28 concert in Jacksonville , this time interviewing him for the local media . According to author Albert Goldman , Axton made writing Presley 's first big hit one of her ambitions .
Rumors had been circulating in the press for several weeks that Presley , who had begun his career at Sun Records , was ready to move to RCA Victor to help launch him nationally . Axton played the demo to him in his room at the Andrew Jackson Hotel on November 10 , 1955 . Upon hearing the demo , Presley exclaimed " Hot dog , Mae , play that again ! " , and listened to it ten times , memorizing the song . After signing with RCA on November 21 , 1955 , Presley accepted Axton 's offer of a third of the royalties if he made the song his first single on his new label . Presley performed the song for the first time in Swifton , Arkansas on December 9 , 1955 , and declared to the audience that it would be his first hit .
= = Recording = =
" Heartbreak Hotel " was the second song Presley recorded at RCA Victor , following " I Got a Woman " , during his debut session at 1525 McGavock Street in Nashville on January 10 , 1956 . Presley arrived at the studio with the song ready to record without seeking RCA 's approval , and although producer Steve Sholes was not sure that it would be a success , he recorded " Heartbreak Hotel " believing that Presley knew what he was doing . Recording at RCA Victor was a different experience for Presley and his band , who were used to a more relaxed atmosphere at Sun Studio . Guitar player Scotty Moore later commented , " It was a larger studio than Sun 's and more regimented - they called everything by a tape number . We would sit around at Sun , eat hamburgers and then somebody would say , ' Let 's try something . ' "
Almost immediately Sholes discovered a problem while recording Presley . RCA Victor had always insisted their performers stay still as they sang so the microphone would pick up the vocals ; even the slightest tilt of the head would result in missing sound . Sholes had told Presley to stand on a painted X on the floor , telling him " Whatever you do , don 't move " . During the recording of " I Got a Woman " , Sholes noticed that Presley 's voice and guitar were not always being picked up by the microphone . Presley explained to Sholes that he had to " jump around to sing it right . It 's something that just happens — just a part of the way I sing " . Sholes arranged for the whole studio to be re @-@ miked so that Presley 's voice and guitar could be picked up from anywhere in the studio , and recording continued .
As well as the Blue Moon Boys , his regular backing band of Moore , bassist Bill Black and drummer D.J. Fontana , Presley was joined by established RCA Victor musicians Chet Atkins ( who also helped Sholes produce the session ) on guitar , and Floyd Cramer on piano . Following a suggestion from Presley , Sholes used a hallway at the studio to get an unusual echo for the single . Sholes was attempting to recapture the Sun Records sound , but he was unaware that Sun founder Sam Phillips had used two tape recorders and a slight time delay to create it on previous Presley recordings . When Phillips first heard " Heartbreak Hotel " , he remarked that it was a " morbid mess " . Most others at RCA agreed , declaring " Heartbreak Hotel " a terrible choice of song , especially after hearing that the finished recording sounded nothing like Presley 's Sun recordings . Internal memos from the time show that every one of RCA 's executive corps disliked it so much that one of them insisted " We certainly can 't release that one " .
In an interview , Durden conceded that he did not recognize his song after Presley had made the changes to it in the studio , including the tempo , phrasing , lyrics , and overall sound . In subsequent recordings , these major modifications to the existing material became a normal procedure for Presley who took over the role of producer , although Sholes was still credited . Speaking of Sholes ' producing credits , Phillips said " he was not a producer . Steve was just at every session " .
Mae Boren Axton was gulled by Elvis ' manager , Colonel Parker , into giving up a third of the song 's royalties to Elvis , as well as adding Elvis ' name to the list of songwriters for the song .
= = Release and reception = =
" Heartbreak Hotel " was released as a single on January 27 , 1956 , with B @-@ side " I Was the One " , a song that was also recorded during Presley 's RCA debut sessions . Billboard magazine praised it as " a strong blues item wrapped up in his usual powerful style and a great beat " . However , " Heartbreak Hotel " was less @-@ than @-@ warmly received by the British music press . The New Musical Express wrote that , " If you appreciate good singing , I don 't suppose you 'll manage to hear this disc all through " . BBC , which held a monopoly on broadcasting in Britain at the time , didn 't consider it fit for general entertainment and placed it on its " restricted play " list .
Presley made his national television debut on January 28 , appearing on CBS ' Stage Show , starring Tommy and Jimmy Dorsey . As Stage Show 's ratings had been slipping , producer Jack Philbin agreed to have Presley on because he was relatively cheap at $ 1 @,@ 250 ; after looking at a photograph of the singer , Philbin exclaimed , " He 's a guitar playing Marlon Brando ! " Despite the single having been released only a day before to coincide with Presley 's national television debut , the Dorsey brothers did not allow Presley to perform it on their show because it didn 't work well in rehearsals . For his second appearance , on February 4 , Presley was again aware that he could not perform " Heartbreak Hotel " . However , at his third appearance on Stage Show a week later , Sholes pressured CBS to give consent . Subsequently , Presley and his band performed " Heartbreak Hotel " with borrowed instruments ( their own were being driven to Florida in preparation for a tour ) with the backing of the Dorsey Brothers ' orchestra .
On February 22 , the song entered the Billboard pop chart at number 68 , and the Country and Western chart at number nine . Within two months , " Heartbreak Hotel " reached number one on both charts . It also made top five on the R & B chart , the first Presley single to chart there . This resulted in " Heartbreak Hotel " becoming only the second single in history to reach all three Billboard charts , after Carl Perkins ' " Blue Suede Shoes " . The song spent a total of twenty @-@ seven weeks in the top 100 . By April , " Heartbreak Hotel " became a million @-@ seller , earning Presley his first RIAA @-@ certified gold record , and going on to be the biggest selling single of 1956 . " Heartbreak Hotel / I Was the One " was certified Platinum by on March 27 , 1992 and 2 × Platinum on July 15 , 1999 by the RIAA . The song made its debut on the UK Singles Chart in May 1956 ; it peaked at the second spot the next month and stayed on the charts for 22 weeks .
= = Personnel = =
Elvis Presley – lead vocals
Scotty Moore – electric guitar
Chet Atkins – acoustic guitar
Bill Black – double bass
D.J. Fontana – drums
Floyd Cramer – piano
Steve Sholes – producer , A & R
Bob Farris – engineer
= = Legacy = =
Presley would perform the song during most of his live shows between 1956 and 1977 , performing it for the last time on May 29 , 1977 , at the Civic Center in Baltimore , Maryland . The song has been released on almost every Presley compilation album since 1956 , and alternative takes have also surfaced on several compilation albums . " Heartbreak Hotel " was awarded by the Broadcast Music Incorporated in its Country music Awards . It was re @-@ released in 1971 for the UK market where it charted at number ten . In 1979 , following Presley 's death , author Robert Matthew @-@ Walker wrote " Heartbreak Hotel became one of the legendary rock performances . For many people it is Elvis Presley , and it continues to excite and fascinate listeners . Heartbreak Hotel is a classic performance , yet when it is analyzed it appears so simple that one cannot recall a time when one did not know it . " In 1995 , the song was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame , and was re @-@ released in 1996 to coincide with the fortieth anniversary of its recording .
In a 1975 interview , John Lennon recalled his friend Don Beatty introducing him to Presley 's music . Lennon said that his family rarely had the radio on , unlike other members of the Beatles who grew up under its influence . Beatty showed Lennon a picture of Presley that appeared along with the charts on the New Musical Express , and Lennon later heard " Heartbreak Hotel " on Radio Luxembourg . Lennon has said :
When I first heard " Heartbreak Hotel " , I could hardly make out what was being said . It was just the experience of hearing it and having my hair stand on end . We 'd never heard American voices singing like that . They always sang like Sinatra or enunciate very well . Suddenly , there 's this hillbilly hiccuping on tape echo and all this bluesy stuff going on . And we didn 't know what Elvis was singing about ... It took us a long time to work what was going on . To us , it just sounded as a noise that was great
George Harrison described " Heartbreak Hotel " as a " rock n roll epiphany " when in 1956 , at age 13 , he overheard it while riding his bike at a neighbor 's house . Some have said that " Heartbreak Hotel " turned that well @-@ mannered schoolboy into a guitar @-@ crazed truant who would audition for John Lennon 's Quarrymen the following year .
The Rolling Stones ' guitarist Keith Richards wrote in his 2010 autobiography that " Heartbreak Hotel " had had a huge effect on him . Beyond Presley 's singing itself , it was the total effect of his sound and his silence that so totally affected Richards :
Then , " Since my baby left me " — it was just the sound ... That was the first rock and roll I heard . It was a totally different way of delivering a song , a totally different sound , stripped down , no bullshit , no violins and ladies ' choruses and schmaltz , totally different . It was bare right to the roots that you had a feeling were there but hadn 't yet heard . I 've got to take my hat off to Elvis . The silence is your canvas , that 's your frame , that 's what you work on ; don 't try and deafen it out . That 's what " Heartbreak Hotel " did to me . It was the first time I 'd heard something so stark .
Led Zeppelin 's lead singer Robert Plant stated that the song " changed his life . " He recalled hearing it for the first time when he was eight years old :
It was so animal , so sexual , the first musical arousal I ever had . You could see a twitch in everybody my age . All we knew about the guy was that he was cool , handsome and looked wild .
Critic Robert Cantwell wrote in his unpublished memoir Twigs of Folly :
The opening strains of " Heartbreak Hotel " , which catapulted Presley 's regional popularity into national hysteria , opened a fissure in the massive mile @-@ thick wall of post @-@ war regimentation , standardization , bureaucratization , and commercialization in American society and let come rushing through the rift a cataract from the immense waters of sheer , human pain and frustration that have been building up for ten decades behind it .
President Bill Clinton performed the song on saxophone during his appearance on The Arsenio Hall Show on June 3 , 1992 . In 2004 it was ranked number forty @-@ five on Rolling Stone 's list of " The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " , the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame included it in its unranked list 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll and in 2005 , Uncut magazine ranked the first performance of " Heartbreak Hotel " in 1956 by Presley as the second greatest and most important cultural event of the rock and roll era . Paul McCartney , who participated in Uncut 's poll stated , " It 's the way [ Presley ] sings it as if he is singing from the depths of hell . His phrasing , use of echo , it 's all so beautiful . Musically , it 's perfect . "
Heartbreak Hotel , a film based on a mythical incident involving the kidnapping of Presley , was released theatrically in 1988 . It starred David Keith as Elvis Presley , and was directed by Chris Columbus . In 1999 , Elvis Presley Enterprises purchased a Wilson World Hotel branch and after several renovations , opened it and named the hotel after the song , located across the street from Presley 's home , Graceland , in Memphis , Tennessee .
In 2015 , " Heartbreak Hotel " was named as The # 2 Song of the Rock Era in the book The Top 500 Songs of the Rock Era : 1955 @-@ 2015 .
= = Early cover versions = =
Radio humorist Stan Freberg parodied " Heartbreak Hotel " immediately after its release , because the vocals on the original record featured a heavy use of reverb . In the cover , the lead singer repeatedly asks for " more echo on [ his ] voice . " When Presley recorded " Hound Dog " a few months later , he had taken over the role of producer , using what he learned at Sun Records ( although Sholes was still credited ) and decided not to use echo .
Connie Francis recorded the song for her 1959 album Rock ' n ' Roll Million Sellers ; this album also features " Don 't Be Cruel " . Country singer Johnny Cash parodied the song in 1959 on the television show Town Hall Party , imitating Presley 's characteristic crib and hip movements . Before the performance Cash explained that it was " an impersonation of a rock and roll singer impersonating Elvis , is what this really is " .
Beatles historian Mark Lewisohn noted that , at first as The Quarrymen then later as the Beatles , the group performed " Heartbreak Hotel " live from 1957 until 1961 ( in Liverpool then later in Hamburg and elsewhere ) . It is unclear whether the lead vocal was by John Lennon or Paul McCartney or both . A recorded version has not been forthcoming . However , McCartney ( using Bill Black 's upright bass ) did a version for a documentary Elvis - Viva Las Vegas , which also appears on DVD .
= = Later renditions = =
Part of the original personnel of the 1956 recording released their own versions , Chet Atkins recorded it for the 1963 album The Guitar Genius , and also , Presley 's lead guitarist Scotty Moore recorded the song for his 1964 album The Guitar that Changed the world . Willie Nelson and Leon Russell had a number one cover version in 1979 on the country charts , it was Russell 's only number one hit on the charts .
Paul McCartney later also made another cover of the song in Chaos and Creation at Abbey Road , performing it with Bill Black 's bass . Others who have covered the song include Ann @-@ Margret , who would later co @-@ star with Presley in the 1964 motion picture Viva Las Vegas , the Cadets , Delaney Bramlett , Justin Timberlake , Cher , Roger Miller , Bob Dylan , Bruce Springsteen , John Cale , Merle Haggard , Tom Jones , Dax Riggs , Roger McGuinn , Suzi Quatro , Van Halen , Jimi Hendrix , Neil Diamond , Lynyrd Skynyrd , and Guns N ' Roses .
In the 1992 film Honeymoon in Vegas , Billy Joel made a version of " Heartbreak Hotel " and " All Shook Up " , while the same year in True Romance , actor Val Kilmer performed an a cappella version . Nicole Kidman and Hugh Jackman covered the song in a medley with Prince 's " Kiss " , for the 2006 Warner Bros. film Happy Feet . The song was also featured in Alvin and the Chipmunks ' 1990 television special Rockin ' Through the Decades , as part of the fifties medley and its soundtrack and again for the 2007 video game Alvin and the Chipmunks .
= = Charts = =
= = = Elvis Presley = = =
= = = Willie Nelson and Leon Russell = = =
= St Kilda , South Australia =
St Kilda is a seaside suburb in Adelaide , South Australia . St Kilda has a small number of houses and a 2006 population of 246 . There is a single connecting road to the rest of Adelaide which , where the road enters the suburb 's residential area , is surrounded by salt crystallisation lagoons used in the manufacture of soda ash . The inhabited section of the suburb occupies less than 100 hectares along the seafront , with the remainder used for salt lagoons and also settlement ponds of nearby Bolivar sewage treatment works .
What was originally a seaside town was named by John Harvey , the founder of nearby Salisbury , as it reminded him of St Kilda in the Outer Hebrides of Scotland with its similar abundance of birdlife . St Kilda is an internationally recognised bird watching area with over 100 species of birds feeding in and around the mudflats , salt Lagoons , mangroves and seagrass beds . The suburb is home to a number of tourist attractions , including an adventure playground , tram museum , mangrove forest walk and an abundance of birdlife .
= = History = =
The suburb was originally three low lying islands that were covered in shell grit and saltbush and surrounded by mangrove and samphire swamps . Fishermen had established huts on the islands by 1865 and by 1873 there were 13 huts and a boathouse recorded when the area was surveyed by Thomas Evans . By the 1890s people were visiting the islands attracted to the supposed curative properties of the mangrove mud , using the beach for bathing and fishing for crabs .
St Kilda was proclaimed a town on 31 July 1893 with sales of the first allotments made on the same day . In 1886 it became part of the Munno Para West District Council area , moving to the district of Salisbury on 1 July 1933 along with most of the Munno Para West area . The islands were extensively modified after floods in 1948 and 1957 which cut off St Kilda from the rest of Adelaide . Salisbury council began building up the area , expanding seawalls and reclaiming additional land by dumping of earth spoil .
The St Kilda Hotel , built out of limestone from east of what is now Elizabeth , opened in 1898 with Matthias Lucas as the first publican and remains the suburb 's only hotel . A school opened in October 1902 , where the tram museum is now sited , admitting students in November of the same year . The school was closed from 1917 to 1924 and finally closed permanently in 1949 with students moving to Salisbury North Primary School and the building eventually being used at Virginia Primary School . In 1924 a telegraph office opened in Shell Street and , due to the suburb of St Kilda in Melbourne having the same name , the post office service requested that the name be changed . Over some local objections the name was changed to Moilong ( a Kaurna word for Where the tide comes in ) but this was reversed after local protests . Moilong Telegraph Office opened in 1924 , was upgraded to a post office in 1945 , renamed Saint Kilda in 1965 and closed in 1974 .
St Kilda 's population has never been large with 50 non @-@ permanent residents counted in the 1901 census , 68 ( including 20 permanent ) in 1911 , 30 total residents in 1933 , 80 in 2002 and increasing to 246 by 2006 .
= = Features = =
= = = Adventure Playground = = =
St Kilda 's adventure playground covers 4 hectares along the seafront and is one of South Australia 's best known . The playground has a constructed shipwreck , wooden castle , huge slides , a spiral slide inside a hill , flying foxes and numerous other pieces of play equipment , with South Australian children naming it in 2002 as the best adventure park in the state .
The park was conceived by the Lions club of Salisbury and funded through club fundraising activities , council matching funding and government employment schemes providing free labour . It was opened by Salisbury mayor Ron White on 24 October 1982 and has had recent upgrades to the park , including a shaded set of equipment shaped like a submarine for younger children , and the building of a small maze .
= = = St Kilda Boat Club and marina = = =
St Kilda has an extensive marina with floating moorings for about 50 boats , two boat ramps and a sheltered channel out into the Barker Inlet , part of Gulf St Vincent . Recently expanded the marina now has hard stands for boats and some slipping facilities .
The boat club was founded as the " St Kilda Boatowners Association Incorporated " in 1964 , after permission was gained from the council and landowners to develop St Kilda tidal creek as the area lacked boat launching facilities . The creek was straightened and deepened repeatedly , originally by hand , and a causeway extended out to sea to protect the channel . A new clubhouse was opened by MP Lynn Arnold in 1980 and the latest boat ramp in 2002 by the mayor of Salisbury Tony Zappia .
= = = Saltwater lagoons = = =
Large , constructed saltwater evaporation lagoons surround the only road into the suburb . Imperial Chemical Industries ( ICI ) began construction of the Solar Evaporation Lagoons in 1935 using up to 600 workers to dig out the lagoons by hand and then expanded them mechanically after World War II . The lagoons stretch in a broken chain from Dry Creek to Port Gawler alongside the Barker Inlet , and are approximately 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) north – south by 3 kilometres ( 2 mi ) east – west . The lagoons are filled in spring and salt normally harvested in autumn when it is piped as saturated brine solution to Osborne on the Le Fevre peninsula , and used by Penrice Soda Products in the only soda ash production facility in Australia . The lagoons proliferate with bird life and have been recognised as a bird sanctuary due to their status as an important breeding and feeding area for species from as far away as Alaska . As of 2006 the Lagoons are operated by Cheetham Salt Limited with 600 @,@ 000 tonnes of salt used by Penrice in creating soda ash via the solvay process .
= = = Mangrove trail and interpretative centre = = =
St Kilda is adjacent to the mangrove forest bordering Barker Inlet , part of the largest tidal estuary of Gulf St Vincent . Late in the 19th Century embankments were constructed through the mangroves in an effort to reclaim land for pasturing . With the construction of the banks of the adjacent saltfields maintenance of the embankments ceased and the mangroves began to reclaim them . One of these embankments is used as the beginning of a boardwalk through the mangroves which forms a 1 @.@ 7 km loop through the samphire saltmarsh flats and mangroves reaching the border between the ocean and forest .
The boardwalk was constructed in 1984 by the City of Salisbury to encourage appreciation of the mangrove 's ecological importance . On 29 April 1995 , South Australian Premier Dean Brown and federal MP Chris Schacht opened the St Kilda Interpretative Centre at the entrance to the boardwalk which showcases the flora , fauna and processes within the mangrove forest . Since 1997 the mangrove trail has been privately managed , hosting school visits as well as casual visitors .
The boardwalk is within the barker inlet aquatic reserve , where the taking of crabs shellfish and plants is prohibited and pets are not allowed . The mangroves , saltmarsh and adjacent lagoons form a habitat for over 200 bird species with the mangroves being part of a nursery area for most of the commercial and recreational fish species of Gulf St Vincent . The 2005 Adelaide Dolphin Sanctuary Act established a sanctuary for the Bottlenose dolphins that live in the inlet and adjacent Port River . The sanctuary 's northern extent is the boat channel and dolphins can sometimes be seen at high tide in the tidal creeks passing under the boardwalk .
= = = Tramway museum = = =
Adelaide had an extensive tram system , beginning as horse trams in 1878 , moving to electric trams in 1909 and reduced in 1958 to a single tram line which then ran from Adelaide 's Central Business District to Glenelg . Built on the site of the 1902 school , the Adelaide Tramway Museum at St Kilda showcases trams and trolleybuses that were either used or built in Adelaide . The museum is operated by the Australian Electric Transport Museum ( SA ) Inc , a not @-@ for @-@ profit volunteer organisation accredited with the History Trust of South Australia and dedicated to preserving and restoring Adelaide ’ s former transport vehicles . The museum houses over 30 electric trams , horse trams and electric trolley buses , many of which are restored and operational . Visitors can ride the electric trams along 2 km of purpose @-@ built track that runs between the museum and the adventure playground .
Work commenced in 1958 with the arrival of donated vehicles , the first of which was an old trolley bus from the Municipal Tramways Trust , and the museum was opened in 1967 as a static display . Workshops were built to enable the restoration of the old trams to operating condition and , in 2001 a large additional museum building was completed so as to house the increasing number of donated trams .
ICI , then operator of the salt lagoons , donated land for the tramway to run down the side of the main St Kilda road between the museum and the sea with funding obtained from the State Unemployment Relief Scheme . The tramway opened for trials in 1973 and was officially opened in 1974 by Harry Bowey , mayor of Salisbury , and Frank Kneebone , Minister for Lands , to coincide with St Kilda 's centenary .
The tram used in the opening ceremonies and now housed at the museum was Adelaide 's first electric tram , which had its trial run on 30 November 1908 and first operated in 1909 . The museum 's collection continues to expand with Adelaide tram 104 the latest acquisition . After spending 48 years as a shack on the Yorke Peninsula it will be stored , and possibly restored , at the museum on behalf of the Sydney tramway museum .
= = Flora and fauna = =
Flora
The mangroves found on the coastline of St Kilda consist of a single species , Avicennia marina var resinifera . In the upper intertidal zone mangroves are reduced in size landwards and give way to a variety of samphire species , including beaded glasswort ( Tecticornia flabelliformis ) and blackseed glasswort ( Tecticornia pergranulata ) as well as saltbush on the saltflats of the supratidal zone . Nitre bush grows on the highest parts of the seawall and the abundant summer fruits provide a food source for birds .
Fauna
St Kilda is part of a nursery area for many of the commercially important fish and crustaceans in South Australian including King George whiting , western king prawns and blue swimmer crabs . There are brown snakes and skinks in dense bushes along the top of the embankments .
Each year in late summer thousands of black swans and ducks descend on the area as the inland waterways they inhabit dry up . Waterbirds such as pelicans , cormorants , oyster catchers and terns are common often year round . Egrets , ibis , herons and spoonbills feed on the seagrass and fairy wrens , chats , fantails and thornbills feed on insects and plants amongst the samphire . Each September stints and sandpipers arrive from the Northern Hemisphere in a spectacular display . With the abundance of birdlife the area attracts birds of prey with swamp harriers , collared sparrowhawks , black @-@ shouldered kites , kestrels and little falcons are all seen in the skies over St Kilda .
The salt lagoons , mangroves and samphire wetlands are recognised as important areas for migratory birds by their coverage under the China @-@ Australia and Japan @-@ Australia migratory bird agreements . The agreements are treaties created to for the protection of the birds and their environment .
= = Geography = =
St Kilda is a flat , low lying suburb mostly less than 2 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) above sea level , dominated by the salt lagoons managed by Cheetham Salt , and the treatment ponds of SA Water 's nearby Bolivar sewage works . The lagoons , ponds and surrounding land are fenced off and generally closed to the public .
Transport
St Kilda road is the only access road and connects to Port Wakefield road at Waterloo Corner . St Kilda can be driven to from Salisbury in approximately 10 minutes and from Adelaide 's CBD in 30 minutes . There are no scheduled bus services with the nearest public transport the Transadelaide 900 bus route which passes along Port Wakefield road , 2 kilometres outside the suburb 's boundary .
Weather
Adelaide has a Mediterranean climate with St Kilda being slightly hotter and dryer than the Adelaide average . Summer daytime temperatures can be expected to exceed
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it was bought by Rite Aid in 1996 , and video rental retailer Movie Gallery and its subsidiary Hollywood Video were as well until bankruptcy in 2010 .
Copier and printer manufacturer Xerox operates a large facility in Wilsonville , and is the city 's largest employer . The company acquired the color printing and imaging division of Tektronix corporation in 2000 . Xerox , Mentor Graphics , and FLIR are all adjacent to each other north of Boeckman Road along Parkway Avenue . Projector maker InFocus was headquartered in the city until December 2009 and was located next to FLIR . InFocus and Mentor were both founded by former employees of Tektronix .
Wilsonville is home to many other business located in industrial parks straddling Interstate 5 that are filled with manufacturing and distribution facilities . Xerox and Mentor Graphics are the city 's two largest employers as of 2006 , the only two to employ more than 1000 people . Other large employers in the city are Tyco Electronics ( Precision Interconnect ) , Sysco , Rockwell Collins , and Rite Aid . Additionally , Coca @-@ Cola operates a bottling plant in the city . Nike had one of its U.S. distribution centers for footwear in Wilsonville until closing it in 2009 .
Retail in Wilsonville is concentrated mainly along Wilsonville Road near the Interstate 5 interchange . This includes the Town Center Shopping Center and related developments along Town Center Loop , which includes Fry 's Electronics , one of the largest employers in the city . Fred Meyer opened a 145 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 13 @,@ 500 m2 ) store along with space for 20 other businesses at their Old Town Square where Boones Ferry and Wilsonville roads meet . At the north end of town is the 42 @-@ acre ( 17 ha ) Argyle Square shopping center that opened in 2003 , which includes a Target store , Office Depot , and Costco as anchor tenants . South of the Willamette River , Charbonneau has a small commercial center with about 10 shops .
= = Culture = =
Media in Wilsonville consists of the 28 radio stations and 7 television stations broadcast in the Portland media market , regional newspapers such as The Oregonian , and the local paper , the Wilsonville Spokesman . The Spokesman is published once a week on Wednesdays and has a circulation of 3 @,@ 176 . There is a single movie theater operated by Regal Cinemas , which contains nine screens . The theater opened in 1996 and featured the first stadium style seating in the Northwest .
Wilsonville Public Library , founded in 1982 , is a member of Library Information Network of Clackamas County and had an annual circulation of 493 @,@ 000 in 2006 to 2007 . The library is located adjacent to Wilsonville Memorial Park , the largest and oldest of the city 's 12 parks . Memorial Park includes a water feature , athletic fields , and the Stein @-@ Boozier Barn used as meeting space , among other amenities . Town Center Park also has a water feature along with a visitor 's center operated by the Clackamas County and the Oregon Korean War Memorial . Other parks in the city are River Fox Park , Park at Merryfield , Montebello Park , Hathaway Park , Courtside Park , Tranquil Park , Willamette River Water Treatment Plant Park , Willow Creek / Landover Park , Canyon Creek Park , and Boones Ferry Park located on the Willamette River at the landing for the defunct Boones Ferry .
The Wilsonville Community Center holds classes and community programs as well as community meeting space . Wilsonville holds an annual arts fair each May called the Wilsonville Festival of Arts . Another annual event , Wilsonville Celebration Days , started in 2000 and replaced Boones Ferry Days . A farmers ' market started in 2009 at the Villebois development , held on Sundays from May into October . Charbonneau Golf Club is the only golf course in the city , with Langdon Farms and Sandelie just to the south and east respectively . Wilsonville also is along the Willamette Greenway series of open spaces and trails . Wilsonville is the setting for the 2008 film Wendy and Lucy .
= = Government = =
Wilsonville has a home rule charter and is a council @-@ manager governed municipality where the unelected city manager runs day @-@ to @-@ day operations . The current city manager is Bryan Cosgrove . The mayor and four @-@ person city council are elected to four @-@ year terms , with Tim Knapp as mayor ( term ends 2017 ) and council members of Julie Fitzgerald , Scott Starr , Charlotte Lehan and Susie Stevens .
Both fire protection and police protection are contracted to other area governmental agencies . Fire services are provided by Tualatin Valley Fire & Rescue , and that agency operates two fire stations in the city . Police service is contracted out to the Clackamas County Sheriff 's Office , with a lieutenant serving as the chief of police and officers using vehicles marked as Wilsonville Police . The city ’ s Parks and Recreation Department runs 12 parks , with Memorial Park the largest at 126 acres ( 51 ha ) .
Wilsonville also provides both its own water supply and wastewater treatment . The wastewater system was built in 1972 , while the water system was upgraded with a new treatment plant in 2002 . Water is drawn from the Willamette River from the Wilsonville Water Treatment Plant built at a cost of $ 46 million in conjunction with the Tualatin Valley Water District . Previously , the city used wells to provide drinking water , but those began to run dry in the late 1990s . The plant ’ s initial capacity was 15 million gallons per day , but can be expanded to 120 million gallons per day . Neighboring Sherwood will begin receiving water from the plant in 2012 .
The city has a single library branch , a 28 @,@ 677 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 664 @.@ 2 m2 ) building on Wilsonville Road . The majority of the city is within the West Linn @-@ Wilsonville School District , but the Charbonneau area is part of the Canby School District . Public transit is provided by the city through SMART , though TriMet has connections via buses at the northern limits of the city and with the Westside Express Service commuter rail .
At the federal level , Wilsonville is primarily within Oregon 's 5th congressional district , represented by Kurt Schrader , but the portions lying within Washington County are in the 1st district , represented by Suzanne Bonamici . In the State Senate , the city is in District 13 , represented by Larry George . In the House , the city is represented by John Davis in House District 26 . In addition , Wilsonville lies within District 3 ( Carl Hosticka ) of the Metro regional government .
= = Education = =
Most of Wilsonville is in the West Linn @-@ Wilsonville School District ( WLWSD ) , however those portions south of the Willamette River are within the Canby School District . Areas just to the west lie within the Sherwood School District . Boeckman Creek and Boones Ferry primary schools serve K @-@ 5 students from Wilsonville in WLWSD . Students in grades 6 – 8 attend Inza R. Wood Middle School , and high school students attend Wilsonville High School or the Arts and Technology High School ( ArtTech ) . Neither the Canby or Sherwood districts operate schools within Wilsonville .
The city is also in the Clackamas Community College District and has a satellite campus on Town Center Loop . Opened in 1992 , the campus was originally known as the Oregon Advanced Technology Center . The private , for profit Pioneer Pacific College operates a campus , their main campus , in the city along Interstate 5 near the Boeckman Road overpass .
Boeckman Creek Primary School opened in 1990 and has 649 students , with a mascot of the Bobcats . Boones Ferry replaced the old Wilsonville Primary School in 2001 ; its 809 students make it the largest primary school in the district , and are known as the Dragonflies . Wood Middle School opened in 1980 and has 699 students , known as the Wolverines . Wilsonville High has been the home of the Wildcats since the 1 @,@ 002 @-@ student school opened in 1995 . The ArtTech charter high school has 85 students , and opened in 2005 .
= = Transportation = =
Interstate 5 runs north @-@ south through the middle of the city and crosses the Willamette River on the Boone Bridge . Wilsonville has two interchanges with the freeway north of the river , at Wilsonville Road on the south and where Boones Ferry Road meets Elligsen Road on the north end of town . To the south of the river , the Charbonneau interchange crosses I @-@ 5 at the southern limit of the city . Boeckman Road is the only other street that crosses I @-@ 5 and links the western and eastern parts of Wilsonville . Wilsonville Road , 95th Avenue , Boones Ferry Road ( northern portion is Oregon Route 141 ) , Boeckman Road , Town Center Loop , French Prairie Drive , Elligsen Road , Parkway Avenue , and Stafford Road are the main roads in the city .
Transit service was formerly provided by TriMet , but the city decided to " opt @-@ out " and now operates South Metro Area Regional Transit ( SMART ) . SMART has connections with Salem 's transit service , Canby 's transit service , and TriMet . The Westside Express Service ( WES ) , a commuter rail line to Beaverton , began operations in February 2009 . Wilsonville Station is the southern terminus of the nearly 15 @-@ mile ( 24 km ) line operated by TriMet , and the station is the hub for SMART services .
Freight rail service is provided by the Portland and Western Railroad over the same tracks as WES , with connections to BNSF Railway . These tracks run north @-@ south and cross the Willamette over the Portland and Western Railroad Bridge . The city does not have an airport , with Aurora State Airport to the south as the closest public field and Portland International Airport 17 miles north as the closest commercial airport . Although located along the river , there are not any port facilities , though there is a marina located on the eastbank ( south side ) of the Willamette .
= = Notable people = =
The city has been home to a variety of notable people ranging from politicians to athletes and authors . Famous politicians to call Wilsonville home include former governor George Law Curry , Congresswoman Edith Green , federal judge James M. Burns , and former mayor and state representative Jerry Krummel . Athletes of note have included football player Derek Devine , professional golfer Brian Henninger , and baseball player and manager Del Baker . Those prominent in the legal field are Gordon Sloan , and R. William Riggs . Others include children 's author Walt Morey , ferryman Alphonso Boone , businessman Tom Bruggere , and baseball coach Mel Krause , and actor Frank Cady .
= = Sister city = =
Wilsonville has one sister city relationship . The city established a relationship with Kitakata , in the Fukushima province in Japan in 1988 . Kitakata in the northern part of Honshū has an estimated population of around 55 @,@ 000 . Then Wilsonville Mayor Jerry Krummel visited Japan in 1994 to attend a ceremony honoring Kitakata 's 40th birthday . The mayor of Kitakata visited Wilsonville in 2008 to celebrate the twentieth anniversary of the relationship .
= John Baker White ( West Virginia politician ) =
John Baker White DSO ( August 24 , 1868 – June 2 , 1944 ) was an American lawyer , military officer , and Democratic politician in the U.S. state of West Virginia . White served as a Captain in the West Virginia National Guard during the Spanish – American War and as a Lieutenant Colonel in the United States Army Judge Advocate General 's Corps during World War I. White was a member of the City Council and Board of Affairs of Charleston , West Virginia from 1907 to 1911 , and frequently served as the city 's mayor pro tempore . He was later appointed a member of the West Virginia Board of Control , where he served as the board 's treasurer , secretary , and president at various times .
White was a member of the White political family of Virginia and West Virginia and was the son of Hampshire County Clerk of Court and West Virginia Fish Commission President Christian Streit White ( 1839 – 1917 ) and the grandson of Hampshire County Clerk of Court John Baker White ( 1794 – 1862 ) . White was a nephew of West Virginia Attorney General Robert White ( 1833 – 1915 ) .
= = Early life and education = =
John Baker White was born on August 24 , 1868 , in Romney , West Virginia . He was the only child of Hampshire County Clerk of Court Christian Streit White ( 1839 – 1917 ) with his first wife Elizabeth " Bessie " Jane Schultze White ( 1837 – 1869 ) and the eldest of his father 's five children . He was a grandson of Hampshire County Clerk of Court John Baker White ( 1794 – 1862 ) , for whom White was named , and a great @-@ grandson of the prominent Virginia judge Robert White ( 1759 – 1831 ) . His uncle Robert White ( 1833 – 1915 ) served as Attorney General of West Virginia . Through his descent from Robert White and Reverend Christian Streit , White was eligible for and attained membership in the Society of the Cincinnati and Sons of the American Revolution .
White received an English education in both the local public schools and at his father 's residence in Romney . White further supplemented his education with " broadened courses of reading and private study " . Beginning at the age of 13 , White attended school from 9 a.m. until 4 p.m. and worked on his family 's farm before and after school , and during holidays . At the age of 16 , White left his schooling to work on the farm and in his father 's county court clerk office while studying privately at home .
= = Early political career = =
White departed his home in Romney for Charleston , West Virginia , where he was entirely dependent upon himself and his own resources . There , White commenced his career in public service in 1886 when he began serving as a messenger in the office of West Virginia Secretary of State Henry S. Walker . He received successive promotions within the Secretary of State 's office beginning with clerk , then to stationery clerk , and finally to chief clerk of the office during the latter part of Walker 's term in office . White was retained as the chief clerk of the office by Walker 's successor , William A. Ohley . White was affiliated with the Secretary of State 's office for seven years . He continued to fulfill that position until March 8 , 1893 , when he was appointed to serve as the private secretary to West Virginia Governor William A. MacCorkle . As a representative of Governor MacCorkle , White traveled across the state to high profile events , such as the June 1895 strikes at the Crozier Works on Elkhorn Creek in McDowell County , to urge calm and to provide the governor with situational awareness on the strike . White performed as Governor MacCorkle 's private secretary for four years until the end of his administration 's term in 1897 .
During the West Virginia general elections of 1892 and 1896 , White was recognized for his leadership efforts in support of the campaigns of Democratic candidates .
= = Law career = =
While he was employed at the West Virginia State Capitol , White began studying jurisprudence with legal coursebooks . He undertook his study of jurisprudence in the law firm of Chilton , MacCorkle and Chilton in Charleston . White was admitted to the bar in 1897 and afterward established a law practice in Charleston . White 's practice began arguing cases in county , state , and federal level courts within West Virginia . On December 19 , 1901 , the West Virginia Secretary of State office issued a charter authorizing $ 100 @,@ 000 in capital stock for the incorporation of Midland Railway , of which White was a corporator with one subscribed share of $ 100 .
= = Military career = =
In 1888 , White volunteered his service in the West Virginia National Guard , where he entered service with the rank of Private . White was gradually promoted and served in the West Virginia National Guard 's 2nd Battalion , 2nd West Virginia Infantry Regiment . White and his regiment were dispatched to the scenes of several strikes throughout West Virginia , where he performed as " a special representative " of the governor .
= = = Spanish – American War = = =
At the onset of the Spanish – American War and shortly after his admission to the bar in 1898 , White again volunteered for service with the West Virginia National Guard and served throughout the duration of the war . He received his commission from West Virginia Governor George W. Atkinson as Captain in command of Company B of the 1st West Virginia Infantry Regiment in the United States Volunteers . During his service in the Spanish – American War , White received a promotion to the rank of Major . After a year of serving with his regiment in the war , White received an honorable discharge and vacated the West Virginia National Guard following ten years of service in the guard as a military officer . According to Governor Atkinson in his Bench and Bar of West Virginia ( 1919 ) , White " served faithfully and efficiently until the close of the war " .
= = = World War I = = =
Following the entry of the United States into World War I in 1917 , White tendered his legal services to the United States Army and served in the Judge Advocate General 's Corps . White had previously attempted to enter the service of the United States Army through its various training schools to serve in World War I , but he had been rebuffed each time due to his advanced age of 49 . On December 6 , 1917 , White received " special permission " from United States President Woodrow Wilson to serve in the Army 's Judge Advocate General 's Corps with the rank of Major . Upon receiving his commission , White was ordered to London where he served as Assistant Judge Advocate General for United States Armed Forces personnel serving in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland . White continued to carry out his duties in London until June 1919 when his base section there was closed and he was transferred to the United States military 's general headquarters in France .
From France , White deployed to the 3rd Infantry Division occupation headquarters in Koblenz , Germany , along the Rhine where he served as the division 's Judge Advocate General . While serving in that position in Koblenz , White was promoted to the rank of Lieutenant Colonel in April 1919 . He continued to serve as the Judge Advocate General for the 3rd Infantry Division until September 1919 , and shortly thereafter White was discharged from the United States Army and subsequently transferred to the United States Army Reserve .
For his service to the Allies in World War I , White was created a Companion of the Distinguished Service Order by George V on behalf of the British Empire . Following his relief from active military service in Europe , White embarked upon a global journey that consisted of Egypt , Palestine , India , Burma , the Malay Peninsula , Java , China , Japan , and the Philippines . He returned to the United States in June 1920 and soon thereafter resumed his law practice in Charleston .
= = Later political career = =
Following his service in the Spanish – American War , White ran for election as a Democrat and won a seat on the Charleston City Council . White also concurrently fulfilled a four @-@ year term from 1907 to 1911 as a member of the Charleston Board of Affairs during the period in which Charleston was organized under a commission form of government . While serving on the Board of Affairs , he frequently performed duties as the city 's mayor pro tempore . Around 1931 , White became a member of the West Virginia Board of Control and was serving as the board 's treasurer by 1932 . White later served as the board 's president for two years . In 1939 , Governor Homer A. Holt reappointed White to serve another term on the West Virginia Board of Control ending on June 30 , 1941 .
= = Marriage = =
On August 22 , 1939 , White married Mary Ann Williamson near Malvern in Chester County , Pennsylvania . Williamson was a native of Berkeley County , West Virginia , but resided in Athens , West Virginia , at the time of her marriage . Williamson was a graduate of Shepherd College in Shepherdstown , of Concord College in Athens , and of the University of Kentucky in Lexington . She had been a member of the faculty at Marshall College in Huntington since 1934 .
= = Later life and death = =
In his later years , White and his wife resided in St. Petersburg , Florida during the winter season . White died of heart failure on June 2 , 1944 at 1 p.m. at the age of 75 at his summer camp near Rupert , Greenbrier County , West Virginia . The medical certification of White 's death stated the cause of his heart failure was due to age and overexertion . White 's funeral was held in Charleston , and he was interred in the White family burial plot at Indian Mound Cemetery in Romney . At the time of his death , White was residing at 610 ½ Capitol Street in Charleston .
= = Affiliations and community service = =
White was a practicing Mason and Knights Templar affiliated with Royal Arch Masonry and the Thirty @-@ second Degree Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry . In addition to the Society of the Cincinnati and the Sons of the American Revolution , White was also a member of the Military Order of Foreign Wars , United Spanish War Veterans , American Legion , and the Shriners .
White was also an inaugural stockholder and member in the Henry G. Davis Club , named for United States Senator from West Virginia Henry G. Davis , which received its charter on May 31 , 1906 . The Henry G. Davis Club was founded " for the study of political economy and the science of self @-@ government ; for the education of the young men of the State of West Virginia in these sciences and the promulgation of such information , literature and statistics as will in the judgment of its directors be best suited for such purposes " . White also served on the Entertainment Committee for the West Virginia Homecoming Week in Point Pleasant which took place October 7 – 10 , 1909 , to celebrate the Battle of Point Pleasant and the unveiling of the monument to that battle .
= = Legacy = =
In his Bench and Bar of West Virginia ( 1919 ) , Atkinson remarked of White 's service in Charleston city government : " His chief aim was to render a service that would advance the interests of the people , without showing favors to any class or classes of the citizens of Charleston . His service in that high office marked him as a man of high honor , firmness and probity . " Atkinson remarked further of White : " Such men are rarely found in this or any other portion of this wide world which we inhabit . "
In 1940 , the four @-@ story " Boys Dormitory " at Concord College ( presently known as Concord University ) in Athens , West Virginia , was renamed " John Baker White Hall " in honor of White , who was then serving as Secretary of the West Virginia Board of Control . White Hall was demolished in 2004 for the construction of Concord University 's Rahall Technology Center .
= Golden Retriever ( song ) =
" Golden Retriever " is a song by Super Furry Animals . It was the first single to be issued from the album Phantom Power and reached number 13 on the UK Singles Chart on its release in July 2003 . The song is about the relationship between singer Gruff Rhys 's girlfriend 's two dogs and was written in the same key , with the same guitar tuning and around the same time as several other songs from Phantom Power .
Critical reaction to the track was generally positive with many reviewers commenting on its " catchiness " and " glam rock " style . A Jake & Jim directed music video was produced to accompany the song 's release as a single featuring the band dressed as yetis . A Killa Kela remix of " Golden Retriever " appears on the album Phantom Phorce and the DVD release of Phantom Power .
= = Recording and themes = =
" Golden Retriever " is about " the relationship between [ Gruff Rhys 's ] girlfriend 's two dogs - a male and a female " . Rhys has stated that the " road sign and driving theory vocabulary " that he had to absorb when he passed his driving test a few years before he wrote " Golden Retriever " found its way into the songs lyrics which are a parody of the blues . The song shares the same key , D major , the same guitar tuning , D @-@ A @-@ D @-@ D @-@ A @-@ D , and was written around the same time as several other songs from Phantom Power including the " Father Father " instrumentals , " Hello Sunshine " , " Cityscape Skybaby " and " Out of Control " . " Golden Retriever " was recorded at the Super Furry Animals ' own studio in Cardiff along with the rest of Phantom Power .
= = Musical structure = =
" Golden Retriever " is 2 minutes 28 seconds long and is in the key of D major . The track begins with a descending riff on acoustic guitar before the band joins on 2 seconds with an electric guitar playing a three note riff ( D , F and G ) through a fuzz pedal . The first verse follows on 9 seconds with Gruff Rhys singing about meeting The Devil at a roundabout . The first chorus enters at 24 seconds with Rhys being joined by falsetto harmony backing vocals and a distorted electric guitar playing chords rather than single notes . A breakdown verse follows , leading into the extended second chorus which features shouted backing vocals chanting the song 's title . The outro begins at 1 minute 55 seconds , with lead guitar lines and heavy drums , featuring flanging , bringing the track to a climax .
= = = Alternative version = = =
A Killa Kela remix of " Golden Retriever " is included on the DVD version of Phantom Power and the album Phantom Phorce . Largely dispensing with the track 's instrumental backing ( apart from distant bass and occasional acoustic guitar ) the remix features Kela 's beatboxing alongside Rhys 's lead vocal and follows the arrangement of the original . The track is 2 minutes 33 seconds long and ends with a brief clip of the band 's road manager , in the guise of ' Kurt Stern ' , lamenting the fact that this " perfect rocking track " is simply about a dog .
= = Critical response = =
Critical reaction to " Golden Retriever " was generally positive and many reviewers commented on the track 's glam rock style — PopMatters described the track as " a fun blast of glam rock " , the NME called it " an irresistibly catchy ... glam stomper " , and The Guardian stated that the " unhinged glammy romp " cannot be faulted . The track was also described as being a parody of Robert Johnson type blues by Entertainment Weekly and a " brilliantly catchy anthem " by Angry Ape . Several critics noted the " goofy " and " silly " nature of the song , with comparisons made between " Golden Retriever " and both the Doctor Who theme music and The KLF 's " Doctorin ' the Tardis " . Some criticism was leveled at the song for being " too Radio 1 friendly " and for simply being " more of the same " from the band . In a 2006 feature on the Super Furry Animals ' back catalogue Incendiary Magazine went as far as to call the track " hogwash " .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Music video = =
The music video was directed by Jake & Jim and grew from an idea the band had to record a video in Iceland at the start of 2003 which didn 't come off . The video begins with a close up of a cardboard box featuring a logo of two apples with the title ' Golden ' . The band is shown playing along to " Golden Retriever " inside the box with Gruff Rhys wearing a red sports visor . Bassist Guto Pryce and keyboardist Cian Ciaran are both sat on settees with guitars on their laps which they are not playing . As the chorus begins the band transform into yetis and all begin playing " Golden Retriever " , several members headbanging in time with the track . The group wear their regular clothes for the second verse before the yeti costumes reappear for the second chorus . As the video ends the camera zooms out to show a Golden Retriever approach the box in an alleyway . The Super Furries raise their hands in the air and look up at the dog who then urinates on the box and runs away .
In an interview with BBC Manchester , drummer Dafydd Ieuan stated that , although he finds the video fun to watch , it was hard work to make because the yeti costumes were very heavy and incredibly hot . The band took the suits on tour with them but only wore them for " the last two minutes " of concerts because they were so warm . The video appears on the DVD release of the band 's greatest hits album Songbook : The Singles , Vol . 1 .
= = Single track listing = =
All songs by Super Furry Animals .
Digipak CD ( 6739062 ) , 7 " ( 6739067 )
" Golden Retriever " – 2 : 28
" Summer Snow " – 2 : 30
" Blue Fruit " – 4 : 43
DVD ( 6739069 )
" Golden Retriever ( Video ) " – 2 : 28
" Summer Snow " – 2 : 30
" Blue Fruit " – 4 : 43
= = Personnel = =
Gruff Rhys – vocals
Huw Bunford – guitar
Guto Pryce – bass guitar
Cian Ciaran – keyboards
Dafydd Ieuan – drums
Rachel Thomas – backing vocals
= = Singles chart positions = =
= Simon Wiesenthal =
Simon Wiesenthal ( 31 December 1908 – 20 September 2005 ) was an Austrian Nazi hunter and writer . He was a Jewish Austrian Holocaust survivor who became famous after World War II for his work as a Nazi hunter .
He studied architecture and was living in Lviv ( Lwów ) at the outbreak of World War II . After being forced to work as a slave labourer in Nazi concentration camps such as Janowska , Plaszow , and Mauthausen during the war , Wiesenthal dedicated most of his life to tracking down and gathering information on fugitive Nazi war criminals so that they could be brought to trial . In 1947 he co @-@ founded the Jewish Historical Documentation Center in Linz , Austria , where he and others gathered information for future war crime trials and aided refugees in their search for lost relatives . He opened the Jewish Documentation Center in Vienna in 1961 and continued to try to locate missing Nazi war criminals . He played a small role in locating Adolf Eichmann , who was captured in Buenos Aires in 1960 , and worked closely with the Austrian justice ministry to prepare a dossier on Franz Stangl , who was sentenced to life imprisonment in 1971 .
In the 1970s and 1980s , Wiesenthal was involved in two high @-@ profile events involving Austrian politicians . Shortly after Bruno Kreisky was inaugurated as Austrian chancellor in April 1970 , Wiesenthal pointed out to the press that four of his new cabinet appointees had been members of the Nazi Party . Kreisky , angry , called Wiesenthal a " Jewish fascist " , likened his organisation to the Mafia , and accused him of collaborating with the Nazis . Wiesenthal successfully sued for libel , the suit ending in 1989 . In 1986 , Wiesenthal was involved in the case of Kurt Waldheim , whose Nazi past was revealed in the lead @-@ up to the 1986 Austrian presidential elections . Wiesenthal , embarrassed that he had previously cleared Waldheim of any wrongdoing , suffered much negative publicity as a result of this event .
With a reputation as a storyteller , Wiesenthal was the author of several memoirs containing tales that are only loosely based on actual events . In particular , he exaggerated his role in the capture of Eichmann in 1960 . Wiesenthal died in his sleep at age 96 in Vienna on 20 September 2005 and was buried in the city of Herzliya in Israel . The Simon Wiesenthal Center , located in Los Angeles , is named in his honor .
= = Early life = =
Wiesenthal was born at 11 : 30 pm on 31 December 1908 , in Buchach , Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria ( then part of Austria @-@ Hungary , now Ternopil Oblast , in Ukraine ) . His father , Asher Wiesenthal , was a wholesaler who had emigrated from the Russian Empire in 1905 to escape the frequent pogroms , violent campaigns against Jews . A reservist in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Army , Asher was called to active duty in 1914 at the start of World War I. He died in combat on the Eastern Front in 1915 . The remainder of the family — Simon , his younger brother Hillel , and his mother Rosa — fled to Vienna as the Russian army took control of Galicia . The two boys attended a German @-@ language Jewish school . The family returned to Buczacz in 1917 after the Russians retreated . The area changed hands several more times before the war ended in November 1918 .
Wiesenthal and his brother attended high school at the Humanistic Gymnasium in Buchach , where classes were taught in Polish . There Simon met his future wife , Cyla Müller , whom he would marry in 1936 . Hillel fell and broke his back in 1923 and died the following year . Rosa remarried in 1926 and moved to Dolyna with her new husband , Isack Halperin , who owned a tile factory there . Wiesenthal remained in Buczacz , living with the Müller family , until he graduated from high school — on his second attempt — in 1928 .
With an interest in art and drawing , Wiesenthal chose to study architecture . His first choice was to attend the Lwów Polytechnic ( Polish : Politechnika Lwowska ) , but he was turned away because the school 's Jewish quota had already been filled . He instead enrolled at the Czech Technical University in Prague , where he studied from 1928 until 1932 . He was apprenticed as a building engineer through 1934 and 1935 , spending most of that period in Odessa . He married Cyla in 1936 when he returned to Galicia .
Sources give differing reports of what happened next . Wiesenthal 's autobiographies contradict each other on many points ; he also over @-@ dramatised and mythologised events . One version has Wiesenthal opening an architectural office and finally being admitted to the Lwów Polytechnic for an advanced degree . He designed a tuberculosis sanitorium , along with some residential buildings during the course of his studies and was active in a student Zionist organisation . He wrote for the Omnibus , a satirical student newspaper , and graduated in 1939 . Author Guy Walters states that Wiesenthal 's earliest autobiography does not mention studies at Lwów . Walters quotes a curriculum vitae Wiesenthal prepared after World War II as stating he worked as a supervisor at a factory until 1939 and then worked as a mechanic in a different factory until the Nazis invaded in 1941 . Wiesenthal 's 1961 book Ich Jagte Eichmann ( " I Hunted Eichmann " ) states that he worked in Odessa as an engineer from 1940 to 1941 . Walters says that there is no record of Wiesenthal attending the university at Lwów , and that he does not appear in the Katalog Architektów i Budowniczych ( Catalogue of Architects and Builders ) for the appropriate period .
= = World War II = =
In Europe , World War II began in September 1939 with the Nazi invasion of Poland . As a result of the partitioning of Poland under the Molotov @-@ Ribbentrop Pact between Germany and the Soviet Union , the city of Lwów ( now Lviv ) was annexed by the Soviets and renamed Lvov . Wiesenthal 's stepfather , still living in Dolina , was arrested as a capitalist ; he later died in a Soviet prison . Wiesenthal 's mother came to live with Wiesenthal and Cyla in Lvov . He bribed an official to prevent his own deportation under Clause 11 , a rule that prevented all Jewish professionals and intellectuals from living within 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) of the city , which was under Soviet occupation until the Germans invaded in June 1941 .
By mid @-@ July Wiesenthal and other Jewish residents had to register to do forced labour . Within six months , in November 1941 the Nazis had set up the Lwów Ghetto using Jewish forced labour . All Jews had to give up their homes and move there , a process completed in the following months . Several thousand Jews were murdered in Lvov by Ukrainian nationals and German Einsatzgruppen in June and July 1941 . In his autobiographies , Wiesenthal tells how he was arrested on 6 July , but saved from execution by his former foreman , a man named Bodnar , who was now a member of the Ukrainian Auxiliary Police . There are several versions of the story , which may be apocryphal .
In late 1941 , Wiesenthal and his wife were transferred to Janowska concentration camp and forced to work at the Eastern Railway Repair Works . He painted swastikas and other inscriptions on captured Soviet railway engines , and Cyla was put to work polishing the brass and nickel . In exchange for providing details about the railways , Wiesenthal obtained false identity papers for his wife from a member of the Armia Krajowa , a Polish underground organisation . She travelled to Warsaw , where she was put to work in a German radio factory . She spent time in two different labour camps as well . Conditions were harsh and her health was permanently damaged , but she survived the war . The couple was reunited in 1945 , and their daughter Paulinka was born the following year .
Every few weeks , the Nazis staged a roundup in the Lvov ghetto of people unable to work . These roundups typically took place while the able @-@ bodied were absent doing forced labour . In one such deportation , Wiesenthal 's mother and other elderly Jewish women were transported by freight train to Belzec extermination camp and killed in August 1942 . Around the same time , a Ukrainian policeman shot Cyla 's mother to death on the front porch of her home in Buczacz while she was being evicted . Cyla and Simon Wiesenthal lost 89 relatives during the Holocaust .
Forced labourers for the Eastern Railway were eventually kept in a separate closed camp , where conditions were a little better than at the main camp at Janowska . Wiesenthal prepared architectural drawings for Adolf Kohlrautz , the senior inspector , who submitted them under his own name . To obtain contracts , construction companies paid bribes to Kohlrautz , who shared some of the money with Wiesenthal . He was able to pass along further information about the railroads to the underground and occasionally left the compound to obtain supplies , even clandestinely obtaining weapons for the Armia Krajowa and two pistols for himself , which he took along when he escaped in autumn 1943 .
According to Wiesenthal , on 20 April 1943 , Second Lieutenant Gustav Wilhaus , second in command at the Janowska camp , decided to shoot 54 Jewish intellectuals in celebration of Hitler 's 54th birthday . Unable to find enough such people still alive at Janowska , Wilhaus ordered a roundup of prisoners from the satellite camps . Wiesenthal and two other inmates were taken from the Eastern Railway camp to the execution site , a trench 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) deep and 1 @,@ 500 feet ( 460 m ) long at a nearby sandpit . The men were stripped and led through " the Hose " , a six- or seven @-@ foot wide barbed wire corridor to the execution ground . The victims were shot and their bodies allowed to fall into the pit . Wiesenthal , waiting to be shot , heard someone called out his name . He was returned alive to the camp ; Kohlrautz had convinced his superiors that Wiesenthal was the best man available to paint a giant poster in honour of Hitler 's birthday .
On 2 October 1943 , according to Wiesenthal , Kohlrautz warned him that the camp and its prisoners were about to be liquidated . Kohlrautz gave Wiesenthal and fellow prisoner Arthur Scheiman passes to go to town , accompanied by a Ukrainian guard , to buy stationery . The two men escaped out the back of the shop while their guard waited at the front counter .
Wiesenthal did not mention either of these events — or Kohlrautz 's part in them — when testifying to American investigators in May 1945 , or in an affidavit he made in August 1954 about his wartime persecutions , and researcher Guy Walters questions their authenticity . Wiesenthal variously reported that Kohlrautz was killed on the Soviet Front in 1944 or in the Battle of Berlin on 19 April 1945 .
After several days in hiding , Scheiman rejoined his wife , and Wiesenthal was taken by members of the underground to the nearby village of Kulparkow , where he remained until the end of 1943 . Soon afterwards the Janowska camp was liquidated ; this made it unsafe to hide in the nearby countryside , so Wiesenthal returned to Lvov , where he spent three days hiding in a closet at the Scheiman 's apartment . He next moved to the apartment of Paulina Busch , for whom he had previously forged an identity card . He was arrested there , hiding under the floorboards , on 13 June 1944 and taken back to the remains of the camp at Janowska . Wiesenthal tried but failed to commit suicide to avoid being interrogated about his connections with the underground . In the end there was no time for interrogations , as Soviet forces were advancing into the area . SS @-@ Hauptsturmfuhrer Friedrich Warzok , the new camp commandant , rounded up the remaining prisoners and transported them to Przemyśl , 135 miles ( 217 km ) west of Lvov , where he put them to work building fortifications . By September Warzok and his men were reassigned to the front , and Wiesenthal and the other surviving captives were sent to the Kraków @-@ Płaszów concentration camp .
By October the inmates were evacuated to Gross @-@ Rosen concentration camp , where inmates were suffering from severe overcrowding and a shortage of food . Wiesenthal 's big toe on his right foot had to be amputated after a rock fell on it while he was working in the quarry . He was still ill in January when the advancing Soviets forced yet another evacuation , this time on foot , to Chemnitz . Using a broom handle for a walking stick , he was one of the few who survived the march . From Chemnitz the prisoners were taken in open freight cars to Buchenwald , and a few days later by truck to Mauthausen concentration camp , arriving in mid @-@ February 1945 . Over half the prisoners did not survive the journey . Wiesenthal was placed in a death block for the mortally ill , where he survived on 200 calories a day until the camp was liberated by the Americans on 5 May 1945 . Wiesenthal weighed 41 kilograms ( 90 lb ) when he was liberated .
= = Nazi hunter = =
Within three weeks of the liberation of Mauthausen , Wiesenthal had prepared a list of around a hundred names of suspected Nazi war criminals — mostly guards , camp commandants , and members of the Gestapo — and presented it to a War Crimes office of the American Counterintelligence Corps at Mauthausen . He worked as an interpreter , accompanying officers who were carrying out arrests , though he was still very frail . When Austria was partitioned in July 1945 , Mauthausen fell into the Soviet @-@ occupied zone , so the American War Crimes Office was moved to Linz . Wiesenthal went with them , and was housed in a displaced persons camp . He served as vice @-@ chairman of the area 's Jewish Central Committee , an organisation that attempted to arrange basic care for Jewish refugees and tried to help people gather information about their missing family members .
Wiesenthal worked for the American Office of Strategic Services for a year , and continued to collect information on both victims and perpetrators of the Holocaust . He assisted the Berihah , an underground organisation that smuggled Jewish survivors into the British Mandate for Palestine . Wiesenthal helped arrange for forged papers , food supplies , transportation , and so on . In February 1947 , he and 30 other volunteers founded the Jewish Historical Documentation Center in Linz to gather information for future war crimes trials . They collected 3 @,@ 289 depositions from concentration camp survivors still living in Europe . However , as the US and the Soviet Union lost interest in conducting further trials , a similar group headed by Tuviah Friedman in Vienna closed its office in 1952 , and Wiesenthal 's closed in 1954 . Almost all of the documentation collected at both centres was forwarded to the Yad Vashem archives in Israel . Wiesenthal , employed full @-@ time by two Jewish welfare agencies , continued his work with refugees . As it became clear that the former Allies were no longer interested in pursuing the work of bringing Nazi war criminals to justice , Wiesenthal persisted , believing the survivors were obligated to take on the task . His work became a way to memorialise and remember all the people that had been lost . He told biographer Alan Levy in 1974 :
When the Germans first came to my city in Galicia , half the population was Jewish : one hundred fifty thousand Jews . When the Germans were gone , five hundred were alive . ... Many times I was thinking that everything in life has a price , so to stay alive must also have a price . And my price was always that , if I lived , I must be deputy for many people who are not alive .
= = = Adolf Eichmann = = =
Though most of the Jews still alive in Linz after the war had emigrated , Wiesenthal decided to stay on , partly because the family of Adolf Eichmann lived a few blocks away from him . Eichmann had been in charge of the transportation and deportation of Jews in the Nazi Final Solution to the Jewish Question : a plan , finalised at the Wannsee Conference — at which Eichmann took the minutes — to exterminate all the Jews in Europe . After the war , Eichmann hid in Austria using forged identity papers until 1950 , when he left via Italy and moved to Argentina under an assumed name . Hoping to obtain information on Eichmann 's whereabouts , Wiesenthal continuously monitored the remaining members of the immediate family in Linz until they vanished in 1952 .
Wiesenthal learned from a letter shown to him in 1953 that Eichmann had been seen in Buenos Aires , and he passed along that information to the Israeli consulate in Vienna in 1954 . Fritz Bauer , prosecutor @-@ general of the state of Hesse in West Germany , received independent confirmation of Eichmann 's whereabouts in 1957 , but German agents were unable to find him until late 1959 . When Eichmann 's father died in 1960 , Wiesenthal made arrangements for private detectives to surreptitiously photograph members of the family , as Eichmann 's brother Otto was said to bear a strong family resemblance and there were no current photos of the fugitive . He provided these photographs to Mossad agents on 18 February . Zvi Aharoni , one of the Mossad agents responsible for Eichmann 's capture in Buenos Aires on 11 May 1960 , said the photos were useful in confirming Eichmann 's identity . On 23 May Israeli Prime Minister David Ben @-@ Gurion announced Eichmann was under arrest and in Israel . The next day Wiesenthal , while he was being interviewed by reporters , received a congratulatory telegram from Yad Vashem . He immediately became a minor celebrity , and began work on a book about his experiences . Ich jagte Eichmann : Tatsachenbericht ( I Chased Eichmann : A True Story ) was published six weeks before the trial opened in spring 1961 . Wiesenthal helped the prosecution prepare their case and attended a portion of the trial . Eichmann was sentenced to death and was hanged on 1 June 1962 .
Meanwhile , both of Wiesenthal 's employers terminated his services in 1960 , as there were too few refugees left in the city to justify the expense . Wiesenthal opened a new documentation centre in Vienna in 1961 . He became a Mossad operative , for which he received the equivalent of several hundred dollars per month . He maintained files on hundreds of suspected Nazi war criminals and located many , about six of whom were arrested as a result of his activities . Successes included locating and bringing to trial Erich Rajakowitsch , responsible for the deportation of Jews from the Netherlands , and Franz Murer , the commandant of the Vilna Ghetto . In 1963 Wiesenthal read in the newspaper that Karl Silberbauer , the man who had arrested famed diarist Anne Frank , had been located ; he was serving on the police force in Vienna . Wiesenthal 's publicity campaign led to Silberbauer being temporarily suspended from the force , but he was never prosecuted for arresting the Frank family .
In spite of Wiesenthal 's protests , in late 1963 his centre in Vienna was taken over by a local community group , so he immediately set up a new independent office , funded using donations and his stipend from the Mossad . As the 20 @-@ year statute of limitations for German war crimes was about to expire , Wiesenthal began lobbying to have it extended or removed entirely . In March 1965 the Bundestag deferred the matter for five years , effectively extending the expiration date . Similar action was taken by the Austrian government . But as time went on , it became more difficult to obtain prosecutions . Witnesses grew older and were less likely to be able to offer valuable testimony . Funding for trials was inadequate , as the governments of Austria and Germany became less interested in obtaining convictions for wartime events , preferring to forget the Nazi past .
= = = Franz Stangl = = =
Franz Stangl was a supervisor at the Hartheim Euthanasia Centre , part of Action T4 , an early Nazi euthanasia programme that was responsible for the deaths of over 70 @,@ 000 mentally ill or physically deformed people in Germany . In February 1942 , he was commander at the Sobibor extermination camp and in August of the same year he was transferred to Treblinka . During his time at these camps , he oversaw the deaths of nearly 900 @,@ 000 people . While in U.S. detention for two years , he remained unidentified as a war criminal because so few witnesses had survived Sobibor and Treblinka that authorities never realised who he was . He escaped while on a roadwork detail in Linz in May 1948 . After he made his way to Rome , the Caritas relief agency provided him with a Red Cross passport and a boat ticket to Syria . His family joined him there a year later and they emigrated to Brazil in 1951 .
It was probably Stangl 's brother @-@ in law who informed Wiesenthal of Stangl 's whereabouts in 1964 . Concerned that Stangl would be warned and escape , Wiesenthal quietly prepared a dossier with the assistance of Austrian Minister of Justice Hans Klecatsky . Stangl was arrested outside his home in São Paulo on 28 February 1967 and was extradited to Germany on 22 June . A month later Wiesenthal 's book The Murderers Among Us was released . Wiesenthal 's publishers advertised that he had been responsible for locating over 800 Nazis , a claim that had no basis in fact but was nonetheless repeated by reputable newspapers such as the New York Times . Stangl was sentenced to life in prison and died of heart failure in June 1971 , having confessed his guilt to biographer Gitta Sereny the previous day .
= = = Hermine Braunsteiner = = =
Known as " the Mare of Majdanek " , Hermine Braunsteiner was a guard who served at Majdanek and Ravensbrück concentration camps . A cruel and sadistic woman , she earned her nickname for her propensity to kick her victims to death . She served a three @-@ year sentence in Austria for her activities in Ravensbrück , but had not yet been charged for any of her crimes at Majdanek when she emigrated to the United States in 1959 . She became an American citizen in 1963 .
Wiesenthal was first told about Braunsteiner in early 1964 via a chance encounter in Tel Aviv with someone who had seen her performing selections at Majdanek — deciding who was to be assigned to slave labour and who was to immediately be killed in the gas chambers . When he returned to Vienna he had an operative visit one of her relatives to clandestinely collect information . Wiesenthal soon traced Braunsteiner 's whereabouts to Queens , New York , so he notified the Israeli police and the New York Times . In spite of Wiesenthal 's efforts to expedite the matter , Braunsteiner was not extradited to Germany until 1973 . Her trial was part of a joint indictment with nine other defendants accused of killing 250 @,@ 000 people at Majdanek . She was sentenced to life imprisonment in 1981 and died in 1999 .
= = = Josef Mengele = = =
Josef Mengele was a medical officer assigned to Auschwitz concentration camp from 1943 until the end of the war . As well as making most of the selections of inmates as they arrived by train from all over Europe , he performed unscientific and usually deadly experiments on the inmates . He left the camp in January 1945 as the Red Army approached and was briefly in American custody in Weiden in der Oberpfalz , but was released . He took work as a farm hand in rural Germany , remaining until 1949 , when he decided to flee the country ; he acquired a Red Cross passport and left for Argentina ; he set up a business in Buenos Aires in 1951 . Acting on information received from Wiesenthal , West German authorities tried to extradite Mengele in 1960 , but he could not be found ; he had in fact moved to Paraguay in 1958 . He moved to Brazil in 1961 and lived there until his death in 1979 .
Wiesenthal claimed to have information that placed Mengele in several locations : on the Greek island of Kythnos in 1960 , Cairo in 1961 , in Spain in 1971 , and in Paraguay in 1978 , the latter eighteen years after he had left . In 1982 , he offered a reward of $ 100 @,@ 000 for Mengele 's capture and insisted as late as 1985 — six years after Mengele 's death — that he was still alive . The Mengele family admitted to authorities in 1985 that he had died in 1979 ; the body was exhumed and its identity was confirmed . Earlier that year Wiesenthal had served as one of the judges at a mock trial of Mengele , held in Jerusalem .
= = = Simon Wiesenthal Center = = =
The Simon Wiesenthal Center in Los Angeles was founded in 1977 by Rabbi Marvin Hier using large donations from philanthropists Samuel Belzberg and Joseph Tennenbaum . Hier 's organisation paid Wiesenthal an honorarium for the right to use his name . The center helped with the campaign to remove the statute of limitations on Nazi crimes and continues the hunt for suspected Nazi war criminals , but today its primary activities include Holocaust remembrance , education , and fighting antisemitism . The center 's Holocaust museum , the largest in the United States , opened in 1993 . Moriah Films , the center 's media division , has won two Academy Awards , including one for the documentary Genocide ( 1982 ) . Wiesenthal was not always happy with the way the center was run . He thought the museum was not dignified enough and that he should have a larger say in the overall operations . He even wrote to the Board of Directors requesting Hier 's removal , but in the end had to be content with being a figurehead .
= = Austrian politics and later life = =
= = = Bruno Kreisky = = =
Shortly after Bruno Kreisky was inaugurated as Austrian chancellor in April 1970 , Wiesenthal pointed out to the press that four of his new cabinet appointees had been members of the Nazi Party . In an address in June , Kreisky 's Minister of Education and Culture Leopold Gratz characterised Wiesenthal 's Documentation Centre of the Association of Jewish Victims of the Nazi Regime as a private spy ring , invading the privacy of innocent parties . In an interview a week later , Kreisky himself described Wiesenthal as a " Jewish fascist " , a remark he later denied making . Wiesenthal discovered that he would be unable to sue , because under Austrian law Kreisky was protected by parliamentary immunity .
When his re @-@ election in 1975 seemed unsure , Kreisky proposed that his Social Democratic Party should form a coalition with the Freedom Party , headed by Friedrich Peter . Wiesenthal was in possession of information proving that Peter had been a member of the 1 SS Infantry Brigade , a unit that had exterminated over 13 @,@ 000 Jewish civilians in Ukraine in 1941 – 42 . He decided not to reveal this information to the press until after the election , but forwarded his dossier to President Rudolf Kirchschläger . Peter denied having participated in , or having knowledge of , any atrocities . In the end , Kreisky 's party won a clear majority and did not form the coalition .
In a press conference a short time after the election and Wiesenthal 's revelations , Kreisky said Wiesenthal used " the methods of a quasi @-@ political Mafia . " Wiesenthal filed a libel lawsuit ( although Kreisky had the power to declare immunity if he so chose ) , and when Kreisky later accused Wiesenthal of being an agent of the Gestapo , working with the Judenrat in Lvov , these accusations were incorporated into the lawsuit as well . The suit was decided in Wiesenthal 's favour in 1989 , but after Kreisky 's death nine months later his heirs refused to pay . When the relevant archives were later opened for research , no evidence was found that Wiesenthal had been a collaborator .
= = = Kurt Waldheim = = =
When Kurt Waldheim was named secretary @-@ general of the United Nations in 1971 , Wiesenthal reported — without checking very thoroughly — that there was no evidence that he had a Nazi past . This analysis had been supported by the opinions of the American Counterintelligence Corps and Office of Strategic Services when they examined his records right after the war . However , Waldheim 's 1985 autobiography did not include his war service following his recuperation from a 1941 injury . When he returned to active duty in 1942 , he was posted to Yugoslavia and Greece , and had knowledge of murders of civilians that took place in those locations during his service there . The Austrian news magazine Profil published a story in March 1986 — during his campaign for the presidency of Austria — that Waldheim had been a member of the Sturmabteilung ( SA ) . The New York Times soon reported that Waldheim had failed to reveal all of the facts about his war service . Wiesenthal , embarrassed , attempted to help Waldheim defend himself . The World Jewish Congress investigated the issue , but the Israeli attorney general concluded that their material was insufficient evidence for a conviction . Waldheim was elected president in July 1986 . A panel of historians tasked with investigating the case issued a report eighteen months later . They concluded that , while there was no evidence that Waldheim had committed atrocities , he must have known they were occurring , yet did nothing . Wiesenthal unsuccessfully demanded that Waldheim resign . The World Jewish Congress successfully lobbied to have Waldheim barred from entering the United States .
= = = Nobel Peace Prize nomination = = =
Wiesenthal was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize in 1985 , the fortieth anniversary of the end of the war . Rumour had it that the Nobel Committee would give the prize to a Holocaust @-@ related candidate . Fellow Holocaust survivor and author Elie Wiesel , also nominated , began a campaign in hopes of winning the prize , travelling to France , Ethiopia and Oslo for speaking tours and humanitarian work . Rabbi Hier of the Wiesenthal Center urged Wiesenthal to lobby for the prize as well , but other than delivering a lecture in Oslo , Wiesenthal did little to promote his candidacy . When Wiesel was awarded the 1986 prize , Wiesenthal claimed the World Jewish Congress must have influenced the Committee 's decision , a claim the WJC denied . Biographer Tom Segev speculates that the loss may have been because of the negative publicity over the Waldheim affair .
= = = Retirement and death = = =
Wiesenthal received many death threats over the years . After a bomb placed by neo @-@ Nazis exploded outside his house in Vienna on 11 June 1982 , police guards were stationed outside his home 24 hours a day . Cyla found the stressful nature of her husband 's career and the dragged @-@ out legal matters regarding Kreisky to be overwhelming , and she sometimes suffered from depression .
Wiesenthal spent time at his office at the Documentation Centre of the Association of Jewish Victims of the Nazi Regime in Vienna even as he approached his ninetieth birthday . The last Nazi he had a hand in bringing to trial was Untersturmführer Julius Viel , who was convicted in 2001 of shooting seven Jewish prisoners . Cyla died on 10 November 2003 , at age 95 . Wiesenthal retired shortly afterward . " I have survived them all . If there were any left , they 'd be too old and weak to stand trial today . My work is done , " said Wiesenthal . Wiesenthal died on 20 September 2005 , at age 96 , and was buried in Herzliya , Israel . He is survived by his daughter , Paulinka Kreisberg , and three grandchildren .
In a statement on Wiesenthal 's death , Council of Europe chairman Terry Davis said , " Without Simon Wiesenthal 's relentless effort to find Nazi criminals and bring them to justice , and to fight anti @-@ Semitism and prejudice , Europe would never have succeeded in healing its wounds and reconciling itself . He was a soldier of justice , which is indispensable to our freedom , stability and peace . "
In 2010 the Austrian and Israeli governments jointly issued a commemorative stamp honouring Wiesenthal . He had been a lifelong stamp collector , and his collection sold at auction for nearly € 500 @,@ 000 after his death .
= = Dramatic portrayals = =
Wiesenthal was portrayed by Israeli actor Shmuel Rodensky in the film adaptation of Frederick Forsyth 's The Odessa File ( 1974 ) . After the film 's release , Wiesenthal received many reports of sightings of the subject of the film , Eduard Roschmann , command
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09 to 06 : 27 .
The amphibious landing was planned in four waves , beginning at 06 : 30 . The first consisted of 20 Landing Craft , Vehicle , Personnel ( LCVPs ) carrying four companies from the 8th Infantry Regiment . The ten craft on the right were to land on Tare Green beach , opposite the strongpoint at Les Dunes de Varreville . The ten craft on the left were intended for Uncle Red beach , 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) south . Eight Landing Craft Tanks ( LCTs ) , each carrying four amphibious DD tanks of 70th Tank Battalion , were scheduled to land a few minutes before the infantry .
The second wave , scheduled for 06 : 35 , consisted of 32 LCVPs carrying four more companies of 8th Infantry , as well as combat engineers and naval demolition teams that were to clear the beach of obstacles . The third wave , scheduled for 06 : 45 , consisted of eight LCTs bringing more DD tanks plus armored bulldozers to assist in clearing paths off the beach . It was to be followed at 06 : 37 by the fourth wave , which had eight Landing Craft Mechanized ( LCM ) and three LCVPs with detachments of the 237th and 299th Combat Engineer Battalions , assigned to clear the beach between the high and low water marks .
Troops involved in Operation Overlord , including members of the 4th Division scheduled to land at Utah Beach , left their barracks in the second half of May and proceeded to their coastal marshalling points . To preserve secrecy , the invasion troops were as much as possible kept out of contact with the outside world . The men began to embark onto their transports on June 1 , and the 865 ships of Force U ( the naval group assigned to Utah ) began their journey from Plymouth on June 3 and 4 . A 24 @-@ hour postponement of the invasion necessitated by bad weather meant that one convoy , U @-@ 2A , had to be recalled and hastily refuelled at Portland . The ships met at a rendezvous point ( nicknamed " Piccadilly Circus " ) southeast of the Isle of Wight to assemble into convoys to cross the Channel . Minesweepers began clearing lanes on the evening of June 5 .
= = German preparations = =
Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt , overall commander on the Western Front , reported to Hitler in October 1943 regarding the weak defences in France . This led to the appointment of Field Marshal Erwin Rommel to oversee the construction of enhanced fortifications along the Atlantic Wall , with special emphasis on the most likely invasion front , which stretched from the Netherlands to Cherbourg . Rommel believed that the Normandy coast could be a possible landing point for the invasion , so he ordered the construction of extensive defensive works along that shore . In addition to concrete gun emplacements at strategic points along the coast , he ordered wooden stakes , metal tripods , mines , and large anti @-@ tank obstacles to be placed on the beach to delay the approach of landing craft and impede the movement of tanks . Expecting the Allies to land at high tide so that the infantry would spend less time exposed on the beach , he ordered many of these obstacles to be placed at the high @-@ tide mark . The terrain at Utah is flat , offering no high ground on which to place fortifications . The shallow beach varies in depth from almost nothing to 800 yards ( 730 m ) , depending on the tides . The Germans flooded the flat land behind the beach by damming up streams and opening the floodgates at the mouth of the Douve to admit seawater .
Defense of this sector of eastern coast of the Cotentin Peninsula was assigned to Generalleutnant Karl @-@ Wilhelm von Schlieben and his 709th Static Infantry Division . The unit was not well equipped , lacking motorized transport and provided with captured French , Soviet , and Czech equipment . Many of the men were Ostlegionen ( non @-@ German conscripts recruited from Soviet prisoners of war , Georgians , and Poles ) , known to be deeply unreliable . The southernmost 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) of the sector was manned by about 700 troops stationed in nine strongpoints spaced from 1 @,@ 100 to 4 @,@ 400 yd ( 1 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 000 m ) apart . Tangles of barbed wire , booby traps , and the removal of ground cover made both the beach and the terrain around the strongpoints hazardous for infantry . The German 91st Infantry Division and 6th Fallschirmjäger Regiment , who arrived in May , were stationed inland as reserves . Detecting this move , the Allies shifted their intended airborne drop zones to the southeast .
= = Units = =
= = D @-@ Day ( June 6 , 1944 ) = =
Bombing of Normandy began around midnight with over 2 @,@ 200 British and American bombers attacking targets along the coast and further inland . Some 1 @,@ 200 aircraft departed England just before midnight to transport the airborne divisions to their drop zones behind enemy lines . Paratroops from 101st Airborne were dropped beginning around 01 : 30 , tasked with controlling the causeways behind Utah Beach and destroying road and rail bridges over the Douve . Gathering together into fighting units was made difficult by a shortage of radios and by the bocage terrain , with its hedgerows , stone walls , and marshes . Troops of the 82nd Airborne began arriving around 02 : 30 , with the primary objective of destroying two additional bridges over the Douve and capturing intact two bridges over the Merderet . They quickly captured the important crossroads at Sainte @-@ Mère @-@ Église ( the first town liberated in the invasion ) and began working to protect the western flank . Generalleutnant Wilhelm Falley , commander of 91st Infantry Division , was trying to return to his headquarters near Picauville from war games at Rennes when he was killed by a paratrooper patrol . Two hours before the main invasion force landed , a raiding party of 132 members of 4th Cavalry Regiment swam ashore at 04 : 30 at Îles Saint @-@ Marcouf , thought to be a German observation post . It was unoccupied , but two men were killed and seventeen wounded by mines and German artillery fire .
Once the four troop transports assigned to Force U reached their assigned position 12 miles ( 19 km ) off the coast , 5 @,@ 000 soldiers of 4th Division and other units assigned to Utah boarded their landing craft in rough seas for the three @-@ hour journey to their designated landing point . The eighteen ships assigned to bombard Utah included the US Navy battleship Nevada , the Royal Navy monitor Erebus , and the heavy cruisers Hawkins ( Royal Navy ) and Tuscaloosa ( US Navy ) . Naval bombardment of areas behind the beach commenced at 05 : 45 , while it was still dark , with the gunners switching to pre @-@ assigned targets on the beach as soon as it was light enough to see , at 05 : 50 . USS Corry , a destroyer in the bombardment group , sunk after it struck a mine while evading fire from the Marcouf battery under the command of Oberleutnant zur See Walter Ohmsen . Since troops were scheduled to land at Utah and Omaha starting at 06 : 30 ( an hour earlier than the British beaches ) , these areas received only about 40 minutes of naval bombardment before the assault troops began to land on the shore . Coastal air bombardment was undertaken in the twenty minutes immediately prior to the landing by around 300 Martin B @-@ 26 Marauders of the IX Bomber Command . Due to cloud cover , the pilots decided to drop to low altitudes of 4 @,@ 000 to 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 to 1 @,@ 800 m ) . Much of the bombing was highly effective , with the loss of only two aircraft .
= = = Landing on beach = = =
The first troops to reach the shore were four companies from the 2nd Battalion , 8th Infantry , arriving at 06 : 30 on 20 LCVPs . Companies B and C landed on the segment code @-@ named Tare Green , and Companies E and F to their left on Uncle Red . Leonard T. Schroeder , leading Company F , was the first man to reach the beach . The landing craft were pushed to the south by strong currents , and they found themselves near Exit 2 at Grande Dune , about 2 @,@ 000 yards ( 1 @.@ 8 km ) from their intended landing zones opposite Exit 3 at Les Dunes de Varreville . The first senior officer ashore , Supernumerary General Officer Brigadier General Theodore Roosevelt , Jr. of the 4th Infantry Division , personally scouted the nearby terrain . He determined that this landing site was actually better , as there was only one strongpoint in the immediate vicinity rather than two , and it had been badly damaged by bombers of IX Bomber Command . In addition , the strong currents had washed ashore many of the underwater obstacles . Deciding to " start the war from right here " , he ordered further landings to be re @-@ routed .
The second wave of assault troops arrived at 06 : 35 on 32 LCVPs . Companies A and D of 1st Battalion , 8th Infantry landed on Tare Green and G and H on Uncle Red . They were accompanied by engineers and demolition teams tasked with removing beach obstacles and clearing the area directly behind the beach of obstacles and mines .
A contingent of the 70th Tank Battalion , comprising 32 amphibious DD tanks on eight LCTs , were supposed to arrive about 10 minutes before the infantry . However , a strong headwind caused them to be about 20 minutes late , even though they launched the tanks 1 @,@ 500 yards ( 1 @,@ 400 m ) from shore rather than 5 @,@ 000 yards ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) as planned . Four tanks of Company A and their personnel were lost when their LCT hit a mine about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) south of Iles St. Marcouf and was destroyed , but the remaining 28 arrived intact .
The third wave , arriving at 06 : 45 , included 16 conventional M4 Sherman tanks and 8 dozer tanks of the 70th Tank Battalion . They were followed at 06 : 37 by the fourth wave , which had eight LCMs and three LCVPs with detachments of the 237th and 299th Combat Engineer Battalions , assigned to clear the beach between the high and low water marks .
Company B came under small arms fire from defenders positioned in houses along the road as they headed to the enemy strongpoint WN7 near La Madeleine , northwest of La Grande Dune and 600 yards ( 550 m ) inland . They met little resistance at WN7 , the headquarters of 3rd Battalion , 919th Grenadiers . Company C disabled the enemy strongpoint WN5 at La Grande Dune , which had been heavily damaged in the preliminary bombardment . Companies E and F ( about 600 men ) proceeded inland about 700 yards ( 640 m ) to strongpoint WN4 at La Dune , which they captured after a short skirmish . They next travelled south on a farm road parallel to the beach towards Causeway 1 . Companies G and H moved south along the beach toward enemy strongpoint WN3 at Beau Guillot . They encountered a minefield and came under enemy machine gun fire , but soon captured the position . 70th Tank Battalion was expecting to have to help neutralize beach fortifications in the immediate area , but since this job was quickly completed by the infantry , they had little to do initially . The landing area was almost totally secure by 08 : 30 , at which point combat teams prepared to push further inland along the causeways . Meanwhile , additional waves of reinforcements continued to arrive on the beach .
Removal of mines and obstacles from the beach , a job that had to be performed quickly before the tide came in at 10 : 30 , was the assignment of 237th and 299th Combat Engineer Battalions and the eight dozer tanks . The teams used explosives to destroy beach obstacles and blow gaps in the sea wall to allow quicker access for troops and vehicles . The dozer tanks pushed the wreckage out of the way to create clear lanes for further landings .
= = = Moving inland = = =
The next move for the 4th Division was to begin movement down the three causeways through the flooded farmland behind the beach to link up with the 101st Airborne , who had dropped behind enemy lines before dawn . 2nd Battalion and several tanks headed down Causeway 1 towards Poupeville , which they discovered had already been captured by the 3 / 501st Parachute Infantry Regiment . A dozen German infantrymen , trapped between the two Allied forces , surrendered . Causeway 2 , directly behind La Grande Dune , eventually became the main exit road off the beach . Securing this causeway required the capture of Ste . Marie du Mont , about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) inland . The Germans had blown a small bridge over a culvert , and movement was delayed while engineers made a repair and cleared two inoperable tanks from the road . Causeway 2 quickly became congested , so some units opted to walk through the flooded areas beside the road . Several hundred defenders were positioned in and around Ste . Marie du Mont , including 6th Fallschirmjäger Regiment of the 91st Infantry Division . Members of the 506th Parachute Infantry successfully attacked batteries at Holdy and Brécourt Manor and took Ste . Marie du Mont in house @-@ to @-@ house and street combat , clearing the way for 8th Infantry , 3rd Battalion to advance up Causeway 2 practically unopposed . 8th Infantry , 1st Battalion headed up Causeway 3 towards Audouville @-@ la @-@ Hubert , which had already been captured by the 502nd Parachute Infantry . As at Poupeville , enemy soldiers ( in this case several dozen ) were caught between the two converging forces and had to surrender .
Meanwhile , 22nd Infantry , 3rd Battalion and five tanks moved north along the beach , tasked with eliminating as many German strongpoints as possible . They discovered that tank fire could only destroy the concrete pillboxes via a direct hit on the embrasures , so they called for artillery fire from the naval vessels offshore . By evening they had combined with 12th Infantry , who had travelled directly across the flooded fields to a position far short of their target for the day , to form a defensive perimeter on the northern end of the beachhead . On the southern end of the beachhead , about 3 @,@ 000 men of the 6th Fallschirmjäger Regiment moved into position near Saint @-@ Côme @-@ du @-@ Mont , preventing the 501st Parachute Infantry from advancing any further on D @-@ Day .
In the center , the 82nd Airborne were able to consolidate their position at Sainte @-@ Mère @-@ Église in part due to the work of First Lieutenant Turner Turnbull and a squad of 43 men , who held off for more than two hours a far larger enemy force that was attempting to retake the crossroads from the north . A task force led by Colonel Edson Raff that included 16 Sherman tanks of the 746th Tank Battalion , four armored cars , and a squad of infantry worked their way up from the beach , but were stopped from reinforcing Sainte @-@ Mère @-@ Église by a line of German defenders 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) south of the town . Reinforcements arrived by glider around 04 : 00 ( Mission Chicago and Mission Detroit ) , and 21 : 00 ( Mission Keokuk and Mission Elmira ) , bringing additional troops and heavy equipment . Like the paratroopers , many landed far from their drop zones . Even those that landed on target experienced difficulty , with heavy cargo such as Jeeps shifting during landing , crashing through the wooden fuselage , and in some cases crushing personnel on board . German defenders also took a toll on the glider units , with heavy losses inflicted in the area near Sainte @-@ Mère @-@ Église in particular . Members of the 82nd Airborne who had landed west of the Merderet were widely scattered and surrounded by enemy forces . They quickly realized that they would be unable to achieve their D @-@ day objectives and would have to wait for reinforcements . It took several days for this to happen as the Germans set up defensive positions along the river . For 36 hours , 82nd Airborne were unable to establish radio contact with other units or with Collins aboard his command ship , USS Bayfield .
82nd Airborne were finally relieved by 90th Division , who began disembarking at 16 : 00 on D @-@ Day and were all ashore by June 8 . The original plan for the 90th had been that they should push north toward the port of Cherbourg , but Collins changed their assignment : they were to cut across the Cotentin Peninsula , isolating the German forces therein and preventing reinforcements from entering the area . Their poor performance led to their being replaced by the more experienced 82nd Airborne and 9th Infantry Division , who reached the west coast of the Cotentin on June 17 , cutting off Cherbourg . The 9th Division , joined by the 4th and 79th Infantry Divisions , took control of the peninsula in fierce fighting . Cherbourg fell during the Battle of Cherbourg on June 26 , but by this time the Germans had destroyed the port facilities , which were not brought back into full operation until September .
= = = Maps = = =
= = Success = =
The 4th Infantry Division did not meet all their D @-@ Day objectives at Utah Beach , partly because they had arrived too far to the south , but they landed 21 @,@ 000 troops at the cost of only 197 casualties . Airborne troops arriving by parachute and glider numbered an additional 14 @,@ 000 men , with 2 @,@ 500 casualties . Around 750 men were lost in engineering units , 70th Tank Battalion , and LCTs and other vessels sunk by the enemy . German losses are unknown .
Forces landing on Utah Beach cleared the immediate area in less than an hour , and penetrated 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) inland by the close of D @-@ Day . Within two hours of landing , the 82nd Airborne captured the important crossroads at Sainte @-@ Mère @-@ Église , but they failed to neutralize the line of defenses along the Merderet on D @-@ Day as planned . While many of the airborne forces landed far from their drop zones and were unable to meet all their D @-@ Day objectives , this widespread scattering of forces had the unintended side effect of confusing the German defenders , who were slow to react .
The highly trained 4th Division faced a mediocre German unit composed of conscripts ; all the best troops had been sent to the Eastern Front . The Allies achieved and maintained air superiority , which meant that the Germans were unable to make observations of preparations underway in Britain prior to the invasion and were unable to launch airborne counterassaults on D @-@ Day . Extensive Allied reconnaissance provided the attackers with detailed maps of the defenses and terrain . Unlike neighboring Omaha Beach , the preliminary aerial bombardment was highly effective at Utah . Indecisiveness and an overcomplicated command structure on the part of the German high command was also a factor in the Allied success at Utah and throughout the Normandy campaign .
= Russian battleship Ekaterina II =
Ekaterina II ( Russian : Екатерина II Catherine II of Russia ) was the lead ship of the Ekaterina II @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Russian Navy in the 1880s . Her crew was considered unreliable when the crew of the battleship Potemkin mutinied in June 1905 and her engines were decoupled from the propellers to prevent her from joining Potemkin . She was turned over to the Sevastopol port authorities before being stricken on 14 August 1907 . She was re @-@ designated as Stricken Vessel Nr. 3 on 22 April 1912 before being sunk as a torpedo target for the Black Sea Fleet .
= = Design and description = =
Ekaterina II was 331 feet 8 @.@ 5 inches ( 101 @.@ 1 m ) long at the waterline and 339 feet 3 inches ( 103 @.@ 40 m ) long overall . She had a beam of 68 feet 11 inches ( 21 @.@ 0 m ) and a draft of 27 feet 11 inches ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) , 24 inches ( 610 mm ) more than designed . Her displacement was 11 @,@ 050 long tons ( 11 @,@ 230 t ) at load , almost 900 long tons ( 910 t ) more than her designed displacement of 10 @,@ 181 long tons ( 10 @,@ 344 t ) .
Ekaterina II had two 3 @-@ cylinder vertical compound steam engines built by the Baltic Works . Fourteen cylindrical boilers , also built by the Baltic Works , provided steam to the engines . The engines had a total designed output of 9 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 6 @,@ 700 kW ) , but they produced 9 @,@ 101 ihp ( 6 @,@ 787 kW ) on trials and gave a top speed of 15 @.@ 25 knots ( 28 @.@ 24 km / h ; 17 @.@ 55 mph ) . At full load she carried 900 long tons ( 910 t ) of coal that provided her a range of 2 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 200 km ; 3 @,@ 200 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) and 1 @,@ 367 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 532 km ; 1 @,@ 573 mi ) at 14 @.@ 5 knots ( 26 @.@ 9 km / h ; 16 @.@ 7 mph ) .
Ekaterina II differed from her sisters mainly in her 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) gun mounts . Her guns used bulky , hydraulically powered Moncrieff disappearing gun mounts . They had a rate of fire of five minutes , ten seconds between aimed rounds . Each of the forward mounts could traverse 30 ° across the bow and 35 ° abaft the beam , or a total of 155 ° . Sixty rounds per gun were carried . The main guns were mounted very low , ( only 4 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) ) above the main deck , and caused extensive damage to the deck when fired over the bow or stern . The seven 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) Obukhov Model 1877 35 @-@ calibre guns were mounted on broadside pivot mounts in hull embrasures , except for one gun mounted in the stern in the hull . Six of the eight 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) five @-@ barrelled revolving Hotchkiss guns were mounted in small sponsons that projected from the hull with the aftermost pair mounted in embrasures in the hull to defend the ship against torpedo boats . Four 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) five @-@ barrelled revolving Hotchkiss guns were mounted in the fighting top . She carried seven above @-@ water 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) torpedo tubes , one tube forward on each side , able to bear on forward targets , two other tubes mounted on each broadside forward and aft of the central citadel and the seventh tube was in the stern .
= = History = =
Ekaterina II was named after the Empress Catherine II of Russia . She was the only one of her class to be built by the Nikolayev Admiralty Dockyard at Nikolaev . The ship was laid down on 26 June 1883 , launched on 20 May 1886 , and completed in 1889 . She ran her first trials in 1888 , after she had been transferred to Sevastopol to be fitted out , and spent her career with the Black Sea Fleet . In 1897 the Naval General Staff proposed to re @-@ gun her with more powerful 12 @-@ inch 40 @-@ calibre guns and to replace the compound armour of her redoubt with Krupp armor , but this proved to be too expensive . Her machinery was upgraded between mid @-@ 1898 and 1902 . Her boilers were replaced with eighteen Belleville water @-@ tube boilers and her engines were converted to triple expansion . On trials after the refit she made 9 @,@ 978 ihp ( 7 @,@ 441 kW ) and a speed of 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) on 8 November 1902 .
Her crew was considered sympathetic to the revolutionary movement when the crew of the battleship Potemkin mutinied in June 1905 and her engines were disabled to prevent her from joining Potemkin . She was turned over to the Sevastopol port authorities before being stricken on 14 August 1907 . She was re @-@ designated as Stricken Vessel Nr. 3 on 22 April 1912 before being sunk as a torpedo target . The remnants of the ship were salvaged in 1914 in Nikolaev .
= Since U Been Gone =
" Since U Been Gone " is a song recorded by American pop rock singer Kelly Clarkson from her second studio album , Breakaway ( 2004 ) . The song , which was written and produced by Max Martin and Lukasz " Dr. Luke " Gottwald , was released as the lead single from Breakaway two weeks before the album was released . It is an uptempo pop rock , and power pop song that infuses electronic sound with a mixture of soft and loud alternative rock sound . Martin originally wrote " Since U Been Gone " with Pink in mind but she turned it down . It was then given to Hilary Duff but she rejected the song because she could not reach its higher notes . The song was finally given to Clarkson after Clive Davis convinced the writers to give it to her . Clarkson decided to add heavier guitars and harder drums to the song after noticing that the demo had an obvious pop sound . Lyrically , the song is written from a woman 's point of view where she expresses her sense of relief with the end of her troubled relationship .
" Since U Been Gone " received positive reviews from music critics who considered the song to be the highlight of Breakaway . Critics also felt that it was one of the best pop songs in the last decade . Rolling Stone ranked it at number 482 of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time in 2010 . " Since U Been Gone " was a commercial success . In the United States , the song peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100 . It topped the US Pop 100 for six consecutive weeks and the US Pop Songs for seven consecutive weeks respectively . It was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of over one million copies sold . " Since U Been Gone " was also a worldwide success , peaking in the top five in Austria , Australia , Ireland , the Netherlands and the United Kingdom . It also peaked in the top ten in Norway , Germany and Switzerland .
Clarkson performed " Since U Been Gone " at the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards and at the 2006 BRIT Awards . It has been included on the set @-@ list of Clarkson 's many tours . The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Alex De Rakoff , which shows Clarkson ruining her ex @-@ boyfriend 's apartment . The music video was nominated for three awards in the 2005 MTV Music Awards , winning two out of the three awards namely Best Female Video and Best Pop Video . At the 48th Grammy Awards , the song won the award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance . " Since U Been Gone " was covered by many artists , notably the American rock band A Day to Remember , indie rocker Ted Leo as well as the Canadian indie rock band , Tokyo Police Club , and used in Brazilian soap opera Malhação .
= = Background and writing = =
In an interview for Blender , Martin and Dr. Luke revealed that they had originally intended Pink to sing " Since U Been Gone " , however , she turned it down . Dr. Luke also explained that Hilary Duff 's management was interested in the song but rejected it because Duff could not reach the song 's higher notes . It was Clive Davis who convinced Martin and Dr. Luke to give the song to Clarkson , even though they were initially reluctant . Davis said , " Max was looking to move on from what he had done with Backstreet Boys , and I really spent time convincing them that an ' American Idol ' winner could bring all the feeling and passion that was required to the song . " According to MTV , Clarkson had already finished recording her materials for her second album , Breakaway in late 2004 when she was advised by her A & R to fly to Sweden to meet with Martin and Dr. Luke . Both Martin and Dr. Luke were associated with pop music but they wanted to produce rock songs . Realizing that her record was more into the rock , Clarkson finally agreed to collaborate with them . " In an interview with Billboard , Dr. Luke explained the genesis of " Since U Been Gone " , saying
" That was a conscious move by Max and myself , because we were listening to alternative and indie music and talking about some song – I don 't remember what it was . I said , ' Ah , I love this song , ' and Max was like , ' If they would just write a damn pop chorus on it ! ' It was driving him nuts , because that indie song was sort of on six , going to seven , going to eight , the chorus comes . . . and it goes back down to five . It drove him crazy . And when he said that , it was like , light bulb . ' Why don 't we do that , but put a big chorus on it ? ' It worked . "
" Since U Been Gone " was the last track that Clarkson recorded for Breakaway ; it was recorded in Sweden . At first , Clarkson was not fully convinced at the prospect of recording the song saying , " It didn 't have any lyrics and the melody really wasn 't finalized [ ... ] the track was done on a computer , there was no band on it . My record label was freaking out about it and I was , like , why ? " Clarkson also explained that when she first heard " Since U Been Gone " , she felt that it sounded a little bit pop for her direction and she decided to tweak the song musically by incorporating drums and guitars . Clarkson told MTV that the song is about a relationship turned sour although it was going well at the very beginning . The song was officially released to mainstream radio stations in the United States on November 16 , 2004 as the lead single of Breakaway .
= = Composition = =
" Since U Been Gone " was written and produced by Max Martin and Dr. Luke . The song , which is set in common time with a moderate tempo of 132 beats per minute , is written in the key of G major . Popdose staff noted that the song contains " electronics @-@ enhanced sheen " which infuses an appropriate dichotomy between the loud and soft sound of alternative @-@ rock . The song also incorporates ringing guitars with plaintive lyrics and a huge chorus . It has a chord progression of G @-@ Am – Em – F and Clarkson 's vocal range in the song spans two octaves from the low note of G3 to the high note of G5 . Film Laureate of Blogcritics praised " Since U Been Gone " for its " high energy , vocally powered , pop / rock jam with a hook that is infectious . " The same opinion was echoed by Entertainment Weekly staff who thought that the song highlighted Clarkson 's " sublime " vocals and praised the song for its " addictive " hook . Dave Donnelly of Sputnikmusic compared the musical arrangements of " Since U Been Gone " to Clarkson 's " Behind These Hazel Eyes " . He opined that the two songs allow the melodies to represent themselves because the tight musical arrangements complement Clarkson 's vocals .
The song 's narrative is in first person , from the point of view of a woman who is relieved with the end of her relationship . Steve Lampiris of ZME Music lauded Clarkson 's vocals as the heart of the song . He praised the way Clarkson sings the chorus , which implies that she was the one who ended the relationship . He also thought that the line " I can breathe for the first time / I ’ m so moving on , yeah yeah " was believable " that either her ex is a total prick or she 's deserves [ sic ] an Oscar nom . " In an interview with Dan Snierson of Entertainment Weekly , it was noted that Clarkson sang " So together but so broken up inside / ' Cause I can 't breathe " in " Behind These Hazel Eyes " but in " Since U Been Gone " , she sang " But since you been gone / I can breathe for the first time . " When asked whether she was a bipolar asthmatic , Clarkson responded that " Behind These Hazel Eyes " is about a dipstick who is unhappy because she has completely screwed up and " Since U Been Gone " is an expression of relief because her ex is now miserable .
= = Response = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The song received positive reviews from music critics . In his review for Breakaway , Stephen Thomas Erlewine of MSN considered " Since U Been Gone " , " Walk Away " , and " You Found Me " as the spine of the album . He added that the songs sound mainstream and youthful . Rohin of Blogcritics gave a positive response to the song , emphasizing that " it is almost one of the best pieces of throwaway pop in recent history " . He also thought that the song represents a song " that you can roll down the windows of your car and proudly headbang your way through a yellow light somewhere on a suburban side street . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine thought that Clarkson did a good impression of Pat Benatar in " Since U Been Gone " . He concluded his review by emphasizing that Breakaway proves that Clarkson has successfully dodged the sophomore slump but " Since U Been Gone " helped her establish her success . The staff of Slant Magazine later ranked " Since U Been Gone " at number thirteen in their list of Best Singles of the Aughts , writing that the song proves Clarkson 's powerful ability as a vocalist as well as her versatility as an artist .
Stephen Thompson of NPR Music called the song " one of the decade 's finest pop anthems " which is infused with energy , charisma and full @-@ throated intensity . Steve Lampiris of ZME Music opined that the song is " one of very few perfect pop songs released in the last ten years , " stating that it is hard to determine the principal reason that makes the song very successful . Gary Trust of Billboard thought that " Since U Been Gone " is a defining song of the 2000s . He commented on its status as a blueprint for female pop songs , as seen in song productions by artists such as Miley Cyrus , Katy Perry and Pink . In 2014 , Ryan Kailath of NPR Music argued that the song succeeded by borrowing from musical trends that preceded it , such as 1990s R & B and alternative rock . In 2015 , Gary Trust of Billboard wrote that " Kelly Clarkson 's " Since U Been Gone , " co @-@ written by Max Martin , especially helped lead to pure pop 's reemergence , and the breakthroughs of Rihanna , Katy Perry , Swift and Lady Gaga would soon follow ( as well as Spears ' own revival ) " , stating that the song " began to erode hip @-@ hop 's early ' 00s reign , with women at the forefront of turning the tide " .
= = = Awards and recognition = = =
At the 48th Grammy Awards , " Since U Been Gone " won the category of Best Female Pop Vocal Performance . At the 2005 Teen Choice Awards , the song won the category of Choice Single . It also won the award for Best Pop Sing @-@ Along Song at the 2005 XM Nation Music Awards . The song received a nomination in the category of Song of the Year : Mainstream Hit Radio at the 2005 Radio Music Awards but lost to Mariah Carey 's " We Belong Together " . At the 2005 Billboard Music Awards , the song received nominations for two awards . It received a nomination for the Hot 100 Single of the Year but lost to Mariah Carey 's " We Belong Together " and for the Digital Song of the Year but lost to Gwen Stefani 's " Hollaback Girl " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Since U Been Gone " entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number seventy for the week ending December 18 , 2004 . On its second week , the song moved to number fifty @-@ three , before jumping to number thirty @-@ eight the following week . During the week ending April 9 , 2005 , " Since U Been Gone " ascended to a new peak of number two on the Billboard Hot 100 , second to 50 Cent 's " Candy Shop " . This made " Since U Been Gone " the first pop song by a solo female artist to reach the top two chart positions in 2005 . The song also became the first non @-@ R & B / hip hop song by a solo female artist to reach top two on the chart since Christina Aguilera 's " Beautiful " hit number two in February 2003 . Fred Bronson of Billboard noted that had " Since U Been Gone " moved to number one , it would become the 41st chart @-@ topper for the American Idol franchise . The song stayed in the top ten on the Billboard Hot 100 for twenty weeks . After the week ending March 26 , 2005 , the song topped the US Pop 100 for six consecutive weeks , through the week ending March 26 , 2005 . It also spent seven consecutive weeks at number one on the US Pop Songs . On the Billboard 's Radio Songs chart , the song peaked at number four on April 23 , 2005 . Since U Been Gone was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on January 25 , 2006 . As of January 2014 , " Since U Been Gone " has sold 2 @,@ 736 @,@ 000 paid digital downloads .
Internationally , " Since U Been Gone " was a commercial success . In Australia , the song debuted and peaked at number three on February 13 , 2005 . It was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipments of over 70 @,@ 000 units . In New Zealand , Since U Been Gone debuted at number eighteen on the week ending March 21 , 2005 . Three weeks later , it peaked at number eleven and matched that position for three non @-@ consecutive weeks . On July 16 , 2005 , " Since U Been Gone " debuted and peaked at number five in the United Kingdom and as of April 2016 the song sold over 400 @,@ 000 copies there . In Ireland , it entered the Irish Singles Chart at number eight on the week ending July 7 , 2005 and peaked at number four three weeks later . Elsewhere in Europe , the song was also a success ; it peaked at number three in Austria , number seven in Switzerland , number nine in Norway , number ten in the Netherlands , and number 16 in Sweden .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background = = =
The music video for " Since U Been Gone " was directed by Alex De Rakoff in early November 2004 . Clarkson told MTV that she conceived the idea of the video after assuming that revenge is what every girl wants to do when their boyfriend cheats on them . She added , " You know , ' Why don 't I just go trash her house ? [ ... ] And so I do it in the video . All I do is break stuff . It 's a cool job . I could get used to this . " Clarkson expressed that in the music video , viewers would get to see her act out of character . She explained , " In the beginning , I 'm like tipping things over and smearing mud all over the walls and it seems like my apartment , but it ends up being the other girl 's that he 's with , so it 's a humorous video . " The music video premiered on Total Request Live on November 16 , 2004 .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The music video begins with Clarkson sitting on a couch in an apartment 's living room , holding a heart @-@ shaped locket in her hand . The next scene shows Clarkson in the bathroom where she fixes her face in the mirror , she opens the medicine cabinet and tossing all the pills in the medicine cabinet over her shoulder and messing all the bathroom items on the floor , squirting the toothpaste into the sink . When she gets to a container of birth control pills , she turns on the water in the sink , snaps the pills out , and drops them down the drain . Clarkson then starts to take other items ; she throws a container of makeup powder spray in the air and smears a container of facial mud mask on the wall . During the chorus , Clarkson and her band perform the song for a dancing crowd in a club . After the first chorus , Clarkson walks into a room full of closets . She cuts up dresses , rifling through the closets and pulling out clothes , destroying them and singing in a pile of them . After the second chorus , she walks into a bedroom and begins to tear the pillow on the bed , filling the room with feathers . The scenes of Clarkson singing with her band then alternate with a montage of her destroying the apartment , breaks the glass window from the door , breaks the vase , television , clock , fridge , lights , microwave , phone , furniture and the chair . Later , Clarkson takes a framed photo of her ex @-@ boyfriend with another girl in the living room , before pushing a tall CD rack over . She then smashes the framed photo through a glass table , breaking it in half . Having decimated the apartment , Clarkson walks out the door and down the hallway with a hat on her head , just as her ex @-@ boyfriend appears with his girlfriend , walking arm in arm . Clarkson hides her face as she walks away from them . The final scene shows the couple seeing their damaged apartment in shock and the scene of the locket swinging .
= = = Reception and accolades = = =
Stephen Thompson of NPR Music was disappointed with the music video because it " undercuts its message to an alarming degree : The words say ' Since you 've been gone / I can breathe for the first time , ' but the pictures say , ' Breaking up with you necessitates destroying all of your property . ' " At the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards , the music video received nominations for three awards ; it won Best Female Video and Best Pop Video , and received a nomination for the Viewer 's Choice Awards but lost to Green Day 's " Boulevard of Broken Dreams " . MusicOMH ranked the music video as the 86th best video of the last decade . In February 2012 , the music video received a Pop @-@ Up Video treatment by VH1 which shows " pops up " bubbles containing trivia , witticisms and borderline sexual innuendos throughout the video .
= = Live performances = =
Clarkson performed " Since U Been Gone " at the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards . Her performance garnered positive reviews from critics , who considered it one of the highlights in the event . Performing barefoot , Clarkson sang the song as rain cascaded onto the audience . Clarkson told People that one of her favourite moments on television was performing " Since U Been Gone " at the MTV Video Music Awards , saying " I hate being all dressed up , so the fact that I was soaking wet with mascara smeared all over my face was definitely the highlight of my evening ! " Becky Bain of Idolator thought that the performance was Clarkson 's most memorable live performances while Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times thought Clarkson 's performance was very solid despite the feeling that she sounded better dry than drenched . Clarkson performed the song on Saturday Night Live in 2005 , along with the 2006 BRIT Awards which took place in Earls Court , London .
" Since U Been Gone " was performed by Clarkson in her many headlining tours . It was included in the setlist of her My December Tour as an encore . While performing at Mohegan Sun Arena , Uncasville , Connecticut , Clarkson performed " Since U Been Gone " and let the audience sing the song 's chorus . Clarkson 's performance of the song at the Beacon Theatre , New York City stirred crowd into a frenzy , causing the show to be closed abruptly . During her All I Ever Wanted Tour , Clarkson performed the song at the Hammerstein Ballroom , where Caryn Ganz of Rolling Stone remarked that " the room turned into an electric sea of flailing arms and pogo @-@ ing heads . " In 2011 , Clarkson performed " Since U Been Gone " as well as " Mr. Know It All " on The Ellen DeGeneres Show while promoting her fifth album , Stronger . At the VH1 Divas Celebrates Soul television special , Clarkson performed a medley of " You Keep Me Hangin ' On " , " Spotlight " , " Real Love " , and " Since U Been Gone " with Mary J. Blige and Jennifer Hudson . The song was also performed by Clarkson during her 2012 Stronger Tour . While touring at the Times Union Center , Albany , New York , Clarkson performed the song with a musical arrangement . Grey Haymes of Times Union remarked that the song was " re @-@ made and re @-@ modeled with a throbbing , fuzzed @-@ out bassline and an irresistible techno pulse as the foundation for her hook @-@ filled pop song . " He also added that it was one of the several surprises from the concert .
= = Cover versions and use in media = =
" Since U Been Gone " has been covered by many artists . On September 27 , 2011 , Joseph Gordon @-@ Levitt covered the song in the style of Axl Rose on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon . The song was also covered by American musician Butch Walker in his 2005 album , Cover Me Badd . Dave Donelly of Sputnikmusic praised Walker 's cover for sticking closely to Clarkson 's version . American rock band A Day to Remember recorded their own version of " Since U Been Gone " which was included in the reissued version of their album , For Those Who Have Heart . Indie rock artist Ted Leo recorded an acoustic version of " Since U Been Gone " for a videotaped web session a few hours after watching the song 's music video . He commented , " It 's just one great hook after another . I also really appreciate the more advanced pop pastiche aspects of it . It 's written in a way that is so transparent in terms of drawing from a lot of what 's vaguely edgy and popular right now , but put together in such a perfect little package . It 's undeniable . " A cover of the song by Canadian indie rock band Tokyo Police Club was included in their " Ten Days , Ten Covers , Ten Years " project where they covered a song every day for ten days . " Since U Been Gone " was sampled in Girl Talk 's " Here 's The Thing " on his 2008 album , Feed the Animals . The song was included as the opening track of the American Idol 10th Anniversary – The Hits , a compilation album that celebrates 10 years of American Idol which features tracks from nine winners of the show .
" Since U Been Gone " has also been covered by contestants from reality television singing competitions . The song was performed by Todrick Hall on the eighth season of American Idol . Despite fulfilling the judges ' desire to hear something original , his rendition of the song drew criticism from the judges , with Simon Cowell commenting that Hall seemed like a dancer trying to sing . On November 26 , 2011 , Amelia Lily performed the song on the eighth series of The X Factor UK . Her rendition was praised by the judges ; Louis Walsh felt that her performance was effortless while Kelly Rowland remarked that " Amelia Lily hits those notes in her sleep ! " The song was also covered by Luke O 'Dell on the third season of The X Factor Australia . On June 13 , 2012 , John Legend and his duet partner , Meleana Brown , covered " Since U Been Gone " in Duets . Katy Kroll of Rolling Stone lambasted their cover for being " pitchy " and " almost unlistenable " , Gord Craig of Leader @-@ Post felt that Brown did not deliver her best although she sounded great with Legend . In the third season of The Sing Off , the winning group Pentatonix sang a " mastermix " of " Since U Been Gone " and " Forget You " . All three judges were impressed with Ben Folds commenting " You guys gave voices to the instruments " while Shawn Stockman , praising the rhythm and percussion section , renamed Kevin and Avi " Meat and Potatoes " .
" Since U Been Gone " was performed by Ester Dean and Skylar Astin in the 2012 musical comedy film , Pitch Perfect . Lanford Beard of Entertainment Weekly noted that the song was used during the audition sequences in the film , writing " Set to Kelly Clarkson ’ s " Since U Been Gone , " it arranged the singers in a clever a cappella tapestry that simultaneously landed laughs and showed off their talents . " Christy Lemire of The Boston Globe was positive of the song 's incorporation in the film during the audition process due to its beautiful editing which makes " it feels like a fresh take on the tried @-@ and @-@ true , bad @-@ first @-@ date montage . " The song was used in twelfth season of Brazilian soap opera Malhação . The song was also used in the first season Supergirl .
= = Legacy = =
As of 2014 , the song has appeared in more than 40 different albums either remixed or in its original format . The song propelled Clarkson to success in mainstream pop music and was regarded as a pop rock milestone in the 2000s . Entertainment Weekly put it on its end @-@ of @-@ the @-@ decade " best @-@ of " list , saying , " Can anyone do bitter better ? Nothing packs more romantic rage than the
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34 @.@ 6 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) , it was built for the 1994 Winter Olympics , where it hosted 16 ice hockey matches . It is the home of Gjøvik Hockey , has hosted the 1995 World Short Track Speed Skating Championships and is also used as an event venue . The structure is the world 's largest cavern hall for public use .
= = Construction = =
Because half the country 's surface consists of exposed rock , Norway has a tradition of building mountain cavern halls for many purposes , from tunnels via power plants to sport centers . These often double up as bomb shelters . Gjøvik Municipality opened Norway 's first underground swimming pool in 1974 . The idea to build an underground ice rink came from Consulting Engineer Jan A. Rygh while having dinner with Municipal Engineer Helge Simenstad in 1988 , after the latter said that Gjøvik had been awarded an ice rink for the Olympics . The first drafts were made on a napkin in the restaurant . An alternative proposal for a conventional rink was also made . Among the advantage of a cavern hall was that it would not take up valuable downtown property space or interfere with the town 's cityscape , yet it would be centrally located which would reduce travel costs , and there would be a stable year @-@ round natural temperature which would reduce cooling costs .
A budget was prepared by the Lillehammer Olympic Organizing Committee ( LOOC ) in December 1989 , and in April 1990 , the Parliament of Norway passed a grant . In October , LOOC and Gjøvik Municipality made an agreement to share the ownership of the venue . The municipal council took the decision to build underground on 24 January 1991 and the main planning was contracted to Fortifikasjon . Main architects were Moe – Levorsen . A research group was created , which had four main tasks : ventilation , energy , fire and safety ; the environment ; rock mechanism and geology ; and laws and regulations . The group also made marketing information to promote Norwegian underground technology internationally . In preparation for construction , drilling samples were taken and sent to SINTEF and the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute for testing . The rock is 800 to 1 @,@ 100 million year @-@ old gneiss which is well suited for creating caverns . Computer models were created , and estimates were based on the Q @-@ method .
Construction started on 1 April 1991 . Several points of attack were created to get the most rational work @-@ load . The first tunnel was created 10 meters ( 33 ft ) below the level of the roof of the cavern . First the roof was blasted , then work started downwards . The first eight months were used for excavation , and 140 @,@ 000 cubic meters ( 4 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of rock in 29 @,@ 000 truckloads were removed . 170 tonnes ( 170 long tons ; 190 short tons ) of dynamite were used during blasting . The mass was used to build a new marina , a lake @-@ side promenade and a parking facility . Throughout construction , surveillance was made continually of the rock , and the crown of the roof was measured to have settled 8 to 10 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 31 to 0 @.@ 39 in ) , which was as expected . Safety planning was done in cooperation with the National Office of Building Technology and Administration , and included the use of uninflammable materials , creation of sufficient fire exits .
The hall cost NOK 134 @.@ 6 million , of which NOK 88 @.@ 5 million was grants from the government . The hall opened on 6 May 1993 , with a show televised on national television and with 5 @,@ 000 guests . It was the 29th indoor ice hockey rink in Norway , and the world 's largest cavern hall for public use . At the time of opening , the venue was estimated to incur an operating cost of NOK 3 to 4 four million , and an operating deficit of NOK 1 @.@ 7 million . To finance this , the state established a fund similar to other Olympic venues , but the fund only received NOK 1 million , and the rest of the operating costs would have to be taken by the municipality . The venue is owned through Gjøvik Olympiske Anlegg , originally owned 70 % by Gjøvik Municipality and 30 % by Lillehammer Olympiapark , but later taken entirely over by the municipality .
= = Facilities = =
The facility is located just west of the town center of Gjøvik , with the main hall 120 meters ( 390 ft ) into the mountain . It is covered by 25 to 55 meters ( 82 to 180 ft ) of bedrock . In addition to a main hall , there is a swimming pool , a cafeteria and a telecommunications facility operated by Telenor . The main hall is designed as a multi @-@ use venue , and can feature indoor football , handball , basketball , volleyball , rifling and tennis , as well as concerts , dining and events .
The gross area of the complex is 14 @,@ 910 square meters ( 160 @,@ 500 sq ft ) , while the net area is 10 @,@ 010 square meters ( 107 @,@ 700 sq ft ) . The stadium covers 1 @,@ 965 square meters ( 21 @,@ 150 sq ft ) , the public areas cover 2 @,@ 224 square meters ( 23 @,@ 940 sq ft ) , the media center covers 2 @,@ 110 square meters ( 22 @,@ 700 sq ft ) , the participant facilities cover 263 square meters ( 2 @,@ 830 sq ft ) , the administrative and VIP facilities cover 577 square meters ( 6 @,@ 210 sq ft ) , and the operations , management , technical , electrical and storage facilities cover 2 @,@ 253 square meters ( 24 @,@ 250 sq ft ) . The main hall cavern has is 61 meters ( 200 ft ) wide , 91 meters ( 299 ft ) long and 25 meters ( 82 ft ) high . Seating capacity for the ice rink is 5 @,@ 800 , although it was 5 @,@ 300 during the Olympics . The grandstands have a safety area under them ; in case of a fire , spectators can be evacuated to these areas where they would remain until evacuation is safe . The hall duplicates as a civil defense facility , and is designed to withstand nuclear , conventional and gas attacks .
The Olympic venues were designed to reflect Norwegian culture and character . The hall was designed to play on Scandinavian folklore , such as the Hall of the Mountain King in Henrik Ibsen 's Peer Gynt and the caves of fairy @-@ tale trolls . This has for instance been emulated through the use of shotcrete on the walls to give a dark and mysterious impression . Lighting is used to create high contrast , such as from the entrance which is dark with pools of light , to the main hall which is brightly lit , to emphasize its size . The dark entrance is also used to adjust the spectators ' eyes so the main hall seems brighter . A contrast has also been used between the grandstands ' slender lines and the coarse finish of the cavern rock . Red was chosen as the hall 's main color because of natural occurrence of red in the rock . Glass tiles are used as they give associations to ice . Ventilation , energy and other installations use shine metal , representing silver embedded in the rock . The main hall is designed as an amphitheater with close contact between spectators and athletes .
= = Events = =
Since the opening , the venue has hosted Gjøvik Hockey , which started in 1993 in the Fourth Division . During the 1994 Winter Olympics , Gjøvik Olympic Cavern Hall hosted 16 ice hockey matches between 12 and 26 February , including two quarter @-@ finals and one semi @-@ final . The remaining matches were played at the larger Håkons Hall in Lillehammer . In March 1995 , the operator announced that the ice would remain throughout the year . Because of the natural cooling of the mountain , the operator saved 1 @,@ 000 kilowatts in heating costs by reusing the cooling system to heat the rest of the cavern hall . On 4 April 1995 , the venue was used to host an international match between Norway and Sweden .
Originally the 1995 World Short Track Speed Skating Championships was planned to take place at Hamar Olympic Amphitheatre in Hamar , the same venue which hosted short track speed skating at the 1994 Winter Olympics . However , because Storhamar was at scheduled time playing play @-@ offs in the Norwegian Ice Hockey Championship , it was in December 1994 decided to move the tournament to Gjøvik . The championship opened on Friday 17 March with the 1500 meter races , and was followed by the 500 meter races the following day . The remaining events were held on 19 March . It is the only time the world championship has been held in Norway . There were set six world records during the championship . Chae Ji @-@ Hoon 's time 4 : 56 @.@ 29 in the men 's 3000 meter and Chun Lee @-@ Kyung at 5 : 02 @.@ 18 in the women 's 3000 meter . Kim Yun @-@ Mi set the record on the women 's 500 meter at 45 @.@ 33 in an introductory race , while Frederic Blackburn set a world record at 2 : 19 @.@ 71 in the semi @-@ final of the 1500 meter . Both the relay teams also set world records : Canada with the men 's record at 7 : 09 @.@ 76 and the China with the women 's at 4 : 26 @.@ 68 . The hall was one of seven venues used during the group state of the 1999 World Women 's Handball Championship . Lillehammer is scheduled to host the 2016 Winter Youth Olympics and Gjøvik is set to host short track speed skating .
= Gus Winckel =
Willem Frederick August ( Gus ) Winckel ( 3 November 1912 – 17 August 2013 ) was a Dutch military officer and pilot who flew for the Royal Netherlands East Indies Air Force ( ML @-@ KNIL ) in World War II . During the attack on Broome , Western Australia , on 3 March 1942 , Winckel managed to land his plane full of refugees safely on the Broome airstrip just before the Japanese attack . He then dismounted the plane 's machine gun and shot down one of the Japanese fighters , the only Allied " kill " during the attack .
Shortly after the attack on Broome , Winckel was sent on a mission to Bandung , Java , to recover several officers from the Allied headquarters , which was under threat of being overrun . He served the remainder of the war with No. 18 ( Netherlands East Indies ) Squadron RAAF in Australia . After World War II , he fought in the Dutch Politionele acties .
= = Early life = =
Winckel was born on 3 November 1912 in Muntok , Bangka Island , in what was then the Dutch East Indies . On the island his parents ran a trading store in commodities such as rubber , tin and sugar . Winckel had an untroubled childhood and at age fifteen was sent back to the Netherlands to study at the nautical school in Delfzijl . He stayed with his grandparents while studying , and three years later became a seaman first class for the merchant marine . He specialised in navigation . In 1931 , when he was aged nineteen , Winckel started working as a quartermaster on the freighter Pallau , which sailed between the Netherlands and Java . After his work on the ship he went to the island of Borneo to work on oil rigs . By 1935 he returned to the Netherlands once more , this time to work for the Royal Netherlands Navy as a submarine torpedo calibrator . During his time at the Navy a friend showed him a flyer for a pilot position at the Netherlands East Indies Air Force , which was being formed at the time . Winckel joined the Air Force in 1935 and became a pilot at age 23 . Between 1935 and 1942 he flew transports across the Dutch East Indies , mainly in Lockheed Lodestars .
= = Attack on Broome and flight to Java = =
On 3 March 1942 , Flight Lieutenant Winckel was transporting refugees from the Bandung , Dutch East Indies , to Perth , Western Australia , in his Lockheed Lodestar . He had just stopped on the Broome Airfield to refuel when Broome was attacked by nine Japanese Zero fighter planes on a long @-@ distance raid from Kupang , Timor . Winckel saw the danger of his plane being on the open airstrip and proceeded to dismount the Colt 7.99mm machine gun from the plane . When one of the Zeros , piloted by Osamu Kudō , flew over at low altitude , Winckel managed to shoot him out of the air ; the crash killed Kudō . Winckel was thereby credited with the raid 's only " kill " on the Allied side . He also believed that he hit another Japanese plane that had to ditch in the sea . The Japanese destroyed 22 allied aircraft at Broome , many of them flying boats used for refugee transport and moored in Roebuck Bay . Winckel suffered severe burns to his hand during the attack , as he had to hold the machine @-@ gun barrel to aim . His hand was treated and Winckel flew medical evacuations for the next two days without rest .
Meanwhile , Japanese forces were taking over Java and threatening the Allied headquarters at Bandung . On 5 March , the Allied command decided that several senior RAF and RAAF officers had to be evacuated from Bandung . Winckel was chosen as the pilot . He protested the decision , arguing that his lack of rest would hinder his chances of finding Bandung in the dark as he did not have any electronic aids . However , Winckel was seen to be one of the most experienced pilots because of his terrain knowledge as a flight instructor at Bandung and his recent refugee flights . Another factor was that his Lodestar , although it had been damaged in the attack on Broome , was considered the most suitable plane for the evacuation mission . Winckel flew to Java , where he managed to land his plane on a road lit by jeep headlights . He picked up fourteen passengers , refuelled the plane and successfully returned to Australia .
= = Later service and life = =
Following the attack on Broome and his evacuation mission , Winckel was sent to Moruya , New South Wales , where he joined No. 18 ( Netherlands East Indies ) Squadron RAAF , which had been formed on 4 April 1942 . From Moruya he patrolled the Eastern Australian shore . At the end of May 1942 , a Japanese midget submarine attacked Sydney Harbour . Winckel and his fellow pilots were subsequently ordered to patrol for submarines . During a patrol on 5 June 1942 , Winckel managed to sink a Japanese submarine in his B @-@ 25 Mitchell bomber . The success was welcomed after the recent submarine attack and Winckel was personally congratulated by Australian Prime Minister John Curtin . Winckel spend the rest of the war with No. 18 Squadron and served from MacDonald Airfield and Batchelor Airfield in Northern Australia as a pilot on operations , and as an instructor working in Canberra . During the war , he was nicknamed " Lucky Bill " by his colleagues and " Babyface Killer " by the Japanese .
While a member of No. 18 Squadron , Winckel flew to the Dutch East Indies in late 1945 as part of an unauthorized " Recovery of Allied Prisoners of War and Internees " mission . Winckel was searching for his mother and sister but was unable to find them . Some time later another pilot flew over the Banjoe Biroe internment camp and saw the name ' NINI ' written on the ground with flour . This was the name of Winckel 's sister , to draw the attention of her brother , who she assumed was looking for her . Shortly afterwards , Winckel himself flew over the camp and dropped a letter to her , followed four days by a supply of food . After the war , Winckel was sent back to Indonesia to fight in the Dutch Politionele acties .
Winckel had met his future wife Yvonne prior to World War II ; they were married during the Dutch Politionele acties . The couple fled Indonesia after the country achieved its independence , and returned to the Netherlands where Winckel became an Air Force test pilot . The couple emigrated to New Zealand in 1951 . Winckel gained his commercial pilot license there and joined the Royal New Zealand Air Force Reserve . He flew de Havilland Tiger Moths out of Wanganui for a time but resigned as he considered the flying too dangerous owing to lax safety standards . The family moved to Nelson and Winckel found work in a flying school . He made his final flight in 1960 . Afterwards he ran several businesses and worked as an engineer until 1977 . He and his wife moved to Queensland , Australia , three years later . They returned to New Zealand in 2005 and settled down in Pukekohe .
In 2009 , a statue in Moruya was unveiled for Winckel and the other airmen that flew out of the airfield ; Winckel and Member of Parliament Mike Kelly attended . A street in Broome was also named after Winckel . He died on 17 August 2013 after suffering complications of a broken hip caused by a fall six months earlier ; he was survived by Yvonne and their three sons .
= = Decorations = =
1942 : Bronze Cross with Honorable Mention .
His Bronze Cross was later upgraded to a Bronze Lion .
= Gate to the Northwest Passage =
Gate to the Northwest Passage is a 1980 sculpture by Alan Chung Hung , located adjacent to the Vancouver Maritime Museum in Vanier Park in the Kitsilano neighborhood of Vancouver , British Columbia , Canada . The 4 @.@ 6 @-@ metre ( 15 ft ) sculpture of a square , cut and twisted " like a paper clip " to form an arch , is composed of weathered Corten steel that rusts to provide a protective layer . The work was installed in 1980 to commemorate the arrival of Captain George Vancouver in Burrard Inlet , following a competition sponsored by Parks Canada one year prior . Gate to the Northwest Passage received an adverse reaction initially , but reception has improved over time . The sculpture has been included in walking tours of the surrounding neighborhoods as a highlight of Vanier Park .
= = Background = =
Gate to the Northwest Passage was designed by Alan Chung Hung ( 1946 – 1994 ) , who was born in Canton , China , moved to Vancouver in 1969 , and studied at the Vancouver School of Art . In 1979 , Parks Canada sponsored a competition for a permanent work to commemorate Captain George Vancouver , the first European to enter Burrard Inlet , in 1792 . Guidelines for the competition required the use of permanent materials other than wood and that the work should " not be in the likeness of a man " . Hugh Faulkner , Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development during 1977 – 1979 , offered the opportunity for the sculpture , and the project was recommended by the Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada . Gate to the Northwest Passage was selected by a five @-@ person jury , led by former parks superintendent Stuart Lefeaux , then confirmed by the Parks Board . The work was originally to be installed at Stanley Park 's Ferguson Point , but was sited in Vanier Park adjacent to the Vancouver Maritime Museum in 1980 . Chung Hung 's other works displayed in Vancouver include Spring ( 1981 ) and Clouds ( 1991 ) .
The 4 @.@ 6 @-@ metre ( 15 ft ) sculpture of a square , cut and twisted " like a paper clip " to form an arch , is composed of weathered Corten steel . Each of the square 's sides measure 0 @.@ 9 metres ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) x 0 @.@ 9 metres ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) . The Corten steel rusts , forming a protective layer at the surface . The work , sited on a plaza of paving stones that measures 7 @.@ 9 metres ( 26 ft ) x 8 @.@ 5 metres ( 28 ft ) , frames views of English Bay , the North Shore Mountains and the city . In their guide for public art in Vancouver , John Steil and Aileen Stalker suggested two sources for the sculpture 's design : Chung Hung 's training as a civil engineer , and the shapes of plane tables and quadrants , both navigational instruments used by George Vancouver . According to Chung Hung : " The objective of the sculpture is to create a symbolic image with definite visual expression , awakening an awareness in Captain George Vancouver 's contribution to the world , his remarkable and meticulous surveys which included the north Pacific coast . " The sculpture is owned by the City of Vancouver , with Parks Canada serving as the sponsoring organization .
= = Reception = =
According to the City of Vancouver Public Art Registry , Gate to the Northwest Passage initially received an adverse reaction from local residents . Michael Duncan , then chief curator of the Vancouver Maritime Museum , called it " a bloody monstrosity " . One member of the five @-@ person jury responded to the criticism : " If people think Hung 's sculpture is a poor catch , they should have seen the ones that got away . "
A 1983 article published in The Globe and Mail referred to the sculpture as the " world 's largest paper clip " . The same article included a statement from the city planning study : " Vancouver 's peerless natural setting is a permanent gift from nature . So massive and close are the North Shore mountains that no amount of human folly can ever obliterate them . "
Reception of the work , which has become a familiar landmark , has improved over time . One travel guide by Eyewitness Books referred to Gate to the Northwest Passage as an " imposing giant red steel " sculpture . Frommer 's includes the sculpture in walking tours for Vancouver as a highlight of Vanier Park .
In 2006 , the work was mentioned in a Sunday serial thriller for The Province by author Daniel Kalla . In the series , the sculpture is described as a " massive Greek letter pi " , and later a character is found dead , hanging from the sculpture .
= M @-@ 168 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 168 was one of the shortest state trunkline highways in the US state of Michigan , extending 0 @.@ 953 miles ( 1 @.@ 534 km ) from a junction with M @-@ 22 in downtown Elberta to the former Ann Arbor Railroad ferry docks . It followed the south shore of Lake Betsie ( formed by the Betsie River before flowing into Lake Michigan ) . The highway was commissioned in 1931 and served as a connection to the car ferries until 1984 . The road was being reconstructed by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) in preparation to transfer it to village control . That transfer happened on April 24 , 2012 , and now the former highway is a village street .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 168 began at a junction with M @-@ 22 just west of where M @-@ 22 crosses over Lake Betsie . Known as Frankfort Avenue , M @-@ 168 then traveled to the northwest near the shore of the lake through a mixed residential and commercial area before turning slightly westward onto Furnace Avenue . Along Furnace Avenue , the roadway is lined with homes on one side and lake frontage on the other . Eventually , the road curves to the west where it intersects Betsie Valley Trail coming to its terminus shortly thereafter at the former Ann Arbor Railroad ferry docks .
= = History = =
M @-@ 168 had existed in its current location since 1931 . It was originally assumed into the state trunkline system at 0 @.@ 8 miles ( 1 @.@ 3 km ) in length . Aside from a minor realignment of the junction with M @-@ 22 in 1987 , the route had remained in this configuration since 1931 . From its creation until 1984 , the road was the main entrance for cars bound for boarding the car ferry .
An MDOT document indicated that in 2010 , a $ 2 @.@ 1 million project would reconstruct M @-@ 168 . Upon completion of the project , the route would be jurisdictionally transferred to the Village of Elberta , thereby removing M @-@ 168 from the state trunkline system . This transfer was finalized on April 24 , 2012 , and afterwards , the former M @-@ 168 was reclassified a village street .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway was in Elberta , Benzie County .
= Big Brother 11 ( U.S. ) =
Big Brother 11 was the eleventh season of the American reality television series Big Brother . It is based upon the Netherlands series of the same name , which gained notoriety in 1999 and 2000 . The series premiered on CBS on July 9 , 2009 and lasted ten weeks until the live finale on September 15 , 2009 . The eleventh season saw a slight increase in ratings when compared to the past season of the series , which had some of the lowest ratings to date . The season premiered to a total of 6 @.@ 59 million viewers , a slight increase from the previous season 's launch . Despite this , it is the second lowest premiere for a season behind Big Brother 10 . The season finale had a total of 7 @.@ 78 million viewers , continuing to average slightly above the past season . In total , the series averaged 7 @.@ 19 million viewers , higher than that of the previous two seasons . Big Brother 11 featured a total of 13 HouseGuests , one of which was a returning player from a previous season . The series ended after 73 days , in which HouseGuest Jordan Lloyd was crowned the winner and Natalie Martinez the runner @-@ up .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Big Brother 11 was produced by Endemol USA and Allison Grodner Productions with Allison Grodner , Rich Meehan and Scott Einziger returned as executive producer . This season of the program was announced on September 18 , 2008 , two days after the season finale of Big Brother 10 . Casting for the program began during the final week of Big Brother 10 with potential applicants submitting video tape submissions . Open auditions began on April 1 , 2009 in Michigan by local CBS affiliate WLNS @-@ TV and continued across the nation in various cities including Los Angeles , California , Chicago , Illinois , Waverly , Iowa , and Columbus , Ohio . Applications and video tape submissions were due by May 4 , 2009 . Applicants chosen to be a finalist went to Los Angeles , California from which applicants were narrowed down to a pool of forty finalists . Julie Chen interviewed casting director Robyn Kass and former HouseGuests Mike Malin and Brian Hart about the upcoming season and their experiences going through casting on March 19 , 2009 . Julie Chen confirmed that she would continue to host Big Brother during her pregnancy despite tabloid rumors stating she would take maternity leave .
= = = Prizes = = =
The 13 HouseGuests this season were competing for the main prize of $ 500 @,@ 000 . The winner of the series , determined by the previously evicted HouseGuests , would win the $ 500 @,@ 000 prize , while the Runner @-@ Up would receive a $ 50 @,@ 000 prize . Other than the main prize , various luxuries and prizes were given out throughout the season .
= = Broadcast = =
Big Brother 11 was broadcast on CBS from July 9 , 2009 to September 15 , 2009 . This season lasted a total of 73 days , making it the third shortest season of the series to date . This season featured no changes to the schedule that was used in the previous edition , with episodes airing on Tuesdays , Thursday , and Sunday each week . The Thursday episode , which aired at 9 PM Eastern time , featured the live eviction and subsequent Head of Household competition taking place . During the live eviction , the show was hosted by Julie Chen . The Sunday episode , which aired at 8 PM Eastern time , featured the food competition and nomination ceremony , as well as some highlights from the previous days . The Tuesday episode featured the Power of Veto competition and the Power of Veto ceremony , along with more highlights of recent events in the game . Some changes to the scheduling format were made . Chima 's expulsion from the game , for example , led to various changes in the formatting of the television broadcasts , and led to the cancellation of the upcoming Double Eviction week . The series was broadcast on Global Television Network in Canada . For the first time in the history of the show , Big Brother had a two @-@ hour live season finale , which aired on September 15 , an increase from the usual hour .
Much like the previous editions , the live feeds were also available again for this season . HouseGuests enter the house a few days before the premiere , and the feeds are not live for the first few days . They later go live after the broadcast of the launch episode . This season saw the cancellation of the spin @-@ off series House Calls : The Big Brother Talk Show . This made it the first season since Big Brother 4 to not feature the companion show , though various events and talk shows have been hosted by the live feed providers since the show 's cancellation . This season did , however , see the return of the Big Brother : After Dark spin @-@ off series , which aired on Showtime Too nightly from 12 a.m. to 3 a.m. Eastern Time . The show served as a live feed into the house , and was edited only for slanderous statements and music copyrights . Much like the previous season , Big Brother 11 is available for digital purchasing on iTunes and Amazon.com. Big Brother maintained an online platform with live subscription feeds from RealNetworks , a redesigned and relaunched website , online videos , full episodes , a fantasy game and segments on Inside Dish with Ross Mathews . For the first time Big Brother launched two Twitter accounts ; one featured updates from the production staff and one featured updates from the current Head of Household . Episodes of Big Brother continued to be streamed on CBS Mobile Channel on FLOTV . Mobile users were also able to interact and influence the show through SMS text messaging and , for the first time , a simulation game based on Big Brother was also available to mobile customers .
= = House = =
As with each season since Big Brother 6 , the program was filmed at CBS Studios in Studio City , California . The production team was located in the second story of the House which included the story department , audio department and the switchers and shaders . The House was equipped with 52 cameras and 80 microphones to record the participants . The art department that created the competitions for the program was located outside the House . The House theme was eco @-@ friendly and modern California living was released on June 29 during media day , where select members of the press were invited to spend 12 hours inside the House . Official pictures of the House interior were released by CBS on the same day , showing the living room , bedrooms , kitchen , bathroom , lounge room and backyard . The living room featured chipboard walls with fake plants along the side .
The spa that was featured in the House since season nine was removed and replaced with exercise bikes that when operated would power a light bulb . The former spa room featured recycled products like wood , plastic and aluminum turned into wallpaper . There was also a shipping container @-@ based bathroom , an open kitchen that paid respects to the Pacific Rim and a portable garden where the HouseGuests would collect compost and grow their own herb garden was added to the backyard . The House included four bedrooms each varying in design and comfort . The Head of Household bedroom featured a penthouse design with a waterfall and a faux ocean front view while the first bedroom featured a VIP club lounge design , while the second bedroom resembled the bottom of a public pool and featured a slide and beds that were designed to look like flotation devices . The third room initially used by the HouseGuests was later turned into the Have @-@ Not room , which was a simplistic gray bedroom with metal slabs used as beds .
= = Format = =
The format remained largely unchanged from previous seasons . HouseGuests were incarcerated in the Big Brother House with no contact to and from the outside world . Each week , the HouseGuests took part in several compulsory challenges that determined who would win food , luxuries and power in the House . The winner of the Head of Household competition was immune from nominations and was instructed to nominate two fellow HouseGuests for eviction . After a HouseGuest became Head of Household he or she was ineligible to take part in the next Head of Household competition . The winner of the Power of Veto competition won the right to save one of the nominated HouseGuests from eviction . If the Veto winner exercised the power , the Head of Household then had to nominate another HouseGuest for eviction .
On eviction night all HouseGuests except for the Head of Household and the two nominees voted to evict one of the two nominees . Before the voting began the nominees had the chance to say a final message to their fellow HouseGuests . This compulsory vote was conducted in the privacy of the Diary Room by the host Julie Chen . In the event of a tie , the Head of Household would break the tie and reveal their vote in front of the other HouseGuests . Unlike other versions of Big Brother , the HouseGuests could discuss the nomination and eviction process open and freely . The nominee with the most votes from the other HouseGuests was evicted from the House on Thursday and interviewed by Julie Chen . HouseGuests could voluntarily leave the House at any time and those who broke the rules were expelled by Big Brother . The last seven evictiees of the season form the Jury that voted for the winner on the season finale , they were known as the jury members . The jury members were sequestered in a separate house and were not allowed to watch the show except for segments that included all of the HouseGuests . The jury members were not shown any Diary Room interviews or any footage that included strategy or details regarding nominations .
In a change from previous seasons , the food competitions were changed to Have vs. Have @-@ Not competitions . HouseGuests were divided into either the " Haves " or the " Have Nots " depending on their performance in the competitions . HouseGuests that became " Have Nots " for the week were only allowed to eat slop and a weekly food restriction , chosen by the viewing public , cold showers and sleeping on metal beds . A new rule was revealed this season , in the event a HouseGuest that would be part of the jury to determine the winner voluntarily leaves the House or is expelled by Big Brother the American public replaced that HouseGuest on the jury and voted for the winner along with the remaining jury members .
= = HouseGuests = =
Twelve of the thirteen HouseGuests were revealed during The Early Show on July 1 , 2009 by Julie Chen . During the season premiere the HouseGuests were split into four cliques and Jessie Godderz was revealed as the final HouseGuest during the season premiere on July 9 , 2009 after the Athletes clique won the first Head of Household competition .
= = = Future Appearance = = =
Winner Jordan Lloyd and fellow HouseGuest Jeff Schroeder competed in The Amazing Race 16 and they finished in 7th place , then returned for Big Brother 12 the following year to participate in a Power of Veto competition , while they later returned as HouseGuests to compete in Big Brother 13 in 2011 ; they placed 4th and 7th respectively , then returned in Big Brother 16 , in which Jeff proposed to Jordan with both their families present .
= = Summary = =
On Day 1 , the original twelve HouseGuests entered the house . Following introductions , the HouseGuests learned of the season 's twist , in which they would be playing as members of common high school cliques . Despite this , HouseGuests continued to play the game as individuals and competed in competitions as individuals , were nominated as individuals , and were evicted as individuals . They also learned that if a member of their clique won Head of Household , they could not be nominated for eviction . Upon entering the backyard to compete in their first Head of Household competition , the HouseGuests learned what cliques they would be playing as . HouseGuests Jeff , Natalie , and Russell were in the Athletes clique , while Chima , Michele , and Ronnie were in the Brains clique . Casey , Kevin , and Lydia were placed in the Offbeat clique , leaving Braden , Jordan , and Laura in the Popular clique . Following this , HouseGuests competed in the " The Wedgie " Head of Household competition . For this competition , HouseGuests wore a pair of over @-@ sized underwear and held onto a toilet seat while being suspended in air by the underwear . The last HouseGuest remaining in the air would earn a fourth member to their clique , with this member becoming the first Head of Household of the season . The four eligible HouseGuests to enter the game were former HouseGuests Michael " Cowboy " Ellis for the Offbeat clique , Jessica Hughbanks for the Popular clique , Brian Hart for the Brains clique , and Jessie Godderz for the Athletes clique . Natalie and Russell were the last two HouseGuests remaining , thus earned immunity for their clique and allowed them to earn a fourth clique member ; Jessie entered the house as their fourth clique member , and became the first Head of Household of the season . Jessie 's entrance to the house brought the total number of HouseGuests to thirteen . In an attempt to keep himself safe , Ronnie and Jessie later formed an alliance between the Brains clique and the Athletes clique . Hoping to hide their alliance , Jessie and Natalie later proposed Ronnie be nominated as a pawn , however , he quickly refused to do so .
On Day 4 , HouseGuests competed in the " Big Brother Rave " Have @-@ Not competition . For this competition , HouseGuests were required to construct a series of pipes to spell out the word " Have " while neon " Rave Juice " flowed through the piping . If done correctly , the pipes would cause the juice to spill onto a wheel and cause it to spin ; the last team to complete the task would be the Have @-@ Nots for the week . The Brains clique lost the competition , meaning Chima , Michele , and Ronnie were the Have @-@ Nots for the week . This greatly upset Chima , who stated on numerous occasions afterwards that she was debating walking from the game . Jessie took an immediate dislike to Laura , and hoped to put her up , though his clique members attempted to convince him that Lydia should be evicted that week . Due to Ronnie refusing to be nominated as a pawn , Chima later agreed to be nominated as a pawn . On Day 5 , Jessie chose to nominate Chima and Lydia for eviction , with Lydia being his target for eviction . Worried they might not have the votes to keep Chima , Jessie and Russell formed an alliance with Laura in attempt to get her to evict Lydia . When picking players for the Power of Veto competition , Russell , Natalie , and Jeff were selected to compete for the Power of Veto ; Casey was selected to host . On Day 7 , HouseGuests competed in the " Pop Goes the Veto ! " Power of Veto competition . For this competition , HouseGuests had to pop " pimples " on an over @-@ sized face , with various Scrabble tiles inside of them . The HouseGuests would collect tiles and attempt to spell a word with their collected tiles ; the HouseGuest with the longest correctly spelled word would win the Power of Veto . Russell was the winner of the Power of Veto . Following the competition , Jeff engaged in numerous arguments with Russell and Natalie , causing a rift in their clique . In an attempt to save herself , Lydia attempted to convince Russell and Jessie to backdoor Braden that week by taking her off the block as a way to hurt Jeff . Russell later told Ronnie that this was the plan , with Ronnie telling Braden , Jeff , and Jordan about the plan . On Day 9 , Russell chose to use the Power of Veto to remove Lydia from the block , with Braden being nominated in her place . Following Braden 's nomination , Jordan and Laura began campaigning to get the votes for him to stay , and appeared to have themselves , Casey , Jeff , Michele , and Ronnie in agreement ; Ronnie , however , was playing both sides and had no intention of keeping Braden in the game . On Day 12 , Braden became the first HouseGuest to be evicted from the house when Jessie cast the tie @-@ breaker vote in Chima 's favor .
Following Braden 's eviction , HouseGuests competed in the " Most Likely To ... " Head of Household competition . For this competition , HouseGuests attempted to correctly guess which clique the viewers felt best fit a certain scenario ; when a HouseGuest answered correctly they could eliminate one contestant from the competition , while an incorrect answer led to their own elimination . Ronnie was the winner . Following the eviction , those who evicted Chima began to speculate that Ronnie had been the HouseGuest to change his vote , though he continued to deny this and blamed Michele . Laura , being one of the first to realize that Ronnie had been the one to change his vote , attempted to turn the other HouseGuests against him , though Chima and Natalie later informed Ronnie of this . On Day 13 , HouseGuests competed in the " Who Knows The Ugly Truth ? " luxury competition . For this competition , former winner Dan Gheesling returned to host the competition , in which the HouseGuests were required to answer questions based on what a member of the opposite sex felt . The male and female winners of the competition would win the opportunity to see the film The Ugly Truth , as well as choose the Have @-@ Nots for the week . Casey and Chima are the winners of the prize , and choose the Popular clique , consisting of Jordan and Laura , to be the Have @-@ Nots for the week . Later that day , Ronnie chose to nominate Jeff and Laura for eviction . Ronnie revealed his intentions to be backdooring Russell that week , though his alliance felt as though Russell would have the votes to stay . Following a confrontation between Lydia and Russell , Lydia and Kevin approached Ronnie about backdooring Russell , and Natalie later debated turning on him as she felt he placed a target on her back . When picking players for the Power of Veto competition , Russell , Natalie , and Casey were selected to compete for the Power of Veto ; Lydia was selected to host . On Day 14 , HouseGuests competed in the " Big Brother Mint " Power of Veto competition . For this competition , HouseGuests were given an amount of money and had two minutes to attempt to get that amount of money in change . HouseGuests competed in rounds , and the HouseGuests farthest away from the goal amount each round was eliminated ; the last HouseGuest remaining would win the Power of Veto . Jeff was the winner of the Power of Veto . Despite initially planning on nominating Russell after the Power of Veto was used , Ronnie later began to see Laura as a bigger threat , feeling she was smart enough to figure out his plans . On Day 16 , Jeff chose to use the Power of Veto to remove himself from the block , with Jordan being nominated in his place . When Ronnie lied and stated that Russell was campaigning to keep Laura in the game , he was confronted by the majority of the HouseGuests and accused of lying and playing both sides of the house . Following these events , Russell followed Ronnie around the house calling him names and taunting him for days afterwards . On Day 19 , Laura became the second HouseGuest to be evicted from the house in a vote of eight to one .
Following Laura 's eviction , HouseGuests competed in the " Buzzworthy " Head of Household competition . For this competition , HouseGuests attempted to launch a ball into a group of buckets in the shape of a honeycomb with the goal of being closest to the center . The HouseGuest who was closest to the center would be the Head of Household . Jessie was the winner . Though numerous HouseGuests expected Ronnie to be nominated that week , Jessie informed Natalie and Russell that he would be making his own decisions that week , rather than listening to the other HouseGuests . Natalie and Russell , fearing he would come after them , suggested that Casey should be targeted that week . On Day 20 , HouseGuests competed in the " Back Yard Bash " Have @-@ Not competition . For this competition , one HouseGuest from each clique competed , and were required to attempt to fill their opponents cans with various plastic ice cubes ; the clique with the most ice cubes in there can would be the Have @-@ Nots for the week . The Brains clique , consisting of Chima , Michele , and Ronnie , were the Have @-@ Nots for the week . Later that day , Jessie chose to nominate Jordan and Michele for eviction , with the intention of seeing Casey be evicted that week . Despite Jessie 's nominations , Casey , Jeff , Jordan , and Michele were still under the impression that Ronnie was the target for eviction rather than Casey . When picking players for the Power of Veto competition , Jeff , Casey , and Chima were selected to compete ; Natalie was selected to host . On Day 21 , HouseGuests competed in the " When Pigs Fly " Power of Veto competition . For this competition , HouseGuests dressed as pigs and were required to dig through mud in an attempt to find various truffles with point values on them , with each HouseGuest selecting four truffles to keep ; the winner was the HouseGuest that had the highest total when combining the numbers on their truffles . Michele was the winner of the Power of Veto . On Day 23 , Michele chose to use the Power of Veto to remove herself from the block , with Casey being nominated in her place . On Day 26 , Casey became the third HouseGuest to be evicted from the house in a vote of seven to one .
Following Casey 's eviction , the HouseGuests learned that the " Cliques " twist had ended , and that all HouseGuests were playing the game as individuals . They also learned that the viewers would select one HouseGuest to win a " Mystery Power " , though it was not revealed what the power would be . The ten remaining HouseGuests then competed in the " Big Brother Graduation " Head of Household competition . For this competition , HouseGuests sat on " graduation caps " suspended in the air while being hit by a foam diploma ; the last HouseGuest remaining on their cap would be the new Head of Household . Russell was the winner . Jordan , as part of a twist in the competition , had to select three HouseGuests to be Have @-@ Nots for the week ; she chose Jessie , Kevin , and Natalie . Though the two initially had a feud , Jeff and Russell later chose to align with one another . On Day 27 , Russell chose to nominate Lydia and Ronnie for eviction , with Ronnie being his main target . Though Russell was adamant about seeing Ronnie evicted that week , Chima , Jessie , and Natalie hoped to see Lydia be evicted instead . When picking players for the Power of Veto competition , Jessie , Kevin , and Michele were selected to compete ; Chima was selected to host . On Day 28 , HouseGuests competed in the " Vini Vidi Veto " Power of Veto competition . For this competition , HouseGuests had to determine the quantity of an object used to make an object . Each round , HouseGuests could either stay or fold ; folding would allow them to continue in the game , but could not get a point whereas the HouseGuest with the answer closest to the correct one would earn a point , though the farthest was eliminated . Michele was the winner of the Power of Veto . On Day 30 , Michele chose not to use the Power of Veto on either nominee . Following this , Jeff learned that he had won the power of the " Coup d 'Etat " , in which he could overthrow the Head of Household and make his own nominations on the spot ; this power could only be used at the next two evictions , and the current Head of Household and Power of Veto holder were unable to be nominated . On Day 33 , Ronnie became the fourth HouseGuest to be evicted from the house in a vote of four to three .
Following Ronnie 's eviction , HouseGuests competed in the " Say what ? " Head of Household competition . For this competition , HouseGuests were asked true or false questions about fan @-@ submitted messages they had heard the previous night ; an incorrect answer resulted in elimination , and the last HouseGuest remaining was the winner . Chima was the winner . On Day 34 , HouseGuests competed in the " The Goods " luxury competition . For this competition , actor Jeremy Piven entered the house to inform the HouseGuests of the competition . The HouseGuests split into teams and were required to fill a station wagon with various items that were worth different amounts of points ; the team would only earn a point for the items they successfully fit into their car , and the team with the most points would earn the right to see the film The Goods . The team of Chima , Jordan , Jessie , Natalie , and Russell won the competition , meaning Jeff , Kevin , Lydia , and Michele were the Have @-@ Nots for the week . Later that day , Chima chose to nominate Lydia and Russell for eviction . When picking players for the Power of Veto competition , Jeff , Kevin , and Natalie were selected to compete ; Michele was selected to host . On Day 35 , HouseGuests competed in the " BB Farm " Power of Veto competition . For this competition , HouseGuests were required to reach through a fence and attempt to get twelve eggs from the opposite side of the fence to them ; the first HouseGuest to successfully get twelve eggs would win the Power of Veto . Kevin was the winner of the Power of Veto . On Day 37 , Kevin chose not to use the Power of Veto on either nominee . On Day 40 , Jeff chose to use the Coup d 'État , thus overthrowing Head of Household Chima . He chose to remove both Lydia and Russell from the block , replacing them with Jessie and Natalie . Due to using the Coup d 'État , Jeff was ineligible to vote during this eviction , as was Chima . Jessie then became the fifth HouseGuest to be evicted from the house in a vote of three to two . He became the first member of the Jury of Seven .
Following Jessie 's eviction , HouseGuests competed in the " Hit the Road " Head of Household competition . Due to the Coup d 'État being used , all of the HouseGuests were able to compete . For this competition , HouseGuests faced off two at a time and were asked questions about past competitions played this season ; the winner of each round would select the next two HouseGuests to face off , with the last HouseGuest remaining being the winner . Michele was the winner . On Day 41 , HouseGuests competed in the " Chaosserole " Have @-@ Not competition . For this competition , HouseGuests competed in pairs and had to find matching casseroles and place them on a podium labeled with a certain day of the week or luxury prize ; if the HouseGuests had put a correct pair on the podium , they would earn food for that day of the week . The HouseGuests earned food for everyday of the week except for Monday . Though the house was split , the HouseGuests were unsure of which side Michele would choose to stay with ; she later aligned herself with Jeff , Jordan , and Russell , and stated she hoped to see Chima evicted . Later that day , Michele chose to nominate Chima and Natalie for eviction . Though she had often disregarded the rules for the show , Chima began to break rules more consistently following Jessie 's eviction , including covering up cameras , refusing to go to the Diary Room , and not wearing her microphone . Early on Day 42 , Chima broke further rules when she refused to wear her microphone and later threw it into the jacuzzi
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when Kevin brought her microphone to her . Following this , Chima refused to take an exchange microphone from the storage room . Following further refusal to enter the Diary Room , producer Allison Grodner later spoke through the intercom and convinced Chima to come to the Diary Room . Hours later , the remaining HouseGuests learned that Chima had been expelled from the game . On Day 43 , the HouseGuests learned that Michele 's duty as Head of Household had been fulfilled as Chima was one of Michele 's nominations , and that a new Head of Household competition would take place later that day .
Following these events , HouseGuests competed in the " BB Invitational Golf Tournament " Head of Household competition . For this competition , HouseGuests took turns putting a golf ball in an attempt to get it into a hole . If a HouseGuest missed , their ball went into a rotating wheel , with various numbers labeling sections in the wheel . The HouseGuest who 's ball landed in the highest number each round was eliminated from the competition , with the last HouseGuest remaining winning the competition . When a HouseGuest was eliminated from the competition , they could claim a prize , one of which was the Head of Household position . Jordan was the winner . On Day 44 , Jordan chose to nominate Lydia and Natalie for eviction . Shortly afterwards , Kevin , in an attempt to save himself and his allies , lied to Jeff and claimed that he had heard Russell stating he would evict Jeff the following week ; Jeff quickly told this to Jordan , and the two believed him . When picking players for the Power of Veto competition , Jeff , Kevin , and Michele were selected to compete . On Day 47 , HouseGuests competed live in the " Before or After " Power of Veto competition . For this competition , HouseGuests had to determine whether one event in the house happened before or after another event by stepping either up or down on a staircase ; an incorrect answer resulted in elimination , and the last HouseGuest remaining was the winner . Jordan was the winner of the Power of Veto . Minutes later , she chose not to use the Power of Veto on either nominee . Lydia then became the sixth HouseGuest to be evicted from the house in a vote of three to one . She became the second member of the Jury of Seven .
Following Lydia 's eviction , HouseGuests competed in the " Can Do " Head of Household competition . For this competition , HouseGuests stood atop a platform and attempted to drop aluminum cans into plastic tubes ; the first HouseGuest to drop twenty @-@ four cans into their tube would be the winner . Jeff was the winner . Due to having the least amount of cans in their tubes , Michele and Russell became the Have @-@ Nots for the week . Due to the lie that Kevin had told Jeff , both Jeff and Jordan hoped to see Russell evicted . In an attempt to save themselves , Kevin and Natalie made a deal to get to the final four with Jeff and Jordan , and Jeff later told them he would nominate them as pawns in an attempt to backdoor Russell . On Day 48 , Jeff chose to nominate Kevin and Natalie for eviction . Though Jeff continued to assure Michele and Russell that the plan was to evict Kevin , the two became suspicious that the plan was to backdoor one of them . On Day 49 , HouseGuests competed in the " Otev the Ape " Power of Veto competition . For this competition , HouseGuests were given a riddle by Otev the Ape and were required to search through various bananas in the backyard with the names of previously evicted HouseGuests on them to find the banana that would solve the riddle . The last HouseGuest to bring Otev the correct banana , or the HouseGuest who brought an incorrect banana , were eliminated each round . Jeff was the winner of the Power of Veto . On Day 51 , Jeff chose to use the Power of Veto to remove Kevin from the block , with Russell being nominated in his place . Following his nomination , Russell engaged in numerous arguments with his fellow HouseGuests . On Day 54 , Russell became the seventh HouseGuest to be evicted from the house in a unanimous vote of three to zero . He became the third member of the Jury of Seven .
Following Russell 's eviction , HouseGuests competed in the " The S 'more , the Merrier " Head of Household competition . For this competition , HouseGuests were required to walk back and forth transferring cups of hot chocolate to a jar on the opposite side of the backyard . The first HouseGuest to fill up their jar and claim the ball inside would be the winner of the competition . Kevin was the winner . Despite making a deal with him the previous week , Kevin and Natalie later made a plan to backdoor Jeff as they saw him as their biggest threat . Though this was his plan , Kevin and Natalie also debated taking out Michele , and thus feared that Jeff could win the Power of Veto and save Jordan if she were to be nominated ; should Jeff use the Power of Veto on Jordan , it would force Kevin to nominate Natalie for eviction . On Day 55 , Kevin chose to nominate Jeff and Michele for eviction . Later that day , Kevin discovered a secret room in the Head of Household bedroom known as Pandora 's Box ; upon entering the room , he discovered a box and learned that placing his hand inside the box would release $ 10 @,@ 000 into the house . He did so , and became locked inside the box while the money fell into the backyard ; the HouseGuests were able to keep the money , and were required to find a key to unlock Kevin from the room . On Day 56 , HouseGuests competed in the " Morphomatic " Power of Veto competition . For this competition , HouseGuests had to correctly figure out which two faces of the HouseGuests made up a set of alien faces . The HouseGuest who finished the competition in the fastest amount of time was the winner . Michele was the winner of the Power of Veto . On Day 58 , Michele chose to use the Power of Veto to remove herself from the block , with Jordan being nominated in her place . On Day 61 , Jeff became the eighth HouseGuest to be evicted from the house when Kevin cast a tiebreaker vote in Jordan 's favor . He became the fourth member of the Jury of Seven .
Following Jeff 's eviction , HouseGuests competed in the " Fact or Fiction " Head of Household competition . For this competition , HouseGuests were given statements , and had to determine whether this statement was fact or fiction . Natalie was the winner . That night , HouseGuests competed in the " Big Brother Shopping Spree " luxury competition . For this competition , HouseGuests competed with a partner and were required to communicate with each other from across a wall in an attempt to find matching articles of clothing ; the group had ten minutes to complete a full outfit , with whatever time they had left over being used to give the HouseGuests a shopping spree . On Day 62 , Natalie was presented with Pandora 's Box and learned that her boyfriend was inside , however , if she chose to enter and see him she would give up her right to compete in the final Power of Veto competition ; she accepted the offer , and entered Pandora 's Box . Despite this , she later lied to her fellow HouseGuests about what had happened . Later that day , Natalie chose to nominate Kevin and Michele for eviction . On Day 63 , HouseGuests competed in the " There Ain 't No Party Like A Veto Block Party " final Power of Veto competition . For this competition , HouseGuests were given twenty clues , lined up ten by ten and were required to match blocks with HouseGuests names on them with the clues provided ; the HouseGuest to complete this in the fastest time would be the winner . Kevin was the winner of the final Power of Veto . On Day 66 , Kevin chose to use the Power of Veto to remove himself from the block , with Jordan being nominated in his place . Minutes later , he cast the sole vote to evict Michele from the house . She became the fifth member of the Jury of Seven .
Following Michele 's eviction , the final three HouseGuests began competing in the first part of the final Head of Household competition " Log Jam . " The HouseGuests held onto their key that was suspended in the air for as long as possible while trying not to fall off of a moving log . Jordan was the first to fall off of the log while Kevin won the first part of the competition and advanced to the third and final round . Jordan and Natalie were the only two HouseGuests to compete in the second round which , determined who would face Kevin in the final round . In the second round , called " Heads Will Roll " , each HouseGuest entered the backyard alone with a giant game table with the numbers one through ten . Each player used balls with names of previous Head of Household winners and place the ball with the correct name into the hole that corresponds with the numerical order in which they reigned . The player had a two @-@ minute time limit and the player with the most correct answers won . Jordan was the winner . Kevin and Jordan competed in the final part of the Head of Household competition called " Jury Statements . " The players had to guess the ending of statements made by the jury members . There were two possible answers and the players had to guess the correct ending by picking A or B. Jordan was the winner , becoming the final Head of Household of the season . Jordan chose to evict Kevin from the house , making Jordan and Natalie the Final Two . Jordan was later crowned the winner of Big Brother 11 in a vote of five to two , with Chima 's vote being replaced with a vote from the viewers .
= = Have @-@ Nots = =
For the first 3 weeks the houseguest competed in their cliques in the Have / Have Not competition . The HoH 's clique did not compete as they would instantly be haves for the week .
= = Voting history = =
Color key
– Athletes
– Brains
– Off @-@ beat
– Popular
= = Ratings and reception = =
The season premiere of Big Brother 11 , which aired on CBS on July 9 , attracted 6 @.@ 68 million viewers , with a 2 @.@ 3 rating in adults 18 @-@ 49 . The rating was the highest in its timeslot , with its nearest competition , a repeat of Bones on Fox bringing in 5 @.@ 65 million viewers . The season premiere was even in adults 18 @-@ 49 and adults 18 @-@ 34 demographics , added 280 @,@ 000 viewers and was up 5 % in households when compared to the season premiere of Big Brother 10 . Ratings for the show entered into a steady decline after the premiere , the following Sunday episode that was transmitted on July 12 was down .39 million viewers and pulled a 2 @.@ 0 rating in the adults 18 @-@ 49.Repeats of The Simpsons and King of the Hill on Fox won the adults 18 @-@ 34 demographic but placed second in all other measures . The program hit a season low in adults 18 @-@ 49 when the first eviction on Thursday , July 16 posted a 1 @.@ 9 in adults 18 @-@ 49 . The Sunday , July 19 episode attracted 5 @.@ 57 million viewers a season low in terms of viewership . Beginning with the Tuesday , July 21 episode viewership started to gradually increase with the episode attracting 5 @.@ 76 million viewers and a 2 @.@ 0 rating in the adults 18 @-@ 49 demographic . The second eviction which featured Laura Crosby being evicted from the House attracted 6 @.@ 39 million viewers and a 2 @.@ 1 rating in adults 18 @-@ 49 and a 4 @.@ 0 rating with an 8 share in households . The second eviction was up 8 % in households , 11 % in adults 18 @-@ 49 and 14 % in total viewers for the week at the time it was the second highest rated episode of the season behind the season premiere .
The following Sunday episode that aired on July 26 experienced a minor drop in ratings attracting 6 @.@ 08 million viewers and a 2 @.@ 0 rating in adults 18 @-@ 49 . The Sunday episode was up 5 % in adults 18 @-@ 49 , 6 % in households and added 510 @,@ 000 viewers ( up 9 % ) from the previous week . The episode highlighting the expulsion of Chima Simone was the highest rated episode in the adults 18 @-@ 49 demographic with a 3 @.@ 0 rating and the third highest in viewers and total households with 7 @.@ 98 million viewers and a 4 @.@ 8 respectively . The Sunday highlight episode fell to second place in its timeslot for the first time on August 9 when NBC Sunday Night Football began airing on NBC . By August 20 ratings for the season were up 5 % in overall viewers when compared to Big Brother 10 . The season finale attracted 7 @.@ 78 million viewers and was the second highest episode in the adults 18 @-@ 49 demographic for the entire season . Overall Big Brother 11 was up 7 % in total viewers ( 7 @.@ 19 million ) when compared to Big Brother 10 , up 5 % in adults 18 @-@ 34 , up 3 % in adults 25 @-@ 54 and even in adults 18 @-@ 49 . Big Brother 11 delivered 100 million page views and 15 @.@ 3 million videos on CBS.com and various affiliated sites by the end of the season . The viewing public placed more than 24 million votes during the season including over 11 million votes for the seventh jury vote .
= = = Television ratings = = =
" Rating " is the estimated percentage of all televisions tuned to the show , and " share " is the percentage of all televisions in use that are tuned in . " Viewers " is the estimated number viewers that watched a program either while it was broadcast or watched via DVR on the same day the program was broadcast .
^ Note 1 : Episode was delayed from its normal start time due to a sport overrun .
^ Note 2 : Individual information not available for rating / share for households due to a golf overrun .
= = = Comparison to British edition = = =
After two weeks into the season several news sites began to compare the American and British version of the show , which was six weeks into its series at the time . During the first several weeks ratings for both shows were declining . The launch of Big Brother 2009 aired on Channel 4 in the United Kingdom premiered on June 4 attracted 4 @.@ 8 million viewers , with a 22 % viewing share . The show was down compared to the launch of Big Brother 2008 but won its timeslot . Ratings continued to decline with the first official eviction of the series , that aired on June 12 only pulling in 2 @.@ 9 million people , 13 % of the viewing audience .
In an article by The Hollywood Reporter , an American trade publication , noted the tenth series of the British version was averaging 2 million viewers and a 10 @.@ 1 % audience share . At the time the show was six weeks into its run and was down 33 % on its performance from the previous year and very down when compared to previous series in where some average 6 million viewers per episode . Mimi Turner , author of the article , noted the show was " running out of steam " and until the tenth series the show delivered significant youth audiences on air and online . Bill Gorman of TVByTheNumbers , an American television website , commented on the article by saying " Not sure if this is a glimpse of things to come for the US version of Big Brother or not . "
Executives from Endemol , the production company for Big Brother worldwide , defended the format which is transmitted in 41 territories and noted the season premiere of the 11th season in America won its timeslot with year @-@ to @-@ year growth . Other comparisons noted was the finale of ninth season of Italy 's Grande Fratello pulled 7 @.@ 9 million viewers with a 36 % audience share and how in Argentina the show has been rested for a few years and returns with stronger ratings . Paul Jonson , global head of marketing and brand partnerships for Endemol Group , noted that using audience averages to figure out how the show performs wouldn 't work since the audience builds up until the finale . Jonson also noted that the series continued to rate very well when compared to the timeslot average for Channel 4 .
After ratings for Big Brother 11 in America began to increase Anna Pickard , for The Guardian in the United Kingdom , compared the two concurrent seasons noting the format differences between the American and British versions of the show calling the two " different beasts . " Various points mentioned that contributed to the increase in ratings was the number of episodes per week , format differences , lack of live feeds from the House in Britain . In another article on the same site noted the American version experienced a " ratings renaissance " in a market " which the format has not traditionally done well . " After the provisional cancellation of Big Brother in the United Kingdom , American trade publications like USA Today began reporting on the cancellation while others like Variety were also reporting various pickups around the world including the twelfth season of the American version , Big Brother 10 in Germany , Grande Fratello 10 in Italy and HaAh HaGadol 2 in Israel .
= = = Controversy = = =
During the first week of the program several HouseGuests made controversial remarks during several arguments on the live Internet feeds . Many homophobic comments made by Jeff during an argument with Russell after the first Power of Veto ceremony were edited out of the first Tuesday broadcast episode while the comments remained uncensored online .
Another HouseGuest , Braden , made several racist and derogatory comments after the first Power of Veto ceremony to fellow HouseGuests Kevin and Lydia in an argument . The argument was edited during the first live eviction show on Thursday but played unedited on the live feeds . During the live portion of the show , Chima brought up the comments made by Braden again during her final plea speech to her fellow HouseGuests . Chima also stated Braden used a sexually insulting word to describe Big Brother host Julie Chen . This comment was made at the conclusion of a " Julie Says " game played by the HouseGuests a couple nights earlier as viewed on Big Brother After Dark .
The editing of the events in question during the broadcast episodes created controversy for the show and CBS , the broadcaster of Big Brother . While the comments couldn 't air due to FCC regulations the way the events were edited caused critics and fans of the show to claim the show was being edited to make the HouseGuests look good to the viewing public . One critic suggests the recent decline in ratings is due to the editing process of the show .
Chima revealed to her fellow HouseGuests on the live Internet feeds and on Big Brother : After Dark after the eviction that she was informed in the Diary Room by Big Brother , the producers , that her comments were censored during the live broadcast .
" I said , I don 't think it 's fair because I don 't think they showed when it first was said , and I was like , ' If someone 's a racist , they should be portrayed as one . You shouldn 't edit it to make them look good . ' "
CBS released a statement on July 17 , 2009 regarding the censoring of the controversial statements saying the statements in question were offensive and did not meet the network 's standards . CBS also stated that " any views or opinions expressed in personal commentary by a houseguest appearing on Big Brother , either on any live feed from the house or the broadcast , are those of the individuals speaking and do not represent the views or opinions of CBS or the producers of the program . " National Public Radio 's pop culture correspondent Linda Holmes noted that CBS officially disavowing such statements while allowing them to continue amounts to a publicity grab for the show and for the network :
" This show is meant to get a good part of its attention from the difference between what you see online and what you see on the show . If it manages to cast a hard @-@ charging racist whose work only appears online , it can seize all the attention of a scandal while claiming that it 's tastefully trying to protect viewers from anything ' offensive . ' "
= Music of the Mother series =
The Mother series is a role @-@ playing video game series created by Shigesato Itoi for Nintendo . The series started in 1989 with the Japan @-@ only release of Mother , which was followed up by Mother 2 , released as EarthBound outside Japan , for the Super NES in 1994 . A second sequel was released in Japan only , Mother 3 , for the Game Boy Advance in 2006 . The music of the Mother series includes the soundtracks to all three games ; the first game was composed for by Keiichi Suzuki and Hirokazu Tanaka , who were joined by Hiroshi Kanazu for the second game , while Mother 3 's score was written by Shogo Sakai .
The music has inspired several album releases . Mother saw the release in 1989 of an album primarily composed of vocal arrangements of pieces from its soundtrack ; this album was re @-@ released in 2004 in an expanded form . Earthbound had a soundtrack album associated with the game released in 1994 and again in 2004 that contained both original tracks from the game and medleys of multiple tracks . A compilation release , Mother 1 + 2 , received a soundtrack album release in 2003 , as well as an album of MIDI piano versions of songs from the two games in 2006 . The latest release in the series , Mother 3 , has two soundtrack albums : Mother 3 + , released in 2006 , and the online @-@ only release Mother 3i in 2007 .
The games ' soundtracks have received primarily positive reviews , and the music itself has gone on to some popularity . Multiple piano sheet music books of pieces from the series have been produced , and the " Eight Melodies " song originally featured in Mother has been included in some Japanese music textbooks . Music from the series has been used in the Super Smash Bros. series of fighting games , has been played in orchestral game music concerts , and been remixed for websites such as OverClocked Remix .
= = Mother = =
Mother ( マザー , Mazā ) , later re @-@ released as EarthBound Beginnings , is a role @-@ playing video game published by Nintendo for the Nintendo Entertainment System video game console in 1989 . The game 's soundtrack was composed by Keiichi Suzuki and Hirokazu Tanaka . Tanaka was a video game composer working for Nintendo who had previously composed for games such as Super Mario Land and Metroid , while Suzuki was a composer and musician for bands of many different genres . The NES was only able to play three notes at a time , which Suzuki has noted greatly limited what he was able to produce , as he could not create some of the sounds he wanted . Melodies and themes from some pieces from the soundtrack were reused in the other games in the series . ( " Pollyanna " and " Snowman " make an appearance in all three games . )
Some of the music from the game was recorded as a studio album by Suzuki and Tanaka in collaboration with various artists entitled Mother . The album was released by CBS / Sony on August 21 , 1989 . It consists of eleven tracks , seven of which are English vocal arrangements of songs from the game created by Suzuki , David Bedford , Takeshi Saitoh , and Michael Nyman . The lyrics to these arrangements were written by Linda Hennrick . Each of the first ten tracks were performed by a different artist or group such as Catherine Warwick and St Paul 's Cathedral Choir . The pieces were recorded at eight different studios in England , and a final 16 @-@ minute capstone track , " The World of Mother " , included most of the tracks from the game itself played back to back in their order of appearance in the game . The album cover shows the word " MOTHER " in a shade of brown over a red background ; the letter " O " of " MOTHER " is replaced by an image of planet Earth , also with a brownish tinge . The soundtrack was reissued on February 18 , 2004 by Sony Music Direct with its tracks digitally remastered , a song from EarthBound entitled " Smiles and Tears " was added , and the track " The World of Mother " was replaced with a version that is six minutes longer .
Despite being recorded in England , the album was only available in Japan , as the game was never released outside of the country until a Virtual Console release over 25 years later . Following a Kickstarter campaign , the American independent record label Ship to Shore PhonoCo worked with Sony Music to reissue the album on vinyl record in 2015 . Only 2 @,@ 000 copies were pressed , though a limited run of CD albums was also produced .
Slugmag 's Gavin Sheehan wrote : " This soundtrack is gorgeous , at least for the time it was created in . " He noted the experimental style of the tracks , which he credited to the experimental style of the game itself as well as the relative newness of the genre of video game music at the time . Reviewer Patrick Gann of RPGFan received the album well , saying that he enjoyed the variety of genres presented in it , though he noted that the lyrics were " trite and cheesy " , though still " catchy " . He also applauded the production value , calling it " incredible , especially for 1989 " . Square Enix Music Online , in their review of the album , called it " a happy little gem with quirks and surprises " . Though unlike RPGFan they felt that the sound production quality was not as good as it could be , they still felt that the pieces had " stood the test of time in terms of good music " .
= = EarthBound = =
EarthBound , known in Japan as Mother 2 : Gyiyg no Gyakushū ( MOTHER2ギーグの逆襲 , Mazā Tsū Gīgu no Gyakushū , lit . " Mother 2 : Gyiyg Strikes Back " ) , is a role @-@ playing video game published by Nintendo for the Super NES video game console in 1994 . Keiichi Suzuki and Hirokazu Tanaka reprised their roles from Mother as composers for the game , and were joined by assistant composers Hiroshi Kanazu and Toshiyuki Ueno . In an interview with Weekly Famitsu , Keiichi Suzuki commented on how the SNES gave the composers much more freedom to compose what they wanted than the NES , which made development of the music for EarthBound much easier than for its predecessor . This freedom was partially a result of the larger memory space available , because one of the many problems the composers had in the first game was trying to get all of their music on to the cartridge . Another advantage was that the SNES could support playing eight notes at the same time , which when combined with the increased sound quality meant that he could compose music for the game in a similar fashion to how he would compose music for real life . Suzuki cited John Lennon as an influential figure to all the composers while the soundtrack was being developed , as his songs about love matched up with the feeling of the game . Critics and players have noted similarities between parts of some songs in the game to popular songs , including several suspected homages to songs by Lennon and The Beatles . Legal issues surrounding these similarities were suspected to prevent the game from being released on the Virtual Console outside of Japan , but the rumors were ultimately proved untrue .
In a Famitsu interview , Shigesato Itoi said that the amount of music that they fit into eight megabits of space , one @-@ third of the total size of the game , would be enough to fill two Compact Discs if released as a full album . He ascribed the amount of music to the " disorderly " , or broad , amount of styles of music that were included by Tanaka and Suzuki . He also noted his belief that EarthBound was the first video game to include vibrato , or " string @-@ bending " , in its music , and described one of the differences between the music of EarthBound and Mother as that this game had more " jazzy " pieces . Suzuki has estimated that he composed over 100 pieces of music for EarthBound , including songs that did not make it into the game , and says that his favorite was the music played when the player rode a bicycle in the game , which he had actually composed before starting work on the game .
The soundtrack album for EarthBound was released by Sony Records in Japan on November 2 , 1994 . It was re @-@ released a decade later on February 18 , 2004 by Sony Music Direct . The album has 24 tracks , where many of these tracks are arrangements combining several pieces from the game into one piece . The final three tracks on the album consist of remixes of multiple tracks merged ; for example , " Room Number ( PSI MIX ) " is a remixed version of several pieces of music played in different shops and hotels in the game combined into one song . The album was released again in 2016 by Ship to Shore as a set of two vinyl LP records , with four color options for the discs . The album , named Mother 2 , uses the same tracks and artwork as the original soundtrack release .
Vincent Chorley , in his review of the album for RPGFan , praised the original game music , applauding it for " conveying emotion and atmosphere , and then playing around with this mental image " . As for the album itself , however , he was disappointed in the way that it merged tracks together and kept tracks based on a single song short , saying that " many of the tracks are so short that they are impossible to enjoy in their entirety " . The vinyl release was praised by Jeremy Parish of USGamer for its sound quality and the soundtrack 's " towering achievement in game music " , but he felt that the music was not very " listenable " on its own , and that the album did not fit the LP format as well as an album originally produced for the format would have .
= = Mother 1 + 2 = =
The video game Mother 1 + 2 ( MOTHER 1 + 2 , Mazā Wan Tsū ) is a port release of Mother and EarthBound ( Mother 2 ) by Nintendo for the Game Boy Advance , released in 2003 . Despite its title , the eponymous album is an arranged album . It was released by Toshiba @-@ EMI on August 20 , 2003 . The first ten tracks from the album are from Mother , while the last 16 are from Earthbound . Unlike the original soundtrack albums , the Mother tracks on this album did not include any vocal arrangements and the Earthbound tracks were not composed of tracks merged . Another album for the collection , Mother 1 + 2 midi Piano Version , was released three years later on May 27 , 2006 by Sky Port Publishing . The album contains MIDI piano arrangements by Shunsuke Sakamoto of songs from the two games with its music covering many different moods , from " lively to sedated " . Like the soundtrack album , Mother 1 + 2 midi Piano Version had its first ten tracks taken from Mother and the other 16 from Earthbound , but with several different tracks than the first album .
Kyle Miller of RPGFan , in his review of the Mother 1 + 2 album , called it " a quality collection of uplifting , passionate songs " . He preferred the Mother tracks to the Earthbound ones , as he felt that the second half of the album contained more " gimmick " tracks , but still called both halves " unique , fun , and well done overall " . In his review of the Mother 1 + 2 midi Piano Version album , he concluded that while " fans of midi piano music " would enjoy the album , that the soundtrack album was the superior of the two . His criticism was mainly based on the fact that , while the tracks were " well orchestrated pieces " , " played masterfully " , and retained the " quality of the compositions " of the originals , the " wacky instrumentation " of the original pieces did not translate to piano arrangements , causing the tunes to " lose some of the spirit that they are known for " .
= = Mother 3 = =
Mother 3 is a role @-@ playing video game published by Nintendo for the Game Boy Advance handheld game console in 2006 . The music for the game was composed exclusively by Shogo Sakai , who he had previously composed music for games such as Super Smash Bros. Melee and Kirby Air Ride . Series developer Shigesato Itoi stated that Sakai was given the position because he understood Mother 3 the most , given that he could not use Keiichi Suzuki or Hirokazu Tanaka , the composers for the first two games , as they were both busy with other projects . Itoi also said that given the massive amount of songs in the game , over 250 , he needed someone who had a lot of time to dedicate to the project and who could focus exclusively on it .
" Love Theme " , the main theme of Mother 3 , was composed late in the game 's development ; earlier in development Itoi intended to use the " Pigmask Army " theme as the main theme of the game . During creation of an important scene in the game , however , Sakai was asked to create a song that would have a greater impact than the Pigmask theme ; upon its creation it was chosen to be used as the main theme instead of the " Pigmask Army " song . Itoi claims that , given how quickly Sakai composed the song , that he had been " waiting for the order " to make a song like " Love Theme " . Itoi requested that " Love Theme " be playable on a piano with only one finger , as the " Eight Melodies " theme from Mother had gained popularity and been played in elementary schools due to its simplicity . The " OK desu ka ? " that plays after the player chooses the character 's name was recorded without Itoi 's knowledge by Hirokazu Tanaka more than a decade before the release of Mother 3 .
The MOTHER3 + soundtrack album was first released by Tokyo Itoi Shigesato Office on November 2 , 2006 , and then distributed through the iTunes Store on February 2 , 2007 , featuring an additional bonus track , " MOTHER3 – theme of LOVE " . Another album of music from the game , MOTHER3i , was released on February 6 , 2007 by Tokyo Itoi Shigesato Office in the iTunes Store and other online music services . Like the Earthbound soundtrack album each track of Mother3i is a combination of several tracks from the game itself , though it still does not cover all of the tracks from the game .
Kyle Miller of RPGFan gave a warm reception to Mother3 + in his review , saying that it " retains the same quirky , but thoughtful feel so well captured by the previous entries in the series " and was " a worthy addition to the Mother musical canon " . He enjoyed that it included both songs that were new to Mother 3 and pieces originally from previous entries in the series . He felt that the weakest tracks on the album were those that used real @-@ life instruments , while he named " Snowman " as the strongest . Square Enix Music Online was not as pleased with the album ; although the reviewer agreed with Miller on which tracks were the best and worst , they were very critical of the fact that the album contained " only nine or ten distinct themes from a pool of perhaps one hundred viable choices " . They also disliked the fact that the pieces were " by design short and repetitive " . They instead recommended the Mother3i album , which , though " missing the iconic ' Love ' theme and perennial series favorites like ' Pollyanna ' " , had " more engaging arrangements , less cloying sentimentality , and a wider variety of themes " . They also noted the improved sound quality of the album over the original Game Boy Advance version . Mother3 + reached position # 24 on the Japanese Oricon charts , and stayed on the charts for three weeks .
= = Legacy = =
Music from EarthBound was arranged for the piano and published by DOREMI Music Publishing in 1995 . The book contains 16 scores , with some covering more than one song from the game . " Onett 's Theme " was also included in " Game Music Piano Solo Album " , a book published by DOREMI with sheet music from many different games . Sky Port Publishing published a book of piano arrangements in 1996 for the release of Mother 1 + 2 containing 27 pieces . The " Eight Melodies " song from Mother received some popularity , and was included in some Japanese music textbooks due to its simplicity . A full sheet music book for Mother has never officially been made available , but after it 's release on the Virtual Console as Earthbound Beginnings , the entire soundtrack was transcribed by fans into sheet music . Super Smash Bros. , a series of fighting games published by Nintendo featuring characters and music from established video games , has included several songs from the Mother series . The 2016 Undertale , inspired by Earthbound , includes several homages to the game 's music in its soundtrack .
" Because I Love You " and " Eagle Land " from EarthBound were played by the Tokyo Memorial Orchestra for the second Orchestral Game Concert on September 15 , 1992 as part of a five concert tour , which was later released as a series of albums . " Because I Love You " was again played in their third concert , and was the only song to make an appearance in more than one concert in the tour . A medley of songs from all three games was performed at the " Press Start -Symphony of Games- 2006 " concert in Tokyo . Selections of remixes of music from the series also appear on Japanese remix albums , called Dōjin , and on English remixing websites such as OverClocked Remix . A group of remixes of Mother and Earthbound music was released as an unofficial download @-@ only album titled Bound Together by a group of artists from OverClocked Remix and elsewhere on October 29 , 2006 containing 48 remixes and almost three hours of music .
= Hank Williams =
Hiram King " Hank " Williams , ( / hæŋk wɪljəmz / ; September 17 , 1923 – January 1 , 1953 ) was an American singer @-@ songwriter and musician . Regarded as one of the most significant and influential American singers and songwriters
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, along with softball , from the 2012 Olympic program enabled the IOC to consider adding two different sports , but none received the votes required for inclusion . While the sport 's lack of a following in much of the world was a factor , more important was Major League Baseball 's reluctance to have a break during the Games to allow its players to participate , as the National Hockey League now does during the Winter Olympic Games . Such a break is more difficult for MLB to accommodate because it would force the playoffs deeper into cold weather . Seeking reinstatement for the 2016 Summer Olympics , the IBAF proposed an abbreviated competition designed to facilitate the participation of top players , but the effort failed . Major League Baseball initiated the World Baseball Classic , scheduled to precede the major league season , partly as a replacement , high @-@ profile international tournament . The inaugural Classic , held in March 2006 , was the first tournament involving national teams to feature a significant number of MLB participants . The Baseball World Cup was discontinued after its 2011 edition in favor of an expanded World Baseball Classic .
= = Rules and gameplay = =
A game is played between two teams , each composed of nine players , that take turns playing offense ( batting and baserunning ) and defense ( pitching and fielding ) . A pair of turns , one at bat and one in the field , by each team constitutes an inning . A game consists of nine innings ( seven innings at the high school level and in doubleheaders in college and minor leagues ) . One team — customarily the visiting team — bats in the top , or first half , of every inning . The other team — customarily the home team — bats in the bottom , or second half , of every inning . The goal of the game is to score more points ( runs ) than the other team . The players on the team at bat attempt to score runs by circling or completing a tour of the four bases set at the corners of the square @-@ shaped baseball diamond . A player bats at home plate and must proceed counterclockwise to first base , second base , third base , and back home in order to score a run . The team in the field attempts both to prevent runs from scoring and to record outs , which remove opposing players from offensive action until their turn in their team 's batting order comes up again . When three outs are recorded , the teams switch roles for the next half @-@ inning . If the score of the game is tied after nine innings , extra innings are played to resolve the contest . Many amateur games , particularly unorganized ones , involve different numbers of players and innings .
The game is played on a field whose primary boundaries , the foul lines , extend forward from home plate at 45 @-@ degree angles . The 90 @-@ degree area within the foul lines is referred to as fair territory ; the 270 @-@ degree area outside them is foul territory . The part of the field enclosed by the bases and several yards beyond them is the infield ; the area farther beyond the infield is the outfield . In the middle of the infield is a raised pitcher 's mound , with a rectangular rubber plate ( the rubber ) at its center . The outer boundary of the outfield is typically demarcated by a raised fence , which may be of any material and height ( many amateur games are played on unfenced fields ) . Fair territory between home plate and the outfield boundary is baseball 's field of play , though significant events can take place in foul territory , as well .
There are three basic tools of baseball : the ball , the bat , and the glove or mitt :
The baseball is about the size of an adult 's fist , around 9 inches ( 23 centimeters ) in circumference . It has a rubber or cork center , wound in yarn and covered in white cowhide , with red stitching .
The bat is a hitting tool , traditionally made of a single , solid piece of wood . Other materials are now commonly used for nonprofessional games . It is a hard round stick , about 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 6 @.@ 4 centimeters ) in diameter at the hitting end , tapering to a narrower handle and culminating in a knob . Bats used by adults are typically around 34 inches ( 86 centimeters ) long , and not longer than 42 inches ( 106 centimeters ) .
The glove or mitt is a fielding tool , made of padded leather with webbing between the fingers . As an aid in catching and holding onto the ball , it takes various shapes to meet the specific needs of different fielding positions .
Protective helmets are also standard equipment for all batters .
At the beginning of each half @-@ inning , the nine players on the fielding team arrange themselves around the field . One of them , the pitcher , stands on the pitcher 's mound . The pitcher begins the pitching delivery with one foot on the rubber , pushing off it to gain velocity when throwing toward home plate . Another player , the catcher , squats on the far side of home plate , facing the pitcher . The rest of the team faces home plate , typically arranged as four infielders — who set up along or within a few yards outside the imaginary lines between first , second , and third base — and three outfielders . In the standard arrangement , there is a first baseman positioned several steps to the left of first base , a second baseman to the right of second base , a shortstop to the left of second base , and a third baseman to the right of third base . The basic outfield positions are left fielder , center fielder , and right fielder . A neutral umpire sets up behind the catcher . Other umpires will be distributed around the field as well , though the number will vary depending on the level of play , amateur or children 's games may only have an umpire behind the plate , while as many as six umpires can be used for important Major League Baseball games .
Play starts with a batter standing at home plate , holding a bat . The batter waits for the pitcher to throw a pitch ( the ball ) toward home plate , and attempts to hit the ball with the bat . The catcher catches pitches that the batter does not hit — as a result of either electing not to swing or failing to connect — and returns them to the pitcher . A batter who hits the ball into the field of play must drop the bat and begin running toward first base , at which point the player is referred to as a runner ( or , until the play is over , a batter @-@ runner ) . A batter @-@ runner who reaches first base without being put out ( see below ) is said to be safe and is now on base . A batter @-@ runner may choose to remain at first base or attempt to advance to second base or even beyond — however far the player believes can be reached safely . A player who reaches base despite proper play by the fielders has recorded a hit . A player who reaches first base safely on a hit is credited with a single . If a player makes it to second base safely as a direct result of a hit , it is a double ; third base , a triple . If the ball is hit in the air within the foul lines over the entire outfield ( and outfield fence , if there is one ) , it is a home run : the batter and any runners on base may all freely circle the bases , each scoring a run . This is the most desirable result for the batter . A player who reaches base due to a fielding mistake is not credited with a hit — instead , the responsible fielder is charged with an error .
Any runners already on base may attempt to advance on batted balls that land , or contact the ground , in fair territory , before or after the ball lands . A runner on first base must attempt to advance if a ball lands in play . If a ball hit into play rolls foul before passing through the infield , it becomes dead and any runners must return to the base they were at when the play began . If the ball is hit in the air and caught before it lands , the batter has flied out and any runners on base may attempt to advance only if they tag up or touch the base they were at when the play began , as or after the ball is caught . Runners may also attempt to advance to the next base while the pitcher is in the process of delivering the ball to home plate — a successful effort is a stolen base .
A pitch that is not hit into the field of play is called either a strike or a ball . A batter against whom three strikes are recorded strikes out . A batter against whom four balls are recorded is awarded a base on balls or walk , a free advance to first base . ( A batter may also freely advance to first base if the batter 's body or uniform is struck by a pitch outside the strike zone , provided the batter does not swing and attempts to avoid being hit . ) Crucial to determining balls and strikes is the umpire 's judgment as to whether a pitch has passed through the strike zone , a conceptual area above home plate extending from the midpoint between the batter 's shoulders and belt down to the hollow of the knee .
A strike is called when one of the following happens :
The batter lets a well @-@ pitched ball ( one within the strike zone ) go through to the catcher .
The batter swings at any ball ( even one outside the strike zone ) and misses , or foul tips it directly into the catcher 's hands .
The batter hits a foul ball — one that either initially lands in foul territory or initially lands within the diamond but moves into foul territory before passing first or third base . If there are already two strikes on the batter , a foul ball is not counted as a third strike ; thus , a foul ball cannot result in the immediate strikeout of the batter . ( There is an exception to this exception : a two @-@ strike foul bunt is recorded as a third strike . )
A ball is called when the pitcher throws a pitch that is outside the strike zone , provided the batter has not swung at it .
While the team at bat is trying to score runs , the team in the field is attempting to record outs . Among the various ways a member of the batting team may be put out , five are most common :
The strikeout : as described above , recorded against a batter who makes three strikes before putting the ball into play or being awarded a free advance to first base ( see also uncaught third strike ) .
The flyout : as described above , recorded against a batter who hits a ball in the air that is caught by a fielder , whether in fair territory or foul territory , before it lands , whether or not the batter has run .
The ground out : recorded against a batter ( in this case , batter @-@ runner ) who hits a ball that lands in fair territory which , before the batter @-@ runner can reach first base , is retrieved by a fielder who touches first base while holding the ball or relays it to another fielder who touches first base while holding the ball .
The force out : recorded against a runner who is required to attempt to advance — either because the runner is on first base and a batted ball lands in fair territory , or because the runner immediately behind on the basepath is thus required to attempt to advance — but fails to reach the next base before a fielder touches the base while holding the ball . The ground out is technically a special case of the force out .
The tag out : recorded against a runner who is touched by a fielder with the ball or a glove holding the ball , while the runner is not touching a base .
It is possible to record two outs in the course of the same play — a double play . Even three — a triple play — is possible , though this is very rare . Players put out or retired must leave the field , returning to their team 's dugout or bench . A runner may be stranded on base when a third out is recorded against another player on the team . Stranded runners do not benefit the team in its next turn at bat — every half @-@ inning begins with the bases empty of runners .
An individual player 's turn batting or plate appearance is complete when the player reaches base , hits a home run , makes an out , or hits a ball that results in the team 's third out , even if it is recorded against a teammate . On rare occasions , a batter may be at the plate when , without the batter 's hitting the ball , a third out is recorded against a teammate — for instance , a runner getting caught stealing ( tagged out attempting to steal a base ) . A batter with this sort of incomplete plate appearance starts off the team 's next turn batting ; any balls or strikes recorded against the batter the previous inning are erased . A runner may circle the bases only once per plate appearance and thus can score at most a single run per batting turn . Once a player has completed a plate appearance , that player may not bat again until the eight other members of the player 's team have all taken their turn at bat . The batting order is set before the game begins , and may not be altered except for substitutions . Once a player has been removed for a substitute , that player may not reenter the game . Children 's games often have more liberal substitution rules .
If the designated hitter ( DH ) rule is in effect , each team has a tenth player whose sole responsibility is to bat ( and run ) . The DH takes the place of another player — almost invariably the pitcher — in the batting order , but does not field . Thus , even with the DH , each team still has a batting order of nine players and a fielding arrangement of nine players .
= = Personnel = =
= = = Player rosters = = =
Roster , or squad , sizes differ between different leagues and different levels of organized play . Major League Baseball teams maintain 25 @-@ player active rosters . A typical 25 @-@ man roster in a league without the DH rule , such as MLB 's National League , features :
eight position players — catcher , four infielders , three outfielders — who play on a regular basis
five starting pitchers who constitute the team 's pitching rotation or starting rotation
six relief pitchers , including one specialist closer , who constitute the team 's bullpen ( named for the off @-@ field area where pitchers warm up )
one backup , or substitute , catcher
two backup infielders
two backup outfielders
one specialist pinch hitter , or a second backup catcher , or a seventh reliever
In the American League and others with the DH rule , there will usually be nine offensive regulars ( including the DH ) , five starting pitchers , seven or eight relievers , a backup catcher and two or three other reserves ; the need for late inning pinch @-@ hitters ( usually in the pitcher 's spot ) is reduced by the DH .
= = = Other personnel = = =
The manager , or head coach of a team , oversees the team 's major strategic decisions , such as establishing the starting rotation , setting the lineup , or batting order , before each game , and making substitutions during games — in particular , bringing in relief pitchers . Managers are typically assisted by two or more coaches ; they may have specialized responsibilities , such as working with players on hitting , fielding , pitching , or strength and conditioning . At most levels of organized play , two coaches are stationed on the field when the team is at bat : the first base coach and third base coach , occupying designated coaches ' boxes just outside the foul lines , assist in the direction of baserunners when the ball is in play , and relay tactical signals from the manager to batters and runners during pauses in play . In contrast to many other team sports , baseball managers and coaches generally wear their team 's uniforms ; coaches must be in uniform in order to be allowed on the playing field during a game .
Any baseball game involves one or more umpires , who make rulings on the outcome of each play . At a minimum , one umpire will stand behind the catcher , to have a good view of the strike zone , and call balls and strikes . Additional umpires may be stationed near the other bases , thus making it easier to judge plays such as attempted force outs and tag outs . In Major League Baseball , four umpires are used for each game , one near each base . In the playoffs , six umpires are used : one at each base and two in the outfield along the foul lines .
= = Strategy and tactics = =
Many of the pre @-@ game and in @-@ game strategic decisions in baseball revolve around a fundamental fact : in general , right @-@ handed batters tend to be more successful against left @-@ handed pitchers and , to an even greater degree , left @-@ handed batters tend to be more successful against right @-@ handed pitchers . A manager with several left @-@ handed batters in the regular lineup who knows the team will be facing a left @-@ handed starting pitcher may respond by starting one or more of the right @-@ handed backups on the team 's roster . During the late innings of a game , as relief pitchers and pinch hitters are brought in , the opposing managers will often go back and forth trying to create favorable matchups with their substitutions : the manager of the fielding team trying to arrange same @-@ handed pitcher @-@ batter matchups , the manager of the batting team trying to arrange opposite @-@ handed matchups . With a team that has the lead in the late innings , a manager may remove a starting position player — especially one whose turn at bat is not likely to come up again — for a more skillful fielder .
= = = Pitching and fielding tactics = = =
The tactical decision that precedes almost every play in a baseball game involves pitch selection . By gripping and then releasing the baseball in a certain manner , and by throwing it at a certain speed , pitchers can cause the baseball to break to either side , or downward , as it approaches the batter . Among the resulting wide variety of pitches that may be thrown , the four basic types are the fastball , the changeup ( or off @-@ speed pitch ) , and two breaking balls — the curveball and the slider . Pitchers have different repertoires of pitches they are skillful at throwing . Conventionally , before each pitch , the catcher signals the pitcher what type of pitch to throw , as well as its general vertical and / or horizontal location . If there is disagreement on the selection , the pitcher may shake off the sign and the catcher will call for a different pitch . With a runner on base and taking a lead , the pitcher may attempt a pickoff , a quick throw to a fielder covering the base to keep the runner 's lead in check or , optimally , effect a tag out . Pickoff attempts , however , are subject to rules that severely restrict the pitcher 's movements before and during the pickoff attempt . Violation of any one of these rules could result in the umpire calling a balk against the pitcher , with the result being runners on base , if any , advance one base with impunity . If an attempted stolen base is anticipated , the catcher may call for a pitchout , a ball thrown deliberately off the plate , allowing the catcher to catch it while standing and throw quickly to a base . Facing a batter with a strong tendency to hit to one side of the field , the fielding team may employ a shift , with most or all of the fielders moving to the left or right of their usual positions . With a runner on third base , the infielders may play in , moving closer to home plate to improve the odds of throwing out the runner on a ground ball , though a sharply hit grounder is more likely to carry through a drawn @-@ in infield .
= = = Batting and baserunning tactics = = =
Several basic offensive tactics come into play with a runner on first base , including the fundamental choice of whether to attempt a steal of second base . The hit and run is sometimes employed with a skillful contact hitter : the runner takes off with the pitch drawing the shortstop or second baseman over to second base , creating a gap in the infield for the batter to poke the ball through . The sacrifice bunt calls for the batter to focus on making contact with the ball so that it rolls a short distance into the infield , allowing the runner to advance into scoring position even at the expense of the batter being thrown out at first — a batter who succeeds is credited with a sacrifice . ( A batter , particularly one who is a fast runner , may also attempt to bunt for a hit . ) A sacrifice bunt employed with a runner on third base , aimed at bringing that runner home , is known as a squeeze play . With a runner on third and fewer than two outs , a batter may instead concentrate on hitting a fly ball that , even if it is caught , will be deep enough to allow the runner to tag up and score — a successful batter in this case gets credit for a sacrifice fly . The manager will sometimes signal a batter who is ahead in the count ( i.e. , has more balls than strikes ) to take , or not swing at , the next pitch .
= = Distinctive elements = =
Baseball has certain attributes that set it apart from the other popular team sports in the countries where it has a following , including American and Canadian football , basketball , ice hockey , and soccer . All of these sports use a clock ; in all of them , play is less individual and more collective ; and in none of them is the variation between playing fields nearly as substantial or important . The comparison between cricket and baseball demonstrates that many of baseball 's distinctive elements are shared in various ways with its cousin sports .
= = = No clock to kill = = =
In clock @-@ limited sports , games often end with a team that holds the lead killing the clock rather than competing aggressively against the opposing team . In contrast , baseball has no clock ; a team cannot win without getting the last batter out and rallies are not constrained by time . At almost any turn in any baseball game , the most advantageous strategy is some form of aggressive strategy . In contrast , again , the clock comes into play even in the case of multi @-@ day Test and first @-@ class cricket : the possibility of a draw often encourages a team that is batting last and well behind to bat defensively , giving up any faint chance at a win to avoid a loss . Baseball offers no such reward for conservative batting .
While nine innings has been the standard since the beginning of professional baseball , the duration of the average major league game has increased steadily through the years . At the turn of the 20th century , games typically took an hour and a half to play . In the 1920s , they averaged just less than two hours , which eventually ballooned to 2 : 38 in 1960 . By 1997 , the average American League game lasted 2 : 57 ( National League games were about 10 minutes shorter — pitchers at the plate making for quicker outs than designated hitters ) . In 2004 , Major League Baseball declared that its goal was an average game of merely 2 : 45 . By 2014 , though , the average MLB game took over three hours to complete . The lengthening of games is attributed to longer breaks between half @-@ innings for television commercials , increased offense , more pitching changes , and a slower pace of play with pitchers taking more time between each delivery , and batters stepping out of the box more frequently . Other leagues have experienced similar issues . In 2008 , Nippon Professional Baseball took steps aimed at shortening games by 12 minutes from the preceding decade 's average of 3 : 18 .
= = = Individual focus = = =
Although baseball is a team sport , individual players are often placed under scrutiny and pressure . In 1915 , a baseball instructional manual pointed out that every single pitch , of which there are often more than two hundred in a game , involves an individual , one @-@ on @-@ one contest : " the pitcher and the batter in a battle of wits " . Contrasting the game with both football and basketball , scholar Michael Mandelbaum argues that " baseball is the one closest in evolutionary descent to the older individual sports " . Pitcher , batter , and fielder all act essentially independent of each other . While coaching staffs can signal pitcher or batter to pursue certain tactics , the execution of the play itself is a series of solitary acts . If the batter hits a line drive , the outfielder is solely responsible for deciding to try to catch it or play it on the bounce and for succeeding or failing . The statistical precision of baseball is both facilitated by this isolation and reinforces it . As described by Mandelbaum ,
It is impossible to isolate and objectively assess the contribution each [ football ] team member makes to the outcome of the play ... [ E ] very basketball player is interacting with all of his teammates all the time . In baseball , by contrast , every player is more or less on his own ... Baseball is therefore a realm of complete transparency and total responsibility . A baseball player lives in a glass house , and in a stark moral universe ... Everything that every player does is accounted for and everything accounted for is either good or bad , right or wrong .
Cricket is more similar to baseball than many other team sports in this regard : while the individual focus in cricket is mitigated by the importance of the batting partnership and the practicalities of tandem running , it is enhanced by the fact that a batsman may occupy the wicket for an hour or much more . There is no statistical equivalent in cricket for the fielding error and thus less emphasis on personal responsibility in this area of play .
= = = Uniqueness of each baseball park = = =
Unlike those of most sports , baseball playing fields can vary significantly in size and shape . While the dimensions of the infield are specifically regulated , the only constraint on outfield size and shape for professional teams following the rules of Major League and Minor League Baseball is that fields built or remodeled since June 1 , 1958 , must have a minimum distance of 325 feet ( 99 m ) from home plate to the fences in left and right field and 400 feet ( 122 m ) to center . Major league teams often skirt even this rule . For example , at Minute Maid Park , which became the home of the Houston Astros in 2000 , the Crawford Boxes in left field are only 315 feet ( 96 m ) from home plate . There are no rules at all that address the height of fences or other structures at the edge of the outfield . The most famously idiosyncratic outfield boundary is the left @-@ field wall at Boston 's Fenway Park , in use since 1912 : the Green Monster is 310 feet ( 94 m ) from home plate down the line and 37 feet ( 11 m ) tall .
Similarly , there are no regulations at all concerning the dimensions of foul territory . Thus a foul fly ball may be entirely out of play in a park with little space between the foul lines and the stands , but a foulout in a park with more expansive foul ground . A fence in foul territory that is close to the outfield line will tend to direct balls that strike it back toward the fielders , while one that is farther away may actually prompt more collisions , as outfielders run full speed to field balls deep in the corner . These variations can make the difference between a double and a triple or inside @-@ the @-@ park home run . The surface of the field is also unregulated . While the image to the left shows a traditional field surfacing arrangement ( and the one used by virtually all MLB teams with naturally surfaced fields ) , teams are free to decide what areas will be grassed or bare . Some fields — including several in MLB — use an artificial surface , such as AstroTurf . Surface variations can have a significant effect on how ground balls behave and are fielded as well as on baserunning . Similarly , the presence of a roof ( seven major league teams play in stadiums with permanent or retractable roofs ) can greatly affect how fly balls are played . While football and soccer players deal with similar variations of field surface and stadium covering , the size and shape of their fields are much more standardized . The area out @-@ of @-@ bounds on a football or soccer field does not affect play the way foul territory in baseball does , so variations in that regard are largely insignificant .
These physical variations create a distinctive set of playing conditions at each ballpark . Other local factors , such as altitude and climate , can also significantly affect play . A given stadium may acquire a reputation as a pitcher 's park or a hitter 's park , if one or the other discipline notably benefits from its unique mix of elements . The most exceptional park in this regard is Coors Field , home of the Colorado Rockies . Its high altitude — 5 @,@ 282 feet ( 1 @,@ 610 m ) above sea level — is responsible for giving it the strongest hitter 's park effect in the major leagues . Wrigley Field , home of the Chicago Cubs , is known for its fickle disposition : a hitter 's park when the strong winds off Lake Michigan are blowing out , it becomes more of a pitcher 's park when they are blowing in . The absence of a standardized field affects not only how particular games play out , but the nature of team rosters and players ' statistical records . For example , hitting a fly ball 330 feet ( 100 m ) into right field might result in an easy catch on the warning track at one park , and a home run at another . A team that plays in a park with a relatively short right field , such as the New York Yankees , will tend to stock its roster with left @-@ handed pull hitters , who can best exploit it . On the individual level , a player who spends most of his career with a team that plays in a hitter 's park will gain an advantage in batting statistics over time — even more so if his talents are especially suited to the park .
= = Statistics = =
Organized baseball lends itself to statistics to a greater degree than many other sports . Each play is discrete and has a relatively small number of possible outcomes . In the late 19th century , a former cricket player , English @-@ born Henry Chadwick of Brooklyn , New York , was responsible for the " development of the box score , tabular standings , the annual baseball guide , the batting average , and most of the common statistics and tables used to describe baseball . " The statistical record is so central to the game 's " historical essence " that Chadwick came to be known as Father Baseball . In the 1920s , American newspapers began devoting more and more attention to baseball statistics , initiating what journalist and historian Alan Schwarz describes as a " tectonic shift in sports , as intrigue that once focused mostly on teams began to go to individual players and their statistics lines . "
The Official Baseball Rules administered by Major League Baseball require the official scorer to categorize each baseball play unambiguously . The rules provide detailed criteria to promote consistency . The score report is the official basis for both the box score of the game and the relevant statistical records . General managers , managers , and baseball scouts use statistics to evaluate players and make strategic decisions .
Certain traditional statistics are familiar to most baseball fans . The basic batting statistics include :
At bats : plate appearances , excluding walks and hit by pitches — where the batter 's ability is not fully tested — and sacrifices and sacrifice flies — where the batter intentionally makes an out in order to advance one or more baserunners
Hits : times reached base because of a batted , fair ball without fielding error or fielder 's choice
Runs : times circling the bases and reaching home safely
Runs batted in ( RBIs ) : number of runners who scored due to a batter 's action ( including the batter , in the case of a home run ) , except when batter grounded into double play or reached on an error
Home runs : hits on which the batter successfully touched all four bases , without the contribution of a fielding error
Batting average : hits divided by at bats — the traditional measure of batting ability
The basic baserunning statistics include :
Stolen bases : times advancing to the next base entirely due to the runner 's own efforts , generally while the pitcher is preparing to deliver or delivering the ball
Caught stealing : times tagged out while attempting to steal a base
The basic pitching statistics include :
Wins : credited to pitcher on winning team who last pitched before the team took a lead that it never relinquished ( a starting pitcher must pitch at least five innings to qualify for a win )
Losses : charged to pitcher on losing team who was pitching when the opposing team took a lead that it never relinquished
Saves : games where the pitcher enters a game led by the pitcher 's team , finishes the game without surrendering the lead , is not the winning pitcher , and either ( a ) the lead was three runs or less when the pitcher entered the game ; ( b ) the potential tying run was on base , at bat , or on deck ; or ( c ) the pitcher pitched three or more innings
Innings pitched : outs recorded while pitching divided by three ( partial innings are conventionally recorded as , e.g. , " 5 @.@ 2 " or " 7 @.@ 1 " , the last digit actually representing thirds , not tenths , of an inning )
Strikeouts : times pitching three strikes to a batter
Winning percentage : wins divided by decisions ( wins plus losses )
Earned run average ( ERA ) : runs allowed , excluding those resulting from fielding errors , per nine innings pitched
The basic fielding statistics include :
Putouts : times the fielder catches a fly ball , tags or forces out a runner , or otherwise directly effects an out
Assists : times a putout by another fielder was recorded following the fielder touching the ball
Errors : times the fielder fails to make a play that should have been made with common effort , and the batting team benefits as a result
Total chances : putouts plus assists plus errors
Fielding average : successful chances ( putouts plus assists ) divided by total chances
Among the many other statistics that are kept are those collectively known as situational statistics . For example , statistics can indicate which specific pitchers a certain batter performs best against . If a given situation statistically favors a certain batter , the manager of the fielding team may be more likely to change pitchers or have the pitcher intentionally walk the batter in order to face one who is less likely to succeed .
= = = Sabermetrics = = =
Sabermetrics refers to the field of baseball statistical study and the development of new statistics and analytical tools . The term is also used to refer directly to new statistics themselves . The term was coined around 1980 by one of the field 's leading proponents , Bill James , and derives from the Society for American Baseball Research ( SABR ) .
The growing popularity of sabermetrics since the early 1980s has brought more attention to two batting statistics that sabermetricians argue are much better gauges of a batter 's skill than batting average :
On @-@ base percentage measures a batter 's ability to get on base . It is calculated by taking the sum of the batter 's successes in getting on base ( hits plus walks plus hit by pitches ) and dividing that by the batter 's total plate appearances ( at bats plus walks plus hit by pitches plus sacrifice flies ) , except for sacrifice bunts .
Slugging percentage measures a batter 's ability to hit for power . It is calculated by taking the batter 's total bases ( one per each single , two per double , three per triple , and four per home run ) and dividing that by the batter 's at bats .
Some of the new statistics devised by sabermetricians have gained wide use :
On @-@ base plus slugging ( OPS ) measures a batter 's overall ability . It is calculated by adding the batter 's on @-@ base percentage and slugging percentage .
Walks plus hits per inning pitched ( WHIP ) measures a pitcher 's ability at preventing hitters from reaching base . It is calculated exactly as its name suggests .
= = Popularity and cultural impact = =
Writing in 1919 , philosopher Morris Raphael Cohen described baseball as America 's national religion . In the words of sports columnist Jayson Stark , baseball has long been " a unique paragon of American culture " — a status he sees as devastated by the steroid abuse scandal . Baseball has an important place in other national cultures as well : Scholar Peter Bjarkman describes " how deeply the sport is ingrained in the history and culture of a nation such as Cuba , [ and ] how thoroughly it was radically reshaped and nativized in Japan . " Since the early 1980s , the Dominican Republic , in particular the city of San Pedro de Macorís , has been the major leagues ' primary source of foreign talent . Hall @-@ of @-@ Famer Roberto Clemente remains one of the greatest national heroes in Puerto Rico 's history . While baseball has long been the island 's primary athletic pastime , its once well @-@ attended professional winter league has declined in popularity since 1990 , when young Puerto Rican players began to be included in the major leagues ' annual first @-@ year player draft . In the Western Hemisphere , baseball is also one of the leading sports in Canada , Colombia , Mexico , the Netherlands Antilles , Nicaragua , Panama , and Venezuela . In Asia , it is among the most popular sports in Japan , South Korea and Taiwan .
The major league game in the United States was originally targeted toward a middle @-@ class , white @-@ collar audience : relative to other spectator pastimes , the National League 's set ticket price of 50 cents in 1876 was high , while the location of playing fields outside the inner city and the workweek daytime scheduling of games were also obstacles to a blue @-@ collar audience . A century later , the situation was very different . With the rise in popularity of other team sports with much higher average ticket prices — football , basketball , and hockey — professional baseball had become among the most blue @-@ collar @-@ oriented of leading American spectator sports .
In the late 1900s and early 2000s , baseball 's position compared to football in the United States moved in contradictory directions . In 2008 , Major League Baseball set a revenue record of $ 6 @.@ 5 billion , matching the NFL 's revenue for the first time in decades . A new MLB revenue record of $ 6 @.@ 6 billion was set in 2009 . On the other hand , the percentage of American sports fans polled who named baseball as their favorite sport was 16 % , compared to pro football at 31 % . In 1985 , the respective figures were pro football 24 % , baseball 23 % . Because there are so many more major league baseball games played , there is no comparison in overall attendance . In 2008 , total attendance at major league games was the second @-@ highest in history : 78 @.@ 6 million , 0 @.@ 7 % off the record set the previous year . The following year , amid the U.S. recession , attendance fell by 6 @.@ 6 % to 73 @.@ 4 million . Attendance at games held under the Minor League Baseball umbrella also set a record in 2007 , with 42 @.@ 8 million ; this figure does not include attendance at games of the several independent minor leagues .
In Japan , where baseball is inarguably the leading spectator team sport , combined revenue for the twelve teams in Nippon Professional Baseball ( NPB ) , the body that oversees both the Central and Pacific leagues , was estimated at $ 1 billion in 2007 . Total NPB attendance for the year was approximately 20 million . While in the preceding two decades , MLB attendance grew by 50 percent and revenue nearly tripled , the comparable NPB figures were stagnant . There are concerns that MLB 's growing interest in acquiring star Japanese players will hurt the game in their home country . In Cuba , where baseball is by every reckoning the national sport , the national team overshadows the city and provincial teams that play in the top @-@ level domestic leagues . Revenue figures are not released for the country 's amateur system . Similarly , according to one official pronouncement , the sport 's governing authority " has never taken into account attendance ... because its greatest interest has always been the development of athletes " .
As of 2007 , Little League Baseball oversees more than 7 @,@ 000 children 's baseball leagues with more than 2 @.@ 2 million participants – 2 @.@ 1 million in the United States and 123 @,@ 000 in other countries . Babe Ruth League teams have over 1 million participants . According to the president of the International Baseball Federation , between 300 @,@ 000 and 500 @,@ 000 women and girls play baseball around the world , including Little League and the introductory game of Tee Ball .
A varsity baseball team is an established part of physical education departments at most high schools and colleges in the United States . In 2008 , nearly half a million high schoolers and over 35 @,@ 000 collegians played on their schools ' baseball teams . The number of Americans participating in baseball has declined since the late 1980s , falling well behind the number of soccer participants . By early in the 20th century , intercollegiate baseball was Japan 's leading sport . Today , high school baseball in particular is immensely popular there . The final rounds of the two annual tournaments — the National High School Baseball Invitational Tournament in the spring , and the even more important National High School Baseball Championship in the summer — are broadcast around the country . The tournaments are known , respectively , as Spring Koshien and Summer Koshien after the 55 @,@ 000 @-@ capacity stadium where they are played . In Cuba , baseball is a mandatory part of the state system of physical education , which begins at age six . Talented children as young as seven are sent to special district schools for more intensive training — the first step on a ladder whose acme is the national baseball team .
= = = Baseball in popular culture = = =
Baseball has had a broad impact on popular culture , both in the United States and elsewhere . Dozens of English @-@ language idioms have been derived from baseball ; in particular , the game is the source of a number of widely used sexual euphemisms . The first networked radio broadcasts in North America were of the 1922 World Series : famed sportswriter Grantland Rice announced play @-@ by @-@ play from New York City 's Polo Grounds on WJZ – Newark , New Jersey , which was connected by wire to WGY – Schenectady , New York , and WBZ – Springfield , Massachusetts . The baseball cap has become a ubiquitous fashion item not only in the United States and Japan , but also in countries where the sport itself is not particularly popular , such as the United Kingdom .
Baseball has inspired many works of art and entertainment . One of the first major examples , Ernest Thayer 's poem " Casey at the Bat " , appeared in 1888 . A wry description of the failure of a star player in what would now be called a " clutch situation " , the poem became the source of vaudeville and other staged performances , audio recordings , film adaptations , and an opera , as well as a host of sequels and parodies in various media . There have been many baseball movies , including the Academy Award – winning The Pride of the Yankees ( 1942 ) and the Oscar nominees The Natural ( 1984 ) and Field of Dreams ( 1989 ) . The American Film Institute 's selection of the ten best sports movies includes The Pride of the Yankees at number 3 and Bull Durham ( 1988 ) at number 5 . Baseball has provided thematic material for hits on both stage — the Adler – Ross musical Damn Yankees — and record — George J. Gaskin 's " Slide , Kelly , Slide " , Simon and Garfunkel 's " Mrs. Robinson " , and John Fogerty 's " Centerfield " . The baseball @-@ founded comedic sketch " Who 's on First " , popularized by Abbott and Costello in 1938 , quickly became famous . Six decades later , Time named it the best comedy routine of the 20th century . Baseball is also featured in various video games including MLB : The Show , Wii Sports , Kinect Sports : Season 2 and Mario Baseball .
Literary works connected to the game include the short fiction of Ring Lardner and novels such as Bernard Malamud 's The Natural ( the source for the movie ) , Robert Coover 's The Universal Baseball Association , Inc . , J. Henry Waugh , Prop . , and W. P. Kinsella 's Shoeless Joe ( the source for Field of Dreams ) . Baseball 's literary canon also includes the beat reportage of Damon Runyon ; the columns of Grantland Rice , Red Smith , Dick Young , and Peter Gammons ; and the essays of Roger Angell . Among the celebrated nonfiction books in the field are Lawrence S. Ritter 's The Glory of Their Times , Roger Kahn 's The Boys of Summer , and Michael Lewis 's Moneyball . The 1970 publication of major league pitcher Jim Bouton 's tell @-@ all chronicle Ball Four is considered a turning point in the reporting of professional sports .
Baseball has also inspired the creation of new cultural forms . Baseball cards were introduced in the late 19th century as trade cards . A typical example would feature an image of a baseball player on one side and advertising for a business on the other . In the early 1900s they were produced widely as promotional items by tobacco and confectionery companies . The 1930s saw the popularization of the modern style of baseball card , with a player photograph accompanied on the rear by statistics and biographical data . Baseball cards — many of which are now prized collectibles — are the source of the much broader trading card industry , involving similar products for different sports and non @-@ sports @-@ related fields .
Modern fantasy sports began in 1980 with the invention of Rotisserie League Baseball by New York writer Daniel Okrent and several friends . Participants in a Rotisserie league draft notional teams from the list of active Major League Baseball players and play out an entire imaginary season with game outcomes based on the players ' latest real @-@ world statistics . Rotisserie @-@ style play quickly became a phenomenon . Now known more generically as fantasy baseball , it has inspired similar games based on an array of different sports . The field boomed with increasing Internet access and new fantasy sports – related websites . By 2008 , 29 @.@ 9 million people in the United States and Canada were playing fantasy sports , spending $ 800 million on the hobby . The burgeoning popularity of fantasy baseball is also credited with the increasing attention paid to sabermetrics — first among fans , only later among baseball professionals .
= Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare =
Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare is a 2007 first @-@ person shooter video game developed by Infinity Ward and published by Activision for Microsoft Windows , OS X , PlayStation 3 , Xbox 360 , and Wii . A handheld game was made for the Nintendo DS . The game was released in North America , Australia , and Europe in November 2007 for video game consoles and Microsoft Windows . It was released for OS X in September 2008 , then released for the Wii in November 2009 , given the subtitle Reflex Edition . It is the fourth installment in the Call of Duty video game series , excluding expansion packs , and is the first in the Modern Warfare line of the franchise , followed by a direct sequel , Call of Duty : Modern Warfare 2 as well as the first game in the series to have a Mature rating . The game breaks away from the World War II setting of previous games in the series and is instead set in modern times . Developed for over two years , the game uses a proprietary game engine . On September 10 , 2009 , it was published in Japan by Square Enix .
The story takes place in the year 2011 , where a radical leader has executed the president of an unnamed country in the Middle East , and an ultranationalist movement starts a civil war in Russia . The conflicts are seen from the perspectives of a U.S. Force Reconnaissance Marine and a British SAS commando , and are set in various locales , such as the United Kingdom , the Middle East , Azerbaijan , Russia , and Ukraine . The multiplayer portion of the game features various game modes , and contains a leveling system that allows the player to unlock additional weapons , weapon attachments , and camouflage schemes as they advance .
Critically acclaimed , the game received an aggregated score of 94 % from both GameRankings and Metacritic . The gameplay and story received particular praise , while criticism targeted the failure of the game to substantially innovate the first @-@ person shooter genre . The game won numerous awards from gaming websites , including IGN 's Best Xbox 360 Game . It was the top @-@ selling game worldwide for 2007 , selling around seven million copies by January 2008 and almost sixteen million by November 2013 .
A remastered version of the game will be released on PlayStation 4 , Xbox One and PC alongside Call of Duty : Infinite Warfare on November 4 , 2016 .
= = Gameplay = =
As opposed to earlier games in the Call of Duty series , the game features modern equipment and new features , many exclusive to the multiplayer part of the game , such as " killstreaks " ; killing a number of enemies without the player dying in between kills allows access to various assets including airstrikes and helicopter support . A character can be positioned in one of three stances : standing , crouching , or prone , each affecting the character 's rate of movement , accuracy , and stealth . Using cover helps the player avoid enemy fire or recover health after taking significant damage . As such , there are no armor or health power ups . When the character has taken damage , the edges of the screen glow red and the character 's heartbeat increases . If the character stays out of fire , the character can recover . When the character is within the blast radius of a live grenade , a marker indicates the direction of the grenade , helping the player to either flee or toss it back to the enemy .
= = = Campaign = = =
The player takes on the role of various characters during a single @-@ player campaign . The characters ' involvement in the plot occurs simultaneously and overlaps the events in the game . As such , the player 's perspective changes from one character to another between missions . Each mission features a series of objectives ; the player is led to each objective with the heads up display , which marks its direction and distance . Some objectives require that the player arrives at a checkpoint , while other objectives require the player to eliminate enemies in a specified location , stand their ground to defend an objective , or plant explosive charges on an enemy installation . After the credits , a special epilogue mission is unlocked for play , featuring a four @-@ man squad retrieving a VIP from terrorists who have hijacked an airliner . The SAS rescue the VIP and escape before the plane is destroyed .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare features team @-@ based and deathmatch @-@ based multiplayer modes on various maps . Each mode has an objective that requires unique strategies to complete . Players can call in UAV reconnaissance scans , air strikes , and attack helicopters , when they achieve three- , five- , and seven @-@ enemy kill streaks respectively . A game ends when either a team or player has reached a predefined number of points , or the allotted time expires in which case the team or player with the most points wins . If the points are even when the time expires , Sudden Death mode is activated in which there is no re @-@ spawning and the team who either has the last man standing , or achieves the objective first are the winners . If the player is in either of the two matches , then there is an Overtime match , in which the next team to win is rewarded the victory .
The player 's performance in the multiplayer mode is tracked with experience points , which can be earned by killing opposing players , completing challenges , completing objectives , or by completing a round or match . As the player gains experience , they advance in level , unlocking new weapons , perks , challenges , and gameplay modes . The highest obtainable level is 55 , but on the console versions of the game , the player has the option to enter " Prestige " mode , which returns their level to one and removes all accumulated unlockables . This process can be repeated up to 10 times with a different insignia being given each time .
Completing a challenge grants experience points and may unlock weapon attachments . As a player 's level increases by gaining experience points within online games , it unlocks new weapons , perks , or challenges . As the player advances in levels , they earn the ability to customize their classes ; this includes selecting their main weapon , side arm and special grenade type . Additionally , the player can select 3 perks , one from each of the three " Tiers " , that can customize their character further . Perk effects include , but are not limited to , extra ammunition , increasing bullet damage by the player , or dropping a live grenade when the player is killed . The player is also given the choice to complete challenges in order to receive even more experience points ; challenges include achieving a certain number of kills with a specific weapon , shooting down a helicopter or performing a number of head shots . Additionally , when the player attains a certain amount of headshots with a specific weapon , excluding sidearms , the player unlocks extra weapon " camos " , or camouflage , to use for that specific weapon .
= = Campaign = =
= = = Characters = = =
During the single player campaign , the player controls six different characters from a first @-@ person perspective . The player assumes the role of recent British Special Air Service ( SAS ) recruit Sergeant John " Soap " MacTavish for most of the game , starting with his enrollment in the 22nd SAS Regiment . Sergeant Paul Jackson is part of USMC 1st Force Recon deployed to the Middle East , and the player controls Jackson 's character during five levels of Act 1 . Captain John Price ( voiced by actor Billy Murray ) is an SAS officer who is playable in two flashback missions from 1996 in which he is still Lieutenant . The player also assumes the role of an American thermal @-@ imaging TV operator aboard a Lockheed AC @-@ 130 gunship during one level , and a British SAS operative infiltrating a hijacked airliner to save a VIP in a secret level titled " Mile High Club " . Finally , the player may control Yasir Al @-@ Fulani , the president of the unnamed Middle Eastern country in the game before he is executed , although he has no freedom of action beyond turning his head .
The game 's non @-@ playable characters ( NPCs ) feature prominently in the story : Captain Price and his right @-@ hand man , Gaz ( voiced by Craig Fairbrass ) , serve as mentors to Soap . Jackson 's USMC platoon is led by Lieutenant Vasquez ( voiced by David Sobolov ) and Staff Sergeant Griggs ( voiced by and modeled after Infinity Ward lead animator Mark Grigsby ) ; Griggs later accompanies Soap in Russia . Sergeant Kamarov leads the Russian loyalists that aid SAS and USMC forces . " Nikolai " is a Russian informant who helps the SAS . Captain MacMillan is Price 's mentor and commanding officer during a flashback .
The antagonists in the story include Imran Zakhaev ( voiced by Yevgeni Lazarev ) , the leader of the Russian ultranationalist party and the main antagonist of the game ; Khaled Al @-@ Asad , the commander of the revolutionary forces in the Middle East and an ally of Imran Zakhaev ; and Victor Zakhaev , the son of Imran Zakhaev and a priority figure in the ultranationalist party .
= = = Plot = = =
In 2011 , a civil war has broken out in Russia between its government and ultranationalists who seek to restore Russia to its Soviet @-@ era glamor . Meanwhile , a separatist group led by Khaled Al @-@ Asad seizes power in a " small but oil @-@ rich " country in the Middle East through a coup d 'état . Al @-@ Asad is ruthless and has extreme anti @-@ Western views , which prompts the United States to invade the country . In the afternoon of the second day of invasion , a platoon of USMC 1st Force Recon is sent to capture Al @-@ Asad . The platoon attacks a TV station in which Al @-@ Asad was thought to be broadcasting live and then engages in urban combat in an unnamed city south of the capital . In the meantime , a British Special Air Service ( SAS ) squad led by Captain Price conducts two important operations , one on a ship in the Bering Strait and one in Russia . Intelligence gathered from the two missions indicates that Al @-@ Asad may be in possession of a Russian nuclear device .
In evening of the third day , the U.S. launches a full @-@ scale assault on Al @-@ Asad 's presidential palace in spite of the SAS warning about the possible nuclear device . As U.S. Navy SEALs invade the palace , the Marines engage Al @-@ Asad 's ground forces . The assault , however , ends in catastrophe when the nuclear device suddenly detonates , wiping out most of the city along with everyone in it .
Refusing to assume Al @-@ Asad dead , Price 's strike team supported by Russian loyalists attacks a potential safe house in a village in Azerbaijan to eradicate the occupying Russian forces and capture Al @-@ Asad . Shortly into the interrogation , Al @-@ Asad 's phone rings . After hearing the voice of the caller , Price executes Al @-@ Asad and reveals that the caller was the leader of the ultranationalists : Imran Zakhaev .
Price tells the story of a mission in Pripyat , Ukraine in 1996 . In the aftermath of the Chernobyl disaster and the collapse of the Soviet Union , Zakhaev took advantage of the turmoil to profit from nuclear proliferation and used his new wealth to lure soldiers from the Soviet Army to form his ultranationalist party . Price was part of a black operation to assass
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, after seeing an open @-@ air Led Zeppelin concert at the 1970 Bath Festival of Blues and Progressive Music .
Glastonbury Festival was held intermittently from 1970 until 1981 ; since then , it has been held every year , except for " fallow years " taken every five years , intended to give the land , local population , and organisers a break .
= = History = =
A series of concerts , lectures and recitals called the Glastonbury Festivals was established with a summer school in the town of Glastonbury between 1914 and 1926 by classical composer Rutland Boughton ( 1878 – 1960 ) , and with their location attracted a bohemian audience by the standards of the time . They featured works by then @-@ contemporary composers , sponsored by the Clark family , as well as a wide range of traditional works , from Everyman to James Shirley 's Cupid and Death .
= = = 1970s = = =
= = = = Pilton Festival 1970 = = = =
Glastonbury was heavily influenced by hippie ethics and the free festival movement in the early 1970s , beginning with the Isle of Wight Festival , which featured performances by The Who , amongst many other artists . Organiser Michael Eavis decided to host the first festival , then called Pilton Festival , after seeing an open @-@ air concert headlined by Led Zeppelin at the 1970 Bath Festival of Blues and Progressive Music at the nearby Bath and West Showground in 1970 . The festival retains vestiges of this tradition such as the Green Fields area , encompassing the Green Futures and Healing Field .
The first festival at Worthy Farm was the Pilton Pop , Blues & Folk Festival , mounted by Michael Eavis on Saturday 19 September 1970 , and attended by 1 @,@ 500 people . The original headline acts were The Kinks and Wayne Fontana and the Mindbenders but these acts were replaced at short notice by Tyrannosaurus Rex , later known as T. Rex . Tickets were £ 1 . Other billed acts of note were Quintessence , Stackridge , and Al Stewart .
= = = = Glastonbury Free Festival 1971 = = = =
The " Glastonbury Fair " of 1971 was instigated by Andrew Kerr after being found and introduced to Michael Eavis by David Trippas and organised with help from Jean Bradbery , Kikan Eriksdotter , John Massara , Jeff Dexter , Arabella Churchill , Thomas Crimble , Bill Harkin , Gilberto Gil , Mark Irons , John Coleman , and Jytte Klamer . The 1971 festival featured the first incarnation of the " Pyramid Stage " . Conceived by Bill Harkin the stage was a one @-@ tenth replica of the Great Pyramid of Giza built from scaffolding and metal sheeting and positioned over a blind spring which was found by dowsing .
Performers included David Bowie , Mighty Baby , Traffic , Fairport Convention , Gong , Hawkwind , Skin Alley , The Worthy Farm Windfuckers and Melanie . It was paid for by its supporters and advocates of its ideal , and embraced a mediaeval tradition of music , dance , poetry , theatre , lights , and spontaneous entertainment . The 1971 festival was filmed by Nicolas Roeg and David Puttnam and was released as a film called simply Glastonbury Fayre .
= = = = Glastonbury Festival 1979 = = = =
There was a small unplanned event in 1978 , when the convoy of vehicles from the Stonehenge festival was directed by police to Worthy Farm ; the festival was then revived the following year ( 1979 ) by Churchill , Crimble , Kerr and Eavis , in an event for the Year of the Child , which lost money .
= = = 1980s = = =
The 1980s saw the festival become an annual fixture , barring periodic fallow years . In 1981 , Michael Eavis took control of the festival , and it was organised in conjunction with the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament ( CND ) . That year a new Pyramid Stage was constructed from telegraph poles and metal sheeting ( repurposed from materials of the Ministry of Defence ) , a permanent structure which doubled as a hay @-@ barn and cow @-@ shed during the winter .
In the 1980s , the children 's area of the festival ( which had been organised by Arabella Churchill and others ) became the starting point for a new children 's charity called Children 's World . 1981 was the first year that the festival made profits , and Eavis donated £ 20 @,@ 000 of them to CND . In the following years , donations were made to a number of organisations , and since the end of the Cold War the main beneficiaries have been Oxfam , Greenpeace and WaterAid , who all contribute towards the festival by providing features and volunteers , who work at the festival in exchange for free entry .
Since 1983 , large festivals have required licences from local authorities . This led to certain restrictions being placed on the festival , including a crowd limit and specified times during which the stages could operate . The crowd limit was initially set at 30 @,@ 000 but has grown every year to over 100 @,@ 000 .
1984 saw the stage invaded by children during The Smiths set . Weather Report played the main stage , and Elvis Costello headlined the last night for almost three hours .
In 1985 , the festival grew too large for Worthy Farm , but neighbouring Cockmill Farm was purchased . That year saw a wet festival with considerable rain ; Worthy Farm is a dairy farm and what washed down into the low areas was a mixture of mud and liquefied cow dung . This did not prevent festival @-@ goers from enjoying the knee @-@ deep slurry in front of the pyramid stage .
1989 was the first year that impromptu , unofficial sound systems sprung up around the festival site - a portent of things to come . These sound systems would play loud , electronic acid house music ' round the clock , with the largest , the Hypnosis sound system , rivaling the volume of some of the official stages and running non @-@ stop throughout the festival . These systems were seen by some as a refreshing wind of change that would rejuvenate a tired subculture , and by others as a blessed nuisance .
= = = 1990s = = =
The biggest festival yet was held in 1990 ; however , the day after the festival ended , violence - between the security guards and new age travellers ( the so @-@ called Battle of Yeoman 's Bridge ) - led to the organisers taking 1991 off to rethink the festival . An expanded festival returned in 1992 , and this proved a great success . 1992 was the first year that the new age travellers were not initially allowed onto the site free , and a sturdier fence was designed . This success was carried through to 1993 which , like 1992 , was hot and dry .
In 1994 , the Pyramid Stage burned down just over a week before the festival ; a temporary main stage was erected in time for the festival . The 1994 festival also introduced a 150 kW wind turbine which provided some of the festival power . This festival also included the setting of a new world record on 26 June when 826 people , juggling at least three objects each , kept 2 @,@ 478 objects in the air . This was also the year the festival was first televised by Channel 4 ; concentrating on the main two music stages , providing a glimpse of the festival for those who knew little of it . Channel 4 televised the festival the following year as well , which proved to be very successful .
The enhanced TV coverage in 1994 was a crucial factor in ensuring that Orbital 's performance at the festival achieved legendary status . As a result of Channel 4 's coverage , living rooms across the country were able to experience what a rave might look like , and suddenly dance music - which had been attacked by the establishment and mainstream press for years - didn 't seem so dangerous . Indeed , 1994 was a crucial turning point for dance music 's role at the festival . Speaking to The Guardian in 2013 about the Orbital gig , Michael Eavis noted that it marked dance music 's appearance on the mainstream agenda . " What was previously underground made it on to one of the big stages , and there was no going back from there . As the police and the council made me very well aware , the buzz had been around the raves and the market sound systems and in the travellers ' fields for years . But it needed a showcase to make it legal . " The gig opened the way for others such as the Chemical Brothers , Massive Attack and Underworld , who all played high @-@ profile stages in the following years – developments that led to the launch of the festival 's Dance Village in 1997 .
1995 saw the attendance rise drastically due to the security fence being breached on the Friday of the festival . Estimates suggest there may have been enough fence @-@ jumpers to double the size of the festival . This aside , 1995 proved to be a highly successful year with memorable performances from Oasis , Elastica , Pulp , PJ Harvey , Jeff Buckley , Jamiroquai and The Cure . This was also the first year of the festival having a dance tent to cater for the rise in popularity of dance music , following the success of Orbital 's headline appearance the previous year . The dance acts of 1995 were led by Massive Attack on the Friday and Carl Cox on the Saturday . The festival took a year off in 1996 to allow the land to recover and give the organisers a break . This would be a pattern which would be followed every five years until 2011 , with the gap year moving to 2012 . 1996 also saw the release of Glastonbury the Movie which was filmed at the 1993 and 1994 festivals .
The festival returned in 1997 bigger than ever . This time there was major sponsorship from The Guardian and the BBC , who had taken over televising the event from Channel 4 . This was also the year of the mud , with the site suffering severe rainfalls which turned the entire site into a muddy bog . However those who stayed for the festival were treated to many memorable performances , including Radiohead 's headlining Pyramid Stage set on the Saturday which is said to be one of the greatest ever Glastonbury performances . The live recording of " Paranoid Android " from this performance , as well as others such as " The Day Before Yesterday 's Man " by The Supernaturals , were released on a BBC CD entitled Mud For It .
In 1998 the festival was once again struck with severe floods and storms , and again some festival goers departed early - but those who stayed were treated to performances from acts such as Pulp , Robbie Williams and Blur . Tony Bennett , however , overcame the messy environment in an immaculate white suit and tie . 1998 was also the first year that attendance officially broke the 100 @,@ 000 mark .
Another hot dry year was recorded in 1999 , much to the relief of organisers and festival goers . The festival was again overcrowded due to fence @-@ jumpers , but this would not prove to be a major problem until the following year , when an additional 100 @,@ 000 people gatecrashed the site , increasing the attendance to an estimated 250 @,@ 000 people total . The 1999 festival is also remembered for the Manic Street Preachers requesting and being given their own backstage toilets ; however , it was revealed by the band that this was a joke - the " reserved " sign on the toilet was not at the authorisation of the management .
= = = 2000s = = =
2000 saw a new Pyramid Stage introduced as well as new features such as The Glade and The Leftfield . The festival was headlined by Pet Shop Boys and David Bowie playing 30 years after his first appearance . The Pyramid Stage also hosted an unusual event on the Saturday morning , with the wedding of two festival @-@ goers , who had written to the organisers asking for permission to get married there , taking place and conducted by actor Keith Allen in front of a small group of friends and any other festival @-@ goers who still happened to be awake . This year also saw an estimated 250 @,@ 000 people attend the festival ( only 100 @,@ 000 tickets were sold ) due to gatecrashers . This led to public safety concerns and the local District Council refused any further licences until the problem was solved . The organisers took 2001 off to devise anti @-@ gatecrashing measures and secure the future of the festival , after the Roskilde Festival 2000 accident ( though this was also a scheduled break , one which took place every five years from 1991 , the year after the battle of Yeoman 's Bridge , until the 2012 Olympics extended the five @-@ year sequence from the planned 2011 rest year ) . It was at this point that the Mean Fiddler Organisation was invited to help , which was seen by some as a " sell @-@ out " to corporate culture .
In 2002 , the festival returned after its planned fallow year , with the controversial Mean Fiddler now handling the logistics and security — especially installing a substantial surrounding fence ( dubbed the " superfence " ) that reduced numbers to the levels of a decade earlier . The lower attendance led to a much more relaxed atmosphere and massively reduced crime levels compared to previous years . There were some incidents outside the fence involving frustrated individuals who arrived at the festival assuming they would be able to simply jump the fence and not pay for the music and performances , but despite this the event was hailed as a great success by the media companies that had taken an interest in the festival . 2002 also saw Coldplay headline the Pyramid Stage for the first time while the show was closed by a set from Rod Stewart on the Sunday night .
There were some criticisms of the 2002 festival that it lacked atmosphere , because of the reduced number of people , which reflected the smaller numbers jumping the fence . The number of tickets was increased to 150 @,@ 000 for 2003 which sold out within one day of going on sale , in marked contrast to the two months it took to sell 140 @,@ 000 in 2002 . It was also the first year that tickets sold out before the full line @-@ up was announced . This was also the year Radiohead returned to headline the Pyramid Stage . Revenue raised for good causes from ticket and commercial licence sales topped £ 1 million , half of which went to Oxfam , Greenpeace and Water Aid .
In 2004 , tickets sold out within 24 hours amid much controversy over the ticket ordering process , which left potential festival goers trying for hours to connect to the overloaded telephone and internet sites . The website got two million attempted connections within the first five minutes of the tickets going on sale and an average of 2 @,@ 500 people on the phone lines every minute . The festival was not hit by extreme weather , but high winds on the Wednesday delayed entry , and steady rain throughout Saturday turned some areas of the site to mud . The festival ended with Muse headlining the Pyramid Stage on Sunday , after Oasis had headlined on Friday . Franz Ferdinand and Sir Paul McCartney also performed . In the British press publications appeared about the use of psychedelic drugs by festival visitors . The magazine NME pronounced that 2004 would be " the third summer of love " due to the resurgence of the " shroom " that was praised as a natural alternative to ecstasy , which was said to be declining in popularity ( LSD fuelled the first summer of love in 1967 ; ecstasy and LSD the second in 1988 ) .
After the 2004 festival , Michael Eavis commented that 2006 would be a year off — in keeping with the previous history of taking one " fallow year " in every five to give the villagers and surrounding areas a rest from the yearly disruption . This was confirmed after the licence for 2005 was granted .
In 2005 the 112 @,@ 500 ticket quota sold out rapidly — in this case in 3 hours 20 minutes . For 2005 , the enclosed area of the festival was over 900 acres ( 3 @.@ 6 km2 ) , had over 385 live performances , and was attended by around 150 @,@ 000 people . The Sunday headliner was originally scheduled to be Kylie Minogue , who instead pulled out in May to receive treatment for breast cancer . Basement Jaxx were announced as a replacement on 6 June . Both Coldplay and Basement Jaxx performed a cover of Kylie 's " Can 't Get You Out Of My Head " during their concert . 2005 saw a big increase in the number of dance music attractions , with the multiple tents of the Dance Village replacing the solitary dance tent of previous years . This new area contained the East and West dance tents , the Dance Lounge , Roots Stage , and Pussy Parlour , as well as a relocated G Stage , formerly situated in the Glade . The introduction of the innovative silent disco by Emily Eavis allowed revellers to party into the early hours without disturbing the locals — a requirement of the festival 's licensing . Following the death of DJ John Peel in the autumn of 2004 , the New Tent was renamed the John Peel Tent , in homage to his encouragement and love of new bands at Glastonbury . The opening day of the 2005 festival was delayed by heavy rain and thunderstorms : Several stages , including the Acoustic Tent ( and one of the bars ) , were struck by lightning , and the valley was hit with flash floods that left some areas of the site under more than four feet of water . The severity of the weather flooded several campsites , the worst affected being the base of Pennard Hill , and seriously disrupted site services . However Mendip District Council 's review of the festival called it one of the " safest ever " and gives the festival a glowing report in how it dealt with the floods .
There was no festival in 2006 . Instead , a documentary film directed by Julien Temple was released to make up for the lack of a festival . The film consists of specially shot footage by Temple at the festival , as well as footage sent in by fans and archive footage . Glastonbury was released in the UK on 14 April 2006 .
Glastonbury 2007 ( 20 – 24 June ) was headlined by Arctic Monkeys , The Killers , and The Who on Friday , Saturday and Sunday , respectively . Dame Shirley Bassey was also featured . In 2007 , over 700 acts played on over 80 stages and the capacity expanded by 20 @,@ 000 to 177 @,@ 000 . This was the first year that " The Park " area opened . Designed by Emily Eavis , its main stage featured extra sets by several artists playing on the main stages including Pete Doherty and Gruff Rhys , whilst the BBC launched their new " Introducing " stage in the area . The festival had the largest attendance since the construction of the security fence , and the largest legitimate attendance to date : ticket allocation was raised by 27 @,@ 500 to 137 @,@ 500 , which were charged at £ 145 and sold out in 1 hour 45 minutes . As an extra precaution against touts ( scalpers ) , purchasers had to pre @-@ register , including submission of a passport photo which was security printed into the ticket . Continued periods of rain throughout much of the festival caused muddy conditions , though without the flooding of 2005 , in part due to the new £ 750 @,@ 000 flood defences . However this constant rain made the general conditions within the site worse than 2 years before and more like the mud plains of 1998 . It was difficult to find anywhere to sit down that had not turned to mud and key choke points , such as the thoroughfare at the front right of the Pyramid stage , turned into a quagmire . Muddy conditions on the temporary roads on the periphery of the site led to delays for people leaving the site . On 25 June , when the vast majority of festival goers were attempting to leave the festival , cars in the western car parks took over nine hours to exit the site . There was no stewarding provision in these areas , no information was disseminated regarding the delays , no organised marshalling of traffic was undertaken by the festival organisers , and no provision of drinking water was made to people stranded in their vehicles . Verbal and physical violence was witnessed between festival goers . When cars were finally allowed to leave the site the surrounding roads were found to be clear . Reported crime was down from 2005 but the number of arrests were " well up " , after a proactive operation of the police and security on site . There were 236 reported crimes , down from 267 in 2005 ; of these , 158 were drug related ( 183 in 2005 ) . 1 @,@ 200 people required medical aid with 32 hospitalised , most of which were accidents caused by the mud . There was one fatality : a West Midlands man found unconscious early on the Saturday morning died in Yeovil District Hospital of a suspected drugs overdose .
On 20 December 2007 , Arabella Churchill , an instrumental figure in the conception of the 1971 festival and since the 1980s area coordinator of the Theatre Field , died at St Edmund 's Cottages , Bove Town , Glastonbury at the age of 58 . She had suffered a short illness due to pancreatic cancer , for which she had refused chemotherapy and radiotherapy . She was a convert to Buddhism , and arrangements following her death respected her belief . Michael Eavis , paying tribute to her after her death , said " Her vitality and great sense of morality and social responsibility have given her a place in our festival history second to none " .
The Glastonbury Festival 2008 was held on 27 , 28 and 29 June , headlined by Kings of Leon , Jay @-@ Z and The Verve on Friday , Saturday and Sunday , respectively , with other notable acts including Neil Diamond , Shakin ' Stevens , The Levellers , and Stackridge , who opened the first festival in 1970 . Continuing the procedure introduced in 2007 , ticket buyers had to pre @-@ register and submit a passport photo between the 1 February and 14 March in order to buy tickets which went on sale at 9 am on Sunday 6 April . Following 40 @,@ 000 tickets not being sold , the pre @-@ registration process was reopened on 8 April . Several reasons have been cited for this , including the poor weather of the previous four years and the controversial choice of featuring the hip hop artist , Jay @-@ Z , as a headlining act . A day before the festival began , Michael Eavis announced that there were still around 3 @,@ 000 tickets remaining , making it possible that it would be the first festival in 15 years not to sell out in advance . It had also been announced that any remaining tickets would be sold from major branches of HMV . This year saw the introduction of a new field adjacent to the Sacred space and Park Stage . Not named by the organisers , the festival goers themselves called it " Flagtopia " in reference to the flags located there . After the huge number of tents left behind in 2007 and when one of Michael Eavis 's cows died after ingesting a metal tent @-@ peg left in the soil , the Festival devised its Love the Farm , Leave No Trace campaign which gently pushed revellers to respect the environment and clear up after themselves . The Festival had always pushed a green agenda and new initiatives in 2008 included biodegradable tent pegs handed out free to all campers and biotractors running on waste vegetable oil . These new efforts were rewarded with The Greener Festival Award for 2008 alongside a number of other festivals also committed to environmentally friendly music festivals . The 2008 festival was reported to have cost £ 22 million to produce .
The Glastonbury Festival 2009 took place between 24 and 28 June 2009 . In marked contrast with previous years , the 137 @,@ 500 tickets went on sale on 5 October 2008 , earlier than ever before , with pre @-@ registered customers able either to pay in full , or place a £ 50 reserve deposit to be paid by 1 February . Tickets for the festival sold out . The full line up was released on 25 May 2009 and included headliners Blur , Bruce Springsteen and Neil Young on the Pyramid stage . The Other stage was headlined by The Prodigy , Bloc Party and Franz Ferdinand . Other notable performers included Jarvis Cocker , Rolf Harris , Fairport Convention ( who played at the first Glastonbury Festival ) , Tom Jones , Steel Pulse , Doves , Lady Gaga , Jason Mraz , Nick Cave , Pete Doherty , Hugh Cornwell , Status Quo , The Gaslight Anthem ( in which Springsteen appeared on stage during their song " The ' 59 Sound " ) , Madness , Dizzee Rascal , Crosby , Stills & Nash , Lily Allen , Kasabian , Florence and the Machine , Alejandro Toledo and the Magic Tombolinos .
= = = 2010s = = =
The Glastonbury Festival 2010 took place between 23 and 28 June . On the last night , Michael Eavis appeared on the main stage with headline artist Stevie Wonder to sing the chorus of the latter 's " Happy Birthday " , marking the festival 's 40th year . Tickets went on sale on 4 October 2009 , using the same £ 50 deposit scheme introduced the previous year ; unlike the previous two years , and more in common with earlier festivals , the tickets for the 2010 edition sold out in less than 24 hours . U2 were due to headline the Pyramid Stage on Friday night at Glastonbury 2010 , but due to Bono sustaining a back injury they were forced to pull out . According to the media , Bono was " gutted " , even having written a song especially for the festival . Damon Albarn 's Gorillaz were brought in to replace U2 , and joined Muse and Stevie Wonder for the Saturday and Sunday headline slots respectively . It would be Damon Albarn 's second headlining act in two years . Pet Shop Boys returned after 10 years to headline the Other Stage on the Saturday Night . The entire stage set from their Pandemonium Tour was brought in for the performance which was extremely well received . Radiohead 's Thom Yorke and Jonny Greenwood made a surprise appearance with a nine song set . The weather at the festival was among some of the best ever , the festival @-@ goers enjoying 3 days of abundant sunshine and very warm to hot temperatures , which reached close to 30 degrees on the Sunday ; it was the first rain @-@ free festival since 2002 and the hottest since the festival began .
During 2010 Michael Eavis received a donation from British Waterways of timber from the old gates at Caen Hill Locks in Wiltshire . This was used to construct a new bridge which was dedicated to the memory of Arabella Churchill . The following year more of the redundant lock gates were used to build the Campo Pequeno amphitheatre .
The Glastonbury Festival 2011 took place from Wednesday 22 until Sunday 26 June 2011 . The tickets were sold out within 4 hours of going on sale on Sunday 3 October 2010 . Headline acts for 2011 were U2 on the Friday night , Coldplay on the Saturday and Beyoncé on Sunday . This made Beyoncé the first woman to headline at the festival since 1999 .
The festival was not held in 2012 , giving the site and organisers a " fallow year " which originally would have been in 2011 , in keeping with the tradition of taking a break every fifth year . Michael Eavis cited the shortage and likely cost of portable toilets and policing , due to the needs of the 2012 Summer Olympics , as being amongst the reasons . The decision to move the fallow year to 2012 also proved to be a fortunate one , as Somerset experienced spells of persistent heavy rain in the period up to and including the week that the festival would normally have been held . Indeed , Emily Eavis suggested that the festival itself might have been called off , such was the severity of the weather . Registration for tickets to the 2013 festival began in June 2011 and ticket booking opened at 9am on Sunday 7 October 2012 , with 135 @,@ 000 selling out in a record time of one hour and forty minutes .
To mark the 2012 Glastonbury weekend , Eavis was invited to guest edit the local paper , the Western Daily Press , on Saturday 23 June .
During the 2014 festival , a 26 @-@ year @-@ old Berkshire man suffered from a suspected reaction to Ketamine and later died in Bristol Royal Infirmary . Despite this , police reported that crime was down 30 % from last year but reminded festival goers to look after their possessions .
Before the 2015 festival Foo Fighters frontman Dave Grohl fell off a stage during a show in Gothenburg a few weeks before and broke his leg , forcing their late withdrawal from the line @-@ up . Florence and the Machine were moved from second @-@ top on the bill to Friday 's headliner , while Florence 's vacant gap was filled by Reading & Leeds headliners The Libertines , and their performance was well received . Kanye West and The Who were the headliners for the Saturday and Sunday , respectively . Other notable acts who performed included Motorhead ( their final festival appearance in the UK before Lemmy 's death ) , Pharrell Williams , Deadmau5 , Patti Smith , the Strypes , Lionel Richie , Catfish and the Bottlemen , Enter Shikari , the Chemical Brothers , Alt @-@ J , Paloma Faith , Mary J. Blige and Paul Weller , as well as an appearance by the 14th Dalai Lama .
On 28 August 2015 it was announced that hundreds of pairs of discarded wellington boots from the 2015 festival were donated to the migrant camp at Calais .
= = Organisation = =
Since 1981 , the festival has been organised by local farmer and site owner Michael Eavis ( through his company Glastonbury Festivals Ltd ) . Eavis ran the festival with his wife Jean until her death in 1999 , and is now assisted by his daughter Emily Eavis . Since 2002 , Festival Republic ( a company consisting of both Live Nation and MCD ) has taken on the job of managing the logistics and security of the festival through a 40 % stake in the festival management company . Each year a company , joint owned by Glastonbury Festivals Ltd and Festival Republic , is created to run the festival , with profits going to the parent companies . Glastonbury Festivals Ltd donates most of their profits to charities , including donations to local charity and community groups and paying for the purchase and restoration of the Tithe Barn in Pilton .
Several stages and areas are managed independently , such as The Left Field which is managed by a cooperative owned by Battersea and Wandsworth TUC , Worthy FM and a field run by Greenpeace . The sound systems on site have a total power of 650 @,@ 000 watts , with the main stage having 250 speakers . There are over 4 @,@ 000 toilets , 2000 long @-@ drop and 1300 compost , with water supplies including two reservoirs holding 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 litres ( 440 @,@ 000 imp gal ) of water .
With the exception of technical and security staff , the festival is mainly run by volunteers . Some 2000 stewards are organised by the aid charity Oxfam . In return for their work at the festival Oxfam receive a donation , which in 2005 was £ 200 @,@ 000 . Medical facilities are provided by Festival Medical Services who have done so since 1979 . The bars are organised by the Workers Beer Company , sponsored by Carlsberg ( previously Budweiser ) , who recruit teams of volunteer staff from small charities and campaign groups . In return for their help , typically around 18 hours over the festival , volunteers are paid in free entry , transport and food , while their charities receive the wages the volunteers earn over the event .
Catering , and some retail services , are provided by various small companies , typically mobile catering vans , with over 400 food stalls on site in 2010 . The camping retail chain Millets , and independent shops , set up makeshift outlets at the festival . Additionally charities and organisations run promotional or educational stalls , such as the Hare Krishna tent which provide free vegetarian food . Network Recycling manage refuse on the site , and in 2004 recycled 300 tonnes and composted 110 tonnes of waste from the site .
Significant logistical operations take place to bring people into the festival by public transport each year . Additional festival trains are provided to Castle Cary railway station , mostly from London Paddington . The station operates as a mini hub with waiting shuttle buses transferring passengers from Castle Cary to the festival site as required . This is an intensive operation on the Wednesday and Thursday each year with local bus and coach operators providing these buses over the two days . Additional extra buses normally provided by Go South Coast run from Bristol to the festival . On the Monday , passengers are transferred back in just one day with additional buses provided to meet the increased requirement . National Express provide extra coaches direct to the festival site from major UK towns and much of this work is subcontracted to smaller coach operators to provide the capacity required .
The festival is powered by Aggreko who provide over 27 megawatts of power to the site with 250 bio @-@ diesel generators , run on 60 @,@ 000 litres of waste vegetable oil ( WVO ) fuel . The power generated is enough to power the city of Bath and the Pyramid Stage is powered by 4 generators itself . There is 24 km of festoon lighting around the site , also installed by Aggreko . This is run with time clocks so the lights are only on when they are needed , contributing to the festival 's green requirements .
= = Location = =
The festival takes place in south west England at Worthy Farm between the small villages of Pilton and Pylle in Somerset , six miles east of Glastonbury , overlooked by the Glastonbury Tor in the " Vale of Avalon " . The area has a number of legends and spiritual traditions , and is a " New Age " site of interest : ley lines are considered to converge on the Tor . The nearest town to the festival site is Shepton Mallet , three miles ( 5 km ) north east , but there continues to be interaction between the people espousing alternative lifestyles living in Glastonbury and the festival . The farm is situated between the A361 and A37 roads .
Worthy Farm is situated at grid reference ST 590 397 in a valley at the head of the Whitelake River , between two low limestone ridges , part of the southern edge of the Mendip Hills . On the site is a confluence of the two small streams that make the Whitelake River . In the past the site has experienced problems with flooding , though after the floods that occurred during the 1997 and 1998 festival , drainage was improved . This did not prevent flooding during the 2005 festival , but allowed the flood water to dissipate within hours . The Highbridge branch of the Somerset and Dorset Joint Railway ran through the farm on an embankment , but was dismantled in 1966 and now forms a main thoroughfare across the site . Another prominent feature is the high @-@ voltage electricity line which crosses the site east @-@ west .
In recent years the site has been organised around a restricted backstage compound , with the Pyramid stage on the north , and Other stage on the south of the compound . Attractions on the east of the site include the acoustic tent , comedy tent and circus . To the south are the green fields , which include displays of traditional and environmentally friendly crafts . In King 's Meadow , the hill at the far south of the site , is a small megalith circle which , like Stonehenge , is coordinated with the summer solstice , and since 1990 represents a Stone circle .
= = Lineups = =
= = Accommodation = =
Most people who stay at Glastonbury Festival camp in a tent . There are many different camping areas , each with its own atmosphere . Limekilns and Hitchin Hill Ground are quieter camping areas , whereas Pennard Hill Ground is a lively campsite . Cockmill Meadow is a family campsite and Wicket Ground was introduced in 2011 as a second family @-@ only campsite . A disabled campsite is also available in Spring Ground . Campsite accommodation is provided in the cost of a standard entry ticket but festival @-@ goers must bring their own tents . Tipis have been at the festival for many years . A limited number of fixed tipis are available for hire at the tipi field near the stone circle . Up to six adults can stay in each tipi and each one comes with a groundsheet and raincatcher . Internal bedding and camping equipment is not provided . Tipi Park also offers solar showers and a log @-@ fired yurt sauna to cap off the experience .
Campervans , caravans and trailer tents are not allowed into the main festival site . However the purchase of a campervan ticket in addition to the main ticket allows access to fields just outside the boundary fence ; and the cost includes access for the campervan or towing vehicle and the caravan ; the car , or other vehicle used to tow the caravan , may be parked alongside it but sleeping is only authorised in the campervan / caravan and connected awning , not in the accompanying vehicle . One additional tent may accompany the caravan / campervan if space within the plot allows . Some people choose to bring or hire a motorhome , though drivers of larger vehicles or motorhomes may have to purchase a second campervan ticket if they cannot fit within the defined plot . The 2009 festival saw changes to the campervan fields ; commercial vehicles were no longer classed as ' campervans ' , all campervans had to have a fitted sleeping area and either washing or cooking facilities , and caravans and trailer tents were allowed back at the festival . Prior to this only campervans were allowed on site , caravans and trailers being banned in the early 1990s after a number were stuck in the mud and abandoned .
Festival @-@ goers can stay at local B & B accommodation but most are not within walking distance of the festival . There are several independent Glastonbury accommodation providers close to the main site , which include smaller campsites for tents , gypsy caravans , geo @-@ domes , private cottages and more - some festival goers choose to be ferried between the festival and their accommodation by quad @-@ bike or even private helicopter .
= = Cultural references = =
Various artists have written songs entitled Glastonbury or about the festival including Nizlopi , The Waterboys and Scouting for Girls . Cosmic Rough Riders included " Glastonbury Revisited " on their album Enjoy The Melodic Sunshine ( Poptones ) in 2000 . Amy Macdonald , in her song " Let 's Start a Band " referenced Glastonbury : " Give me a festival and I 'll be your Glastonbury star . " Robbie Williams , in his song " The 90s " , refers to his surprise appearance on stage with Oasis in 1995 , which ultimately led to him leaving Take That : " Everybody 's worried ' what the fuck 's wrong with Robbie ? He 's not answering his phone , he 's not talking to me , I saw him on the telly at Glastonbury ' . " Joe Strummer wrote the song " Coma Girl " about his experiences at Glastonbury , — in a BBC interview Bruce Springsteen cited the song as inspiring him to play the 2009 festival . U2 wrote a song titled " Glastonbury " that was supposed to premier with their appearance at the festival , but an injury to Bono forced them to cancel . They instead premièred it in a concert in Turin on their 360 ° Tour . Marcus Brigstocke 's comic creation Giles Wemmbley Hogg had a special mock @-@ documentary made about him going to Glastonbury as part of the Giles Wemmbley @-@ Hogg Goes Off series . Deborah Crombie 's novel A Finer End takes place in Glastonbury with references to a fictional account of an original 1914 Glastonbury Fayre as well as the contemporary festival . Glastonbury is also a setting in John Osborne 's 2014 Radio 4 show The New Blur Album .
= Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter =
Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter ( MRO ) is a multipurpose spacecraft designed to conduct reconnaissance and exploration of Mars from orbit . The US $ 720 million spacecraft was built by Lockheed Martin under the supervision of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory ( JPL ) . The mission is managed by the California Institute of Technology , at the JPL , in La Cañada Flintridge , California , for the NASA Science Mission Directorate , Washington , D.C. It was launched August 12 , 2005 , and attained Martian orbit on March 10 , 2006 . In November 2006 , after five months of aerobraking , it entered its final science orbit and began its primary science phase . As MRO entered orbit , it joined five other active spacecraft that were either in orbit or on the planet 's surface : Mars Global Surveyor , Mars Express , 2001 Mars Odyssey , and the two Mars Exploration Rovers ( Spirit and Opportunity ) ; at the time , this set a record for the most operational spacecraft in the immediate vicinity of Mars . Mars Global Surveyor and the Spirit rover have since ceased to function ; the remainder remain operational as of March 2016 .
MRO contains a host of scientific instruments such as cameras , spectrometers , and radar , which are used to analyze the landforms , stratigraphy , minerals , and ice of Mars . It paves the way for future spacecraft by monitoring Mars ' daily weather and surface conditions , studying potential landing sites , and hosting a new telecommunications system . MRO 's telecommunications system will transfer more data back to Earth than all previous interplanetary missions combined , and MRO will serve as a highly capable relay satellite for future missions .
= = Pre @-@ launch = =
One of two missions considered for the 2003 Mars launch window , the MRO proposal lost against what became known as the Mars Exploration Rovers . The orbiter mission was rescheduled for launch in 2005 , and NASA announced its final name , Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter , on October 26 , 2000 .
MRO is modeled after NASA 's highly successful Mars Global Surveyor to conduct surveillance of Mars from orbit . Early specifications of the satellite included a large camera to take high resolution pictures of Mars . In this regard , James B. Garvin , the Mars exploration program scientist for NASA , proclaimed that MRO would be a " microscope in orbit " . The satellite was also to include a visible @-@ near @-@ infrared spectrograph .
On October 3 , 2001 , NASA chose Lockheed Martin as the primary contractor for the spacecraft 's fabrication . By the end of 2001 all of the mission 's instruments were selected . There were no major setbacks during MRO 's construction , and the spacecraft was moved to John F. Kennedy Space Center on May 1 , 2005 to prepare it for launch .
= = Mission objectives = =
MRO science operations were initially scheduled to last two Earth years , from November 2006 to November 2008 . One of the mission 's main goals is to map the Martian landscape with its high @-@ resolution
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peripatetic chancery had to take up permanent residence in Westminster . Edward used Parliament even more than his predecessors to handle general administration , to legislate and to raise the necessary taxes to pay for the wars in France . The royal lands — and incomes from them — had diminished over the years , and increasingly frequent taxation was required to support royal initiatives . Edward held elaborate chivalric events in an effort to unite his supporters around the symbols of knighthood . The ideal of chivalry continued to develop throughout the 14th century , reflected in the growth of knightly orders ( including the Order of the Garter ) , grand tournaments and round table events .
Society and government in England in the early 14th century were challenged by the Great Famine and the Black Death . The economic and demographic crisis created a sudden surplus of land , undermining the ability of landowners to exert their feudal rights and causing a collapse in incomes from rented lands . Wages soared , as employers competed for a scarce workforce . Legislation was introduced to limit wages and to prevent the consumption of luxury goods by the lower classes , with prosecutions coming to take up most of the legal system 's energy and time . A poll tax was introduced in 1377 that spread the costs of the war in France more widely across the whole population . The tensions spilled over into violence in the summer of 1381 in the form of the Peasants ' Revolt ; a violent retribution followed , with as many as 7 @,@ 000 alleged rebels executed . A new class of gentry emerged as a result of these changes , renting land from the major nobility to farm out at a profit . The legal system continued to expand during the 14th century , dealing with an ever wider set of complex problems .
By the time that Richard II was deposed in 1399 , the power of the major noble magnates had grown considerably ; powerful rulers such as Henry IV would contain them , but during the minority of Henry VI they controlled the country . The magnates depended upon their income from rent and trade to allow them to maintain groups of paid , armed retainers , often sporting controversial livery , and buy support amongst the wider gentry ; this system has been dubbed bastard feudalism . Their influence was exerted both through the House of Lords at Parliament and through the king 's council . The gentry and wealthier townsmen exercised increasing influence through the House of Commons , opposing raising taxes to pay for the French wars . By the 1430s and 1440s the English government was in major financial difficulties , leading to the crisis of 1450 and a popular revolt under the leadership of Jack Cade . Law and order deteriorated , and the crown was unable to intervene in the factional fighting between different nobles and their followers . The resulting Wars of the Roses saw a savage escalation of violence between the noble leaderships of both sides : captured enemies were executed and family lands attainted . By the time that Henry VII took the throne in 1485 , England 's governmental and social structures had been substantially weakened , with whole noble lines extinguished .
= = = Women in society = = =
Medieval England was a patriarchal society and the lives of women were heavily influenced by contemporary beliefs about gender and authority . However , the position of women varied considerably according to various factors , including their social class ; whether they were unmarried , married , widowed or remarried ; and in which part of the country they lived . Significant gender inequities persisted throughout the period , as women typically had more limited life @-@ choices , access to employment and trade , and legal rights than men .
In Anglo @-@ Saxon society , noblewomen enjoyed considerable rights and status , although the society was still firmly patriarchal . Some exercised power as abbesses , exerting widespread influence across the early English Church , although their wealth and authority diminished with the monastic reforms of the 9th century . Anglo @-@ Saxon queens began to hold lands in their own right in the 10th century and their households contributed to the running of the kingdom . Although women could not lead military forces , in the absence of their husbands some noblewomen led the defence of manors and towns . Most Anglo @-@ Saxon women , however , worked on the land as part of the agricultural community , or as brewers or bakers .
After the Norman invasion , the position of women in society changed . The rights and roles of women became more sharply defined , in part as a result of the development of the feudal system and the expansion of the English legal system ; some women benefited from this , while others lost out . The rights of widows were formally laid down in law by the end of the 12th century , clarifying the right of free women to own property , but this did not necessarily prevent women from being forcibly remarried against their wishes . The growth of governmental institutions under a succession of bishops reduced the role of queens and their households in formal government . Married or widowed noblewomen remained significant cultural and religious patrons and played an important part in political and military events , even if chroniclers were uncertain if this was appropriate behaviour . As in earlier centuries , most women worked in agriculture , but here roles became more clearly gendered , with ploughing and managing the fields defined as men 's work , for example , and dairy production becoming dominated by women .
The years after the Black Death left many women widows ; in the wider economy labour was in short supply and land was suddenly readily available . In rural areas peasant women could enjoy a better standard of living than ever before , but the amount of work being done by women may have increased . Many other women travelled to the towns and cities , to the point where they outnumbered men in some settlements . There they worked with their husbands , or in a limited number of occupations , including spinning , making clothes , victualling and as servants . Some women became full @-@ time ale brewers , until they were pushed out of business by the male @-@ dominated beer industry in the 15th century . Higher status jobs and apprenticeships , however , remained closed to women . As in earlier times , noblewomen exercised power on their estates in their husbands ' absence and again , if necessary , defended them in sieges and skirmishes . Wealthy widows who could successfully claim their rightful share of their late husband 's property could live as powerful members of the community in their own right .
= = = Identity = = =
An English cultural identity first emerged from the interaction of the Germanic immigrants of the 5th and 6th centuries and the indigenous Romano @-@ British inhabitants . Although early medieval chroniclers described the immigrants as Angles and Saxons , they came from a much wider area across Northern Europe , and represented a range of different ethnic groups . Over the 6th century , however , these different groups began to coalesce into stratified societies across England , roughly corresponding to the later Angle and Saxon kingdoms recorded by Bede in the 8th century . By the 9th century , the term the Angelcynn was being officially used to refer to a single English people , and promoted for propaganda purposes by chroniclers and kings to inspire resistance to the Danish invasions .
The Normans and French who arrived after the conquest saw themselves as different from the English . They had close family and economic links to the Duchy of Normandy , spoke Norman French and had their own distinctive culture . For many years , to be English was to be associated with military failure and serfdom . During the 12th century , the divisions between the English and Normans began to dissolve as a result of intermarriage and cohabitation . By the end of the 12th century , and possibly as early as the 1150 , contemporary commentators believed the two peoples to be blending , and the loss of the Duchy in 1204 reinforced this trend . The resulting society still prized wider French cultural values , however , and French remained the language of the court , business and international affairs , even if Parisians mocked the English for their poor pronunciation . By the 14th century , however , French was increasingly having to be formally taught , rather than being learnt naturally in the home , although the aristocracy would typically spend many years of their lives in France and remained entirely comfortable working in French .
During the 12th and 13th centuries , the English began to consider themselves superior to the Welsh , Scots and Bretons . The English perceived themselves as civilised , economically prosperous and properly Christian , while the Celtic fringe was considered lazy , barbarous and backward . Following the invasion of Ireland in the late 12th century , similar feelings were expressed about the Irish , with the distinctions clarified and reinforced in 14th @-@ century English legislation . The English also felt strongly about the foreign traders who lived in the special enclaves in London in the Late Middle Ages ; the position of the Jews is described below , but Italian and Baltic traders were also regarded as aliens and were frequently the targets of violence during economic downturns . Even within England , different identities abounded , each with their own sense of status and importance . Regional identities could be important - men and women from Yorkshire , for example , had a clear identity within English society , and professional groups with a distinct identity , such as lawyers , engaged in open fighting with others in cities such as London .
= = = Jews = = =
The Jewish community in England played an important role in England throughout much of the period . The first Jews arrived in England in the aftermath of the Norman invasion , when William the Conqueror brought over wealthy members of the Rouen community in Normandy to settle in London . The Jewish community expanded out across England and provided essential money @-@ lending and banking services that were otherwise banned by the usury laws . During the 12th century , the Jewish financial community grew richer still , operating under royal protection and providing the king with a source of ready credit . All major towns had Jewish centres , and even the smaller towns saw visits by travelling Jewish merchants . Towards the end of Henry II 's reign , however , the king ceased to borrow from the Jewish community and instead turned to extracting money from them through arbitrary taxation and fines . The Jews became vilified and accusations were made that they conducted ritual child murder , encouraging the pogroms carried out against Jewish communities in the reign of Richard I. After an initially peaceful start to John 's reign , the king again began to extort money from the Jewish community and , with the breakdown in order in 1215 , the Jews were subject to fresh attacks . Henry III restored some protection and Jewish money @-@ lending began to recover . Despite this , the Jewish community became increasingly impoverished and was finally expelled from England in 1290 by Edward I , being replaced by foreign merchants .
= = Religion = =
= = = Rise of Christianity = = =
Christianity had been the official imperial religion of the Roman Empire , and the first churches were built in England in the second half of the 4th century , overseen by a hierarchy of bishops and priests . Many existing pagan shrines were converted to Christian use and few pagan sites still operated by the 5th century . The collapse of the Roman system in the late 5th century , however , brought about the end of formal Christian religion in the east of England , and the new Germanic immigrants arrived with their own polytheistic gods , including Woden , Thunor and Tiw , still reflected in various English place names . Despite the resurgence of paganism in England , Christian communities still survived in more western areas such as Gloucestershire and Somerset .
The movement towards Christianity began again in the late 6th and 7th centuries , helped by the conversion of the Franks in Northern France , who carried considerable influence in England . Pope Gregory I sent a team of missionaries to convert King Æthelberht of Kent and his household , starting the process of converting Kent . Augustine became the first Archbishop of Canterbury and started to build new churches across the South @-@ East , reusing existing pagan shrines . Oswald and Oswiu , kings of Northumbria , were converted in the 630s and 640s , and the wave of change carried on through the middle of the 7th century across the kingdoms of Mercia , the South Saxons and the Isle of Wight . The process was largely complete by the end of the 7th century , but left a confusing and disparate array of local practices and religious ceremonies . This new Christianity reflected the existing military culture of the Anglo @-@ Saxons : as kings began to convert in the 6th and 7th centuries , conversion began to be used as a justification for war against the remaining pagan kingdoms , for example , while Christian saints were imbued with martial properties .
The Viking invasions of the 8th and 9th centuries reintroduced paganism to North @-@ East England , leading in turn to another wave of conversion . Indigenous Scandinavian beliefs were very similar to other Germanic groups , with a pantheon of gods including Odin , Thor and Ullr , combined with a belief in a final , apocalyptic battle called Ragnarok . The Norse settlers in England were converted relatively quickly , assimilating their beliefs into Christianity in the decades following the occupation of York , which the Archbishop had survived . The process was largely complete by the early 10th century and enabled England 's leading Churchmen to negotiate with the warlords . As the Norse in mainland Scandinavia started to convert , many mainland rulers recruited missionaries from England to assist in the process .
= = = Religious institutions = = =
With the conversion of much of England in the 6th and 7th centuries , there was an explosion of local church building . English monasteries formed the main basis for the church , however , and were often sponsored by local rulers , taking various forms , including mixed communities headed by abbesses , bishop @-@ led communities of monks , and others formed around married priests and their families . Cathedrals were constructed , staffed either with secular canons in the European tradition or , uniquely to England , chapters of monks . These institutions were badly affected in the 9th century by Viking raids and predatory annexations by the nobility . By the start of the 10th century , monastic lands , financial resources and the quality of monasteries ' religious work had been much diminished . Reforms followed under the kings of Wessex who promoted the Benedictine rule then popular on the Continent . A reformed network of around 40 monastic institutions across the south and east of England , under the protection of the king , helped re @-@ establish royal control over the reconquered Danelaw .
The 1066 Norman conquest brought a new set of Norman and French churchmen to power ; some adopted and embraced aspects of the former Anglo @-@ Saxon religious system , while others introduced practices from Normandy . Extensive English lands were granted to monasteries in Normandy , allowing them to create daughter priories and monastic cells across the kingdom . The monasteries were brought firmly into the web of feudal relations , with their holding of land linked to the provision of military support to the crown . The Normans adopted the Anglo @-@ Saxon model of monastic cathedral communities , and within seventy years the majority of English cathedrals were controlled by monks ; every English cathedral , however , was rebuilt to some extent by the new rulers . England 's bishops remained powerful temporal figures , and in the early 12th @-@ century raised armies against Scottish invaders and built up extensive holdings of castles across the country .
New orders began to be introduced into England . As ties to Normandy waned , the French Cluniac order became fashionable and their houses were introduced in England . The Augustinians spread quickly from the beginning of the 12th century onwards , while later in the century the Cistercians reached England , creating houses with a more austere interpretation of the monastic rules and building the great abbeys of Rievaulx and Fountains . By 1215 , there were over 600 monastic communities in England , but new endowments slowed during the 13th century , creating long @-@ term financial problems for many institutions . The Dominican and Franciscan friars arrived in England during the 1220s , establishing 150 friaries by the end of the 13th century ; these mendicant orders rapidly became popular , particularly in towns , and heavily influenced local preaching . The religious military orders that became popular across Europe from the 12th century onwards acquired possessions in England , including the Templars , Teutons and Hospitallers .
= = = Church , state and heresy = = =
The Church had a close relationship with the English state throughout the Middle Ages . The bishops and major monastic leaders played an important part in national government , having key roles on the king 's council . Bishops often oversaw towns and cities , managing local taxation and government . This frequently became untenable with the Viking incursions of the 9th century , and in locations such as Worcester the local bishops came to new accommodations with the local ealdormen , exchanging some authority and revenue for assistance in defence . The early English church was racked with disagreement on doctrine , which was addressed by the Synod of Whitby in 664 ; some issues were resolved , but arguments between the archbishops of Canterbury and York as to which had primacy across Britain began shortly afterwards and continued throughout most of the medieval period .
William the Conqueror acquired the support of the Church for the invasion of England by promising ecclesiastical reform . William promoted celibacy amongst the clergy and gave ecclesiastical courts more power , but also reduced the Church 's direct links to Rome and made it more accountable to the king . Tensions arose between these practices and the reforming movement of Pope Gregory VII , which advocated greater autonomy from royal authority for the clergy , condemned the practice of simony and promoted greater influence for the papacy in church matters . Despite the bishops continuing to play a major part in royal government , tensions emerged between the kings of England and key leaders within the English Church . Kings and archbishops clashed over rights of appointment and religious policy , and successive archbishops including Anselm , Theobald of Bec , Thomas Becket and Stephen Langton were variously forced into exile , arrested by royal knights or even killed . By the early 13th century , however , the church had largely won its argument for independence , answering almost entirely to Rome .
In the 1380s , several challenges emerged to the traditional teachings of the Church , resulting from the teachings of John Wycliffe , a member of Oxford University . Wycliffe argued that scripture was the best guide to understanding God 's intentions , and that the superficial nature of the liturgy , combined with the abuses of wealth within the Church and the role of senior churchmen in government , distracted from that study . A loose movement that included many members of the gentry pursued these ideas after Wycliffe 's death in 1384 and attempted to pass a Parliamentary bill in 1395 : the movement was rapidly condemned by the authorities and was termed " Lollardy " . The English bishops were charged to control and counter this trend , disrupting Lollard preachers and to enforcing the teaching of suitable sermons in local churches . By the early 15th century , combating Lollard teachings had become a key political issue , championed by Henry IV and his Lancastrian followers , who used the powers of both the church and state to combat the heresy .
= = = Pilgrimages and Crusades = = =
Pilgrimages were a popular religious practice throughout the Middle Ages in England , with the tradition dating back to the Roman period . Typically pilgrims would travel short distances to a shrine or a particular church , either to do penance for a perceived sin , or to seek relief from an illness or other condition . Some pilgrims travelled further , either to more distant sites within Britain or , in a few cases , onto the continent .
During the Anglo @-@ Saxon period , many shrines were built on former pagan sites which became popular pilgrimage destinations , while other pilgrims visited prominent monasteries and sites of learning . Senior nobles or kings would travel to Rome , which was a popular destination from the 7th century onwards ; sometimes these trips were a form of convenient political exile . Under the Normans , religious institutions with important shrines , such as Glastonbury , Canterbury and Winchester , promoted themselves as pilgrimage destinations , maximising the value of the historic miracles associated with the sites . Accumulating relics became an important task for ambitious institutions , as these were believed to hold curative powers and lent status to the site . Indeed , by the 12th century reports of posthumous miracles by local saints were becoming increasing common in England , adding to the attractiveness of pilgrimages to prominent relics .
Participation in the Crusades was also seen as a form of pilgrimage , and indeed the same Latin word , peregrinatio , was sometimes applied to both activities . While English participation in the First Crusade between 1095 and 1099 was limited , England played a prominent part in the Second , Third and Fifth Crusades over the next two centuries , with many crusaders leaving for the Levant during the intervening years . The idea of undertaking a pilgrimage to Jerusalem was not new in England , however , as the idea of religiously justified warfare went back to Anglo @-@ Saxon times . Many of those who took up the Cross to go on a Crusade never actually left , often because the individual lacked sufficient funds to undertake the journey . Raising funds to travel typically involved crusaders selling or mortgaging their lands and possessions , which had an impact on their families and , at times , a considerable impact on the economy as a whole .
= = Economy and technology = =
= = = Geography = = =
England had a diverse geography in the medieval period , from the Fenlands of East Anglia or the heavily wooded Weald , through to the upland moors of Yorkshire . Despite this , medieval England broadly formed two zones , roughly divided by the rivers Exe and Tes : the south and east of England had lighter , richer soils , able to support both arable and pastoral agriculture , while the poorer soils and colder climate of the north and west produced a predominantly pastoral economy . Slightly more land was covered by trees than in the 20th century , and bears , beavers and wolves lived wild in England , bears being hunted to extinction by the 11th century and beavers by the 12th . Of the 10 @,@ 000 miles of roads that had been built by the Romans , many remained in use and four were of particular strategic importance — the Icknield Way , the Fosse Way , Ermine Street and Watling Street — which criss @-@ crossed the entire country . The road system was adequate for the needs of the period , although it was significantly cheaper to transport goods by water . The major river networks formed key transport routes , while many English towns formed navigable inland ports .
For much of the Middle Ages , England 's climate differed from that in the 21st century . Between the 9th and 13th centuries England went through the Medieval Warm Period , a prolonged period of warmer temperatures ; in the early 13th century , for example , summers were around 1 ° C warmer than today and the climate was slightly drier . These warmer temperatures allowed poorer land to be brought into cultivation and for grapevines to be cultivated relatively far north . The Warm Period was followed by several centuries of much cooler temperatures , termed the Little Ice Age ; by the 14th century spring temperatures had dropped considerably , reaching their coldest in the 1340s and 1350s . This cold end to the Middle Ages impacted significantly on English agriculture and living conditions .
Even at the start of the Middle Ages the English landscape had been shaped by human occupation over many centuries . Much woodland was new , the result of fields being reclaimed by brush after the collapse of the Roman Empire . Human intervention had established wood pastures , an ancient system for managing woods and animals , and coppicing , a more intensive approach to managing woodlands . Other agricultural lands included arable fields and pastorage , while in some parts of the country , such as the South @-@ West , waste moorland remained testament to earlier over @-@ farming in the Bronze Age . England 's environment continued to be shaped throughout the period , through the building of dykes to drain marshes , tree clearance and the large @-@ scale extraction of peat . Managed parks for hunting game , including deer and boars , were built as status symbols by the nobility from the 12th century onwards , but earlier versions of parks , such as hays , may have originated as early as the 7th century .
= = = Economy and demographics = = =
The English economy was fundamentally agricultural , depending on growing crops such as wheat , barley and oats on an open field system , and husbanding sheep , cattle and pigs . In the late Anglo @-@ Saxon period many peasants moved away from living in isolated hamlets and instead came together to form larger villages engaged in arable cultivation . Agricultural land became typically organised around manors , and was divided between some fields that the landowner would manage directly , called demesne land , and the majority of the fields that would be cultivated by local peasants . These peasants would pay rent to the landowner either through agricultural labour on the lord 's demesne fields or through rent in the form of cash and produce . By the 11th century , a market economy was flourishing across much of England , while the eastern and southern towns were heavily involved in international trade . Around 6 @,@ 000 watermills were built to grind flour , freeing up labour for other more productive agricultural tasks .
Although the Norman invasion caused some damage as soldiers looted the countryside and land was confiscated for castle building , the English economy was not greatly affected . Taxes were increased , however , and the Normans established extensive forests that were exploited for their natural resources and protected by royal laws . The next two centuries saw huge growth in the English economy , driven in part by the increase in the population from around 1 @.@ 5 million in 1086 to between 4 and 5 million in 1300 . More land , much of it at the expense of the royal forests , was brought into production to feed the growing population and to produce wool for export to Europe . Many hundreds of new towns , some of them planned communities , were built across England , supporting the creation of guilds , charter fairs and other medieval institutions which governed the growing trade . Jewish financiers played a significant role in funding the growing economy , along with the new Cistercian and Augustinian religious orders that emerged as major players in the wool trade of the north . Mining increased in England , with a silver boom in the 12th century helping to fuel the expansion of the money supply .
Economic growth began to falter at the end of the 13th century , owing to a combination of overpopulation , land shortages and depleted soils . The Great Famine shook the English economy severely and population growth ceased ; the first outbreak of the Black Death in 1348 then killed around half the English population . The agricultural sector shrank rapidly , with higher wages , lower prices and diminishing profits leading to the final demise of the old demesne system and the advent of the modern farming system centring on the charging of cash rents for lands . As returns on land fell , many estates , and in some cases entire settlements , were simply abandoned , and nearly 1 @,@ 500 villages were deserted during this period . A new class of gentry emerged who rented farms from the major nobility . Unsuccessful government attempts were made to regulate wages and consumption , but these largely collapsed in the decades following the Peasants ' Revolt of 1381 .
The English cloth industry grew considerably at the start of the 15th century , and a new class of international English merchant emerged , typically based in London or the South @-@ West , prospering at the expense of the older , shrinking economies of the eastern towns . These new trading systems brought about the end of many of the international fairs and the rise of the chartered company . Fishing in the North Sea expanded into deeper waters , backed by commercial investment from major merchants . Between 1440 and 1480 , however , Europe entered a recession and England suffered the Great Slump : trade collapsed , driving down agricultural prices , rents and ultimately the acceptable levels of royal taxation . The resulting tensions and discontent played an important part in Jack Cade 's popular uprising in 1450 and the subsequent Wars of the Roses . By the end of Middle Ages the economy had begun to recover and considerable improvements were being made in metalworking and shipbuilding that would shape the Early Modern economy .
= = = Technology and science = = =
Technology and science in England advanced considerably during the Middle Ages , driven in part by the Greek and Islamic thinking that reached England from the 12th century onwards . Many advances were made in scientific ideas , including the introduction of Arabic numerals and a sequence of improvements in the units used for measuring time . Clocks were first built in England in the late 13th century , and the first mechanical clocks were certainly being installed in cathedrals and abbeys by the 1320s . Astrology , magic and palm reading were also considered important forms of knowledge in medieval England , although some doubted their reliability .
The period produced some influential English scholars . Roger Bacon , a philosopher and Franciscan friar , produced works on natural philosophy , astronomy and alchemy ; his work set out the theoretical basis for future experimentation in the natural sciences . William of Ockham helped to fuse Latin , Greek and Islamic writing into a general theory of logic ; " Ockham 's Razor " was one of his oft @-@ cited conclusions . English scholars since the time of Bede had believed the world was probably round , but Johannes de Sacrobosco estimated the circumference of the earth in the 13th century . Despite the limitations of medieval medicine , Gilbertus Anglicus published the Compendium Medicinae , one of the longest medical works ever written in Latin . Prominent historical and science texts began to be translated into English for the first time in the second half of the 14th century , including the Polychronicon and The Travels of Sir John Mandeville . The universities of Oxford and Cambridge were established during the 11th and 12th centuries , drawing on the model of the University of Paris .
Technological advances proceeded in a range of areas . Watermills to grind grain had existed during most of the Anglo @-@ Saxon period , using horizontal mill designs ; from the 12th century on many more were built , eliminating the use of hand mills , with the older horizontal mills gradually supplanted by a new vertical mill design . Windmills began to be built in the late 12th century and slowly became more common . Water @-@ powered fulling mills and powered hammers first appeared in the 12th century ; water power was harnessed to assist in smelting by the 14th century , with the first blast furnace opening in 1496 . New mining methods were developed and horse @-@ powered pumps were installed in English mines by the end of the Middle Ages . The introduction of hopped beer transformed the brewing industry in the 14th century , and new techniques were invented to better preserve fish . Glazed pottery became widespread in the 12th and 13th centuries , with stoneware pots largely replacing wooden plates and bowls by the 15th century . William Caxton and Wynkyn de Worde began using the printing press during the late 15th century . Transport links were also improved ; many road bridges were either erected or rebuilt in stone during the long economic boom of the 12th and 13th centuries . England 's maritime trade benefited from the introduction of cog ships , and many docks were improved and fitted with cranes for the first time .
= = Warfare = =
= = = Armies = = =
Warfare was endemic in early Anglo @-@ Saxon England , and major conflicts still occurred approximately every generation in the later period . Groups of well @-@ armed noblemen and their households formed the heart of these armies , supported by larger numbers of temporary troops levied from across the kingdom , called the fyrd . By the 9th century , armies of 20 @,@ 000 men could be called up for campaigns , with another 28 @,@ 000 men available to guard urban defences . The most common weapon was the spear , with swords used by the wealthier nobles ; cavalry was probably less common than in wider Europe , but some Anglo @-@ Saxons did fight from horseback . The Viking attacks on England in the 9th century led to developments in tactics , including the use of shield walls in battle , and the Scandinavian seizure of power in the 11th century introduced housecarls , a form of elite household soldier who protected the king .
Anglo @-@ Norman warfare was characterised by attritional military campaigns , in which commanders tried to raid enemy lands and seize castles in order to allow them to take control of their adversaries ' territory , ultimately winning slow but strategic victories . Pitched battles were occasionally fought between armies but these were considered risky engagements and usually avoided by prudent commanders . The armies of the period comprised bodies of mounted , armoured knights , supported by infantry . Crossbowmen become more numerous in the 12th century , alongside the older shortbow . At the heart of these armies was the familia regis , the permanent military household of the king , which was supported in war by feudal levies , drawn up by local nobles for a limited period of service during a campaign . Mercenaries were increasingly employed , driving up the cost of warfare considerably , and adequate supplies of ready cash became essential for the success of campaigns .
In the late 13th century Edward I expanded the familia regis to become a small standing army , forming the core of much larger armies up to 28 @,@ 700 strong , largely comprising foot soldiers , for campaigns in Scotland and France . By the time of Edward III , armies were smaller in size , but the troops were typically better equipped and uniformed , and the archers carried the longbow , a potentially devastating weapon . Cannons were first used by English forces at battles such as Crécy in 1346 . Soldiers began to be contracted for specific campaigns , a practice which may have hastened the development of the armies of retainers that grew up under bastard feudalism . By the late 15th century , however , English armies were somewhat backward by wider European standards ; the Wars of the Roses were fought by inexperienced soldiers , often with outdated weapons , allowing the European forces which intervened in the conflict to have a decisive effect on the outcomes of battles .
= = = Navies = = =
The first references to an English navy occur in 851 , when chroniclers described Wessex ships defeating a Viking fleet . These early fleets were limited in size but grew in size in the 10th century , allowing the power of Wessex to be projected across the Irish Sea and the English Channel ; Cnut 's fleet had as many as 40 vessels , while Edward the Confessor could muster 80 ships . Some ships were manned by sailors called lithesmen and bustsecarls , probably drawn from the coastal towns , while other vessels were mobilised as part of a national levy and manned by their regular crews . Naval forces played an important role during the rest of the Middle Ages , enabling the transportation of troops and supplies , raids into hostile territory and attacks on enemy fleets . English naval power became particularly important after the loss of Normandy in 1204 , which turned the English Channel from a friendly transit route into a contested and critical border region . English fleets in the 13th and 14th centuries typically comprised specialist vessels , such as galleys and large transport ships , and pressed merchant vessels conscripted into action ; the latter increasingly included cogs , a new form of sailing ship . Battles might be fought when one fleet found another at anchor , such as the English victory at Sluys in 1340 , or in more open waters , as off the coast of Winchelsea in 1350 ; raiding campaigns , such as the French attacks on the south of England between 1338 and 1339 , could cause devastation from which some towns never fully recovered .
= = = Fortifications = = =
Many of the fortifications built by the Romans in England survived into the Middle Ages , including the walls surrounding their military forts and cities . These defences were often reused during the unstable post @-@ Roman period . The Anglo @-@ Saxon kings undertook significant planned urban expansion in the 8th and 9th centuries , creating burhs , often protected with earth and wood ramparts . Burh walls sometimes utilised older Roman fortifications , both for practical reasons and to bolster their owners ' reputations through the symbolism of former Roman power .
Although a small number of castles had been built in England during the 1050s , after the conquest the Normans began to build timber motte and bailey and ringwork castles in large numbers to control their newly occupied territories . During the 12th century the Normans began to build more castles in stone , with characteristic square keeps that supported both military and political functions . Royal castles were used to control key towns and forests , whilst baronial castles were used by the Norman lords to control their widespread estates ; a feudal system called the castle @-@ guard was sometimes used to provide garrisons . Castles and sieges continued to grow in military sophistication during the 12th century , and in the 13th century new defensive town walls were constructed across England .
By the 14th century , castles were combining defences with luxurious , sophisticated living arrangements and landscaped gardens and parks . Early gunpowder weapons were used to defend castles by the end of the 14th century and gunports became an essential feature for a fashionable castle . The economics of maintaining castles meant that many were left to decline or abandoned ; in contrast , a small number of castles were developed by the very wealthy into palaces that hosted lavish feasts and celebrations amid elaborate architecture . Smaller defensible structures called tower houses emerged in the north of England to protect against the Scottish threat . By the late medieval period , town walls were increasingly less military in character and more often expressions of civic pride or part of urban governance : many grand gatehouses were built in the 14th and 15th centuries for these purposes .
= = Arts = =
= = = Art = = =
Medieval England produced art in the form of paintings , carvings , books , fabrics and many functional but beautiful objects . A wide range of materials were used , including gold , glass and ivory , the art usually drawing overt attention to the materials utilised in the designs . Anglo @-@ Saxon artists created carved ivories , illuminated manuscripts , embroidered cloths , crosses and stone sculpture , although relatively few of these have survived to the modern period . They produced a wide range of metalwork , frequently using gold and garnets , with brooches , buckles , sword hilts and drinking horns particularly favoured designs . Early designs , such as those found at the Sutton Hoo burial , used a zoomorphic style , heavily influenced by German fashions , in which animal shapes were distorted into flowing shapes and positioned alongside geometric patterns . From the 7th century onwards more naturalistic designs became popular , showing a plasticity of form and incorporating both animals and people into the designs . In the 10th century , Carolingian styles , inspired by Classical imagery , began to enter from the continent , becoming widely used in the reformed Benedictine monasteries across the south and east of England .
The Norman conquest introduced northern French artistic styles , particular in illuminated manuscripts and murals , and reduced the demand for carvings . In other artistic areas , including embroidery , the Anglo @-@ Saxon influence remained evident into the 12th century , and the famous Bayeux Tapestry is an example of older styles being reemployed under the new regime . Stained glass became a distinctive form of English art during this later medieval period , although the coloured glass for these works was almost entirely imported from Europe . Little early stained glass in England has survived , but it typically had both an ornamental and educational function , while later works also commemorated the sponsors of the windows into the designs . English tapestry making and embroidery in the early 14th century were of an especially high quality ; works produced by nuns and London professionals were exported across Europe , becoming known as the opus anglicanum . English illuminated books , such as the Queen Mary Psalter , were also famous in this period , featuring rich decoration , a combination of grotesque and natural figures and rich colours . The quality of illuminated art in England declined significantly in the face of competition from Flanders in the 14th century , and later English illuminated medieval pieces generally imitated Flemish styles .
= = = Literature , drama and music = = =
The Anglo @-@ Saxons produced extensive poetry in Old English , some of which was written down as early as the 9th century , although most surviving poems were compiled in the 10th and early 11th century . Beowulf , probably written between 650 and 750 , is typical of these poems , portraying a vivid , heroic tale , ending with the protagonist 's death at the hands of a dragon , but still showing signs of the new Christian influences in England . Old English was also used for academic and courtly writing from the 9th century onwards , including translations of popular foreign works , including The Pastoral Care .
Poetry and stories written in French were popular after the Norman conquest , and by the 12th century some works on English history began to be produced in French verse . Romantic poems about tournaments and courtly love became popular in Paris and this fashion spread into England in the form of lays ; stories about the court of King Arthur were also fashionable , due in part to the interest of Henry II . English continued to be used on a modest scale to write local religious works and some poems in the north of England , but most major works were produced in Latin or French . In the reign of Richard II there was an upsurge in the use of Middle English in poetry , sometimes termed " Ricardian poetry " , although the works still emulated French fashions . The work of Geoffrey Chaucer from the 1370s onwards , however , culminating in the influential Canterbury Tales , was uniquely English in style . Major pieces of courtly poetry continued to be produced into the 15th century by Chaucher 's disciples , and Thomas Malory compiled the older Arthurian tales to produce Le Morte d 'Arthur .
Music and singing were important in England during the medieval period , being used in religious ceremonies , court occasions and to accompany theatrical works . Singing techniques called gymel were introduced in England in the 13th century , accompanied by instruments such as the guitar , harp , pipes and organ . Henry IV sponsored an extensive range of music in England , while his son Henry V brought back many influences from occupied France . Carols became an important form of music in the 15th century ; originally these had been a song sung during a dance with a prominent refrain — the 15th century form lost the dancing and introduced strong religious overtones . Ballads were also popular from the late 14th century onwards , including the Ballad of Chevy Chase and others describing the activities of Robin Hood . Miracle plays were performed to communicate the Bible in various locations . By the late 14th century , these had been extended into vernacular mystery plays which performed annually over several days , broken up into various cycles of plays ; a handful have survived into the 21st century . Guilds competed to produce the best plays in each town and performances were often an expression of civic identity .
= = = Architecture = = =
In the century after the collapse of the Romano @-@ British economy , very few substantial buildings were constructed and many villas and towns were abandoned . New long- and round @-@ houses were constructed in some settlements , while in others timber buildings were built imitating the older Roman styles . The Germanic immigrants constructed small rectangular buildings from wood , and occasionally grander halls . However , the conversion to Christianity in the 6th and 7th centuries reintroduced Italian and French masons , and these craftsmen built stone churches , low in height , following a narrow , rectangular plan , plastered inside and fitted with glass and colourful vestments . This Romanesque style developed throughout the period , featuring characteristic circular arches . By the 10th and 11th centuries , much larger churches and monastery buildings were being built , featuring square and circular towers after the contemporary European fashion . The palaces constructed for the nobility centred on great timber halls , while manor houses began to appear in rural areas .
The Normans brought with them architectural styles from their own duchy , where austere stone churches were preferred . Under the early Norman kings this style was adapted to produce large , plain cathedrals with ribbed vaulting . During the 12th century the Anglo @-@ Norman style became richer and more ornate , with pointed arches derived from French architecture replacing the curved Romanesque designs ; this style is termed Early English Gothic and continued , with variation , throughout the rest of the Middle Ages . In the early 14th century the Perpendicular Gothic style was created in England , with an emphasis on verticality , immense windows and soaring arcades . Fine timber roofs in a variety of styles , but in particular the hammerbeam , were built in many English buildings . In the 15th century the architectural focus turned away from cathedrals and monasteries in favour of parish churches , often decorated with richly carved woodwork ; in turn , these churches influenced the design of new chantry chapels for existing cathedrals .
Meanwhile , domestic architecture had continued to develop , with the Normans , having first occupied the older Anglo @-@ Saxon dwellings , rapidly beginning to build larger buildings in stone and timber . The elite preferred houses with large , ground @-@ floor halls but the less wealthy constructed simpler houses with the halls on the first floor ; master and servants frequently lived in the same spaces . Wealthier town @-@ houses were also built using stone , and incorporated business and domestic arrangements into a single functional design . By the 14th century grander houses and castles were sophisticated affairs : expensively tiled , often featuring murals and glass windows , these buildings were often designed as a set of apartments to allow greater privacy . Fashionable brick began to be used in some parts of the country , copying French tastes . Architecture that emulated the older defensive designs remained popular . Less is known about the houses of peasants during this period , although many peasants appear to have lived in relatively substantial , timber @-@ framed long @-@ houses ; the quality of these houses improved in the prosperous years following the Black Death , often being built by professional craftsmen .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Historiography = = =
The first history of medieval England was written by Bede in the 8th century ; many more accounts of contemporary and ancient history followed , usually termed chronicles . In the 16th century , the first academic histories began to be written , typically drawing primarily on the chroniclers and interpreting them in the light of current political concerns . Edward Gibbon 's 18th @-@ century writings were influential , presenting the medieval period as a dark age between the glories of Rome and the rebirth of civilisation in the Early Modern period . Late Victorian historians continued to use the chroniclers as sources , but also deployed documents such as Domesday Book and Magna Carta , alongside newly discovered financial , legal and commercial records . They produced a progressive account of political and economic development in England . The growth of the British Empire spurred interest in the various periods of English hegemony during the Middle Ages , including the Angevin Empire and the Hundred Years ' War .
By the 1930s , older historical analyses were challenged by a range of neo @-@ positivist , Marxist and econometric approaches , supported by a widening body of documentary , archaeological and scientific evidence . Marxist and Neo @-@ Marxist analyses continued to be popular in the post @-@ war years , producing seminal works on economic issues and social protests . Post @-@ modern analysis became influential in the 1970s and 1980s , focusing on identity , gender , interpretation and culture . Many studies focused on particular regions or groups , drawing on new records and new scientific approaches , including landscape and environmental archaeology . Fresh archaeological finds , such as the Staffordshire Hoard , continue to challenge previous interpretations , and historical studies of England in the Middle Ages have never been so diverse as in the early 21st century .
= = = Popular representations = = =
The period has also been used in a wide range of popular culture . William Shakespeare 's plays on the lives of the medieval kings have proved to have had long lasting appeal , heavily influencing both popular interpretations and histories of figures such as King John and Henry V. Other playwrights have since taken key medieval events , such as the death of Thomas Becket , and used them to draw out contemporary themes and issues . The medieval mystery plays continue to be enacted in key English towns and cities . Film @-@ makers have drawn extensively on the medieval period , often taking themes from Shakespeare or the Robin Hood ballads for inspiration . Historical fiction set in England during the Middle Ages remains persistently popular , with the 1980s and 1990s seeing a particular growth of historical detective fiction . The period has also inspired fantasy writers , including J. R. R. Tolkien 's stories of Middle @-@ earth . English medieval music was revived from the 1950s , with choral and musical groups attempting to authentically reproduce the original sounds . Medieval living history events were first held during the 19th and early 20th centuries , and the period has inspired a considerable community of historical re @-@ enactors , part of England 's growing heritage industry .
= = = Surveys = = =
= = = Kings = = =
= = = Architecture , castles , churches , landscape = = =
= = = Specialized studies = = =
= = = Historiography = = =
= Romeo & Juliet : Sealed with a Kiss =
Romeo & Juliet : Sealed with a Kiss is a 2006 American animated romantic fantasy film loosely following the play Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare . The film is about two star @-@ crossed seals , Romeo and Juliet ( voiced by Daniel and Patricia Trippet respectively ) , who fall in love against the wishes of their warring families . It was released in Europe in mid @-@ 2006 and on October 27 in the United States .
The film was written , animated , and directed entirely by one man , former Disney animator Phil Nibbelink . The film , created on an estimated budget of $ 2 million , took 4 ½ years to complete and required 112 @,@ 000 frames , all drawn by Nibbelink on a Wacom tablet directly into Flash 4 in combination with Moho software . Despite the film 's negative reviews , it won an award in Best in Show at the Southwest Film Festival .
= = Plot = =
Warring Capulets ( Michael Toland ) and Montagues ( Stephen Goldberg ) , portrayed as Steller and California sea lions respectively , have their feud watched sadly by Capulet 's only daughter , Juliet ( Patricia Trippett ) . A fight on the shore is ended when the Prince ( Phil Nibbelink ) , a large and monstrous elephant seal , appears and warns the two groups that , should there be any more disturbance , the seal who caused it shall be exiled to Shark Island , a fin shaped rock where a shark lives . Romeo ( Daniel Tripett ) , Montague 's only son , is depressed , wishing to fall in love with someone . His humorous friend , Mercutio ( Chip Albers ) , urges him and another of his friends , Benvolio ( Sam Gold ) , to go to a Capulet party later that evening . They attend the party , covered in white sand to look like Capulets , and Romeo falls in love with Juliet at first sight . Juliet , however , was promised by her father to marry the Prince , who attends the party . Romeo and his friends manage to wreak havoc , and are revealed to be Montagues . Later that evening , the play 's balcony scene is recreated on a cliff on the beach where a tree grows . Romeo promises Juliet that they shall marry the next morning , and she will not have to marry the Prince .
Romeo begs Friar Lawrence , a sea otter , to wed them . After some thought , the friar believes their marriage will end the feud between their families , and agrees . Romeo and Juliet are wed that morning and traverse the sea in their happiness . However , even the other sea and land animals strongly oppose their being together . A fish finds them a lovely couple , but warns them that they will be in big trouble if the Prince finds out . Back on the beach , Mercutio is telling many jokes , which leads to him making insulting jokes against the Capulets , and the Prince is headed in that direction . When he arrives , Mercutio mocks him as well . Romeo rushes to aid his friend , but after a struggle Mercutio falls off the cliff where Juliet met Romeo the previous evening , and everyone thinks that he is dead . The Prince , jealous of Juliet 's affection for Romeo , exiles Romeo to Shark Island . In despair , Juliet seeks the Friar 's help , and he gives her a potion to put her in a deathlike state . Mercutio is revealed to be alive and sees the whole thing , remarking , " What a tangled web we weave . "
Lawrence shows the Capulet seals that Juliet is " dead " , right as they were celebrating the marriage . But Benvolio sees her as well , and swims to Shark Island to tell Romeo . The Friar chases him to stop him , but is attacked by a shark . After receiving the terrible news from Benvolio , Romeo heads to the shore to see if Juliet is truly dead . Friar Lawrence arrives too late and tries to follow Romeo , only to have his tail maimed by the shark . After an undersea chase and some help from the fish Romeo and Juliet met earlier , Lawrence escapes and heads to the beach . A heartbroken Romeo walks past the mourning Capulets and tries to kiss Juliet , only to have some of the potion slip into his own mouth , putting him in a deathlike state as well . Both groups of seals begin to weep for their loss , and Lawrence , who has just arrived , teaches them a lesson about where hatred leads them . Suddenly , Romeo and Juliet awaken , and all is well . Mercutio returns , and the Prince finds a new mate , a large elephant seal like himself . The movie ends with the two families at peace , and Romeo and Juliet remaining together .
= = Cast and characters = =
Daniel Trippett as Romeo , a brave , kind , and handsome Montague and Juliet 's love interest and main protagonist of the movie . He knows he should not go near the Capulets , but he loves Juliet . It is revealed that he would not let anyone kidnap Juliet ; this is first revealed in a shipwreck scene , when an octopus hypnotizes and tangles Juliet and challenges Romeo to a duel . In the English version he is voiced by Alan Ritchson
Patricia Trippett as Juliet , a sweet , pretty , and Capulet and Romeo 's love interest .
Chip Albers as Mercutio , Romeo 's trouble @-@ making best friend .
Michael Toland as Capulet , Juliet 's father . / Friar Lawrence : A sea otter and a good friend of Romeo , he knows that Romeo and Juliet shouldn 't be married , but realizes that the wedding will stop the rivalry of the two families .
Stephen Goldberg as Montague , Romeo 's father .
Phil Nibbelink as the Prince , a huge northern elephant seal who has a big nose , rancid breath , and a quick temper and the main antagonist of the movie .
Chanelle Nibbelink as Kissy the Kissing Fish , a sweet and cute little fish who acts as a comic relief . She does not like the water much , but adores Romeo , and enjoys kissing him .
Sam Gold as Benvolio , a good friend of Romeo who is not a trouble @-@ maker like Mercutio .
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
Nibbelink , a former Disney animator , founded an independent company with his wife , Margit Friesacher , called Phillip Nibbelink Productions , in 1998 . He stated that he grew tired of the " big industry merry @-@ go @-@ round " and wanted to make films himself . He had independently created two feature @-@ length animated films before Romeo & Juliet : Sealed with a Kiss — Puss in Boots & Leif Ericson : The Boy Who Discovered America . Nibbelink decided to make Romeo and Juliet in 2000 , when he was finishing Leif Ericson , and began work on it in early 2003 . Nibbelink wanted the film to be a family @-@ friendly version of Shakespeare 's original tale , because of the few appropriate family films available at the time .
= = = Animation = = =
The film took 4 ½ years of animating and required 112 @,@ 000 frames , each of which were completed in under 2 minutes and drawn on a Wacom tablet directly into Flash 4 , in combination with Moho software . All the frames together were done in a month , by Nibbelink 's estimation . The Moho software was used for the " over @-@ the @-@ shoulder " or the " listening " characters , or crowd scene characters . The film was a half @-@ year in post @-@ production . Nibbelink used Flash 4 because when he tried to migrate to Flash 5 , it created forward @-@ compatibility problems . Even cut @-@ and @-@ paste work using Flash 4 and Flash 5 launched at the same time created RAM issues and crashed .
= = = Audio = = =
Most actors of the film were Nibbelink 's friends and children , whose voices he recorded in a studio in his basement . The film 's Spanish dub was originally done in Madrid . Nibbelink said his daughter 's voice @-@ over was completely unscripted . " I would take these silly improvs that my little daughter would do . I mean , lines like , she would say , ‘ Babies – p @-@ ew ! I hate stinky babies ! ’ I said , ‘ That ’ s hilarious ! ’ So I would use it . "
The film had no official composer . Nibbelink bought melodies from royalty @-@ free music compositions , and wrote the lyrics for the music . These royalty free music companies were Intents Creative Music , British Audio Publishing , Crank City Music , Jack Waldenmaier Music Productions in association with The Music Bakery , River City Sound Productions , Bejoodle Music , Fresh Music , and Music 2 Hues . Three songs are included in the film : a version of " Twinkle Twinkle Little Star " , performed by Chanelle Nibbelink and arranged by Elva Nibbelink , " Bite My Tail " , performed by Michael Toland and arranged by Nibbelink , and " Singing Starfish " , performed by Jennifer , Russell , and Gigi Nibbelink .
= = Release = =
= = = Theatrical release = = =
Nibbelink sold the film to 800 people , and it was picked up by distributors MarVista Entertainment for release in foreign territories and Indican Pictures for a domestic release . A preview of the film was screened at Sony Pictures Entertainment in Los Angeles , California on November 17 , 2004 , and the movie was later showcased at the 2005 Asia Television Forum in Singapore . It was released as Fofita , una foquita la mar de salada to 32 theaters in Madrid and Seville on June 23 , 2006 .
Sealed with a Kiss was rated " G " by the Motion Picture Association of America . The film had a domestic total of $ 463 @,@ 002 in its 34 @-@ week ( 238 @-@ day ) box office run . On opening weekend in 2006 , the film , which debuted in Los Angeles , California , grossed $ 80 @,@ 938 , with an average of $ 4 @,@ 220 . That same week , it grossed a total $ 109 @,@ 720 . The film closed its box office run on July 19 , 2007 , having grossed just $ 895 that same week . Despite being a minor box office bomb , as of June 2013 , the film is the third most profitable film released by Indican Pictures .
= = = Home media = = =
The film was released to DVD on June 12 , 2007 . Animatedviews.com 's Ben Simon , in his review of the DVD , gave it an overall 7 out of 10 , praising the large bonus content for a low @-@ budget film , but criticizing the glitchy sound and audio of the feature . A giveaway was previously held in 2005 by Abbey Home Media and Courier Kids , and the prize was a DVD copy of the film and a toy seal . Ten copies were given .
= = Critical reception = =
The film was negatively received by critics . Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reports that only 20 % of critics gave the film a positive review , with an average rating of 3 / 10 , based on 5 reviews . Movies.com 's Dave White compared what he considered the film 's poor animation to the animation of The Wild , and criticized some dialogue of the film judged " vaguely Shakespearean " , satirizing the fact that " children like English pronouns 15th century . " Sam Adams of the Los Angeles Times called the film a " genuine tragedy , although not in the Shakespearean sense " and wrote that a " comprehensive list of what 's wrong with Romeo & Juliet : Sealed With a Kiss would stretch farther than the unabridged works of William S. " LA Weekly 's Luke Y. Thompson said that the film " should find its primary audience among college potheads who like to watch ' 70s Hanna @-@ Barbera creations on the Cartoon Network late at night . " Common Sense Media writer Renee Schonfeld said in his 2012 review that it was " an amateurish effort with a grating villain , tired jokes , and sub @-@ par music " . He gave it 2 out of 5 stars .
In contrast , Reel.com 's Pam Grady gave the film a 2 @.@ 5 out of 4 , saying that , " surprisingly , it 's not terrible " . Animatedviews.com 's Ben Simon defended the film , saying it was " a charming little movie " that " remains faithful to Shakespeare 's text . " The film won two awards at the Southwest Film Festival , in the animation and Best in Show category .
= Lion =
The lion ( Panthera leo ) is one of the big cats in the genus Panthera and a member of the family Felidae . The commonly used term African lion collectively denotes the several subspecies in Africa . With some males exceeding 250 kg ( 550 lb ) in weight , it is the second @-@ largest living cat after the tiger . Wild lions currently exist in sub @-@ Saharan Africa and in India ( where an endangered remnant population resides in Gir Forest National Park ) . In ancient historic times , their range was in most of Africa , including North Africa , and across Eurasia from Greece and southeastern Europe to India . In the late Pleistocene , about 10 @,@ 000 years ago , the lion was the most widespread large land mammal after humans : Panthera leo spelaea lived in northern and western Europe and Panthera leo atrox lived in the Americas from the Yukon to Peru . The lion is classified as a vulnerable species by the IUCN , having seen a major population decline in its African range of 30 – 50 % per two decades during the second half of the twentieth century . Lion populations are untenable outside designated reserves and national parks . Although the cause of the decline is not fully understood , habitat loss and conflicts with humans are the greatest causes of concern . Within Africa , the West African lion population is particularly endangered .
In the wild , males seldom live longer than 10 to 14 years , as injuries sustained from continual fighting with rival males greatly reduce their longevity . In captivity they can live more than 20 years . They typically inhabit savanna and grassland , although they may take to bush and forest . Lions are unusually social compared to other cats . A pride of lions consists of related females and offspring and a small number of adult males . Groups of female lions typically hunt together , preying mostly on large ungulates . Lions are apex and keystone predators , although they are also expert scavengers obtaining over 50 percent of their food by scavenging as opportunity allows . While lions do not typically hunt humans , some have . Sleeping mainly during the day , lions are active primarily at night ( nocturnal ) , although sometimes at twilight ( crepuscular ) .
Highly distinctive , the male lion is easily recognised by its mane , and its face is one of the most widely recognised animal symbols in human culture . Depictions have existed from the Upper Paleolithic period , with carvings and paintings from the Lascaux and Chauvet Caves in France dated to 17 @,@ 000 years ago , through virtually all ancient and medieval cultures where they once occurred . It has been extensively depicted in sculptures , in paintings , on national flags , and in contemporary films and literature . Lions have been kept in menageries since the time of the Roman Empire , and have been a key species sought for exhibition in zoos over the world since the late eighteenth century . Zoos are cooperating worldwide in breeding programs for the endangered Asiatic subspecies .
= = Etymology = =
The lion 's name , similar in many Romance languages , is derived from the Latin leo , and the Ancient Greek λέων ( leon ) . The Hebrew word לָבִיא ( lavi ) may also be related . It was one of the species originally described by Linnaeus , who gave it the name Felis leo , in his eighteenth @-@ century work , Systema Naturae .
= = Taxonomy and evolution = =
The lion 's closest relatives are the other species of the genus Panthera : the tiger , the snow leopard , the jaguar , and the leopard . Studies from 2006 and 2009 concluded that the jaguar is a sister species to the lion and the leopard is a sister taxon to the jaguar / lion clade while 2010 and 2011 studies have swapped the positions leopard and jaguar . P. leo evolved in Africa between 1 million and 800 @,@ 000 years ago , before spreading throughout the Holarctic region . It appeared in the fossil record in Europe for the first time 700 @,@ 000 years ago with the subspecies Panthera leo fossilis at Isernia in Italy . From this lion derived the later cave lion ( Panthera leo spelaea ) , which appeared about 300 @,@ 000 years ago . Lions died out in northern Eurasia at the end of the last glaciation , about 10 @,@ 000 years ago ; this may have been secondary to the extinction of Pleistocene megafauna .
= = = Subspecies = = =
Traditionally , 12 recent subspecies of lion were recognised , distinguished by mane appearance , size , and distribution . Because these characteristics are very insignificant and show a high individual variability , most of these forms were probably not true subspecies , especially as they were often based upon zoo material of unknown origin that may have had " striking , but abnormal " morphological characteristics . Today , only eight subspecies are usually accepted , although one of these , the Cape lion , formerly described as Panthera leo melanochaita , is probably invalid . Even the remaining seven subspecies might be too many . While the status of the Asiatic lion ( P. l. persica ) as a subspecies is generally accepted , the systematic relationships among African lions are still not completely resolved . Mitochondrial variation in living African lions seemed to be modest according to some newer studies ; therefore , all sub @-@ Saharan lions have sometimes been considered a single subspecies . However , a recent study revealed lions from western and central Africa differ genetically from lions of southern or eastern Africa . According to this study , Western African lions are more closely related to Asian lions than to South or East African lions . These findings might be explained by a late Pleistocene extinction event of lions in western and central Africa , and a subsequent recolonisation of these parts from Asia .
Previous studies , which were focused mainly on lions from eastern and southern parts of Africa , already showed these can be possibly divided in
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mycologist Rolf Singer transferred it to its current genus in 1938 , but recognized the value of maintaining a distinction of the smooth @-@ spored species , and so made L. giganteus the type species of section Aspropaxilli .
Leucopaxillus giganteus is commonly known as the “ giant leucopax ” ( formerly as the “ giant clitocybe ” ) or the “ giant funnel ” .
= = Description = =
The cap of L. giganteus can become rather large , up to 40 cm ( 16 in ) in diameter with a thickness of 1 to 1 @.@ 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 0 @.@ 5 in ) at half the radius . Younger specimens have caps that are convex , with a margin that is rolled downwards , but as the mushrooms matures the cap flattens out and eventually becomes shallowly funnel @-@ shaped . The cap is smooth and creamy white in color , but may develop brown stains and circular cracks with age .
The cream @-@ colored gills are narrow , crowded close together , and have a decurrent attachment — running down the length of the stem ; in age the gills will darken to a buff color . The stem is off @-@ white with reddish @-@ brown fibers and has dimensions , when mature , of up to 4 @.@ 5 to 6 cm ( 1 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 4 in ) tall by 1 @.@ 5 to 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 to 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick . There is no ring on the stem . At the base of the stem there is typically a dense , white mycelium that may form a mat . The flesh is firm , and also is white . Mature specimens are fragile , and difficult to remove from the ground without breaking .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
When viewed in deposit , such as with a spore print , the spores appear white . When viewed with a light microscope , the spores are ovoid to ellipsoid , translucent ( hyaline ) , have a smooth surface , and possess a broadly rounded apex and base ; the spore dimensions are 6 – 8 by 3 @.@ 5 – 5 µm . Like all Leucopaxillus species , the spores of L. giganteus are amyloid — meaning that they will absorb iodine when stained with Melzer 's reagent — however , the extent of the stain may be variable . The spore @-@ bearing cells , the basidia , are 25 – 40 by 4 @.@ 5 – 8 µm , narrowly club @-@ shaped , and are attached to either 2 or 4 spores . The hyphae of this species invariably have clamp connections .
= = = Similar species = = =
Leucopaxillus giganteus somewhat resembles Leucopaxillus candidus , but this latter species has a darker coloring and is found more commonly in montane regions . Leucopaxillus septentrionalis is also large and resembles L. giganteus at some points during its development , but may be distinguished by its nauseous odor , the tan color of the cap , and the adnate ( gill squarely attached to the stem ) to slightly adnexed ( narrowly attached ) gills . Leucopaxillus candidus tends to be smaller , with a cap diameter ranging from 6 to 20 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 to 7 @.@ 9 in ) broad . Both Leucopaxillus gentianeus and Lactarius vellereus have been suggested as additional lookalike species . Young specimens of Leucopaxillus giganteus may be confused with Clitocybe irina , C. praemagna or C. robusta . White Lactarius and Russula species may also appear superficially similar , but they have brittle flesh that breaks cleanly , unlike the fibrous flesh of Leucopaxillus giganteus .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Leucopaxillus giganteus can form fairy rings in grassy areas like pastures , and is also found along roadsides ; it produces fruiting bodies in summer and autumn . It is a saprobic species , and so derives nutrients by decomposing organic matter .
The fungus has a cosmopolitan distribution , and occurs throughout the temperate zone of the northern hemisphere . It is found in North America , Britain , and Europe . David Arora reports that in North America , it is most common in the Pacific Northwest and the Rocky Mountains .
= = Uses = =
= = = Edibility = = =
Although one source claims that the species is a " choice edible when young " , another source warns of the possibility of stomach cramps and diarrhea . Burrows suggests preparing specimens by cutting them up and boiling the pieces , and disposing the water ; then they may be used in dishes such as stews and casseroles . Because of its large size , one specimen can be enough to be consumed by several individuals . The odor has been said to be farinaceous or similar to fish meal ; the taste and smell of the mushroom have also been alternately characterized as " mild and pleasant " or " truly disgusting " . The species is also a favorite food for species of the fruit fly genus Drosophila .
= = = Bioactive compounds = = =
Leucopaxillus giganteus contains a bioactive compound named clitocine that has antibiotic activity against a number of bacteria that are pathogenic to humans , such as Bacillus cereus and Bacillus subtilis ; an earlier ( 1945 ) study showed antibiotic activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis , Salmonella typhi , and Brucea abortus . Clitocine has also been shown to promote apoptosis ( cell death ) in human cervical cancer cells in vitro ( HeLa ) . The mycelia of L. giganteus , when grown in liquid culture , has been shown to produce phenols and flavonoids that have antioxidant activity .
= Washington State Route 251 =
State Route 251 ( SR 251 , now Northport – Boundary Road ) is a former 10 @.@ 86 @-@ mile ( 17 @.@ 48 km ) long state highway in Stevens County , Washington . The highway began at SR 25 in Northport and continued northeast parallel to the Columbia River to Boundary , an unincorporated community , where it crossed the Canada – United States border into British Columbia as British Columbia Highway 22A . SR 251 was originally a county road until 1913 , when it was added to the state highway system , but was later removed . The roadway was re @-@ added as an extension to an already existing state highway . In 1937 , it was reclassified as a secondary highway named Secondary State Highway 22A ( SSH 22A ) until 1964 , when it became SR 251 . In 1984 , control of the road was relinquished by the state to Stevens County and it was renamed Northport – Boundary Road .
= = Route description = =
State Route 251 ( SR 251 ) , now known as the Northport – Boundary Road or Boundary Highway , began in Northport at an at @-@ grade intersection at Center Street , known as SR 25 . The highway turned north from SR 25 and followed the Columbia River upstream as well a railroad owned by the Kettle Falls International Railway . The highway traveled northeast , then east through a series of hairpin turns before turning north to Boundary , an unincorporated community in Stevens County , where SR 251 entered Canadian customs and continued into British Columbia as British Columbia Highway 22A ( BC 22A ) .
= = History = =
SR 251 was once a county road connecting Northport with British Columbia that has existed since at least 1912 . In 1913 , it became part of the Inland Empire Highway , but was removed in 1915 . The road was transferred to county maintenance after removal from the state highway system . In 1931 , it was officially added to the state highway system as part of an extension of State Road 22 from Kettle Falls to British Columbia . In 1937 , it became Secondary State Highway 22A ( SSH 22A ) , a branch of Primary State Highway 22 ( PSH 22 ) . When Washington renumbered its highways in 1964 and switched to a new system , SSH 22A became SR 251 and PSH 22 became SR 25 . In 1983 , SR 251 was removed from the state highway system and control was relinquished to Stevens County . After it was turned over , Stevens County continues to maintain the roadway and no realignments or significant events have occurred .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway was in Stevens County .
= MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387L =
MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387L is a red dwarf in the Sagittarius constellation that is host to the planet MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387Lb . The star is estimated to be nearly 20 @,@ 000 light years away and approximately one fifth the mass of the Sun , although large confidence intervals exist , reflecting the uncertainties in both the mass and distance . The star drew the attention of astronomers when it became the lens of gravitational microlensing event MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387L , in which it eclipsed a background star and created distorted caustics , an envelope of reflected or refracted light rays . Analysis of the caustic events and of follow @-@ up observational data led to the planet 's discovery , which was reported in February 2011 .
= = Observational history = =
On July 24 , 2009 , the Microlensing Observations in Astrophysics collaboration ( MOA ) detected the star MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387L eclipsing a background star in a microlensing event that was named MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387 . In a process called gravitational microlensing , the star MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387L became a lens that created two distorted caustic images . In the case of the microlensing event MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387 , these caustics produced a series of small " resonating " diffractions ; such resonant @-@ caustic events are valued because they tend to yield more information about an orbiting planet .
The first caustic event was detected by the South African Astronomical Observatory ( SAAO ) on July 24 , 2009 . An alert was issued , which attracted many to cover the caustic event ; as such , the end of the first caustic event was well @-@ documented . The microlensing event 's second caustic event was seven days later , an unusually long middle period for planetary microlensing events . An alert brought three different telescopes at SAAO and telescopes at ten different observatories to focus on the event .
Follow @-@ up observations on the star MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387L using the NACO imager at the Very Large Telescope array successfully distinguished the star 's mass . The collected data from VLT and from observations during the microlensing event was run through a series of models and analyzed . An orbiting planetary body larger than Jupiter ( or of a similar size , given uncertainties ) was discovered . The discovery of the planet was reported on February 21 , 2011 in the journal Astronomy and Astrophysics .
= = Characteristics = =
MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387L is an M @-@ type red dwarf in the Sagittarius constellation . It is estimated to be 5700 parsecs ( 18 @,@ 591 light years ) away , although uncertainty has led the discovering team to place the confidence intervals at ± 2200 parsecs ( 7 @,@ 176 light years ) ; in other words , although the distance of MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387L from Earth is best placed at 5700 parsecs , astronomers can only be 90 % certain that it is somewhere between 3 @,@ 500 and 7 @,@ 900 parsecs away . Likewise , although MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387L 's mass has been estimated at 0 @.@ 19 times that of the Sun , the confidence intervals remain large ( + 0 @.@ 3
− 0 @.@ 12 ) , as uncertainty in the mass of the planet places its true mass between 0 @.@ 07 and 0 @.@ 49 times the mass of the Sun . This covers the entirety of the range of masses known in red dwarfs .
The ratio between planet MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387Lb 's mass to that of its host star has been found with accuracy . However , because the host star 's characteristics are not as well @-@ constrained , the planet 's characteristics are not well @-@ constrained either . The inability to constrain many of MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387L 's characteristics is a consequence of the fact that the star acted as the lens in the microlensing event , which compromised the ability to collect most of the star 's stellar parameters .
= = Planetary system = =
MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387Lb is the only known exoplanet in the orbit of host star MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387L . The planet is estimated to be 2 @.@ 6 times the mass of Jupiter . However , because knowledge of the exact parameters of the planet are tied to the host star 's parameters , and the host star 's parameters are not well @-@ constrained , uncertainty places MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387Lb 's mass between 1 @.@ 0 and 6 @.@ 7 times that of Jupiter . The planet is estimated to orbit its host star every 1970 days at a distance of 1 @.@ 8 AU , some 1 @.@ 8 times the mean distance between Earth and the Sun . Uncertainty broadens the mean distance to between 1 @.@ 1 and 2 @.@ 7 AU .
= Blue discharge =
A blue discharge ( also known as a " blue ticket " ) was a form of administrative military discharge formerly issued by the United States beginning in 1916 . It was neither honorable nor dishonorable . The blue ticket became the discharge of choice for commanders seeking to remove homosexual service members from the ranks . They were also issued disproportionately to African Americans .
Service members holding a blue discharge were subjected to discrimination in civilian life . They were denied the benefits of the G.I. Bill by the Veterans Administration and had difficulty finding work because employers were aware of the negative connotations of a blue discharge . Following intense criticism in the press — especially the black press , because of the high percentage of African Americans who received blue discharges — and in Congress , the blue discharge was discontinued in 1947 , replaced by two new classifications : general and undesirable .
= = History = =
The blue discharge was created in 1916 to replace two previous discharge classifications , the administrative discharge without honor and the " unclassified " discharge . The discharges were printed on blue paper , hence the name . They were also sometimes called " blue tickets " . One early use of the blue discharge was for service members who had enlisted to fight in World War I while underage , but this practice was abolished by law and all such discharges were upgraded to honorable .
= = Association with homosexuality = =
The United States military had a long @-@ standing policy that service members found to be homosexual or to have engaged in homosexual conduct were to be court @-@ martialed for sodomy , imprisoned and dishonorably discharged . However , with the mobilization of troops following the United States ' entry into World War II , it became impractical to convene court @-@ martial boards of commissioned officers and some commanders began issuing administrative discharges instead . Several waves of reform addressing the handling of homosexuals in the military resulted in a 1944 policy directive that called for homosexuals to be committed to military hospitals , examined by psychiatrists , and discharged under Regulation 615 @-@ 360 , section 8 as " unfit for service " . It is unknown exactly how many gay and lesbian service members were given blue discharges under this regulation , but in 1946 the Army estimated that it had issued between 49 @,@ 000 and 68 @,@ 000 blue discharges , with approximately 5 @,@ 000 of them issued to homosexuals , while the Navy 's estimates of blue @-@ discharge homosexuals was around 4 @,@ 000 . The period of time covered by these estimates is unclear .
The psychiatrists responsible for creating and implementing screening procedures to exclude homosexuals from military service initially supported giving gay service members blue discharges . However , when they learned of the difficulties that blue @-@ ticket holders faced in civilian life , they urged the military to discontinue the practice . William C. Menninger , who served as the Director of the Psychiatry Consultants Division for the Surgeon General of the United States Army from 1944 to 1946 , tried to persuade the military to issue honorable discharges to gay service members who had not committed any crimes during their military service .
One press account said the purpose of administrative blue discharges , " discharges which are not dishonorable but are based on habits or traits of the individual that make his continuation in service undesirable " , was the need to return soldiers to civilian life as quickly as possible : " to get the non @-@ disabled soldier back into the nation 's economic life with as little delay and red tape as possible , and to help him solve his own personal problems such as unemployment , educational opportunities or finances . "
= = Discrimination = =
The Veterans Administration ( VA ) , charged with implementing the provisions of the G.I. Bill , denied benefits to blue @-@ discharge veterans , despite the Bill 's explicit language that made only a dishonorable discharge grounds for denying benefits to a veteran . In 1945 , the VA issued a directive that all blue @-@ discharges for homosexuality would be denied benefits . On December 22 , 1955 , the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit denied an appeal from Raymond W. Longernecker , who had been denied his G.I. Bill benefits by the VA because of his blue discharge . The Court found that the VA had discretion in awarding benefits and that Congress had specifically foreclosed the courts from overruling it . Nevertheless , the Court noted that the denial of benefits should only have occurred if Longernecker had been dishonorably discharged and that the VA Administrator was acting without authority in treating a blue discharge as if it were dishonorable .
Most employers required that job applicants who had served in the military present their discharge papers as part of the application process . Blue @-@ discharge veterans experienced difficulty in securing employment because many employers were aware that the blue discharge meant that the holder was considered undesirable . Those employers who did not know had access to a list of the Separation Program Numbers or " spin " numbers that the military used to classify discharges . At least four such spin numbers indicated a gay @-@ related discharge .
Congress had expressed concern about possible misuse of the blue discharge when it began work on the G.I. Bill in 1944 . In discussions about the legislation 's details , the American Legion insisted on a specific provision to provide benefits to veterans discharged under any circumstance other than dishonorable . The Legion believed a large number of veterans had been given blue and other less @-@ than @-@ honorable discharges for reasons that it considered unreasonable or trivial . In testimony before the United States Senate , Rear Admiral Randall Jacobs strongly opposed this provision on the grounds that it would undermine morale and remove any incentive to maintain a good service record . Senator Bennett Champ Clark , a sponsor of the bill , dismissed his concerns , calling them " some of the most stupid , short @-@ sighted objections which could be raised " . Clark went on to say :
" The Army is giving blue discharges , namely discharges without honor , to those who have had no fault other than they have not shown sufficient aptitude for military service . I say that when the government drafts a man from civil life and puts him in the military service ... and , thereafter , because the man does not show sufficient aptitude gives him a blue discharge , or a discharge without honor , that fact should not be permitted to prevent the man from receiving the benefits to which soldiers are generally entitled . "
The G.I. Bill also provided for discharge review boards to review an appeal of any discharge other than dishonorable . From 1945 until early 1947 , these boards routinely upgraded to honorable the blue discharges of homosexual service members who had not committed any known sex acts during their military service . About one @-@ third of all blue discharges reviewed were upgraded to honorable .
= = Black press crusade = =
Another minority group disproportionately issued blue discharges were African Americans . Of the 48 @,@ 603 blue discharges issued by the Army between December 1 , 1941 , and June 30 , 1945 , 10 @,@ 806 were issued to African Americans , 22 @.@ 23 % of all blue discharges at a time when African Americans constituted 6 @.@ 5 % of the Army . In October 1945 , Black @-@ interest newspaper The Pittsburgh Courier launched a crusade against the discharge and its abuses ; calling the discharge " a vicious instrument that should not be perpetrated against the American Soldier " , the Courier rebuked the Army for " allowing prejudiced officers to use it as a means of punishing Negro soldiers who do not like specifically unbearable conditions " . The Courier specifically noted the discrimination faced by homosexual blue @-@ tickets , calling them " ' unfortunates ' of the Nation ... being preyed upon by the blue discharge " and demanded to know " why the Army chooses to penalize these ' unfortunates ' who seem most in need of Army benefits and the opportunity to become better citizens under the educational benefits of the GI Bill of Rights " . The Courier printed instructions on how to appeal a blue discharge and warned readers against accepting a blue ticket out of the service because of the negative effect it would likely have on their lives .
In addition to the Courier , other groups and institutions that decried the punitive use of the blue discharge included the American Legion , the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People , the Congress of Industrial Organizations , and the Veterans Benevolent Association . In the U.S. Senate , the chairman of the Senate Veterans Committee , Sen. Edwin C. Johnson ( D @-@ Colorado ) , read the Courier 's editorial into the record . On October 29 , 1945 , noting that a blue discharge meant the veteran had not been convicted and yet had been separated from the military without being able to defend himself , he said : " There ought not to be a twilight zone between innocence and guilt . Blue discharges are certain to be a headache for Congress from now on . "
= = House Report on blue discharges = =
In response to reports about the disparate treatment of blue @-@ ticket veterans , the House Committee on Military Affairs appointed a special committee to review the Veterans Administration 's procedures . The committee , headed by Rep. Carl T. Durham ( D @-@ NC ) , issued its report officially called " Investigations of the National War Effort " , commonly known as " Blue Discharges " , on January 30 , 1946 . The committee expressed its amazement that anyone with a blue discharge would risk further stigmatization by speaking out against the discrimination :
It should be borne in mind that even a moderate amount of complaint in a matter of this sort is significant . For a person to make such a complaint in his own case implies that he feels a sense of injustice so great that he is willing to risk publicizing the stigma of having been discharged from the Army under circumstances which savor of disgrace . For each complainant there are many more who feel the same sense of injustice but prefer to bury their hurt in as much oblivion as possible .
In examining case histories of blue @-@ discharge veterans , the committee found that " the procedure lends itself to dismissals based on prejudice and antagonism " . Further , the committee found that the effects of a blue discharge " differ little from those of a dishonorable discharge ... the discharged man finds it difficult to get or keep a job . The suspicion of society is aroused against him , all the worse in some ways for carrying an atmosphere of mystery . " The report said that " nothing could more clearly prove the anomalous and illogical and disingenuous nature of the blue discharge than this policy of the Veterans Administration " . The committee called the system for dealing with blue @-@ ticket veterans " a squeeze play between the war department and the veterans ' administration " and took the agency to task for assuming " the right to separate the sheep from the goats " and " passing moral verdicts on the history of any soldier " .
To reform the discharge system the committee recommended :
Automatic review for all blue discharges
That the Army be required to demonstrate that it made multiple attempts to rehabilitate the service member before issuing a blue discharge
The right to counsel for service members being given a blue discharge , either provided by the military or private counsel
Copies of procedural regulations regarding the blue discharge process be provided upon request
That any discharge that did not specify the quality of service state plainly that it is not dishonorable
The committee also recommended changing the discharge system to four classifications : honorable and dishonorable , with no change in their definitions ; " under honorable conditions " to replace the blue discharge ; and general , to cover separation for misconduct .
= = Aftermath = =
Despite the Committee 's report , the VA continued to discriminate against homosexual blue @-@ tickets , renewing its 1945 directive in 1946 and again in 1949 . Blue discharges were discontinued as of July 1 , 1947 , and two new headings , general and undesirable , took their place . A general discharge was considered to be under honorable conditions — distinct from an " honorable discharge " — and an undesirable discharge was under conditions other than honorable — distinct from a " dishonorable discharge " . At the same time , the Army changed its regulations to ensure that gay and lesbian service members would not qualify for general discharges . Those found guilty of engaging in homosexual conduct still received dishonorable discharges , while those identified as homosexuals but not to have committed any homosexual acts now received undesirable discharges . By the 1970s , a service member who had not committed any homosexual acts would tend to receive a general discharge , while those found to have engaged in homosexual sex tended to receive undesirable discharges . Gay service members continued to receive a disproportionate percentage of the undesirable discharges issued . This was the status quo until replaced in 1993 by the policy commonly known as " don 't ask , don 't tell " .
It has been suggested that the large gay populations in port cities like San Francisco , Chicago and New York City are in part the result of the blue discharge . The theory asserts that many gay blue @-@ ticket veterans from smaller urban or rural areas who felt they were unable to return to their home communities because of the shame associated with their discharges relocated to larger areas with established gay subcultures or simply stayed in the city through which they were returned to the United States .
= Russian battleship Chesma ( 1886 ) =
Chesma ( Russian : Чесма , sometimes transliterated as Tchesma ) was the second ship of the Ekaterina II @-@ class battleships built for the Imperial Russian Navy in the 1880s . When the ship was completed she proved to be very overweight which meant that much of her waterline armor belt was submerged . Russian companies could not produce the most advanced armour and machinery desired by the Naval General Staff , so they were imported from the United Kingdom and Belgium . Chesma spent her career as part of the Black Sea Fleet .
When the crew of the battleship Potemkin mutinied in June 1905 , the ship 's crew was considered unreliable and she did not participate in the pursuit of the Potemkin . Chesma did , however , escort Potemkin as Sinop towed her back to Sevastopol from Constanța , Romania , where Potemkin had sought asylum . Chesma was turned over to the Sevastopol port authorities before being stricken on 14 August 1907 . Before she was fully dismantled the Naval Ministry decided to use her hull for full @-@ scale armour trials . She was re @-@ designated as Stricken Vessel Nr. 4 on 22 April 1912 before being used as a gunnery target . Afterwards the ship served as a torpedo target for the destroyers of the Black Sea Fleet . During these attacks Chesma settled to the bottom of the Bay of Tendra and was eventually scrapped during the mid @-@ 1920s .
= = Design and description = =
Chesma was 331 feet 8 @.@ 5 inches ( 101 @.@ 1 m ) long at the waterline and 339 feet 3 inches ( 103 @.@ 4 m ) long overall . She had a beam of 68 feet 11 inches ( 21 @.@ 0 m ) and a draft of 28 feet 10 inches ( 8 @.@ 8 m ) more than 28 inches ( 710 mm ) than designed . She displaced 11 @,@ 396 long tons ( 11 @,@ 579 t ) at load , over 1 @,@ 200 long tons ( 1 @,@ 200 t ) more than her designed displacement of 10 @,@ 181 long tons ( 10 @,@ 344 t ) .
Chesma had two 3 @-@ cylinder vertical compound steam engines imported from the Belgian Cockerill company . Fourteen cylindrical boilers , also imported from Cockerill , provided steam to the engines . The engines had a total designed output of 9 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 6 @,@ 700 kW ) , but they produced 9 @,@ 059 ihp ( 6 @,@ 755 kW ) on trials and gave a top speed of almost 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) . At full load she carried 900 long tons ( 910 t ) of coal that provided her a range of 2 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 200 km ; 3 @,@ 200 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) and 1 @,@ 367 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 532 km ; 1 @,@ 573 mi ) at 14 @.@ 5 knots ( 26 @.@ 9 km / h ; 16 @.@ 7 mph ) .
She differed from her sister ships mainly in her main armament . She had six 12 in ( 305 mm ) Model 1886 35 @-@ caliber guns mounted in twin barbette mounts , two forward , side by side , and one aft . Each of the forward mounts could traverse 30 ° across the bow and 35 ° abaft the beam , or a total of 155 ° . The rear mount could traverse 202 ° . They had a range of elevation from − 2 ° to + 15 ° . Chesma 's guns were mounted on unbalanced turntables and they caused her to list when the guns were trained to one side . Traversing all the guns as far as they could go to one side produced a list of 7 @.@ 6 ° and made it very difficult for the turntable machinery to rotate the guns back to the fore @-@ and @-@ aft position . This problem had been anticipated and water tanks had been added to counteract the list , but they proved to be virtually useless because they took up to two hours to fill . The problem was partially cured in 1892 when the equipment was rearranged on the turntable to improve their balance , but more thorough solutions to the problem were either deemed too expensive or inadequate . Their rate of fire was reportedly one round every fifteen to seventeen minutes , including training time . Sixty rounds per gun were carried . The main guns were mounted very low , ( only 4 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 37 m ) ) above the main deck , and caused extensive damage to the deck when fired over the bow or stern . They fired a ' light ' shell that weighed 731 @.@ 3 lb ( 331 @.@ 7 kg ) or a ' heavy ' shell that weighed 1 @,@ 003 lb ( 455 kg ) . The ' light ' shell had a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 090 ft / s ( 640 m / s ) while the ' heavy ' shell could only be propelled at a velocity of 2 @,@ 000 ft / s ( 610 m / s ) . The ' light ' shell had a maximum range of 11 @,@ 600 yards ( 10 @,@ 600 m ) when fired at an elevation of 15 ° .
The seven 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) Obukhov Model 1877 35 @-@ caliber guns were mounted on broadside pivot mounts in hull embrasures , except for one gun mounted in the stern in the hull . The eight 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) five @-@ barreled revolving Hotchkiss guns were mounted in small embrasures in the hull to defend the ship against torpedo boats . Four 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) five @-@ barreled revolving Hotchkiss guns were mounted in the fighting top . She carried seven above @-@ water 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) torpedo tubes , one tube forward on each side , able to bear on forward targets , two other tubes were mounted on each broadside forward and aft of the central citadel ; the seventh tube was in the stern .
= = History = =
Chesma was named after the Russian victory at the Battle of Chesma in 1770 . She was built by the Russian Steam Navigation Company ( RoPIT ) at Sevastopol . She was laid down in late June 1883 , launched on 18 May 1886 , and completed on 29 May 1889 . She served with the Black Sea Fleet until 1907 . She was inactive in 1895 , probably for mechanical problems . Chesma conducted trials in 1902 with towing spherical observation balloons and she was re @-@ boilered the following year . Plans were made for a radical reconstruction to be done while her boilers were being replaced . The rebuilding involved cutting her down by one deck and replacing her armament with two twin @-@ gun turrets equipped with 12 @-@ inch 40 @-@ caliber guns and ten 6 @-@ inch 45 @-@ caliber guns between the turrets in an armoured citadel that used Krupp armor . This proved to be too expensive and it was cancelled , but not before the armor and turrets had been ordered . Her turrets were used to equip the pre @-@ dreadnought Ioann Zlatoust , then under construction .
When the crew of the battleship Potemkin mutinied in June 1905 , Chesma 's crew was considered unreliable , and she did not participate in the pursuit of Potemkin . She escorted Potemkin as Sinop towed her back to Sevastopol from Constanța , Romania , where Potemkin had sought asylum .
The ship was turned over to the Sevastopol port authorities before being stricken on 14 August 1907 . Before she was fully dismantled the Naval Ministry decided to use her hull for full @-@ scale armour trials . She was re @-@ designated as Stricken Vessel Nr. 4 on 22 April 1912 . Chesma was fitted with a replica of the armour system used in the Gangut @-@ class battleships to test its effectiveness . She was towed into position and given a 7 ° list to simulate the descent angle of shells fired at long range . Ironically her own guns were used against her as Ioann Zlatoust anchored 750 meters ( 2 @,@ 460 ft ) away and fired 12 @-@ inch , 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) and 6 @-@ inch shells with reduced charges to simulate shells fired from approximately 16 @,@ 000 – 18 @,@ 000 yards ( 15 @,@ 000 – 16 @,@ 000 m ) away . These revealed significant weaknesses in the support structure for the armour plates and in the deck protection , but the Gangut @-@ class ships were too far along in construction to incorporate fixes . Afterwards she served as a torpedo target for the destroyers of the Black Sea Fleet . During these attacks she settled to the bottom of the Bay of Tendra and was eventually scrapped during the mid @-@ 1920s .
= Lester Brain =
Lester Joseph Brain , AO , AFC ( 27 February 1903 – 30 June 1980 ) was a pioneer Australian aviator and airline executive . Born in New South Wales , he trained with the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) before joining Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Services ( Qantas ) as a pilot in 1924 . He was awarded the Air Force Cross in 1929 , after locating the lost aircraft Kookaburra in northern Australia . Having risen to Chief Pilot at Qantas by 1930 , he was appointed Flying Operations Manager in 1938 . As a member of the RAAF reserve , Brain coordinated his airline 's support for the Australian military during World War II . He earned a King 's Commendation for his rescue efforts during an air raid on Broome , Western Australia , in 1942 , and was promoted to wing commander in 1944 .
Seeing little prospect for advancement at Qantas once the war had ended , Brain left to join the fledgling government @-@ owned domestic carrier Trans Australia Airlines ( TAA ) in June 1946 . Appointed its first General Manager , he swiftly built up the organisation to the stage where it could commence scheduled operations later in the year . By the time he resigned in March 1955 , TAA was firmly established as one half of the Commonwealth government 's two @-@ airline system . After his departure from TAA , Brain became Managing Director of de Havilland Aircraft in Sydney , before joining the board of East @-@ West Airlines as a consultant in January 1961 . Appointed an Officer of the Order of Australia in January 1979 , Lester Brain died in June the following year , at the age of seventy @-@ seven .
= = Pre @-@ war career = =
= = = Early life = = =
Born in Forbes , New South Wales , on 27 February 1903 , Lester Brain was the second son of an English mining engineer and manager , Austin Brain , and his Australian wife , Katie . Originally from Gloucestershire , Austin had emigrated with his parents and siblings in 1885 , prospecting for gold in the United States before settling in Australia . By the age of thirteen , Lester owned his own motorcycle bought secondhand for £ 11 ; its poor condition and constant need for repair helped him become mechanically adept at an early age . He completed his education at Sydney Grammar School , where he excelled in maths , before being employed by the Commercial Banking Company of Sydney ( CBC ) in 1919 .
Brain 's penchant for motorbikes and things mechanical inspired a lift driver at CBC to suggest he apply for pilot training in the recently formed Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . He was among five civilian students nominated by the Civil Aviation Branch ( CAB ) of the Defence Department for entry into the inaugural RAAF flying training course , which commenced at Point Cook , Victoria in January 1923 . The benefit of these nominations from a military perspective was that although the destiny of the CAB @-@ sponsored students was to be civil aviators , they would also be members of the RAAF reserve , known as the Citizen Air Force ( CAF ) , and could therefore be called up for active service as and when necessary . Brain 's fellow attendees included Royal Australian Navy lieutenants Joe Hewitt and Ellis Wackett , and Australian Army lieutenant Frank Bladin , all of whom were seconded — and later permanently transferred — to the RAAF .
= = = Qantas = = =
Brain graduated at the top of his class after the year @-@ long training course at Point Cook , and was duly commissioned in the CAF . Moving to Queensland in April 1924 , he took up employment as a pilot with Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Services ( Qantas ) , its first aviator without a war record . On 7 February 1925 , he flew the first scheduled passenger service from Cloncurry to Camooweal , extending the airline 's founding 580 @-@ mile ( 930 km ) route — from Charleville to Cloncurry — by 284 miles ( 457 km ) . The following year , he completed a refresher course at Central Flying School , Point Cook . On a rain @-@ soaked McKinlay airfield near Cloncurry on 27 February 1927 , he flipped Qantas ' first de Havilland DH.50 on to its back while attempting take @-@ off , though he managed to escape without injury . Qantas founder Hudson Fysh berated him for a " serious error of judgement " , but noted his excellent three @-@ year record as a pilot ; the aircraft was soon repaired and operational again . The next month , Brain became Chief Instructor at the Qantas Flying School in Brisbane , doubling as manager of the airline 's local office . By mid @-@ 1928 , he had overworked himself to the extent that he was ordered to take respite by Fysh ; this " respite " nevertheless involved a 13 @-@ week trip to England to study aviation developments .
In April 1929 , Brain was selected to take part in a search for lost aviators in northern Australia , having gained experience of the area while flying over the Tanami Desert to assist a gold prospecting expedition some years earlier . On 20 April , he took Qantas DH.50 Atalanta from Brisbane to link up with RAAF Airco DH.9s under the command of Flight Lieutenant Charles Eaton at Tennant Creek , to look for Keith Anderson and Robert Hitchcock in their Westland Widgeon the Kookaburra . The pair had disappeared while searching for Charles Kingsford Smith and Charles Ulm , who had been reported missing on a record attempt from Sydney to England in the Southern Cross . Brain located the Kookaburra the next day in the Tanami Desert , approximately 130 kilometres ( 81 mi ) east @-@ south @-@ east of Wave Hill . He saw one body underneath the wing , but the terrain was too dangerous to attempt a landing . After Brain reported the Kookaburra 's position to Eaton , the latter led an overland expedition to the site and buried the bodies of Anderson and Hitchcock , who had evidently survived crash @-@ landing their plane before succumbing to heat and thirst . His discovery of the Kookaburra and , shortly thereafter , of two lost British aviators in Arnhem Land , earned Brain the Air Force Cross ; the award was gazetted on 31 May :
The KING has been graciously pleased to approve of the award of the Air Force Cross to Mr. Leslie Joseph Brain , in recognition of the distinguished services rendered to aviation by his recent flights in the northern territory of Australia in search of missing aviators .
The Gazette later corrected " Leslie " to " Lester " . With the Kookaburra saga making news across the country , Brain had become a national hero , and Fysh declared that the publicity for both pilot and airline " could probably not have been bought for any money " .
By 1930 , Brain had been appointed Qantas ' Chief Pilot . In June that year , he was given responsibility for sales and special flights such as demonstrations and agency tours at the airline 's new Brisbane headquarters , and also acted as a reserve pilot . He married Constance ( Consie ) Brownhill at Holy Innocents Catholic Church in Croydon , New South Wales , on 8 July ; the couple had two sons and two daughters . Brain played a leading role in Qantas ' operations as it expanded its mail and passenger routes throughout Australia and , as Qantas Empire Airways ( QEA ) from January 1934 , other parts of the world . In October that year , he went to Britain to take delivery of QEA 's first de Havilland DH.86 , the fastest four @-@ engined airliner in the world at the time . He was now Flight Superintendent and , having accumulated 6 @,@ 694 hours in the air , began to evince a keener interest in the " administration and executive side of aviation " . Promoted to flying officer in the CAF on 1 March 1935 , over the next year he discussed with the Controller @-@ General of Civil Aviation , Edgar Johnston , taking a cut in salary to work in Johnston 's department , or possibly becoming Deputy Controller @-@ General . No more came of this at the time , and by 1938 Brain had been appointed Flying Operations Manager at QEA . In 1939 , he was considered for the position of Director @-@ General of Civil Aviation ( which had recently succeeded the post of Controller @-@ General ) but the role went to A. B. Corbett .
= = World War II = =
Following the outbreak of World War II , Brain was given the task of coordinating Qantas ' support for the Australian military , which became known as the Qantas Merchant Air Service . On 23 February 1940 , Fysh noted that since its formation in 1934 , QEA had logged six million miles in flying boats and landplanes without suffering any injuries to passengers or crew . He called it " a record which has never been equalled in any part of the world ... It reflects the highest credit on Captain Brain , who has been in charge of flying operations during this time . " In 1941 , Brain took charge of ferrying eighteen PBY Catalinas from the United States to Australia on behalf of the RAAF , which had purchased the aircraft . US neutrality made it prudent for a civilian organisation — that was also experienced in long @-@ range flying boat operations — to undertake the task . Brain and his crew departed San Diego , California , on 25 January to make the first flight , having surveyed their intended route on the journey out from Australia . Travelling via Honolulu , Canton Island and Nouméa , they arrived at their destination after one week , including sixty hours flying time ; it was only the third such direct flight to Australia across the Pacific Ocean .
By February 1942 , Brain was running the Qantas base at Broome in north Western Australia , which had assumed major importance as a way station for evacuees from the Dutch East Indies , possessing a harbour suitable for flying boats , as well as an airfield that could take heavy bombers . The increasing Royal Netherlands Air Force , RAAF and Qantas traffic through the base led Brain to anticipate an attack by Japanese forces , and this occurred on 3 March , when nine A6M Zero fighters strafed the harbour with cannon . Twenty @-@ four aircraft were destroyed , and an estimated seventy people were killed . Brain , though suffering from fever , rowed into the harbour with another airline representative and rescued ten people from the water . After the all @-@ clear sounded , he ordered an undamaged Qantas flying boat to Port Hedland , in case of further attacks ; he also took part in the search for survivors of a Consolidated B @-@ 24 Liberator that had been shot down by the raiders . His rescue efforts were recognised with a King 's Commendation for " brave conduct at Civil Aerodromes " , promulgated in the Commonwealth of Australia Gazette on 17 June 1943 . The following year , he was promoted to temporary wing commander in the CAF .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
= = = Trans Australia Airlines = = =
After the war , Brain was appointed Qantas ' Assistant General Manager . Fysh was still in his early fifties and appeared unlikely to retire any time soon . Seeing little chance of further advancement where he was , Brain took the opportunity to apply for the position of Operations Manager
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at Trans Australia Airlines ( TAA ) , a new domestic carrier established by the Federal Labor government and run by the Australian National Airlines Commission ( ACAC ) , which was chaired by Arthur Coles . Qantas could not match the £ 2 @,@ 250 salary associated with the TAA role , and Brain advised Fysh of his resignation on 10 April 1946 . In the event , ACAC appointed him TAA 's General Manager on 3 June , with a £ 3 @,@ 000 salary and an undertaking to increase this to as much as £ 5 @,@ 000 in the future .
Brain moved quickly to secure executive , flying , training and maintenance staff from Qantas , Ansett and the RAAF , as well as surplus Douglas DC @-@ 3 twin @-@ engined transports from the RAAF and TAA 's chief private competitor , Australian National Airways ( ANA ) . He planned to have the first scheduled flights operating by October , around the same time as delivery of four DC @-@ 4 Skymaster four @-@ engined liners that would augment the DC @-@ 3 fleet , giving the airline a significant edge over ANA . In the event , TAA 's first flight , from Melbourne to Sydney , took place on 9 September under pressure from the government , keen to ensure favourable publicity for its new enterprise before the Federal election at the end of the month . Brain nevertheless instructed his pilots that " schedules are important , but safety is most important " ; it became one of TAA 's early advertising slogans . In October , he wrote to the Department of Civil Aviation to express his disquiet at the rapidly increasing list of government members who were to be given preferential treatment when required at the expense of members of the public , in effect arguing with his owner — the government — on behalf of everyday travellers .
On 1 July 1947 , Brain was discharged from the CAF with the rank of wing commander . By August 1949 , TAA had carried its millionth passenger . Though praised for contributing to increased civil traffic in Australia , the airline was losing money , generating criticism in media and political circles that it was an inefficient organisation propped up by ordinary taxpayers . Brain maintained that its negative financial performance in its early years was a necessary by @-@ product of rapid expansion to establish itself as a significant force in the market . In June 1950 , he was able to report its first profit . This , plus popular opinion in TAA 's favour , helped ensure the airline 's survival as a public enterprise in the wake of the Labor government 's loss to Robert Menzies ' conservative Liberal Party in the Federal election the previous year , though Coles was replaced as Chairman of ACAC by Norman Watt . By 1951 , the new government had enacted as policy a two @-@ airline system that enshrined competition between the Commonwealth @-@ sponsored domestic operator and one major privately owned carrier .
= = = Later life and legacy = = =
Brain tendered his resignation from TAA on 3 February 1955 — effective 17 March — to become Managing Director of de Havilland Aircraft in Sydney ( later Hawker de Havilland , part of Boeing Australia ) . While his departure came as a surprise to ACAC , Brain had for some time felt shackled by having to run TAA on a commercial basis under the control of a government bureaucracy , and on a public servant 's remuneration . His anticipated salary increases had been less than he expected under the terms of his employment ; Watt 's attempts to make good on them had been resisted by Federal Cabinet . The government yet feared that , once he had resigned , Brain might attempt to sue for back pay , though he assured Watt that this was not his intention . Nevertheless , in November he received a Cabinet @-@ approved ex gratia payment totalling £ 6 @,@ 250 , in recognition of his " long and distinguished service to civil aviation in Australia " .
During Brain 's tenure at de Havilland , the company manufactured sixty @-@ nine Vampire T35 jet trainers at its Bankstown factory for delivery to the RAAF , as well as Sea Venoms for the RAN . Leaving de Havilland upon its merger with Hawker Siddeley in 1960 , he gave up full @-@ time work and joined the board of East @-@ West Airlines as a consultant in January 1961 . In August 1964 , he began negotiations with the Federal government on behalf of International Parcels Express Company ( now Toll IPEC ) , which was attempting to enter the air freight business in Australia with the purchase of five DC @-@ 4 Skymasters ; the government rejected the proposal later that year . Along with Arthur Coles , Brain was a guest at the opening of TAA 's new headquarters at Franklin Street , Melbourne in November 1965 . In 1978 , he met with adventurer Dick Smith , who was about to launch an expedition to recover the Kookaburra from the Tanami Desert . Smith was keen to get directions from the man who had found the missing plane in 1929 , in spite of receiving advice against taking the word of someone from the " cap and goggles " era . He rediscovered the Kookaburra in August that year " exactly where Lester Brain had said ... Lester was completely chuffed when I got back and told him I 'd found the Kookaburra thanks to his directions and how thankful I was that , despite everyone else 's suggestions , I 'd taken Lester 's advice . "
Brain had declined the offer of a knighthood in the late 1960s , but accepted appointment as an Officer of the Order of Australia on 26 January 1979 . When asked towards the end of his life why he had achieved so much but was not as well known as other aviation pioneers , he replied " Because I was always very careful and didn 't kill myself " . Having suffered from cancer for several years , Brain died in Sydney on 30 June 1980 . He was survived by his wife and children , and cremated . In November 2008 , Qantas announced that one of its new Airbus A380s would be named Lester Brain .
= Mississippi Highway 604 =
Mississippi Highway 604 ( MS 604 ) is a 5 @.@ 071 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 8 @.@ 161 km ) state highway on the Mississippi Gulf Coast . Its southern terminus is at U.S. Route 90 ( US 90 ) . MS 604 travels northward through Pearlington to its northern terminus at MS 607 . The route was designated in 1950 , after US 90 was realigned off of it in 1939 onto a new road built in 1936 .
= = Route description = =
All of the undivided , two @-@ laned route is located in western Hancock County . MS 604 starts at US 90 south of Pearlington and travels north . The road goes through a small forest , before turning northwest and entering Pearlington . MS 604 goes through the center of Pearlington , and turns north at Levee Street . The route soon travels northeast as it leaves Pearlington . MS 604 enters into larger forests for around three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) . About 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) south of MS 607 , MS 604 travels northward . The road soon ends at MS 607 at a T @-@ intersection .
In 2013 , Mississippi Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) calculated as many as 1 @,@ 000 vehicles traveling north of Birch Drive , and as few as 840 vehicles traveling south of MS 607 . MS 604 is not included as a part of the National Highway System ( NHS ) , a network of highways identified as being most important for the economy , mobility and defense of the nation . MS 604 is legally defined in Mississippi Code § 65 @-@ 3 @-@ 3 . MS 604 is maintained by the Mississippi Department of Transportation . The route is part of the Westonia Senic Byway to Space , which starts at MS 607 , travels on MS 604 , and ends at Stennis Space Center 's buffer zone near Pearlington .
= = History = =
Since 1928 , US 90 was routed through Santa Rosa , and concurrent with US 11 before crossing into Louisiana . In 1936 , a new , paved road was built from US 90 to south of Slidell , bypassing the town . Three years later , US 90 was realigned south on this new road . This caused the southern terminus to be US 90 , and the northern terminus at an unsigned highway , which would become MS 11 @-@ 90 a year later . In 1948 , the route was renumbered to MS 43 , and by 1950 , the former alignment of US 90 bypassed in 1936 became signed as MS 604 . In 1967 , MS 43 was rerouted to its east , and the old alignment became MS 607 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Hancock County .
= Tim McKee =
Alexander Timothy McKee ( born March 14 , 1953 ) is an American former competition swimmer and three @-@ time Olympic silver medalist . He was a successful medley and backstroke swimmer , and is often remembered for being a part of the closest Olympic swimming finish in history and the resulting rule changes regarding the timing of international swimming events . McKee is a Pennsylvania native who was raised in a family of swimmers , and had notable successes as a collegiate swimmer at the University of Florida .
= = Early years = =
McKee was born in Ardmore , Pennsylvania . He was the fourth of nine children in his family ; his father Alexander " Big Al " McKee was a former All @-@ American for Ohio State University 's Buckeye swimming and diving team in the late 1930s . While McKee was a child , his parents moved the family to Newtown Square , Pennsylvania , so that he and his siblings could walk through a path in their backyard to the Suburban Swim Club to practice , where his father served as coach from 1962 to 1968 . Three of his brothers and two of sisters achieved some measure of national or international recognition as competition swimmers . McKee graduated from Malvern Preparatory School in Malvern , Pennsylvania in 1971 .
= = College swimming career = =
After high school , McKee accepted an athletic scholarship to attend the University of Florida in Gainesville , Florida , where he swam for coach Bill Harlan 's Florida Gators swimming and diving team in National Collegiate Athletics Association ( NCAA ) and Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) competition from 1972 to 1974 . He followed his older brother Mark to Gainesville , where Mark McKee was an All @-@ American swimmer for the Florida Gators from 1969 to 1971 . As a freshman in 1972 , he finish fourth in the 200 @-@ yard backstroke , and fifth in the 400 @-@ yard individual medley , as the Florida Gators finished seventh overall at the NCAA men 's swimming championships . In his three years as a Gator swimmer , McKee was recognized as the SEC Swimmer of the Year in 1972 , won six SEC individual titles , and received four All @-@ American honors .
= = International swimming career = =
After graduating from high school , McKee was chosen as a member of the U.S. national swim team for the 1971 Pan American Games in Cali , Colombia . He finished second in the men 's 200 @-@ meter backstroke with a time of 2 : 07 @.@ 9 , earning his first silver medal in international competition .
Following his freshman college season , McKee qualified for the 1972 U.S. Olympic team despite recovering from a bout of mononucleosis . At the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich , Germany , he represented the United States in three different events . Most memorably , McKee won a silver medal in the men 's 400 @-@ meter individual medley in the closest swimming decision in Olympic history , losing by a margin of two one @-@ thousandths ( 0 @.@ 002 ) of a second to Sweden 's Gunnar Larsson . Initially , the scoreboard showed that Larsson and McKee had tied with an official time of 4 : 31 @.@ 98 , but in a controversial decision , the event judges named Larsson the eventual gold medal @-@ winner ten minutes after the race was over — Larsson 's electronic clock time was 4 : 31 @.@ 981 , McKee 's 4 : 31 @.@ 983 . The time difference was variously calculated as one @-@ tenth of the time of a typical blink of a human eye , and the distance as the thickness of a coat of paint , a sheet of paper , or the minor imperfections in the individual lanes of the Olympic pool . As a result of the controversy , the international swimming federation , FINA , subsequently clarified the timing rules for competition swimming ; international races are now required to be timed to the hundredth of a second , and timing to the thousandth of a second is prohibited for tie @-@ breakers . It was the first and only Olympic swimming event ever decided on the basis of thousandths of a second . Afterward , McKee attributed his second @-@ place finish to a tactical mistake : he looked over his shoulder to see where Larsson was in the final leg of the race .
At the 1972 Olympics , McKee garnered a second silver medal in the men 's 200 @-@ meter individual medley ( 2 : 08 @.@ 37 ) , again finishing behind gold medalist Larsson , who set a new world record in the event ( 2 : 07 @.@ 17 ) . He also placed fifth in the final of the men 's 200 @-@ meter backstroke ( 2 : 07 @.@ 29 ) .
After his junior year at the University of Florida , McKee left the Gators swim team to train full @-@ time for the 1976 Olympics . The 23 @-@ year @-@ old McKee again qualified for the U.S. team in the 400 @-@ meter individual medley at the 1976 U.S. Olympic Trials . At the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal , he repeated his second @-@ place performance in the men 's 400 @-@ meter individual medley event , finishing behind gold medalist and fellow American Rod Strachan . The times of both Strachan ( 4 : 23 @.@ 68 ) and McKee ( 4 : 24 @.@ 62 ) broke the prior world record in the event final , with Strachan setting the new mark .
During the course of his career , McKee set six American records ( short course 200- and 400 @-@ yard individual medley , 400 @-@ yard medley relay ; long course 100- and 220 @-@ yard backstroke , 200 @-@ yard individual medley ) .
= = Life after competition swimming = =
McKee was inducted into the University of Florida Athletic Hall of Fame as a " Gator Great " in 1987 , and the International Swimming Hall of Fame as an " Honor Swimmer " in 1998 . He is a veteran celebrity swimmer for Swim Across America ( SAA ) , a charitable organization that raises funds for cancer research , and has participated in sixteen SAA events . He has worked in Miami Beach , Florida as a life guard and public safety officer for over 20 years , has also worked in real estate , and has helped train other Olympic swimmers including Nancy Hogshead . McKee married his wife Courtney , a former competition swimmer , in 1998 .
= The Trouble with Trillions =
" The Trouble with Trillions " is the twentieth episode in the ninth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on April 5 , 1998 . It was written by Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham and directed by Swinton O. Scott III . The episode sees Homer being sent by the Federal Bureau of Investigation to try to obtain a trillion dollar bill that Mr. Burns failed to deliver to Europe during the post @-@ war era .
= = Plot = =
All of Springfield is rushing to send out their tax returns just before midnight on April 15 . Homer realizes he did not file his tax return . He rushes and provides false information before driving to the post office . The IRS discovers Homer 's fraud and he is arrested . Held by the government , Homer says he will do anything to stay out of prison . Agent Johnson of the FBI decides that Homer can be useful . With a hidden microphone under his shirt , Homer uncovers that his coworker Charlie leads a group planning to assault all government officials , but is arrested by the FBI for conspiracy .
With his superiors impressed , Johnson sends Homer on a secret mission . They reveal that in 1945 , President Harry S. Truman printed a one trillion @-@ dollar bill to help reconstruct post @-@ war Europe . He handed the bill over to Montgomery Burns to transport to the Europeans . However , the money never arrived and the FBI suspects Burns still has the money with him . Homer is sent in to investigate . Arriving at the Burns estate , Homer searches for the money before Burns , who believes Homer is a reporter from Collier 's magazine , reveals that he kept the money on his person . Johnson and Agent Miller burst in and arrest Burns . Burns shouts how the government oppresses the average American . Moved by Burns 's speech , Homer knocks out the FBI agents and frees Burns .
The two men hurry to obtain Smithers for help , who suggests they leave the country . Burns takes Smithers and Homer in his old plane , setting off to find an island and start a new country . Over the Caribbean , Burns finds a fine island , although it already has a name and is in fact the country , Cuba . Going before Fidel Castro , Burns fails to buy the island when Fidel asks to see the trillion @-@ dollar bill , and is handed the bill . He refuses to give it back . The episode immediately cuts to a scene where Burns , Smithers , and Homer are on a makeshift raft . Burns announces he will merely bribe the jury when he , Smithers and Homer are put on trial .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham , though the original draft of the plot was much different . Originally , Homer was to learn that he was a Native American , and would try to exploit it to not have to pay taxes . The idea had been going well for a few days , but the staff did not actually know whether Native Americans had to pay taxes . When the writers found out that they did , the whole plot had to be scrapped . Executive producer Mike Scully 's brother Brian pitched the idea of the trillion @-@ dollar bill , which they accepted , as they were out of ideas .
= = Cultural references = =
The scene where the FBI agent sits near Homer is a reference to the film JFK . While Homer , Mr. Burns , and Smithers are in Cuba , a billboard can be seen with a picture of Che Guevara being used to advertise Duff Beer .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " The Trouble with Trillions " finished 51st in ratings for the week of March 30 – April 5 , 1998 , with a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 5 , equivalent to approximately 7 @.@ 4 million viewing households . It was the third highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following World 's Wildest Police Videos and Melrose Place .
Since airing , the episode has received mixed reviews from television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , did not enjoy the episode , calling it , " Rather dull and unfunny " , adding , " A mediocre episode at best that makes Burns out to be altruistic ( which he 's not ) and very stupid in letting Castro have his money ( which he so wouldn 't ) . " The Daily Telegraph characterized the episode as one of " The 10 Best Simpsons TV Episodes " . The article noted the episode contained " one of the few gags in comedy history about relying too heavily on surveillance photography in spying " .
Ian Jones and Steve Williams for Off the Telly criticized all of season 9 for lacking an episode that centered on Burns , as they consider Burns to be the crux of many good episodes , though they noted that " The Trouble with Trillions " came the closest , with Burns having a supporting role . In a review of The Simpsons ' ninth season , Isaac Mitchell @-@ Frey of the Herald Sun described the episode as " brilliant " , and highlighted it along with episodes " Bart Carny " and " The Joy of Sect " .
In the United Kingdom , the episode was screened on BBC Two in January 1999 , before any other episode from season six or later were seen by viewers , as part of a night of Cuba @-@ themed programming .
= Lympne Airport =
Lympne Airport / ˈlɪm / , was a military and later civil airfield ( IATA : LYM , ICAO : EGMK ) , at Lympne , Kent , United Kingdom , which operated from 1916 to 1984 . During the First World War RFC Lympne was originally an acceptance point for aircraft being delivered to , and returning from , France but was later designated as a First Class Landing Ground , RAF Lympne . It became a civil airfield in 1919 and saw the operation of early air mail services after the 1918 armistice . It was one of the first four airfields in the United Kingdom with customs facilities .
Lympne was also involved in the evolution of air traffic control , with facilities developing and improving during the 1920s and 1930s . A number of record @-@ breaking flights originated or ended at Lympne . During the 1920s Lympne was the venue for the Lympne light aircraft trials from which a number of aircraft types entered production . Air racing was also held at Lympne .
Just before the Second World War , Lympne was requisitioned by the Fleet Air Arm . It was named HMS Buzzard and n renamed HMS Daedalus II three months later , before being transferred to the Royal Air Force in May 1940 . During the war Lympne was a front @-@ line fighter base , RAF Lympne . It was heavily bombed during the Battle of Britain in 1940 and put out of action for a number of weeks . It was too close to the coast to be used as a squadron base , but squadrons were detached there on a day @-@ to @-@ day basis . Lympne was also to have been the landing place for a German aircraft used in a plot to kidnap Adolf Hitler , with preparations made by the Royal Air Force for his arrival .
Lympne returned to civilian use on 1 January 1946 . In 1948 , the first air ferry service was inaugurated at Lympne by Silver City Airways . Problems with waterlogging of the grass runway and the refusal of the Ministry of Transport and Civil Aviation to upgrade the airfield led to Silver City transferring operations to Lydd ( Ferryfield ) in 1954 . By 1956 , the airport 's ownership had passed to Eric Rylands Ltd , the Skyways holding company . Skyways operated a coach @-@ air service between London and Paris , flying passengers from Lympne to Beauvais . This service operated until 1974 ( 1955 – 1958 : the original Skyways ; 1958 – 1971 : Skyways Coach @-@ Air ; 1971 – 1972 : Skyways International ; 1972 – 1974 : Dan @-@ Air Skyways ) . Following the cessation of commercial operations in October 1974 , Lympne continued to be used as a General Aviation airfield until about 1984 . The site is now an industrial estate .
= = History = =
= = = Establishment = = =
Work began on creating a landing ground at Folks Wood , Lympne , in the autumn of 1915 . This site soon proved unsuitable and another site was sought . Lympne was established in March 1916 as an Emergency Landing Ground for the Royal Flying Corps ( RFC ) home defence fighters defending London against Zeppelins and Gothas . No. 1 Advanced School of Air Gunnery operated from Lympne during January and February 1917 . In January 1917 it was designated as No. 8 Aircraft Acceptance Park for delivery of aircraft to , and reception from , France . On 25 May 1917 Lympne was bombed by Gotha G.IV bombers of Kagohl 3 who dropped 19 bombs on the airfield .
In 1918 , Lympne was designated a First Class Landing Ground and the Day and Night Bombing Observation School was formed here in May . The RFC and the Royal Naval Air Service ( RNAS ) were merged to form the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) in April 1918 . From 17 July 1919 , No. 120 Squadron RAF flew air mail services between Lympne and Cologne , Germany , using de Havilland DH.9 aircraft fitted with Beardmore Halford Pullinger engines . This service ended on 1 September 1919 when 120 squadron moved to RAF Hawkinge . Hawkinge and Lympne lay within a few miles of each other and as the Air Ministry could not justify keeping the two bases open following the end of the war , they decided to retain Hawkinge . In August 1919 the RAF moved out of Lympne and it was turned over to civilian use , although 120 Squadron did not depart until 21 October .
= = = Civil operations = = =
= = = = 1919 – 29 = = = =
In May 1919 , Lympne was one of the first four customs and excise " Appointed Aerodromes " in the United Kingdom ; along with Hadleigh in Suffolk , Hounslow Heath in Middlesex and New Holland in Lincolnshire . Although Lympne had a customs clearance point there was no permanent customs officer there ; a telephone call to Folkestone Harbour was needed to clear customs . On 1 May the ban on civilian flying was lifted and a Sopwith Gnu was flown from Hounslow Heath to Lympne carrying a cargo of newspapers during that first day . In September , Sir Philip Sassoon purchased an Avro aircraft in which he commuted between London and his Lympne residence . In October the Air Ministry announced that searchlights would temporarily be displayed to assist aircraft to find certain airfields . Lympne was to be identified by three searchlights arranged in a triangle , their beams shining vertically . In November a Notice to Airmen was issued advising that radio telephony was in use at Hounslow Heath and Lympne , using the 900 @-@ metre wavelength . The practice of using the aircraft registration as a callsign was instigated . In December 1919 two Westland Limousine aircraft bound for the Paris Aero Show were delayed at Lympne by fog . Conditions later improved so that both aircraft were able to fly to Le Bourget , where G @-@ EAJL was dismantled and transported to the Grand Palais where it was exhibited to the public . The other aircraft remained at Le Bourget where it gave pleasure and demonstration flights .
The North Sea Aerial and General Transport Co. used a Blackburn Kangaroo on its short @-@ lived Leeds @-@ Lympne @-@ Amsterdam service from 6 March 1920 . The customs facilities at New Holland had been withdrawn on 28 January , necessitating the roundabout route . It was estimated that the extra costs involved in taking this route amounted to one @-@ third of the total costs . Flight called for customs facilities to be established to enable direct flights to be made from the north of England to the continent . Starting from 2 August , hourly weather forecasts were broadcast from Lympne and other airfields . A system of ground signals advising pilots of the weather conditions at Biggin Hill and Croydon was also introduced about this time . During August , Aircraft Transport and Travel took over air mail flights , using DH.9A aircraft . In November a Notice to Airmen was released announcing that searchlights would be in use at Lympne for two hours after sunset to assist pilots in landing their aircraft . Arrangements could be made in advance for this facility to be made available after the notified hours . In December , it was announced that an " aerial lighthouse " was to be installed at Lympne as the one installed at Croydon had proved to be of benefit to pilots arriving after dark .
In May 1921 , it was reported that a waiting room for the use of passengers at Lympne was being planned . In June a Notice to Airmen was released saying that , for cost reasons , lights would no longer be exhibited after sunset without prior arrangement . The system of ground signals was amended with effect from 14 July , and in September an " aerial lighthouse " was reported to be under construction . The system of aerial lighthouses on the " London – Paris Airway " was completed in December 1921 .
In January 1922 , a 78 @-@ foot ( 24 m ) high mast for an anemometer was being erected at the south west corner of Lympne Aerodrome . On 13 February , the system of ground signals at Lympne was further extended to include information about the Saint @-@ Inglevert Airfield , just across the English Channel in France . In July , a Notice to Airmen said that all aircraft were to make at least one left @-@ hand circuit before landing at Lympne . By November , the Instone Air Line were operating a service from Croydon to Cologne using de Havilland DH.18 aircraft , stopping at Lympne to refuel to full capacity . These aircraft then had the necessary range to fly direct from Lympne to Cologne . This arrangement did not last long , with the refuelling stop moved to Tirlemont , Belgium , by the end of the month . On 30 December a Dornier aircraft landed at Lympne . It was the first German aircraft to land on British soil since the end of the First World War . A German airline , Aero @-@ Lloyd was in negotiation with Daimler Airway to start a service between London and Berlin .
A Junkers F.13 called at Lympne on 10 January 1923 to clear customs and then flew to Croydon where it was inspected by Secretary of State for Air Sir Samuel Hoare . In February , it was reported that Lympne had taken part in a test of the newly introduced Mayday radio signal used by aircraft to indicate that they were in distress . Georges Barbot won a prize of F.25,000 from Le Matin when he made a flight from St Inglevert to Lympne and back again on the same day , 6 May . He flew the route in a Dewoitine aircraft fitted with a Clerget engine . On landing a bracing wire in the undercarriage of the aircraft broke , but repairs were effected within half an hour . Problems starting the engine then delayed his departure slightly . On 28 October the Light Aircraft Trials were held ( see below ) . In 1923 , Air Union started a service flying newspapers to Lympne using a Farman F.60 Goliath .
From 1 to 31 May 1924 , the Royal Air Force conducted a number of night flying experiments . Pilots were asked to keep an extra lookout whilst the experiments were taking place . On 27 and 28 September , the elimination trials for the Light Aircraft Trials were held . Only eight aircraft passed through to the trials proper . Also in October , it was notified that changes were being made expanding weather information given at Lympne . Amongst the changes were that measurements used were to be changed from imperial to metric . The addition of weather information at Haren , Brussels and Ostend , both in Belgium was notified . In 1924 , Armstrong Whitworth Argosy aircraft were operating cross @-@ channel services for Imperial Airways . Lympne was used by aircraft of Imperial Airways as a refuelling point . The first stop in France was St Inglevert . When an aircraft departed Lympne for St Inglevert , the destination airfield was advised , and if arrival was not notified within two hours , the Coastguard was informed . Communication was by Carmichael Microway UHF transmitters at each airfield . Short Brothers used Lympne for flight testing new aircraft during 1924 .
In January 1925 , notification that red edge lights had been installed along the runways and taxiways at Lympne was made . In July 1925 , a new arrangement was introduced whereby aircraft not fitted with radio , flying across the Channel , could have their departure and arrival reported by radio to the authorities . A circuit of Lympne and St Inglevert had to be flown at a height not exceeding 1 @,@ 000 ft ( 300 m ) on departure for , and arrival from , the continent . Between 1 – 3 August , the Royal Aeronautical Society held a meeting at Lympne . The Grosvenor Challenge Cup , Private Owners ' Cup , Light Aeroplane Holiday Handicap and International Handicap were all competed for . Separate Speed Races were held for single and two @-@ seater aircraft . In August 1925 , the scheme for non @-@ radio aircraft was extended to cover Ostend . One hour was allowed for the crossing to St Inglevert and two hours for the crossing to Ostend , after which the aircraft would be reported as missing . On 25 September , Lympne was one of a number of airfields which began operating a radio direction finding service . As before the 900 @-@ metre wavelength was used .
During the General Strike of 1926 , which ran from 3 – 13 May , the Daily Mail was printed in Paris and flown from there to Lympne on Handley Page W.10 Imperial Airways aircraft . Further aircraft chartered by the Daily Mail then flew the newspapers to Birmingham for onward distribution . A fleet of de Havilland DH.60 Moth , de Havilland DH.9 with some Avro and Westland aircraft were used . The distribution of the newspapers by air was co @-@ ordinated by the Royal Aero Club and a total of 33 @,@ 174 mi ( 53 @,@ 388 km ) was flown by aircraft operating under the Royal Aero Club 's co @-@ ordination . The Royal Auxiliary Air Force ( AuxAF ) had been formed in 1925 . In late August and early September 1926 601 ( County of London ) Squadron AuxAF held its inaugural camp at Lympne . The squadron was equipped with Avro 504 and de Havilland DH.9A aircraft . The Light Aircraft Trials were held between 10 and 14 September .
On 1 January 1927 , new regulations came into effect which meant that aircraft carrying 10 or more passengers would have to carry a radio operator in addition to the pilot . In February it was reported that a Notice to Airmen had been issued stating that aircraft coming from the Continent in conditions of poor visibility in which the radio was not functioning correctly should land at Lympne , where repair facilities were available . In April it was reported that a new wireless station was being built at Lympne and in May it was notified that the night light was again in operation at Lympne . In July , a new system was introduced for civil aircraft flying in bad visibility between Lympne and Croydon . They were not to follow the normal Lympne – Edenbridge – Caterham – Croydon route , but instead follow one of three notified alternate routes . Aircraft were to be notified by radio whenever such conditions were declared to be put into effect , or whenever the weather had improved . This was aimed at preventing mid @-@ air collisions between civil aircraft and those operated by the Royal Air Force . From 7 to 21 August , 600 ( City of London ) Squadron AuxAF and 601 ( County of London ) Squadron AuxAF were both at Lympne on their annual camp . The squadrons were flying Avro 504N and de Havilland DH.9A aircraft . In October , a Notice to Airmen announced that the ground signals at Lympne would be displayed in a different arrangement than previously , standardisation of ground signals worldwide required the change which came into effect on 1 October . In December , a Notice to Airmen informed that in foggy weather the position of Lympne would be indicated by flares fired from the ground , to be seen by aircraft flying in the vicinity . Colour was to be at the discretion of the Civil Air Traffic Officer . The Notice to Airmen was quickly amended to state that the firing of red flares would be reserved to indicate that an aircraft was being instructed not to land at the airfield in question . In 1927 a Fokker F.VII of SABENA flew newspapers to Lympne .
A meeting was held over the Easter weekend in 1928 by the Cinque Ports Flying Club . Pleasure flights were given for a cost of 5 / - . An unverified report stated that one person was dissatisfied with two circuits of the airfield . The pilot is said to have offered to take him up again , which was accepted . On this second flight various aerobatics were flown and the hapless passenger was said to have been left incapable of expressing himself coherently . Among the pilots attending were Geoffrey de Havilland and his son . Other activities included some air racing and a guess the altitude competition . In May a Notice to Airmen said that the scheme for aircraft reporting that they were crossing the Channel was being extended . Lympne was to remain the reporting place on the English side but , in Belgium and France , the Ostend and St Inglevert airfields were joined by semaphore stations at Village de Baracques , Calais and Cap d ’ Alprech , Boulogne . On 17 May , Lady Heath landed at Lympne after crossing the Channel during her 10 @,@ 000 mi ( 16 @,@ 000 km ) flight to Croydon from Cape Town , South Africa . She was flying an Avro Avian III which had been taken out to South Africa by ship . In August , the AuxAF held their annual Air Defence Exercises . Both 600 ( City of London ) and 601 ( County of London ) Squadrons AuxAF were based a Lympne for the duration of the exercise . They were operating Avro 504N and de Havilland DH.9A aircraft . Towards the end of the camp Chancellor of the Exchequer Winston Churchill and Under Secretary of State for Air Sir Philip Sassoon inspected both squadrons and were entertained at a dinner . On 18 September , Juan de la Cierva departed from Lympne in an Autogyro , making the first flight between London and Paris in this type of aircraft and the first flight across the Channel by autogyro in the process . In November , a Handley Page W.10 of Imperial Airways diverted to Lympne in a gale with three passengers suffering from airsickness . Once landed the aircraft was briefly lifted from the ground in a gust whilst ground handling staff were taking it to a hangar . Winds of 82 mph ( 132 km / h ) were recorded .
In January 1929 , a Notice to Airmen said that when visibility was bad any aircraft not fitted with radios were warned against using the Croydon – Edenbridge – Ashford – Lympne route or any of the alternative routes notified in 1927 . Later that month it was notified that the aerial lighthouse had been replaced by a 6 @,@ 000 candlepower neon light which would be visible at a range of 45 mi ( 72 km ) . In July 1929 a plan was proposed where an amphibious aircraft would be based at Lympne for use in search and rescue when aircraft were reported missing over the Channel . On 14 August , the 601 ( County of London ) Squadron AuxAF arrived for their annual camp . In September 1929 arrangements were notified for the abandonment of a Channel crossing by aircraft flying from England to France . In such cases , the aircraft was to perform a second circuit over Lympne which would be acknowledged . It was also notified that a flying boat operated by Compagnie Aérienne Française was to be based at Calais for use in search and rescue work .
= = = = 1930 – 39 = = = =
In February 1930 , a Towle TA @-@ 2 amphibian was a visitor to Lympne . In July 1930 , it was notified that aircraft fitted with radio may report their position by radio when crossing the Channel . For non @-@ radio aircraft the earlier arrangements remained in effect , although some changes were made to the methods of acknowledgement of arrival . Search and rescue arrangements now included motorboats permanently available at Boulogne , Calais , Dover and Dunquerque . Lifeboats were also on standby at the French ports and air patrols were in operation during working hours , operated by Air Union . In August 1930 , the arrangements for non @-@ radio aircraft flying between Croydon and Lympne in bad weather were amended . Pilots had to notify which route they intended to take and the destination airfield was to be notified of this by telephone once the aircraft had departed . That month 601 ( County of London ) Squadron held its annual camp a Lympne .
On 1 August 1931 , the 601 ( County of London ) Squadron AuxAF began its annual camp at Lympne . Croydon Airport took over the responsibility for weather forecasting on air routes from the Air Ministry in October . As part of the changes Biggin Hill , Croydon and Lympne now provided weather information on a 24 @-@ hour basis .
In March 1932 , the arrangements for flying between Lympne and Croydon in poor visibility were altered . If the cloudbase was less than 1 @,@ 000 ft ( 300 m ) above sea level , or the visibility was less than 1 @,@ 000 yd ( 910 m ) , aircraft were prohibited from using the Croydon – Caterham – Penshurst – Lympne route , but were to use either the Croydon – Merstham – Edenbridge or Croydon – Chelsfield – Shoreham – Otford – Wrotham route . Alternatively a rhumb line course could be flown on the Croydon – Chelsfield – Lympne route . Aircraft not fitted with radios had to notify the officer in charge at their departure airport as to which route they intended to take before departure . Royal Air Force aircraft would avoid these routes as far as practicable in conditions of poor visibility . On 25 August the Folkestone Trophy Race was held at Lympne and was won by a Comper Swift . In November , it was reported that new radio equipment was to be installed at Lympne and St Inglevert operating on the 15 @-@ cm waveband at 2 @,@ 000 Megahertz . The new radios were to be used for the announcement of the departure of non @-@ radio aircraft across the Channel . Messages sent by radio were also printed out by a teleprinter , providing a record of the communication . The new equipment was scheduled to come into operation in Spring 1933 .
In 1933 , Imperial Airway 's Armstrong Whitworth Argosy aircraft were replaced by Handley Page H.P.42s. On 7 March 1933 , the system for non @-@ radio aircraft proved effective when a de Havilland DH.60 Moth of British Air Transport failed to arrive at Lympne . The aircraft had ditched in the channel and both occupants were rescued by a steamship bound for Amsterdam , Netherlands . In August , the No. 601 ( County of London ) Squadron again held its annual camp at Lympne . They were visited by the Marquess of Londonderry who was the Secretary of State for Air . The squadron was equipped with Hawker Harts . Later that month the Folkestone Aero Trophy Race was held and was won by Ken Waller in a de Havilland DH.60 Moth . In September , a new system was introduced for broadcasting weather forecasts in various areas and on various air routes , including that between Croydon and Lympne . Navigational warnings would also be broadcast . In October , it was notified that the floodlight at Lympne had been put back into operation and the use of flares was therefore discontinued . In November , a squadron of the Egyptian Army Air Force was based at Lympne for a few weeks whilst they trained on their new Avro 626 aircraft . They departed on 18 November for Egypt . By 1933 , Lympne was well prepared for handling diversions . Passengers who cleared customs were taken by car to Folkestone Central railway station where they boarded trains to London using 1st class tickets . On 2 December , a Fokker F.XX , PH @-@ AIZ Zilvermeeuw of KLM , diverted to Lympne following an engine failure . This was the only diversion KLM had during the whole of 1933 .
In January 1934 , a new radio , telegraph and telephone link was installed at Lympne and St Inglevert which came into operation on 26 January . Sir Philip Sassoon officially declared the installation open . The equipment at Lympne was manufactured by Standard Telephones and Cables and operated on the 17 @-@ cm wave band . From 13 to 27 July , 606 ( City of Glasgow ) Squadron AuxAF held its annual camp at Lympne , followed by 601 ( County of London ) Squadron AuxAF from 29 July to 12 August . On the weekend of 1 – 2 September competitions for the Folkestone Aero Trophy and the Wakefield Cup were held . Both competitions were won by pilots flying the de Havilland DH.60 Moth G @-@ AAMU . Later that month a second batch of ten Avro 626s of the Egyptian Army Air Force departed from Lympne for Egypt .
In April 1935 , Air Traffic Control in the United Kingdom was improved by the introduction of a new control zone system . Heston was added as a control zone , relieving Croydon of some traffic . As a result of these changes the wavelength used by Lympne for radiotelegraphy changed from 862 metres to 825 metres . Six new direction finding stations were installed as part of these improvements , including one at Lympne . The improvement meant that Croydon would now be able to communicate by radio with two aircraft at the same time . In August Henri Mignet flew his Mignet HM.14 " Flying Flea " across the Channel to Lympne , where the aircraft was demonstrated in front of large crowds . Also that month 601 ( County of London ) Squadron AuxAF held its annual camp at Lympne after having converted from a bomber squadron to a fighter squadron earlier in the year .
From 2 to 16 August 1936 , No. 601 Squadron held their annual camp at Lympne . One aircraft exhibited at the 1936 International Air Rally was a 1912 Caudron G.2. In November , it was reported that 21 Squadron and 34 Squadron of the RAF were temporarily relocated to Lympne as hangars at RAF Abbotsinch had been damaged in gales . In October 1936 , Lympne was again taken over by the RAF , becoming a base within No. 1 ( Bomber ) Group . Although some improvements were carried out Lympne was initially seen as a temporary station . On 3 November 21 Squadron and 34 Squadron moved in , equipped with Hawker Hind aircraft .
On 4 June 1937 , a British Klemm Swallow made a pilot @-@ less take @-@ off from Lympne and flew for some 35 minutes before crashing into a tree . Its resting place was 200 yd ( 180 m ) from RAF Hawkinge . On 31 July the Folkestone Trophy was competition was held and was won by Alex Henshaw in a Percival Mew Gull .
On 12 March 1938 , Captain Davis , managing director of the Cinque Ports Flying Club , was killed in an accident shortly after take @-@ off from Lympne . On 30 July , the Folkestone Trophy race was held and was won by H Buckingham flying a de Havilland Hornet Moth . 34 Squadron departed Lympne on 12 July , and 21 Squadron departed on 15 August . Lympne was placed under " Care and Maintenance " in October , becoming a Training Command Administration School .
In May 1939 , Lympne was transferred to Fighter Command . It was used by the Fleet Air Arm as an outstation for the Air Mechanics School based at HMS Daedalus . On 1 July 1939 , Lympne was taken over by the Fleet Air Arm , becoming HMS Buzzard . Aircraft at Buzzard included Blackburn Sharks and Gloster Gladiators . On 5 August , the Folkestone Trophy Race was held and was won by Andrew Dalrymple flying a Chilton D.W.1A.
= = = The Second World War = = =
In September 1939 , the base was renamed HMS Daedalus II , but was transferred back to the RAF in May 1940 . Early in the war Lympne was home to Army Co @-@ operation and bomber squadrons . During Operation Dynamo in May 1940 a French Air Force squadron was based at Lympne . It was equipped with Marcel Bloch and Potez fighters . On 15 August 1940 , during the Battle of Britain , Lympne was bombed by Stuka dive @-@ bombers of II Gruppe , StG1 . All the hangars were hit and those aircraft belonging to Cinque Ports Flying Club that had not been evacuated to Sywell were destroyed in the fire . Lympne was evacuated and only available as an Emergency Landing Ground until mid @-@ September .
In 1941 , Lympne was to be the destination for the landing of an aircraft carrying Adolf Hitler in a daring kidnap plot . A man by the name of Kiroff had given information to the British Military Attaché in Sofia , Bulgaria , that he was the brother @-@ in @-@ law of Hans Baur , the personal pilot of Hitler . He stated that Baur was planning to defect using Hitler 's Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 200 with him on board . The RAF made plans to receive the aircraft at Lympne and 25 March was the date that the defection was expected to occur . Baur did not defect and spent the war as Hitler 's personal pilot . A few weeks later Rudolph Hess defected to Scotland .
Also in March 1941 , 91 Squadron moved in , equipped with Spitfires . Additional dispersals and fighter pens as well as three new blister hangars were built during 1941 . Typhoons were based at Lympne from March 1942 to February 1944 to counter the threat posed by the Luftwaffe 's newly introduced Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190s and a runway was extended across Otterpool Lane to accommodate the Typhoons . In November 1944 , Lympne was downgraded to Emergency Landing Ground status . Consideration was given to building four runways at Lympne , with the longest being 6 @,@ 000 ft ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) , but it was noted that serious demolition work would be required and a number of roads would need to be closed .
= = = Return to civil use = = =
= = = = 1946 – 50 = = = =
On 1 January 1946 , RAF Lympne was handed over to the Ministry of Civil Aviation and became a civil airport once more . The Cinque Ports Flying Club re @-@ established itself in facilities left by the RAF and re @-@ opened on 12 July . The club possessed two Tiger Moths and an Auster . The first post @-@ war air races were the Folkestone Trophy and the Lympne High Speed Handicap held over the weekend of 31 August and 1 September . The Folkestone Trophy was won by John Grierson flying a Supermarine Walrus ( G @-@ AHFN ) . The Lympne High Speed Handicap was won by W Humble flying a Hawker Fury I. Charter airline Air Kruise ( Kent ) Ltd was established at Lympne by Wing Commander Hugh Kennard and in September it was reported that the company had received the first civilian Miles Messenger aircraft . Air Kruise also operated Dragon Rapides .
On 1 December 1946 , Group Captain A. Bandit departed Lympne in a Miles Gemini bound for Wondai , Australia . This was the first solo flight to Australia since the end of the war . Bandit reached Truscott Airfield , Western Australia , on 6 January 1947 to complete the first post @-@ war England – Australia flight . Air races were held at Lympne on 30 and 31 August and four national records were set ( see below ) .
In July 1948 , Silver City Airways started an aerial car ferry service from Lympne to Le Touquet using Bristol Freighter aircraft . At the Lympne Aero Races Lettice Curtis set a new women 's world speed record whilst competing in the High Speed Handicap race flying a Spitfire XI . The Cinque Ports Flying Club folded on 1 October , its successor being the Kent Coast Flying Club which was set up by Hugh Kennard and had a Miles Magister ( G @-@ AKJX ) . Kent Gliding Club took up residence , and Skyfotos also made Lympne its base for aerial photography . Aircraft operated by Skyfotos included an Auster Autocrat ( G @-@ AIZZ ) and a Piper PA @-@ 22 Caribbean ( G @-@ AREN ) .
In May 1949 , it was reported that Lympne had made a loss of £ 17 @,@ 000 and that the Air Ministry was looking to dispose of it , although it was thought that should a sale not materialise it would continue in operation . In August 1950 , Air Kruise started a scheduled service between Lympne and Le Touquet using Dragon Rapides . This service was operated under an associate airline agreement with British European Airways .
= = = = 1951 – 60 = = = =
In December 1951 , Lympne was closed to all aircraft exceeding 8 @,@ 000 lb ( 3 @,@ 600 kg ) due to the runway being waterlogged and Silver City Airways transferred their service to Southend Airport until Lympne reopened in February 1952 . Blackbushe Airport was also used whilst Lympne was closed . On 1 May 1952 , a passenger tax was introduced in the United Kingdom . The rate was 5s for passengers arriving from Europe and 7s 6d for those arriving from outside Europe . At the same time landing fees at Government @-@ owned airports were halved where the aircraft was operating an international flight of less than 115 mi ( 185 km ) . Silver City Airways would benefit from this concession . Also in May it was reported that Air Kruise were extending the Lympne – Le Touquet service to Ramsgate , as Ramsgate Airport was to be re @-@ opened . In July , the members of Folkestone Town Council visited the Ministry of Civil Aviation in London to discuss the purchase of Lympne Airport .
In February 1953 , Lympne was again waterlogged and Silver City Airways operated out of Southend and Blackbushe . The company stated that they were willing to purchase Lympne , but the decision of Folkestone Town Council was still awaited for . By May , Folkestone Town Council had decided not to purchase Lympne and Silver City Airways again expressed an interest in purchasing the airport at a reasonable price . In November , it was announced that Air Kruise had been given permission to operate a scheduled service from Lympne and / or Ramsgate to Birmingham . The service was to be seasonal between April and September , with permission to run the service lasting until 1960 . Air Kruise moved its operations to Ramsgate Airport in 1953 .
In March 1954 , Air Kruise applied for permission to operate Dakotas on routes between Lympne and Le Touquet , Calais and Ostend . On 29 April , the Ministry of Transport and Civil Aviation offered Lympne for sale by auction in London . Bidding reached £ 88 @,@ 000 but the reserve was £ 100 @,@ 000 and the airport was not sold . On 28 August , Silver City Airways trialled a Westland @-@ Sikorsky WS @-@ 51 helicopter on cross @-@ Channel flights . Permission had been granted for the use of these aircraft for freight operations and it was intended to introduce them on 1 April 1955 . On 3 October , Silver City Airways operated their last flight out of Lympne as operations were being transferred to the new Lydd ( Ferryfield ) Airport which had opened on 6 July 1954 . A total of 33 @,@ 487 car ferry flights had been made from Lympne since the service had started in 1948 . As of 1 November , Lympne closed as a public airport , although private flying was allowed as long as no passengers were carried for hire or reward .
In 1955 , Air Kruise moved to Lydd ( Ferryfield ) and Lympne was re @-@ licensed in 1955 . On 30 September 1955 , Eric Rylands , a former co @-@ owner and managing director of the Lancashire Aircraft Corporation ( LAC ) who had bought Skyways from the previous owners in March 1952 ( together with LAC 's other owner , David Brown ) , started a coach @-@ air service between London and Paris . Passengers were taken by coach from Victoria Coach Station to Lympne , flown to Beauvais and then taken by coach to Paris . Check @-@ in and coach departures in Paris were at the Hôtel Moderne Palace on Place de la Republique in Paris 12 . Aircraft and coaches each held 36 passengers . Passengers returning to the UK could order duty @-@ free goods at Paris and the orders were telephoned to Beauvais for distribution on the flight . The off @-@ peak fare was £ 7 14s 0d and 47 @,@ 000 passengers were carried in the first year . Three Dakotas were used initially and later increasing to four . A trial run took place on 21 September and Skyways holding company , Eric Rylands Ltd , bought Lympne from the Ministry of Transport and Civil Aviation in 1956 .
In January 1957 , Skyways ordered a new Decca type 424 radar for installation at Lympne . In summer 1957 , a service was started between Lympne and Vichy , the first service between the UK and Vichy since Hillman 's Airways before the war . This was part of Skyways London – Lympne – Lyons – Nice route . Valence was also served by air .
In May 1958 , a route to Nice via Lyon was introduced . A temporary service to Brussels via Antwerp operated that year to serve the Brussels International Exhibition . In December , it was announced that an experimental scheme to allow British and Irish subjects to make day @-@ trips abroad without needing a passport was to be introduced on a limited number of routes , including Lympne – Beauvais . An identity card would be issued in lieu of a passport and the experiment was to run from Easter to the end of September 1959 .
On 15 March 1959 , RAF Detling closed and the land was sold back to its pre @-@ war tenants , who did not wish for any flying to take place . As a consequence the Kent Gliding Club relocated temporarily to Lympne . In June , Skyways signed a letter of intent to purchase a number of Avro 748 aircraft . Flight magazine stated that the number involved was " about four " . Skyways were the first airline to make a public announcement of support for the then yet @-@ to @-@ fly airliner . In autumn 1960 , Lympne was closed for a few days due to waterlogging of the runway .
= = = = 1961 – 70 = = = =
On 3 May 1961 , Skyways signed a contract for the purchase of three Avro 748s at a cost of £ 750 @,@ 000 . On 6 November , the process of final certification of the Avro 748 began . A programme of 160 hours of flying , simulating airline service , took place over the following 19 days and included a break for maintenance on 16 November . The programme also allowed Skyways pilots to gain further experience towards the 50 hours in command they needed before they could fly the aircraft in service . The aircraft was returned to Avro at the end of the trials as it was not scheduled to be delivered to Skyways until 1 March 1962 .
On 15 March 1962 , a bomb disposal officer was killed at Lympne when the pipe mine he was attempting to make safe exploded . The Army temporarily suspended their bomb disposal operations as a result . Skyways supplemented their Dakotas with an Avro 748 ( G @-@ ARMV ) which operated its first revenue @-@ earning flight on 17 April 1962 . In July , it was reported that Skyways had extended the passenger terminal at Lympne . In November , Skyways was taken over by Euravia , excluding Skyways Coach @-@ Air which remained a separate company .
In 1963 , three Avro 748s were in service and two of Skyways Coach @-@ Air 's Dakotas were converted to freighters . During the winter of 1962 – 63 , the 748s continued to operate a normal service out of Lympne . In October 1964 , Skyways Coach @-@ Air moved out of its London offices and all operations were now at Lympne , although a sales office was retained in London . The Cinque Ports Flying Club was restarted in 1964 by Barry Damon and had 120 members by 1968 . The club aircraft were a Beechcraft Bonanza , Beechcraft Musketeers and a Bölkow Monsun .
In March 1965 , a NOTAM was issued of changes had been made into the arrangements for light aircraft crossing the Channel . These changes were partly to avoid conflict with traffic flying into Lydd ( Ferryfield ) . Non @-@ radio aircraft could use the route between Hythe and Ambleteuse . Non @-@ radio aircraft were advised to call at Lympne before crossing . On 11 July , one of Skyways Coach Air 's Avro 748s crashed on landing at Lympne .
Following the 1965 accident , which had been caused by the nose @-@ wheel of the aircraft digging into soft ground , a 4 @,@ 500 ft ( 1 @,@ 372 m ) concrete runway was constructed . It was reported in January 1968 that planning permission had been granted and the new runway came into use on 11 April 1968 . Skyways Coach @-@ Air leased an Avro 748 from Leeward Islands Air Transport in 1968 for a two @-@ year period to replace the aircraft lost in the 1965 accident .
A new terminal building opened in June 1969 . Sheila Scott performed the ceremony , arriving in her record @-@ breaking Piper Comanche G @-@ ATOY Myth Too . On 10 June , the airport was renamed Ashford Airport , identifying the airport with the nearby town of Ashford which was scheduled for rapid growth . To mark the occasion a plaque was unveiled by Leader of the Opposition Edward Heath .
= = = = 1971 – 84 = = = =
A financial crisis at Skyways Coach @-@ Air in 1970 resulted in a management buy @-@ out in 1971 . Under the name Skyways International , services were operated from Lympne to Beauvais , Clermont @-@ Ferrand and Montpellier . In 1971 , to celebrate the management buyout of Skyways Coach @-@ Air and subsequent renaming as Skyways International , an air rally was held at Lympne . Ray Hanna attended in a Spitfire . Skyways International was bought by Dan @-@ Air in February 1972 , with operations continuing under the [ interim ] Dan @-@ Air Skyways name .
In October 1974 , commercial activities ceased at Lympne and Business Air Travel , Dan @-@ Air and Skyfotos left . In 1982 , the airfield was in use by the Ashford Parachute Centre with a Super Cub in residence in July 1983 . The Eagle Parachute School also used Lympne before leaving for Headcorn . In 1983 , Luscombe Aircraft was based at Lympne producing their Luscombe Rattler , a military version of the Luscombe Vitality . The Cinque Ports Flying Club moved to Lydd in 1984 .
= = Light Aircraft Trials = =
Light Aviation Trials were held at Lympne in 1923 , 1924 and 1926 sponsored by the Daily Mail . The 1923 competition was for aircraft with maximum engine capacity of 750 cc ( 46 cu in ) . This increased to 1 @,@ 100 cc ( 67 cu in
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.1 ( G @-@ AFSV ) .
Races at Lympne : -
1923 Grosvenor Cup , Light Aircraft Trials
1924 Light Aircraft Trials , Air League Challenge Cup
1925 Royal Aero Club Race Meeting , Light Aeroplane International Holiday Handicap , Private Owners ' Race
1926 Light Aircraft Trials
1928 King 's Cup Race ( checkpoint ) , Folkestone Herald and Kent Evening Echo Cup
1929 King 's Cup Race ( checkpoint )
1930 King 's Cup Race
1932 Folkestone Aero Trophy Race
1933 Cinque Ports Wakefield Cup Race
1937 Wakefield Cup Race
1938 Folkestone Aero Trophy Race
1939 Wakefield Cup Race , Folkestone Aero Trophy Race
= = = Post @-@ war air races = = =
With the resumption of civil flying in 1946 , a number of air races were held . The 1946 Folkestone Aero Trophy was won by John Grierson in Supermarine Walrus G @-@ AHFN . The 1946 Siddeley Trophy was won by R Pomphret in Tiger Moth G @-@ AHNX . The four aircraft in the 1946 High Speed Handicap were a Vampire ( flown by Geoffrey de Havilland ) , Hornet ( Geoffrey Pike ) , Fury ( William Humble ) and Seafang ( Guy Morgan ) . The race was won by the Fury flown by Humble . John Cunningham competed in the 1947 High Speed Handicap in Vampire F1 VZ332 , coming sixth . Peter Twiss flying a Firefly IV won the high @-@ speed race at 305 @.@ 93 mph ( 492 @.@ 35 km / h ) . The winner received the Hythe Aero Trophy and £ 100 . The 1948 High Speed Handicap Race was won by Flt Lt J Colquhoun in a two @-@ seat Spitfire . The course was Capel airship hangar , Folkestone pier and Hythe gas holder . In 1950 , competitors in the Daily Express South Coast Air Race used Lympne before the race started . This race was won by Nick Charlton in Proctor G @-@ AHUZ .
Races held at Lympne : -
1946 Folkestone Aero Trophy , High Speed Handicap Race , Siddeley Trophy Race
1947 High Speed Handicap Race ( Hythe Aero Trophy ) , Siddeley Trophy Race
1948 High Speed Handicap Race , Siddeley Trophy Race , Tiger Moth Scratch Race
1950 Daily Express South Coast Air Race
= = Record breakers = =
Lympne was the start and finish for several record attempts . Wing Commander E. R. Manning left for India in a Westland Widgeon in 1923 , but only got as far as Baghdad . In 1930 the Fokker F VIIA ( G @-@ EBTS ) The Spider flown by Charles Douglas Barnard and R F Little , with Mary Russell , Duchess of Bedford as passenger , left Lympne for Maitland Airport , Cape Town , which was reached in a record 100 hours . In 1931 C.W.A. Scott set a UK @-@ Australia record in a DH.60 ( G @-@ ABHY ) . On the return he landed at Lympne in the aircraft which had been re @-@ registered VH @-@ UQA . Also in 1931 Glen Kitson and Owen Cathcart @-@ Jones left Lympne bound for Cape Town in a Lockheed DL @-@ 1 Vega Special . Cape Town was reached in 6 days , 10 hours . On 31 October C. Arthur Butler flew from Lympne to Darwin in a Comper Swift ( G @-@ ABRE ) , beating C.W.A. Scott 's record by 102 minutes .
In October 1932 , a Spartan A.24 Mailplane ( G @-@ ABLI ) left Lympne en route for Karachi from Blackpool . Karachi was reached in less than six days . On 14 November 1932 , Amy Johnson left Lympne for Cape Town in DH.80a Puss Moth ( G @-@ ACAB ) . She beat her husband Jim Mollison 's time by 10 hours and 28 minutes , setting a new UK @-@ South Africa record . On the return she also set a new South Africa @-@ UK record . On 11 April 1933 , William Newton Lancaster departed Lympne in an Avro Avian V ( G @-@ ABLK ) Southern Cross Minor to beat Amy Johnson 's UK @-@ South Africa record . The aircraft crashed in the Sahara next day and although Lancaster survived he died eight days later when his water ran out . On 2 November 1934 , Owen Cathcart Jones and Ken Waller landed at Lympne in a de Havilland Comet ( G @-@ ACSR ) after a record breaking flight from Australia to the United Kingdom . Harry Frank Broadbent landed at Lympne in a DH.85 Leopard Moth ( VH @-@ AHB ) on arrival from Australia on 27 April 1937 , filmed by Gaumont News , and an Australia @-@ UK record was set . On 24 October 1937 Jean Batten flew to Lympne in a Percival Gull Six ( G @-@ ADPR ) , having set a solo Australia @-@ UK record and female Australia @-@ UK record .
In 1947 , four national records were set at the Lympne Air Races .
On 8 May 1960 , a world record was set for the distance flown by a model aircraft at 45 @.@ 75 mi ( 73 @.@ 63 km ) . The 8 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 59 m ) wingspan aircraft had taken off from Lympne and was flown by radio control from cars to Sidcup .
= = Cinque Ports Flying Club = =
Club flying started in November 1927 with the East Kent Flying Club and although membership reached 220 by 1931 the club was struggling financially . On 1 January 1932 it became part of Brooklands Aviation and was renamed as the Cinque Ports Flying Club . Lympne was visited by many aviation personalities . Ken Waller learnt to fly at Lympne and became a long @-@ distance and race pilot . W. E. Davis was the secretary / manager of Cinque Ports Flying Club from 1932 until his death in 1938 . His wife Ann took over the position in the 18 months leading up to the Second World War . On 22 May 1937 the Duke and Duchess of Kent visited Lympne in an Airspeed Envoy ( G @-@ AEXX ) of the King 's Flight while visiting Shorncliffe Barracks . From 1938 the club participated in the Civil Air Guard training programme , giving subsidised flying lessons . The Currie Wot was designed and built at Lympne . The Cinque Ports Flying Club restarted after the war but folded on 1 October 1948 .
= = Silver City Airways = =
Silver City Airways moved to Lympne in 1948 , operating Bristol Freighter Mk.21 aircraft and an aerial car ferry to Le Touquet started on 13 July 1948 . The air ferry was the idea of Griffith J Powell , who wanted to holiday in France but did not like the ferry . Bristol lent an aircraft for an experiment on 7 July 1948 . The first car was Powell 's Armstrong Siddeley 16 which was carried by G @-@ AGVC.The Bristol Freighter Mk.21 could carry two cars . Although only 170 cars were carried in 1948 , experience was gained .
The service was initially operated on a charter basis . Having closed down over the winter , the service was resumed as a scheduled service on 13 April 1949 . During 1949 , two aircraft carried 2 @,@ 700 cars . By 1950 the figures had risen to 3 @,@ 850 cars and 1 @,@ 000 motorcycles and other vehicles with passengers totalling 15 @,@ 000 . In that year , a London driver offered a London @-@ Paris taxi service . Silver City Airways had estimated that they would carry nearly 7 @,@ 000 cars in 1953 , but this figure was reached in 1951 . The three aircraft had to be doubled to six to cope . Over 13 @,@ 000 vehicles were carried , with 42 return flights daily at peak times . The time between Lympne and Le Touquet was 18 minutes .
In February 1953 , Lympne was waterlogged and services were temporarily transferred to Southend . In September waterlogging again stopped the air ferry , which was transferred to RAF West Malling . Six Bristol Freighter Mk.32s were introduced in March 1953 , at a cost of £ 540 @,@ 000 , which could each carry three cars and a service to Ostend was started with the aircraft . Skyways remained at Lympne until October 1954 when it moved to Lydd ( Ferryfield ) . On 3 October 1954 , the last Silver City flight to Le Touquet was operated by Bristol Freighter G @-@ AIFV . Silver City moved to Lydd because the runway at Lympne was not suitable . Although it had campaigned for improvements to the runway and was Lympne 's biggest customer the airfields owners , the Ministry of Civil Aviation , refused . Silver City said it would build an airport suitable for its needs at Lydd .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
On 29 March 1920 , Nieuport Delage 30T F @-@ CGTI of Compagnie générale transaérienne crashed at Lympne .
On 26 April 1921 , Salmson 2.A2 F @-@ CMAE of Compagnie des Messageries Aériennes crashed at Lympne . The aircraft was later repaired and returned to service .
On 15 November 1921 , a Handley Page O / 400 suffered engine failure shortly after passing Lympne on a flight from Paris to Croydon , resulting in the loss of a propeller . The aircraft made a forced landing at Lympne , damaging the undercarriage in the process .
On 24 April 1923 , Fokker F.III H @-@ NABS of KLM departed Lympne for Rotterdam and Amsterdam . The aircraft was not heard of again . It was presumed to have crashed into the sea , killing the pilot and both passengers .
On 7 May 1923 , Farman F.63bis Goliath F @-@ AEGP Flandre was involved in an accident at Lympne .
On 8 February 1925 , Farman Goliath F @-@ GEAB of Air Union crashed whilst attempting to land at Lympne . The aircraft was on a cargo flight from Paris to Croydon when an engine failed over the Channel .
On 18 August 1926 , Blériot 155 F @-@ AIEB Wilbur Wright of Air Union crashed 2 mi ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) south of Lympne , killing both crew and two passengers .
On 17 January 1931 , Breguet 280T F @-@ AIVU of Air Union crashed whilst attempting to land at Lympne . The aircraft caught the boundary fence and crashed onto the airfield , damaging the forward fuselage and undercarriage . Of the eight people on board , one of the crew was injured .
On 9 December 1937 , Handley Page H.P.45 G @-@ AAXD Horatius of Imperial Airways was struck by lightning whilst flying across the Channel from Paris to Croydon . A precautionary landing was made at Lympne where it was found that minor damage had been done to a wing .
On 12 March 1938 , ST25 Monospar G @-@ AEJV crashed near Lympne when both engines cut out . Pilot Bill Davis , managing director of the Cinque Ports Flying Club , was among the four people killed .
On 1 June 1938 , Fokker F.VIIb / 3m OO @-@ AIL of SABENA crashed into the grounds of Sellindge Methodist Church whilst attempting to land at Lympne during a thunderstorm .
In September 1938 , Handley Page H.P.45 G @-@ AAXD Horatius of Imperial Airways suffered damage to its port undercarriage and lower port wing in a forced landing at Lympne . The aircraft was repaired and returned to service .
On 7 July 1939 , de Havilland Hornet Moth G @-@ AFAT crashed a Lympne , killing racing driver Clifton Penn @-@ Hughes and his passengers .
On 11 January 1947 , Douglas DC @-@ 3 G @-@ AGJX of British Overseas Airways Corporation crashed at Stowting . Six people were killed and ten injured . The aircraft was attempting to reach Lympne when it ran out of fuel , having aborted an attempt to land at Bordeaux Airport and other French airfields being closed due to fog . The aircraft was operating an international scheduled passenger flight with a final destination in West Africa
On 3 May 1949 , Miles Aerovan G @-@ AJKM of East Anglian Flying Services Ltd was blown over whilst being refuelled and damaged beyond economic repair .
On 30 June 1950 , DH.89 Dragon Rapide G @-@ AKME caught fire whilst being refuelled and was burnt out .
On 1 May 1961 , DH.89 Dragon Rapide G @-@ AGOJ was damaged beyond economic repair in a landing accident at Lympne .
On 11 July 1965 . Avro 748 G @-@ ARMV of Skyways Coach @-@ Air arriving from Beauvais was written off at Lympne when its nose @-@ wheels dug into soft ground on the grass runway . The aircraft flipped over , losing its port wing in the process .
= Armillaria gallica =
Armillaria gallica ( synonymous with A. bulbosa and A. lutea ) is a species of honey mushroom in the Physalacriaceae family of the Agaricales order . The species is a common and ecologically important wood @-@ decay fungus that can live as a saprobe , or as an opportunistic parasite in weakened tree hosts to cause root or butt rot . It is found in temperate regions of Asia , North America , and Europe . The species forms fruit bodies singly or in groups in soil or rotting wood . The fungus has been inadvertently introduced to South Africa . Armillaria gallica has had a confusing taxonomy , due in part to historical difficulties encountered in distinguishing between similar Armillaria species . The fungus received international attention in the early 1990s when an individual colony living in a Michigan forest was reported to cover an area of 15 hectares ( 37 acres ) , weigh at least 9 @,@ 500 kilograms ( 21 @,@ 000 lb ) , and be 1 @,@ 500 years old . This individual is popularly known as the " humungous fungus " , and is a tourist attraction and inspiration for an annual mushroom @-@ themed festival in Crystal Falls .
Armillaria gallica is a largely subterranean fungus , and it produces fruit bodies that are up to about 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter , yellow @-@ brown , and covered with small scales . On the underside of the caps are gills that are white to creamy or pale orange . The stem may be up to 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) long , with a white cobwebby ring that divides the color of the stem into pale orange to brown above , and lighter @-@ colored below . The fungus can develop an extensive system of underground root @-@ like structures , called rhizomorphs , that help it to efficiently decompose dead wood in temperate broadleaf and mixed forests . It has been the subject of considerable scientific research due to its importance as a plant pathogen , its ability to bioluminesce , its unusual life cycle , and its ability to form large and long @-@ lived colonies .
= = Phylogeny , taxonomy and naming = =
Confusion has surrounded the nomenclature and taxonomy of the species now known as Armillaria gallica , paralleling that surrounding the genus Armillaria . The type species , Armillaria mellea , was until the 1970s believed to be a pleiomorphic species with a wide distribution , variable pathogenicity , and one of the broadest host ranges known for the fungi . In 1973 , Veikko Hintikka reported a technique to distinguish between Armillaria species by growing them together as single spore isolates on petri dishes and observing changes in the morphology of the cultures . Using a similar technique , Kari Korhonen showed in 1978 that the European Armillaria mellea species complex could be separated into five reproductively isolated species , which he named " European Biological Species " ( EBS ) A through E. About the same time , the North American A. mellea was shown to be ten different species ( North American Biological Species , or NABS I through X ) ; NABS VII was demonstrated shortly after to be the same species as EBS E. Because several research groups had worked with this widely distributed species , it was assigned several different names .
The species that Korhonen called EBS B was named A. bulbosa by Helga Marxmüller in 1982 , as it was thought to be equivalent to Armillaria mellea var. bulbosa , first described by Joseph Barla in 1887 , and later raised to species status by Josef Velenovský in 1927 . In 1973 , the French mycologist Henri Romagnesi , unaware of Velenovský 's publication , published a description of the species he called Armillariella bulbosa , based on specimens he had found near Compiègne and Saint @-@ Sauveur @-@ le @-@ Vicomte in France . These specimens were later demonstrated to be the same species as the EBS E of Korhonen ; EBS B was later determined to be A. cepistipes . Therefore , the name A. bulbosa was a misapplied name for EBS E. In 1987 Romagnesi and Marxmüller renamed EBS E to Armillaria gallica . Another synonym , A. lutea , had originally been described by Claude Casimir Gillet in 1874 , and proposed as a name for EBS E. Although the name had priority due to its early publication date , it was rejected as a nomen ambiguum because of a lack of supporting evidence to identify the fungus , including a specimen , type locality , and incomplete collection notes . A. inflata ( Velenovský , 1920 ) may represent another synonym , but the type specimens were not preserved , so it is considered a dubious name ( nomen dubium ) . As of 2010 , both the Index Fungorum and MycoBank consider Armillaria gallica Marxm . & Romagn. to be the current name , with A. bulbosa and A. lutea as synonyms .
Phylogenetic analysis of North American Armillaria species based on analysis of amplified fragment length polymorphism data suggests that A. gallica is most closely related to A. sinapina , A. cepistipes , and A. calvescens . These results are similar to those reported in 1992 that compared sequences of nuclear ribosomal DNA .
The specific epithet gallica is botanical Latin for " French " ( from Gallia , " Gaul " ) , and refers to the type locality . The prior name bulbosa is Latin for " bulb @-@ bearing , bulbous " ( from bulbus and the suffix -osa ) . Armillaria is derived from the Latin armilla , or " bracelet " .
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies of Armillaria gallica have caps that are 2 @.@ 5 – 9 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 7 in ) broad , and depending on their age , may range in shape from conical to convex to flattened . The caps are brownish @-@ yellow to brown when moist , often with a darker @-@ colored center ; the color tends to fade upon drying . The cap surface is covered with slender fibers ( same color as the cap ) that are erect , or sloping upwards .
When the fruit bodies are young , the underside of the caps have a cottony layer of tissue stretching from the edge of the cap to the stem — a partial veil — which serves to protect the developing gills . As the cap grows in size the membrane is eventually pulled away from the cap to expose the gills . The gills have an adnate ( squarely attached ) to somewhat decurrent ( extending down the length of the stem ) attachment to the stem . They are initially white , but age to a creamy or pale orange covered with rust @-@ colored spots . The stem is 4 – 10 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) long and 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 8 cm ( 0 @.@ 24 – 0 @.@ 71 in ) thick , and almost club @-@ shaped with the base up to 1 @.@ 3 – 2 @.@ 7 cm ( 0 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 1 in ) thick . Above the level of the ring , the stem is pale orange to brown , while below it is whitish or pale pink , becoming grayish @-@ brown at the base . The ring is positioned about 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 9 cm ( 0 @.@ 16 – 0 @.@ 35 in ) below the level of the cap , and may be covered with yellowish to pale @-@ brownish woolly cottony mycelia . The base of the stem is attached to rhizomorphs , black root @-@ like structures 1 – 3 mm in diameter . While the primary function of the below @-@ ground mycelia is to absorb nutrients from the soil , the rhizomorphs serve a more exploratory function , to locate new food bases .
= = = Microscopic features = = =
When the spores are seen in deposit , such as with a spore print , they appear whitish . They have an ellipsoid or oblong shape , usually contain an oil droplet , and have dimensions of 7 – 8 @.@ 5 by 5 – 6 µm . The spore @-@ bearing cells , the basidia , are club @-@ shaped , four @-@ spored ( rarely two @-@ spored ) , and measure 32 – 43 by 7 – 8 @.@ 7 µm . Other cells present in the fertile hymenium include the cheilocystidia ( cystidia present on the edge of a gill ) , which are club @-@ shaped , roughly cylindrical and 15 – 25 by 5 @.@ 0 – 12 µm . Cystidia are also present on the stem ( called caulocystidia ) , and are broadly club @-@ shaped , measuring 20 – 55 by 11 – 23 µm . The cap cuticle is made of hyphae that are irregularly interwoven and project upward to form the scales seen on the surface . The hyphae that make up the surface scales typically measure 26 – 88 µm long by 11 – 27 µm thick and can be covered with a crust of pigment . Clamp connections are present in the hyphae of most tissues .
= = = Edibility = = =
Like all Armillaria species , A. gallica is considered edible . Thorough cooking is usually recommended , as the raw mushroom tastes acrid when fresh or undercooked . One author advises to consume only a small portion initially , as some people may experience an upset stomach . The taste is described as " mild to bitter " , and the odor " sweet " , or reminiscent of camembert cheese .
= = = Similar species = = =
Armillaria calvescens is rather similar in appearance , and can only be reliably distinguished from A. gallica by observing microscopic characteristics . A. calvescens has a more northern distribution , and in North America , is rarely found south of the Great Lakes . A. mellea has a thinner stem than A. gallica , but can be more definitively distinguished by the absence of clamps at the base of the basidia . Similarly , A. cepistipes and A. gallica are virtually identical in appearance ( especially older fruit bodies ) , and are identified by differences in geographical distribution , host range , and microscopic characteristics . Molecular methods have been developed to discriminate between the two species by comparing DNA sequences in the gene coding translation elongation factor 1 @-@ alpha .
= = = Metabolites = = =
Armillaria gallica can produce cyclobutane @-@ containing metabolites such as arnamiol , a natural product that is classified as a sesquiterpenoid aryl ester . Although the specific function of arnamiol is not definitively known , similar chemicals present in other Armillaria species are thought to play a role in inhibiting the growth of antagonistic bacteria or fungi , or in killing cells of the host plant prior to infection .
= = = Bioluminescence = = =
The mycelia ( but not the fruit bodies ) of Armillaria gallica are known to be bioluminescent . Experiments have shown that the intensity of the luminescence is enhanced when the mycelia are disturbed during growth or when they are exposed to fluorescent light . Bioluminescence is caused by the action of luciferases , enzymes that produce light by the oxidation of a luciferin ( a pigment ) . The biological purpose of bioluminescence in fungi is not definitively known , although several hypotheses have been suggested : it may help attract insects to help with spore dispersal , it may be a by @-@ product of other biochemical functions , or it may help deter heterotrophs that might consume the fungus .
= = Humongous fungus = =
Researchers reported finding Armillaria gallica in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan in the early 1990s , during an unrelated research project to study the possible biological effects of extremely low frequency radio stations , which were being investigated as a means to communicate with submerged submarines . In one particular forest stand , Armillaria @-@ infected oak trees had been harvested , and their stumps were left to rot in the field . Later , when red pines were planted in the same location , the seedlings were killed by the fungus , identified as A. gallica ( then known as A. bulbosa ) . Using molecular genetics , they determined that the underground mycelia of one individual fungal colony covered 15 ha ( 37 acres ) , weighing over 9 @,@ 500 kilograms ( 21 @,@ 000 lb ) , with an estimated age of 1 @,@ 500 years . The analysis used restriction fragment length polymorphism ( RFLP ) and random amplification of polymorphic DNA ( RAPD ) to examine isolates collected from fruit bodies and rhizomorphs ( underground aggregations of fungal cells that resemble plant roots ) along 1 @-@ kilometer ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) transects in the forest . The 15 @-@ hectare area yielded isolates that had identical mating type alleles and mitochondrial DNA restriction fragment patterns ; this degree of genetic similarity indicated that the samples were all derived from a single genetic individual , or clone , that had reached its size through vegetative growth . In their conclusion the authors noted : " This is the first report estimating the minimum size , mass , and age of an unambiguously defined fungal individual . Although the number of observations for plants and animals is much greater , members of the fungal kingdom should now be recognized as among the oldest and largest organisms on earth . " After the Nature paper was published , major media outlets from around the world visited the site where the specimens were found ; as a result of this publicity , the individual acquired the common name " humongous fungus " . There was afterward some scholarly debate as to whether the fungus qualified to be considered in the same category as other large organisms such as the blue whale or the giant redwood .
The fungus has since become a popular tourist attraction in Michigan , and has inspired a " Humongous Fungus Fest " held annually in August in Crystal Falls . The organism was the subject of a Late Show Top Ten List on Late Night with David Letterman , and an advertising campaign by the rental company U @-@ Haul .
= = Life cycle and growth = =
The life cycle of A. gallica includes two diploidization – haploidization events . The first of these is the usual process of cell fusion ( forming a diploid ) followed by meiosis during the formation of haploid basidiospores . The second event is more cryptic , and occurs before fruit body formation . In most basidiomycetous fungi , the hyphae of compatible mating types will fuse to form a two @-@ nucleate , or dikaryotic stage ; this stage is not observed in Armillaria species , which have cells that are mostly monokaryotic and diploid . Genetic analyses suggest that the dikaryotic mycelia undergo an extra haploidization event prior to fruit body formation to create a genetic mosaic . These regular and repeating haploidization events result in increased genetic diversity , which helps the fungus to adapt to unfavorable changes in environmental conditions , like drought .
The growth rate of A. gallica rhizomorphs is between 0 @.@ 3 and 0 @.@ 6 m ( 1 @.@ 0 and 2 @.@ 0 ft ) per year . Population genetic studies of the fungus conducted in the 1990s demonstrated that genetic individuals grow mitotically from a single point of origin to eventually occupy territories that may include many adjacent root systems over large areas ( several hectares ) of forest floor . Based on the low mutation rates observed in large , long @-@ lived individuals , A. gallica appears to have an especially stable genome . It has also been hypothesized that genetic stability may result from self @-@ renewing mycelial repositories of nuclei with stem cell @-@ like properties .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Armillaria gallica can normally be found on the ground , but sometimes on stumps and logs . Mushrooms that appear to be terrestrial are attached to plant roots underneath the surface . It is widely distributed and has been collected in North America , Europe , and Asia ( China , Iran , and Japan ) . The species has also been found in the Western Cape Province of South Africa , where it is thought to have been introduced from potted plants imported from Europe during the early colonization of Cape Town . In Scandinavia , it is absent in areas with very cold climates , like Finland or Norway , but it is found in southern Sweden . It is thought to be the most prevalent low altitude species of Armillaria in Great Britain and France . The upper limits of its altitude vary by region . In the French Massif Central , it is found up to 1 @,@ 100 m ( 3 @,@ 600 ft ) , while in Bavaria , which has a more continental climate , the upper limit of distribution reaches 600 m ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) . In Serbian forests , it is the most common Armillaria between elevations of 70 to 1 @,@ 450 m ( 230 to 4 @,@ 760 ft ) . Field studies suggest that A. gallica prefers sites that are low in organic matter and have high soil pHs .
In North America , it is common east of the Rocky Mountains , but rare in the Pacific Northwest . In California , where it is widely distributed , the fungus is found in a variety of plant communities , including aspen , coastal oak woodland , Douglas Fir , Klamath mixed conifer , montane hardwood , montane hardwood @-@ conifer , montane riparian , Redwood , Sierran mixed conifer , valley oak woodland , valley @-@ foothill riparian , and White Fir . It was found to be the most common Armillaria species in hardwood and mixed oak forests in western Massachusetts .
A Chinese study published in 2001 used the molecular biological technique restriction fragment length polymorphism to analyze the differences in DNA sequence between 23 A. gallica specimens collected from the Northern Hemisphere . The results suggest that based on the restriction fragment length polymorphism patterns observed , there are four global A. gallica subpopulations : the Chinese , European , North American – Chinese , and North American – European geographical lineages . A 2007 study on the northeastern and southwestern Chinese distribution of Armillaria , using fruit body and pure culture morphology , concluded that there are several unnamed species ( Chinese biological species C , F , H , J and L ) that are similar to the common A. gallica .
= = Ecology = =
Armillaria gallica is a weaker pathogen than the related A. Mellea or A. Solidipes , and is considered a secondary parasite — typically initiating infection only after the host 's defenses have been weakened by insect defoliation , drought , or infection by another fungus . Fungal infection can lead to root rot or butt rot . As the diseased trees die , the wood dries , increasing the chance of catching fire after being struck by lightning . The resulting forest fire may in turn kill the species that killed the trees . Plants that are under water stress caused by dry soils or waterlogging are more susceptible to infection by A. gallica . It has been shown to be one of several Armillaria species responsible for widespread mortality of oak trees in the Arkansas Ozarks . The fungus has also been shown to infect Daylily in South Carolina , Northern highbush blueberry ( Vaccinium corymbosum ) in Italy and vineyards ( Vitis species ) of Rías Baixas in northwestern Spain . The latter infestation " may be related to the fact that the vineyards from which they were isolated were located on cleared forestry sites " . When A. solidipes and A. gallica co @-@ occur in the same forest , infection of root systems by A. gallica may reduce damage or prevent infection from A. solidipes .
Armillaria gallica can develop an extensive subterranean system of rhizomorphs , which helps it to compete with other fungi for resources or to attack trees weakened by other fungi . A field study in an ancient broadleaved woodland in England showed that of five Armillaria species present in the woods , A. gallica was consistently the first to colonize tree stumps that had been coppiced the previous year . Fractal geometry has been used to model the branching patterns of the hyphae of various Armillaria species . Compared to a strongly pathogenic species like A. solidipes , A. gallica has a relatively sparse branching pattern that is thought to be " consistent with a foraging strategy in which acceptable food bases may be encountered at any distance , and which favours broad and divisive distribution of potential inoculum . " Because the rhizomorphs form regular networks , mathematical concepts of graph theory have been employed to describe fungal growth and interpret ecological strategies , suggesting that the specific patterns of network attachments allow the fungus " to respond opportunistically to spatially and temporally changing environments " .
Armillaria gallica may itself be parasitized by other soil flora . Several species of the fungus Trichoderma , including Trichoderma polysporum , T. harzianum and T. viride , are able to attack and penetrate and the outer tissue of A. gallica rhizomorphs and parasitize the internal hyphae . The infected rhizomorphs become devoid of living hyphae about one week after the initial infection . Entoloma abortivum is another fungus that can live parasitically upon A. gallica . The whitish @-@ gray malformed fruit bodies that may result are due to the E. abortivum hyphae penetrating the mushroom and disrupting its normal development .
= Rififi =
Rififi ( French : Du rififi chez les hommesa ) is a 1955 French crime film adaptation of Auguste Le Breton 's novel of the same name . Directed by American blacklisted filmmaker Jules Dassin , the film stars Jean Servais as the aging gangster Tony " le Stéphanois " , Carl Möhner as Jo " le Suédois " , Robert Manuel as Mario Farrati , and Jules Dassin as César " le Milanais " . The foursome band together to commit an almost impossible theft , the burglary of an exclusive jewelry shop on the Rue de Rivoli . The centerpiece of the film is an intricate half @-@ hour heist scene depicting the crime in detail , shot in near silence , without dialogue or music . The fictional burglary has been mimicked by criminals in actual crimes around the world .
After he was blacklisted from Hollywood , Dassin found work in France where he was asked to direct Rififi . Despite his distaste for parts of the original novel , Dassin agreed to direct the film . He shot Rififi while working with a low budget , without a star cast , and with the production staff working for low wages .
Upon the initial release of the film , it received positive reactions from audiences and critics in France , the United States , and the United Kingdom . The film earned Dassin the award for Best Director at the 1955 Cannes Film Festival . Rififi was nominated by the National Board of Review for Best Foreign Film . Rififi was re @-@ released theatrically in both 2000 and 2015 and is still highly acclaimed by modern film critics as one of the greatest works in French film noir .
= = Plot = =
Tony " le Stéphanois " has served a five @-@ year prison term for a jewel heist and is out on the street and down on his luck . His friend Jo approaches him about a smash @-@ and @-@ grab proposed by mutual friend Mario in which the threesome would cut the glass on a Parisian jeweler 's front window in broad daylight and snatch some gems . Tony declines . He then learns that his old girlfriend , Mado , took up in his absence with gangster Parisian nightclub owner Pierre Grutter . Finding Mado working at Grutter 's , Tony invites her back to his rundown flat . She is obviously well @-@ kept , and Tony savagely beats her for being so deeply involved with Grutter . Tony changes his mind about the heist ; he now accepts on the condition that they rob the jeweler 's safe instead of the window . Mario suggests they employ the services of Italian compatriot César , a safecracker . The four devise and rehearse an ingenious plan to break into the store and disarm its sophisticated alarm system .
The caper begins with the group chiseling through a cement ceiling from an upstairs flat on a Sunday night . The suspenseful break @-@ in completed , the criminals appear to escape without leaving any trace of their identities . However , without the others ' knowledge , César pocketed a diamond ring as a bauble for his lover Viviane , a chanteuse at Grutter 's club . The four men arrange to fence the loot with a London contact . Meanwhile , Grutter has seen Mado and her injuries , who breaks off their relationship . Infuriated at Tony 's interference in his life , he gives heroin to his drug @-@ addicted brother Remi and tells him to murder Tony . Grutter sees the diamond César gave to Viviane and realizes that César , Mario , and Tony were responsible for the jewel theft . Grutter forces César to confess . Forsaking a 10 million franc police reward , Grutter decides to steal the jewels from Tony 's gang , his brother Remi brutally murdering Mario and his wife Ida when they refuse to reveal where the loot is hidden . Tony retrieves it from the couple 's apartment and anonymously pays for a splendid funeral for them . He then goes looking for Grutter and stumbles onto the captive César , who confesses having squealed . Citing " the rules , " Tony ruefully kills him .
Meanwhile , seeking to force their adversaries ' hand , Grutter 's thugs kidnap Jo 's five @-@ year @-@ old son Tonio and hold him ransom . The London fence arrives with the payoff , after which Tony leaves to single @-@ handedly rescue the child by force , advising Jo it is the only way they will see him alive . With Mado 's help he tracks Tonio down at Grutter 's country house and kills Grutter 's brothers Rémi and Louis while rescuing him . On the way back to Paris , Tony learns Jo has cracked under the pressure and agreed to meet Grutter at his house with the money . When he arrives Grutter tells him Tony has already snatched the child and kills Jo . Seconds too late to save his friend , Tony is mortally wounded by Grutter before killing him as he tries to flee with the loot . Bleeding profusely , Tony drives maniacally back to Paris and delivers Tonio home safely before dying at the wheel as police and bystanders close in on him and a suitcase filled with 120 million francs in cash .
= = Cast = =
Jean Servais as Tony " le Stéphanois " : A gangster who recently returned from serving five years in prison for jewel theft . The eldest member in on the heist , Tony is godfather of namesake Tonio , son of Jo " le Suédois " .
Carl Möhner as Jo " le Suédois " : A young Swedish gangster Tony took the five year rap for . Jo invites Tony in on the heist .
Robert Manuel as Mario Ferrati : A happy @-@ go @-@ lucky Italian gangster who came up with the original idea for a jewel heist .
Jules Dassin as César " le Milanais " : An expert safecracker hired by Tony with a weakness for women . Dassin played the role under the pseudonym of Perlo Vita .
Magali Noel as Viviane : a night @-@ club singer who gets involved with César " le Milanais " ; she sings the film 's title song .
Claude Sylvain as Ida : Mario Ferrati 's wife
Marcel Lupovici as Pierre Grutter : Leader of the Grutter gang and owner of the night @-@ club L 'Âge d 'Or . He is the first to figure out Tony 's responsibility for the diamond heist .
Robert Hossein as Remi Grutter : A member of the Grutter gang addicted to heroin .
Pierre Grasset as Louis Grutter : A member of the Grutter gang .
Marie Sabouret as Mado : The former lover of Tony " le Stéphanois " .
Dominique Maurin as Tonio , the young son of Jo " le Suédois " . Towards the end of the film , Tonio is kidnapped by the Grutter gang and is rescued by Tony " le Stéphanois " .
Janine Darcey as Louise , Jo 's wife and the mother of Tonio .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The film Rififi was originally to be directed by Jean @-@ Pierre Melville , a later luminary of the heist film genre . Melville gave his blessing to American director Jules Dassin when the latter asked for his permission to take the helm . It was Dassin 's first film in five years ; he had been blacklisted by the House Committee on Un @-@ American Activities after fellow director Edward Dmytryk named him a communist in April 1951 . Subsequently , Dassin attempted to rebuild his career in Europe . Several such film projects were stopped through long @-@ distance efforts by the US government . Dassin attempted a film L 'Ennemi public numero un , which was halted after stars Fernandel and Zsa Zsa Gabor withdrew under American pressure . An attempt to film an adaptation of Giovanni Verga 's Mastro don Gesualdo in Rome was halted by the US Embassy . Dassin received an offer from an agent in Paris , France where he met producer Henri Bérard who had acquired the rights to Auguste Le Breton 's popular crime novel Du Rififi chez les hommes . Bérard chose Dassin due to the major success in France of Dassin 's previous film The Naked City .
Using his native English , Dassin wrote the screenplay to Rififi in six days with the help of screenwriter René Wheeler , who subsequently took the material and translated it to French . Dassin hated the novel ; he was repelled by the story 's racist theme in which the rival gangsters were dark Arabs and North Africans pitted against light @-@ skinned Europeans . As well , the book portrayed disquieting events such as necrophilia — scenes that Dassin did not know how to bring to the big screen . For the rival gang , the producer suggested making them Americans , assuming Dassin would approve . Dassin was against this idea as he didn 't want to be accused of taking oblique revenge on screen . Dassin downplayed the rival gangsters ' ethnicity in his screenplay , simply electing the Germanic " Grutter " as surname . The greatest change from the book was the heist scene , which spanned but ten pages of the 250 @-@ page novel . Dassin focused his screenplay on it to get past other events he did not know what to do with . As produced , the scene takes a quarter of the film 's running time and is shot with only natural sound , sans
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spoken words or music .
= = = Filming = = =
Working with a budget of $ 200 @,@ 000 , Dassin could not afford top stars for the film . To carry the lead role , Dassin selected Jean Servais , an actor whose career had slumped due to alcoholism . For Italian gangster Mario Ferrati , Dassin cast Robert Manuel after seeing him perform a comic role as a member of Comédie @-@ Française . After a suggestion made by the wife of the film 's producer , Dassin cast Carl Möhner as Jo the Swede . Dassin would use Möhner again in his next film He Who Must Die . Dassin himself played the role of the Italian safecracker César the Milanese . Dassin explained in an interview that he " had cast a very good actor in Italy , whose name escapes me , but he never got the contract ! ... So I had to put on the mustache and do the part myself " .
Rififi was filmed during the wintertime in Paris and used real locations rather than studio sets . Due to the low budget , the locations were scouted by Dassin himself . Dassin 's fee for writing , directing , and acting was US $ 8 @,@ 000 . Dassin 's production designer , to whom he referred as " one of the greatest men in the history of cinema " was Alexandre Trauner . Out of friendship for Dassin , Trauner did the film for very little money . Dassin argued with his producer Henri Bérard on two points : Dassin refused to shoot the film when there was sunlight claiming that he " just wanted grey " ; and that there were to be no fist fights in the film . Such fight scenes had been important to the popular success in France of the Lemmy Caution film series .
Rififi 's heist scene was based on an actual burglary that took place in 1899 along Marseille 's cours St @-@ Louis . A gang broke into the first floor offices of a travel agency , cutting a hole in the floor and using an umbrella to catch the debris in order to make off with the contents of the jeweler 's shop below . The scene where Tony regretfully chooses to kill César for his betrayal of the thieves ' code of silence was filmed as an allusion to how Dassin and others felt after finding their contemporaries willing to name names in front of the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee . This act was not in the original novel .
= = = Music and title = = =
Georges Auric was hired as the composer for the film . Dassin and Auric originally could not agree about scoring the half @-@ hour caper scene . After Dassin told Auric he did not want music , Auric claimed he would " protect [ him ] . I 'm going to write the music for the scene anyways , because you need to be protected " . After filming was finished , Dassin showed the film to Auric once with music and once without . Afterward , Auric agreed the scene should be unscored .
In 2001 , Dassin admitted that he somewhat regretted the Rififi theme song , utilized only to explain the film 's title which is never mentioned by any other film characters . The title ( Word War I French military slang ) is almost un @-@ translatable into English ; the closest attempts have been " rough and tumble " and " pitched battle . " Dassin mistakenly thought the author had created the word himself to refer to Moroccan Berbers because of the Rif War . The song was written in two days by lyricist Jacques Larue and composer Philippe @-@ Gérard after Dassin turned down a proposal by Louiguy . Magali Noël was cast as Viviane , who sings the film 's theme song . Noël would later act for Italian director Federico Fellini , appearing in three of his films .
= = Release = =
Rififi debuted in France on 13 April 1955 . The film was banned in some countries due to its heist scene , referred to by the Los Angeles Times reviewer as a " master class in breaking and entering as well as filmmaking " . The Mexican interior ministry banned the film because of a series of burglaries mimicking its heist scene . Rififi was banned in Finland in the late 1950s . In answer to critics who saw the film as an educational process that taught people how to commit burglary , Dassin claimed the film showed how difficult it was to actually carry out a crime .
Rififi was a popular success in France which led to several other Rififi films based on le Breton 's stories . These films include Du rififi chez les femmes ( 1959 ) , Du rififi à Tokyo ( 1961 ) , and Du rififi à Paname ( 1965 ) . On its United Kingdom release , Rififi was paired with the British science fiction film The Quatermass Xperiment as a double bill ; this went on to be the most successful double @-@ bill release in UK cinemas in all of 1955 . The film was offered distribution in the United States on the condition that Dassin renounce his past , declaring that he was duped into subversive associations . Otherwise , his name would be removed from the film as the writer and director . Dassin refused and the film was released by United Artists who set up a dummy corporation as the distributing company . The film was distributed successfully in America with Dassin listed in the credits ; in this way he was the first to break the Hollywood blacklist . Rififi was released in the United States first with subtitles and then later with an English dub under the title Rififi ... Means Trouble ! . The film caused controversy on its release from The Roman Catholic Legion of Decency . The film endured three brief cuts in it and opened with a title card quoting the Book of Proverbs stating " When the wicked are multiplied , crime shall be multiplied : but the just shall see their downfall " . After this change , the film passed with a B rating . In 2005 , Variety announced that Stone Village Pictures had acquired the remake rights to Rififi , the producers intending to place the film in a modern setting with Al Pacino taking the lead role .
= = = Home media = = =
In North America , Rififi has been released on both VHS and DVD . The VHS print has been reviewed negatively by critics . Roger Ebert referred to it as " shabby " while Bill Hunt and Todd Doogan , the authors of The Digital Bits Insider 's Guide to DVD , referred to the VHS version as " horrible " and with " crappy subtitles " . The Criterion Collection released a DVD version of the film on 24 April 2001 . In the United Kingdom , Rififi was released on DVD by Arrow Films on 21 April 2003 , and on Region B Blu @-@ ray by the same publisher on 9 May 2011 . The film was released to Blu @-@ Ray in Region 1 by Criterion on 14 January 2014 .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon its original release , film critic and future director François Truffaut praised the film , stating that " Out of the worst crime novels I ever read , Jules Dassin has made the best crime film I 've ever seen " and " Everything in Le Rififi is intelligent : screenplay , dialogue , sets , music , choice of actors . Jean Servais , Robert Manuel , and Jules Dassin are perfect . " French critic André Bazin said that Rififi brought the genre a " sincerity and humanity that break with the conventions of a crime film , and manage to touch our hearts " . In the February 1956 issue of the French film magazine Cahiers du cinéma , the film was listed as number thirteen in the top twenty films of 1955 . The film was well received by British critics who noted the film 's violence on its initial release . The Daily Mirror referred to the film as " brilliant and brutal " while the Daily Herald made note that Rififi would " make American attempts at screen brutality look like a tea party in cathedral city " . The American release of the film also received acclaim . Bosley Crowther of The New York Times referred to the film as " perhaps the keenest crime film that ever came from France , including " Pepe le Moko " and some of the best of Louis Jouvet and Jean Gabin . " The National Board of Review nominated the film as the Best Foreign Film in 1956 .
Rififi was re @-@ released for a limited run within America on 21 July 2000 in a new 35 mm print containing new , more explicit subtitles that were enhanced in collaboration with Dassin . The film was received very well by American critics on its re @-@ release . The film ranking website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 93 % of critics had given the film positive reviews , based upon a sample of 41 . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the film has received an average score of 97 , based on 13 reviews . Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times wrote the film was the " benchmark all succeeding heist films have been measured against ... It 's a film whose influence is hard to overstate , one that proves for not the last time that it 's easier to break into a safe than fathom the mysteries of the human heart . " Lucia Bozzola of the online database Allmovie gave the film the highest possible rating of five stars , calling it " The pinnacle of heist movies " and " not only one of the best French noirs , but one of the top movies in the genre . " In 2002 , critic Roger Ebert added the film to his list of " Great Movies " stating " echoes of [ Rififi ] can be found from Kubrick 's " The Killing " to Tarantino 's " Reservoir Dogs . " They both owe something to John Huston 's " The Asphalt Jungle " ( 1950 ) , which has the general idea but not the attention to detail . " Among negative reviews of the film , Dave Kehr of the Chicago Reader felt that " the film turns moralistic and sour in the last half , when the thieves fall out . " Rififi placed at number 90 on Empire 's list of The 100 Best Films Of World Cinema . Critic and director Jean @-@ Luc Godard regarded the film negatively in comparison to other French crime films of the era , noting in 1986 that " today it can 't hold a candle to Touchez pas au grisbi which paved the way for it , let alone Bob le flambeur which it paved the way for . "
= Hepatitis B =
Hepatitis B is an infectious disease caused by the hepatitis B virus ( HBV ) which affects the liver . It can cause both acute and chronic infections . Many people have no symptoms during the initial infection . Some develop a rapid onset of sickness with vomiting , yellowish skin , tiredness , dark urine and abdominal pain . Often these symptoms last a few weeks and rarely does the initial infection result in death . It may take 30 to 180 days for symptoms to begin . In those who get infected around the time of birth 90 % develop chronic hepatitis B while less than 10 % of those infected after the age of five do . Most of those with chronic disease have no symptoms ; however , cirrhosis and liver cancer may eventually develop . These complications result in the death of 15 to 25 % of those with chronic disease .
The virus is transmitted by exposure to infectious blood or body fluids . Infection around the time of birth or from contact with other people 's blood during childhood is the most frequent method by which hepatitis B is acquired in areas where the disease is common . In areas where the disease is rare , intravenous drug use and sexual intercourse are the most frequent routes of infection . Other risk factors include working in healthcare , blood transfusions , dialysis , living with an infected person , travel in countries where the infection rate is high , and living in an institution . Tattooing and acupuncture led to a significant number of cases in the 1980s ; however , this has become less common with improved sterility . The hepatitis B viruses cannot be spread by holding hands , sharing eating utensils , kissing , hugging , coughing , sneezing , or breastfeeding . The infection can be diagnosed 30 to 60 days after exposure . Diagnosis is typically by testing the blood for parts of the virus and for antibodies against the virus . It is one of five known hepatitis viruses : A , B , C , D , and E.
The infection has been preventable by vaccination since 1982 . Vaccination is recommended by the World Health Organization in the first day of life if possible . Two or three more doses are required at a later time for full effect . This vaccine works about 95 % of the time . About 180 countries gave the vaccine as part of national programs as of 2006 . It is also recommended that all blood be tested for hepatitis B before transfusion and condoms be used to prevent infection . During an initial infection , care is based on the symptoms that a person has . In those who develop chronic disease antiviral medication such as tenofovir or interferon may be useful ; however , these drugs are expensive . Liver transplantation is sometimes used for cirrhosis .
About a third of the world population has been infected at one point in their lives , including 240 million to 350 million who have chronic infections . Another 129 million new infections occurred in 2013 . Over 750 @,@ 000 people die of hepatitis B each year . About 300 @,@ 000 of these are due to liver cancer . The disease is now only common in East Asia and sub @-@ Saharan Africa where between 5 and 10 % of adults are chronically infected . Rates in Europe and North America are less than 1 % . It was originally known as serum hepatitis . Research is looking to create foods that contain HBV vaccine . The disease may affect other great apes as well .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Acute infection with hepatitis B virus is associated with acute viral hepatitis – an illness that begins with general ill @-@ health , loss of appetite , nausea , vomiting , body aches , mild fever , and dark urine , and then progresses to development of jaundice . It has been noted that itchy skin has been an indication as a possible symptom of all hepatitis virus types . The illness lasts for a few weeks and then gradually improves in most affected people . A few people may have more severe liver disease ( fulminant hepatic failure ) , and may die as a result . The infection may be entirely asymptomatic and may go unrecognized .
Chronic infection with hepatitis B virus either may be asymptomatic or may be associated with a chronic inflammation of the liver ( chronic hepatitis ) , leading to cirrhosis over a period of several years . This type of infection dramatically increases the incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma ( liver cancer ) . Across Europe hepatitis B and C cause approximately 50 % of hepatocellular carcinomas . Chronic carriers are encouraged to avoid consuming alcohol as it increases their risk for cirrhosis and liver cancer . Hepatitis B virus has been linked to the development of membranous glomerulonephritis ( MGN ) .
Symptoms outside of the liver are present in 1 – 10 % of HBV @-@ infected people and include serum @-@ sickness – like syndrome , acute necrotizing vasculitis ( polyarteritis nodosa ) , membranous glomerulonephritis , and papular acrodermatitis of childhood ( Gianotti – Crosti syndrome ) . The serum @-@ sickness – like syndrome occurs in the setting of acute hepatitis B , often preceding the onset of jaundice . The clinical features are fever , skin rash , and polyarteritis . The symptoms often subside shortly after the onset of jaundice , but can persist throughout the duration of acute hepatitis B. About 30 – 50 % of people with acute necrotizing vasculitis ( polyarteritis nodosa ) are HBV carriers . HBV @-@ associated nephropathy has been described in adults but is more common in children . Membranous glomerulonephritis is the most common form . Other immune @-@ mediated hematological disorders , such as essential mixed cryoglobulinemia and aplastic anemia .
= = Cause = =
= = = Transmission = = =
Transmission of hepatitis B virus results from exposure to infectious blood or body fluids containing blood . It is 50 to 100 times more infectious than HIV . Possible forms of transmission include sexual contact , blood transfusions and transfusion with other human blood products , re @-@ use of contaminated needles and syringes , and vertical transmission from mother to child ( MTCT ) during childbirth . Without intervention , a mother who is positive for HBsAg has a 20 % risk of passing the infection to her offspring at the time of birth . This risk is as high as 90 % if the mother is also positive for HBeAg . HBV can be transmitted between family members within households , possibly by contact of nonintact skin or mucous membrane with secretions or saliva containing HBV . However , at least 30 % of reported hepatitis B among adults cannot be associated with an identifiable risk factor . Breastfeeding after proper immunoprophylaxis does not appear to contribute to mother @-@ to @-@ child @-@ transmission ( MTCT ) of HBV . The virus may be detected within 30 to 60 days after infection and can persist and develop into chronic hepatitis B.The incubation period of the hepatitis B virus is 75 days on average , but can vary from 30 to 180 days .
= = = Virology = = =
= = = = Structure = = = =
Hepatitis B virus ( HBV ) is a member of the hepadnavirus family . The virus particle ( virion ) consists of an outer lipid envelope and an icosahedral nucleocapsid core composed of protein . These virions are 30 @-@ 42 nm in diameter . The nucleocapsid encloses the viral DNA and a DNA polymerase that has reverse transcriptase activity . The outer envelope contains embedded proteins that are involved in viral binding of , and entry into , susceptible cells . The virus is one of the smallest enveloped animal viruses , and the 42 nm virions , which are capable of infecting liver cells known as hepatocytes , are referred to as " Dane particles " . In addition to the Dane particles , filamentous and spherical bodies lacking a core can be found in the serum of infected individuals . These particles are not infectious and are composed of the lipid and protein that forms part of the surface of the virion , which is called the surface antigens ( HBsAg ) , and is produced in excess during the life cycle of the virus .
= = = = Genome = = = =
The genome of HBV is made of circular DNA , but it is unusual because the DNA is not fully double @-@ stranded . One end of the full length strand is linked to the viral DNA polymerase . The genome is 3020 – 3320 nucleotides long ( for the full @-@ length strand ) and 1700 – 2800 nucleotides long ( for the short length @-@ strand ) . The negative @-@ sense ( non @-@ coding ) is complementary to the viral mRNA . The viral DNA is found in the nucleus soon after infection of the cell . The partially double @-@ stranded DNA is rendered fully double @-@ stranded by completion of the ( + ) sense strand and removal of a protein molecule from the ( − ) sense strand and a short sequence of RNA from the ( + ) sense strand . Non @-@ coding bases are removed from the ends of the ( − ) sense strand and the ends are rejoined . There are four known genes encoded by the genome , called C , X , P , and S. The core protein is coded for by gene C ( HBcAg ) , and its start codon is preceded by an upstream in @-@ frame AUG start codon from which the pre @-@ core protein is produced . HBeAg is produced by proteolytic processing of the pre @-@ core protein . In some rare strains of the virus known as Hepatitis B virus precore mutants , no HBeAg is present . The DNA polymerase is encoded by gene P. Gene S is the gene that codes for the surface antigen ( HBsAg ) . The HBsAg gene is one long open reading frame but contains three in frame " start " ( ATG ) codons that divide the gene into three sections , pre @-@ S1 , pre @-@ S2 , and S. Because of the multiple start codons , polypeptides of three different sizes called large ( the order from surface to the inside : pre @-@ S1 , pre @-@ S2 , and S ) , middle ( pre @-@ S2 , S ) , and small ( S ) are produced . The function of the protein coded for by gene X is not fully understood but it is associated with the development of liver cancer . It stimulates genes that promote cell growth and inactivates growth regulating molecules .
= = = = Pathogenesis = = = =
The life cycle of hepatitis B virus is complex . Hepatitis B is one of a few known pararetroviruses : non @-@ retroviruses that still use reverse transcription in their replication process . The virus gains entry into the cell by binding to NTCP on the surface and being endocytosed . Because the virus multiplies via RNA made by a host enzyme , the viral genomic DNA has to be transferred to the cell nucleus by host proteins called chaperones . The partially double stranded viral DNA is then made fully double stranded by viral polymerase and transformed into covalently closed circular DNA ( cccDNA ) . This cccDNA serves as a template for transcription of four viral mRNAs by host RNA polymerase . The largest mRNA , ( which is longer than the viral genome ) , is used to make the new copies of the genome and to make the capsid core protein and the viral DNA polymerase . These four viral transcripts undergo additional processing and go on to form progeny virions that are released from the cell or returned to the nucleus and re @-@ cycled to produce even more copies . The long mRNA is then transported back to the cytoplasm where the virion P protein ( the DNA polymerase ) synthesizes DNA via its reverse transcriptase activity .
= = = = Serotypes and genotypes = = = =
The virus is divided into four major serotypes ( adr , adw , ayr , ayw ) based on antigenic epitopes presented on its envelope proteins , and into eight genotypes ( A – H ) according to overall nucleotide sequence variation of the genome . The genotypes have a distinct geographical distribution and are used in tracing the evolution and transmission of the virus . Differences between genotypes affect the disease severity , course and likelihood of complications , and response to treatment and possibly vaccination .
Genotypes differ by at least 8 % of their sequence and were first reported in 1988 when six were initially described ( A – F ) . Two further types have since been described ( G and H ) . Most genotypes are now divided into subgenotypes with distinct properties .
= = Mechanisms = =
Hepatitis B virus primarily interferes with the functions of the liver by replicating in hepatocytes . A functional receptor is NTCP . There is evidence that the receptor in the closely related duck hepatitis B virus is carboxypeptidase D. The virions bind to the host cell via the preS domain of the viral surface antigen and are subsequently internalized by endocytosis . HBV @-@ preS @-@ specific receptors are expressed primarily on hepatocytes ; however , viral DNA and proteins have also been detected in extrahepatic sites , suggesting that cellular receptors for HBV may also exist on extrahepatic cells .
During HBV infection , the host immune response causes both hepatocellular damage and viral clearance . Although the innate immune response does not play a significant role in these processes , the adaptive immune response , in particular virus @-@ specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes ( CTLs ) , contributes to most of the liver injury associated with HBV infection . CTLs eliminate HBV infection by killing infected cells and producing antiviral cytokines , which are then used to purge HBV from viable hepatocytes . Although liver damage is initiated and mediated by the CTLs , antigen @-@ nonspecific inflammatory cells can worsen CTL @-@ induced immunopathology , and platelets activated at the site of infection may facilitate the accumulation of CTLs in the liver .
= = Diagnosis = =
The tests , called assays , for detection of hepatitis B virus infection involve serum or blood tests that detect either viral antigens ( proteins produced by the virus ) or antibodies produced by the host . Interpretation of these assays is complex .
The hepatitis B surface antigen ( HBsAg ) is most frequently used to screen for the presence of this infection . It is the first detectable viral antigen to appear during infection . However , early in an infection , this antigen may not be present and it may be undetectable later in the infection as it is being cleared by the host . The infectious virion contains an inner " core particle " enclosing viral genome . The icosahedral core particle is made of 180 or 240 copies of core protein , alternatively known as hepatitis B core antigen , or HBcAg . During this ' window ' in which the host remains infected but is successfully clearing the virus , IgM antibodies specific to the hepatitis B core antigen ( anti @-@ HBc IgM ) may be the only serological evidence of disease . Therefore , most hepatitis B diagnostic panels contain HBsAg and total anti @-@ HBc ( both IgM and IgG ) .
Shortly after the appearance of the HBsAg , another antigen called hepatitis B e antigen ( HBeAg ) will appear . Traditionally , the presence of HBeAg in a host 's serum is associated with much higher rates of viral replication and enhanced infectivity ; however , variants of the hepatitis B virus do not produce the ' e ' antigen , so this rule does not always hold true . During the natural course of an infection , the HBeAg may be cleared , and antibodies to the ' e ' antigen ( anti @-@ HBe ) will arise immediately afterwards . This conversion is usually associated with a dramatic decline in viral replication .
If the host is able to clear the infection , eventually the HBsAg will become undetectable and will be followed by IgG antibodies to the hepatitis B surface antigen and core antigen ( anti @-@ HBs and anti HBc IgG ) . The time between the removal of the HBsAg and the appearance of anti @-@ HBs is called the window period . A person negative for HBsAg but positive for anti @-@ HBs either has cleared an infection or has been vaccinated previously .
Individuals who remain HBsAg positive for at least six months are considered to be hepatitis B carriers . Carriers of the virus may have chronic hepatitis B , which would be reflected by elevated serum alanine aminotransferase ( ALT ) levels and inflammation of the liver , if they are in the immune clearance phase of chronic infection . Carriers who have seroconverted to HBeAg negative status , in particular those who acquired the infection as adults , have very little viral multiplication and hence may be at little risk of long @-@ term complications or of transmitting infection to others .
PCR tests have been developed to detect and measure the amount of HBV DNA , called the viral load , in clinical specimens . These tests are used to assess a person 's infection status and to monitor treatment . Individuals with high viral loads , characteristically have ground glass hepatocytes on biopsy .
= = Prevention = =
Vaccines for the prevention of hepatitis B have been routinely recommended for infants since 1991 in the United States . Most vaccines are given in three doses over a course of months . A protective response to the vaccine is defined as an anti @-@ HBs antibody concentration of at least 10 mIU / ml in the recipient 's serum . The vaccine is more effective in children and 95 percent of those vaccinated have protective levels of antibody . This drops to around 90 % at 40 years of age and to around 75 percent in those over 60 years . The protection afforded by vaccination is long lasting even after antibody levels fall below 10 mIU / ml . Vaccination at birth is recommended for all infants of HBV infected mothers . A combination of hepatitis B immune globulin and an accelerated course of HBV vaccine prevents HBV transmission around the time of birth in 86 % to 99 % of cases .
All those with a risk of exposure to body fluids such as blood should be vaccinated , if not already . Testing to verify effective immunization is recommended and further doses of vaccine are given to those who are not sufficiently immunized .
In assisted reproductive technology , sperm washing is not necessary for males with hepatitis B to prevent transmission , unless the female partner has not been effectively vaccinated . In females with hepatitis B , the risk of transmission from mother to child with IVF is no different from the risk in spontaneous conception .
Those at high risk of infection should be tested as there is effective treatment for those who have the disease . Groups that screening is recommended for include those who have not been vaccinated and one of the following : people from areas of the world where hepatitis B occurs in more than 2 % , those with HIV , intravenous drug users , men who have sex with men , and those who live with someone with hepatitis B.
= = = Duration of vaccination = = =
In 10- to 22 @-@ year follow @-@ up studies there were no cases of hepatitis B among those with a normal immune system who were vaccinated . Only rare chronic infections have been documented .
= = Treatment = =
Acute hepatitis B infection does not usually require treatment and most adults clear the infection spontaneously . Early antiviral treatment may be required in fewer than 1 % of people , whose infection takes a very aggressive course ( fulminant hepatitis ) or who are immunocompromised . On the other hand , treatment of chronic infection may be necessary to reduce the risk of cirrhosis and liver cancer . Chronically infected individuals with persistently elevated serum alanine aminotransferase , a marker of liver damage , and HBV DNA levels are candidates for therapy . Treatment lasts from six months to a year , depending on medication and genotype .
Although none of the available drugs can clear the infection , they can stop the virus from replicating , thus minimizing liver damage . As of 2008 , there are seven medications licensed for treatment of hepatitis B infection in the United States . These include antiviral drugs lamivudine ( Epivir ) , adefovir ( Hepsera ) , tenofovir ( Viread ) , telbivudine ( Tyzeka ) and entecavir ( Baraclude ) , and the two immune system modulators interferon alpha @-@ 2a and PEGylated interferon alpha @-@ 2a ( Pegasys ) . The World Health Organization recommended a combination of tenofovir and entecavir as first line agents . Those with current cirrhosis are in most need of treatment .
The use of interferon , which requires injections daily or thrice weekly , has been supplanted by long @-@ acting PEGylated interferon , which is injected only once weekly . However , some individuals are much more likely to respond than others , and this might be because of the genotype of the infecting virus or the person 's heredity . The treatment reduces viral replication in the liver , thereby reducing the viral load ( the amount of virus particles as measured in the blood ) . Response to treatment differs between the genotypes . Interferon treatment may produce an e antigen seroconversion rate of 37 % in genotype A but only a 6 % seroconversion in type D. Genotype B has similar seroconversion rates to type A while type C seroconverts only in 15 % of cases . Sustained e antigen loss after treatment is ~ 45 % in types A and B but only 25 – 30 % in types C and D.
= = Prognosis = =
Hepatitis B virus infection may be either acute ( self @-@ limiting ) or chronic ( long @-@ standing ) . Persons with self @-@ limiting infection clear the infection spontaneously within weeks to months .
Children are less likely than adults to clear the infection . More than 95 % of people who become infected as adults or older children will stage a full recovery and develop protective immunity to the virus . However , this drops to 30 % for younger children , and only 5 % of newborns that acquire the infection from their mother at birth will clear the infection . This population has a 40 % lifetime risk of death from cirrhosis or hepatocellular carcinoma . Of those infected between the age of one to six , 70 % will clear the infection .
Hepatitis D ( HDV ) can occur only with a concomitant hepatitis B infection , because HDV uses the HBV surface antigen to form a capsid . Co @-@ infection with hepatitis D increases the risk of liver cirrhosis and liver cancer . Polyarteritis nodosa is more common in people with hepatitis B infection .
= = = Cirrhosis = = =
A number of different tests are available to determine the degree of cirrhosis present . Transient elastography ( FibroScan ) is the test of choice , but it is expensive . Aspartate aminotransferase to platelet ratio index may be used when cost is an issue .
= = = Reactivation = = =
Hepatitis B virus DNA persists in the body after infection , and in some people the disease recurs . Although rare , reactivation is seen most often following alcohol or drug use , or in people with impaired immunity . HBV goes through cycles of replication and non @-@ replication . Approximately 50 % of overt carriers experience acute reactivation . Males with baseline ALT of 200 UL / L are three times more likely to develop a reactivation than people with lower levels . Although reactivation can occur spontaneously , people who undergo chemotherapy have a higher risk . Immunosuppressive drugs favor increased HBV replication while inhibiting cytotoxic T cell function in the liver . The risk of reactivation varies depending on the serological profile ; those with detectable HBsAg in their blood are at the greatest risk , but those with only antibodies to the core antigen are also at risk . The presence of antibodies to the surface antigen , which are considered to be a marker of immunity , does not preclude reactivation . Treatment with prophylactic antiviral drugs can prevent the serious morbidity associated with HBV disease reactivation .
= = Epidemiology = =
In 2004 , an estimated 350 million individuals were infected worldwide . National and regional prevalence ranges from over 10 % in Asia to under 0 @.@ 5 % in the United States and northern Europe .
Routes of infection include vertical transmission ( such as through childbirth ) , early life horizontal transmission ( bites , lesions , and sanitary habits ) , and adult horizontal transmission ( sexual contact , intravenous drug use ) .
The primary method of transmission reflects the prevalence of chronic HBV infection in a given area . In low prevalence areas such as the continental United States and Western Europe , injection drug abuse and unprotected sex are the primary methods , although other factors may also be important . In moderate prevalence areas , which include Eastern Europe , Russia , and Japan , where 2 – 7 % of the population is chronically infected , the disease is predominantly spread among children . In high @-@ prevalence areas such as China and South East Asia , transmission during childbirth is most common , although in other areas of high endemicity such as Africa , transmission during childhood is a significant factor . The prevalence of chronic HBV infection in areas of high endemicity is at least 8 % with 10 – 15 % prevalence in Africa / Far East . As of 2010 , China has 120 million infected people , followed by India and Indonesia with 40 million and 12 million , respectively . According to World Health Organization ( WHO ) , an estimated 600 @,@ 000 people die every year related to the infection .
In the United States about 19 @,@ 000 new cases occurred in 2011 down nearly 90 % from 1990 .
= = History = =
The earliest record of an epidemic caused by hepatitis B virus was made by Lurman in 1885 . An outbreak of smallpox occurred in Bremen in 1883 and 1 @,@ 289 shipyard employees were vaccinated with lymph from other people . After several weeks , and up to eight months later , 191 of the vaccinated workers became ill with jaundice and were diagnosed as suffering from serum hepatitis . Other employees who had been inoculated with different batches of lymph remained healthy . Lurman 's paper , now regarded as a classical example of an epidemiological study , proved that contaminated lymph was the source of the outbreak . Later , numerous similar outbreaks were reported following the introduction , in 1909 , of hypodermic needles that were used , and , more importantly , reused , for administering Salvarsan for the treatment of syphilis . The virus was not discovered until 1966 when Baruch Blumberg , then working at the National Institutes of Health ( NIH ) , discovered the Australia antigen ( later known to be hepatitis B surface antigen , or HBsAg ) in the blood of Australian aboriginal people . Although a virus had been suspected since the research published by MacCallum in 1947 , D.S. Dane and others discovered the virus particle in 1970 by electron microscopy . By the early 1980s the genome of the virus had been sequenced , and the first vaccines were being tested .
= = Society and culture = =
World Hepatitis Day , observed July 28 , aims to raise global awareness of hepatitis B and hepatitis C and encourage prevention , diagnosis and treatment . It has been led by the World Hepatitis Alliance since 2007 and in May 2010 , it got global endorsement from the World Health Organization .
= Battle of Chaeronea ( 338 BC ) =
The Battle of Chaeronea was fought in 338 BC , near the city of Chaeronea in Boeotia , between the Macedonians led by Philip II of Macedon and an alliance of some of the Greek city @-@ states including Athens and Thebes . The battle was the culmination of Philip 's campaign in Greece ( 339 – 338 BC ) and resulted in a decisive victory for the Macedonians .
Philip had brought peace to a war @-@ torn Greece in 346 BC , by ending the Third Sacred War , and concluding his ten @-@ year conflict with Athens for supremacy in the north Aegean , by making a separate peace . Philip 's much expanded kingdom , powerful army and plentiful resources now made him the de facto leader of Greece . To many of the fiercely independent Greek city @-@ states , Philip 's power after 346 BC was perceived as a threat to their liberty , especially in Athens , where the politician Demosthenes led efforts to break away from Philip 's influence . In 340 BC Demosthenes convinced the Athenian assembly to sanction action against Philip 's territories and to ally with Byzantium , which Philip was besieging . These actions were against the terms of their treaty oaths and amounted to a declaration of war . In summer 339 BC , Philip therefore led his army into Greece , prompting the formation of an alliance of Greek states opposed to him , led by Athens and Thebes .
After several months of stalemate , Philip finally advanced into Boeotia in an attempt to march on Thebes and Athens . Opposing him , and blocking the road near Chaeronea , was the allied Greek army , similar in size and occupying a strong position . Details of the ensuing battle are scarce , but after a long fight the Macedonians crushed both flanks of the allied line , which then dissolved into a rout .
The battle has been described as one of the most decisive of the ancient world . The forces of Athens and Thebes were destroyed , and continued resistance was impossible ; the war therefore came to an abrupt end . Philip was able to impose a settlement upon Greece , which all states accepted , with the exception of Sparta . The League of Corinth , formed as a result , made all participants allies of Macedon and each other , with Philip as the guarantor of the peace . In turn , Philip was voted as strategos ( general ) for a pan @-@ Hellenic war against the Persian Empire , which he had long planned . However , before he was able to take charge of the campaign , Philip was assassinated , and the kingdom of Macedon and responsibility for the war with Persia passed instead to his son Alexander .
= = Background = =
In the decade following his accession in 359 BC , the Macedonian king , Philip II , had rapidly strengthened and expanded his kingdom into Thrace and Ch
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Sharks from the western portion of this species ' range were once thought to be a separate species , F. ventralis , until comparative studies by Leonard Compagno found that they were not significantly different from F. macki .
Based on morphology , Leonard Compagno grouped Furgaleus with Hemitriakis , Iago , and Gogolia as the tribe Iagini within the subfamily Galeorhininae of the family Triakidae . A 2006 phylogenetic study by J. Andrés López and colleagues , based on four protein @-@ coding gene sequences , affirmed that Furgaleus and Hemitriakis are sister taxa ; the study was equivocal regarding the position of Iago and did not include Gogolia .
= = Description = =
The whiskery shark has a moderately stout build , with an almost " humpbacked " appearance . The short snout is rounded or wedge @-@ shaped when viewed from above . This species is the only houndshark in which the flaps of skin preceding the nostrils are elongated into thin barbels . The horizontally oval eyes are placed high on the head and are equipped with rudimentary nictitating membranes ( protective third eyelids ) . Beneath the eye is a prominent ridge , and behind it is a tiny spiracle . The mouth forms a short , wide arch , and bears somewhat long furrows at the corners . There are 24 – 32 upper and 36 – 42 lower tooth rows . Each upper tooth has an angled , knife @-@ like main cusp with smaller cusplets on the trailing side , while each lower tooth has a single upright cusp . There are five pairs of gill slits .
The first dorsal fin is rather large and positioned closer to the pectoral than the pelvic fins , though its origin lies posterior to the pectoral fin rear tips . The second dorsal fin roughly equals the first in size and is positioned slightly ahead of the anal fin , which is much smaller than either dorsal fin . The caudal fin has a short lower lobe and a deep ventral notch near the tip of the upper lobe . Adults are brownish gray above and lighter below ; young sharks are lighter in color and have darker saddles and blotches over the body and fins , which fade and may disappear with age . This species grows up to 1 @.@ 6 m ( 5 @.@ 2 ft ) long and 13 kg ( 29 lb ) in weight .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Endemic to Australia , the whiskery shark inhabits temperate continental shelf waters from the North West Cape in Western Australia to Wynyard in Tasmania . It is most common in the southwestern portion of its range between Kalbarri and Albany , and is rare off Victoria and Tasmania . Its range seems to encompass a single population . This species is found close to the bottom at depths of up to 220 m ( 720 ft ) . It favors rocky areas and kelp beds .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The whiskery shark is an active and highly specialized predator , feeding almost exclusively on octopuses . Other cephalopods , bony fishes , small rock lobsters , spoon worms , and seagrass have also been found amongst its stomach contents . A known parasite of this species is the tapeworm Calliobothrium pritchardae .
Like other houndsharks , the whiskery shark is viviparous ; the developing embryos are sustained by yolk and probably also maternally produced histotroph . Males can mate every year , while females have a biennial reproductive cycle . Mating takes place in August and September ; females store sperm until late January to early April of the following year , when the ova are ready to be ovulated into the uterus . After a 7 – 9 month long gestation period , litters of 4 – 28 ( average 19 ) pups are born between August and October . The litter size increases with the size of the female . The newborns measure 22 – 27 cm ( 8 @.@ 7 – 10 @.@ 6 in ) long .
Juvenile whiskery sharks are rarely caught by commercial fishers , suggesting that nursery areas may be found in deeper water or other unfished habitats . Pups double to triple in size in the first 15 – 17 months of life , and continue to grow rapidly until they are 3 – 4 years old . Sexual maturity is attained at a length of 1 @.@ 1 – 1 @.@ 3 m ( 3 @.@ 6 – 4 @.@ 3 ft ) for both sexes , corresponding to around five years of age for males and seven years of age for females . Mature sharks exhibit negligible growth rates , perhaps due to resources being diverted towards reproduction . The maximum lifespan is estimated to be 15 years .
= = Human interactions = =
Harmless to humans , the whiskery shark is fished commercially for its meat , which is sold fresh . It is one of the shark species marketed as " flake " . Along with the dusky shark ( Carcharhinus obscurus ) and the gummy shark ( Mustelus antarcticus ) , it is targeted by a shark fishery operating off Western Australia , currently managed as the Western Australian Joint Authority Southern Demersal Gillnet and Demersal Longline Fishery ( JASDGDLF ) . The fishery began in the 1940s with a small number of demersal longline vessels , though the whiskery shark was not caught in substantial numbers until the 1970s , with the introduction of monofilament gillnets , hydraulic net haulers , and additional vessels . Catches peaked in the early 1980s , when 400 – 600 tons were taken annually . Overfishing reduced the population to < 30 % of pre @-@ exploitation levels by the mid @-@ 1980s , prompting the Western Australian government to enact a management plan that stabilized the population at 25 – 30 % of pre @-@ exploitation levels .
In 1995 , the management advisory committee for the Western Australian shark fishery recommended that the whiskery shark stock be rebuilt to 40 % of pre @-@ exploitation levels by the 2010 / 11 season , through a series of fishing effort reductions . Although this target was not met because the effort reductions were not completed until 2000 / 01 , preliminary catch per unit effort ( CPUE ) data indicate that the population is increasing . In 2004 / 05 , this species made up 12 % ( 153 tons ) of the fishery by weight . The whiskery shark is also a minor catch of the Southern Shark Fishery ( SSF ) , which does not threaten the species overall . Since its population is stable and regularly monitored , and the fisheries that affect it are well @-@ managed , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed this species as Least Concern .
= George H. Steuart ( brigadier general ) =
George Hume Steuart ( August 24 , 1828 – November 22 , 1903 ) was a planter in Maryland and an American military officer ; he served thirteen years in the United States Army before resigning his commission at the start of the American Civil War . He joined the Confederacy and rose to the rank of brigadier general in the Army of Northern Virginia . Nicknamed " Maryland " to avoid verbal confusion with Virginia cavalryman J.E.B. Stuart , Steuart unsuccessfully promoted the secession of Maryland before and during the conflict . He began the war as a captain of the 1st Maryland Infantry , CSA , and was promoted to colonel after the First Battle of Manassas .
In 1862 he became brigadier general . After a brief cavalry command he was reassigned to infantry . Wounded at Cross Keys , Steuart was out of the war for almost a year while recovering from a shoulder injury . He was reassigned to Lee 's army shortly before the Battle of Gettysburg . Steuart was captured at the Battle of Spotsylvania Court House , and exchanged in the summer of 1864 . He held a command in the Army of Northern Virginia for the remainder of the war . Steuart was among the officers with Robert E. Lee when he surrendered to Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House .
Steuart spent the rest of a long life operating a plantation in Anne Arundel County , Maryland . In the late nineteenth century , he joined the United Confederate Veterans and became commander of the Maryland division .
= = Early life and family = =
George Hume Steuart was born on August 24 , 1828 into a family of Scots ancestry in Baltimore . The eldest of nine children , he was raised at his family 's estate in West Baltimore , known as Maryland Square , located near the present @-@ day intersection of Baltimore and Monroe Streets . The Steuart family were wealthy plantation owners and strong supporters of slavery , which they depended on for labor .
The Steuarts shared a long tradition of military service . He was the son of Major General George H. Steuart , of Anne Arundel County , Maryland , who served in the War of 1812 , and with whom he is often confused . Baltimore residents referred to the father and son as " The Old General " and " The Young General . " The elder Steuart inherited approximately 2 @,@ 000 acres ( 8 @.@ 1 km2 ) of land in around 1842 , including a farm at Mount Steuart , and around 150 slaves , a high number in the Upper South .
Steuart was the grandson of Dr. James Steuart , a physician who served in the American Revolutionary War , and the great @-@ grandson of Dr. George H. Steuart , a physician who emigrated to Maryland from Perthshire , Scotland , in 1721 , and was lieutenant colonel of the Horse Militia under Governor Horatio Sharpe .
= = Early military career = =
Steuart attended the United States Military Academy between July 1 , 1844 and July 1 , 1848 , graduating 37th in the class of 1848 , aged nineteen . Steuart was assigned as 2nd lieutenant to the 2nd Dragoons , a regiment of cavalry that served in the frontier fighting Indians . He served in the Jefferson Barracks , Missouri , in 1848 , carried out frontier duty at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas , in 1849 , and participated in an expedition to the Rocky Mountains in 1849 . He actively participated in the US Army 's Cheyenne expedition of 1856 , the Utah War against the Mormons in 1857 – 1858 , and the Comanche expedition of 1860 .
He married Maria H. Kinzie on January 14 , 1858 . The couple had met in Kansas and , once married , lived at Fort Leavenworth , although they were separated for long periods while Steuart was on campaign duty and stationed at distant frontier posts . They had two daughters , Marie ( born 1860 ) and Ann ( born 1864 ) .
= = Civil War = =
Even though Maryland did not secede from the Union , Steuart 's loyalty lay with the South , as did that of his father . He commanded one of the Baltimore city militias during the riot of April 1861 , following which Federal troops occupied Baltimore , an incident which was arguably the first armed confrontation of the Civil War .
Steuart resigned his captain 's commission on April 16 , 1861 and soon entered the service of the Confederate army as a cavalry captain . He and his father were determined to do their utmost to prevent Union soldiers from occupying Maryland . On April 22 Steuart wrote to Charles Howard , President of the Board of Baltimore Police :
" If the Massachusetts troops are on the march [ to Annapolis ] I shall be in motion very early tomorrow morning to pay my respects to them " .
However , events did not move in their favor and , in a letter to his father , Steuart wrote :
" I found nothing but disgust in my observations along the route and in the place I came to – a large majority of the population are insane on the one idea of loyalty to the Union and the legislature is so diminished and unreliable that I rejoiced to hear that they intended to adjourn ... it seems that we are doomed to be trodden on by these troops who have taken military possession of our State , and seem determined to commit all the outrages of an invading army . "
Steuart 's efforts to persuade Maryland to secede from the Union were in vain . On April 29 , the Maryland Legislature voted 53 – 13 against secession. and the state was swiftly occupied by Union soldiers to prevent any reconsideration . Steuart 's decision to resign his commission and join the rebels would soon cost his family dear . The Steuart mansion at Maryland Square was confiscated by the Union Army and Jarvis Hospital was erected on the estate , to care for Federal wounded . However , Steuart was welcomed by the Confederacy as " one of Maryland 's most gifted sons " , and it was hoped by Southerners that other Marylanders would follow his example .
= = = First Bull Run = = =
Steuart soon became lieutenant colonel of the newly formed 1st Maryland Infantry , serving under Colonel Arnold Elzey , and fought with distinction at the First Battle of Bull Run , taking part in the charge that routed the Union army . Very soon after he was promoted to colonel , and assumed command of the regiment , succeeding Elzey , who was promoted to brigadier general . He soon began to acquire a reputation as a strict disciplinarian and gained the admiration of his men , though he was initially unpopular as a result . Steuart was said to have ordered his men to sweep the bare dirt inside their bivouacs and , rather more eccentrically , was prone to sneaking through the lines past unwitting sentries , in order to test their vigilance . On one occasion this plan backfired , as Steuart was pummeled and beaten by a sentry who later claimed not to have recognized the general . Eventually however , Steuart 's " rigid system of discipline quietly and quickly conduced to the health and morale of this splendid command . " According to Major W W Goldsborough , who served in Steuart 's Maryland Infantry at Gettysburg : " ... it was not only his love for a clean camp , but a desire to promote the health and comfort of his men that made him unyielding in the enforcement of sanitary rules . You might influence him in some things , but never in this " . George Wilson Booth , a young officer in Steuart 's command at Harper 's Ferry in 1861 , recalled in his memoirs : " The Regiment , under his master hand , soon gave evidence of the soldierly qualities which made it the pride of the army and placed the fame of Maryland in the very foreground of the Southern States " . Other historians have been less kind , seeing Steuart as a " tough and nasty martinet " and as a " cruel disciplinarian " , suggesting that such " old army " discipline was not the best way to mould and lead what was essentially a citizen army .
= = = Shenandoah Campaign and the First Battle of Winchester = = =
Steuart was promoted to brigadier general on March 6 , 1862 , commanding a brigade in Major General Richard S. Ewell 's division during Stonewall Jackson 's Shenandoah Valley campaign . On May 24 Jackson gave Steuart command of two cavalry regiments , the 2nd and 6th Virginia Cavalry regiments . At the First Battle of Winchester , on May 25 , 1862 , Jackson 's army was victorious , and the defeated Federal infantry retreated in confusion . The conditions were now perfect for the cavalry to complete the victory , but no cavalry units could be found to press home the advantage . Jackson complained : " never was there such a chance for cavalry ! Oh that my cavalry were in place ! " The exhausted infantry were forced forward again , while Lieutenant Sandie Pendleton of Jackson 's staff was sent to find Steuart .
Pendleton eventually found Steuart and gave him the order to pursue Banks ' retreating army but the general delayed , wasting valuable time on a point of military etiquette . He declined to obey the order until it came through General Ewell , his immediate divisional commander . The proper channels had not been followed . A frustrated Pendleton then rode two miles to find Ewell , who duly gave the order , but " seemed surprised that General Steuart had not gone on immediately " .
Steuart eventually gave chase and overtook the advance of the Confederate infantry , picking up many prisoners , but , as a result of the delay , the Confederate cavalry did not overtake the Federal army until it was , in the words of Jackson 's report , " beyond the reach of successful pursuit " . Jackson continued : " There is good reason for believing that had the cavalry played its part in this pursuit , but a small portion of Banks ' army would have made its escape to the Potomac " .
It remains unclear precisely why Steuart was reluctant to pursue Banks ' defeated army more vigorously , and contemporary records shed little light on the matter . It may be that his thirteen years ' training as a cavalry officer led him to obey orders to the letter , with little or no room for personal initiative or variation from strict due process . No charges were brought against him however , despite Jackson 's reputation as a stern disciplinarian . It is possible that Jackson 's leniency had to do with the strong desire of the Confederacy to recruit Marylanders to the Southern cause , and the need to avoid offending Marylanders who might be tempted to join Lee 's army .
Soon after Winchester , on June 2 , Steuart was involved in an unfortunate incident in which the 2nd Virginia Cavalry was mistakenly fired on by the 27th Virginia Infantry . Colonels Thomas Flournoy and Thomas T. Munford went to General Ewell and requested that their regiments , the 6th and 2nd Virginia Cavalry , be transferred to the command of Turner Ashby , recently promoted to Brigadier General . Ewell agreed , and went to Jackson for final approval . Jackson gave his consent , and for the remainder of the war Steuart would serve as an infantry commander .
= = = Battle of Cross Keys = = =
At the Battle of Cross Keys ( June 8 , 1862 ) , Steuart commanded the 1st Maryland Infantry , which was attacked by , and successfully fought off , a much larger Federal force . However , Steuart was severely injured in the shoulder by grape shot , and had to be carried from the battlefield . A ball from a canister shot had struck him in the shoulder and broken his collarbone , causing a " ghastly wound " . The injury did not heal well , and did not begin to improve at all until the ball was removed under surgery in August . It would prevent him from returning to the field for almost an entire year , until May 1863 .
= = = Gettysburg Campaign and the advance into Maryland = = =
Upon his recuperation and return to the army , Steuart was assigned by Gen. Robert E. Lee to command the Third Brigade , a force of around 2 @,@ 200 men , in Major General Edward " Allegheny " Johnson 's division , in the Army of Northern Virginia . The brigade 's former commander , Brigadier General Raleigh Colston , had been relieved of his command by Lee , who was disappointed by his performance at the Battle of Chancellorsville . The brigade consisted of the following regiments : the 2nd Maryland ( successor to the disbanded 1st Maryland ) , the 1st and 3rd North Carolina , and the 10th , 23rd , and 37th Virginia . Rivalries between the various state regiments had been a recurring problem in the brigade and Lee hoped that Steuart , as an " old army " hand , would be able to knit them together effectively . In addition , by this stage in the war Lee was desperately short of experienced senior commanders . However , Steuart had only been in command for a month when the Gettysburg Campaign got under way .
In June 1863 Lee 's army advanced north into Maryland , taking the war into Union territory for the second time . Steuart is said to have jumped down from his horse , kissed his native soil and stood on his head in jubilation . According to one of his aides : " We loved Maryland , we felt that she was in bondage against her will , and we burned with desire to have a part in liberating her " . Quartermaster John Howard recalled that Steuart performed " seventeen double somersaults " all the while whistling Maryland , My Maryland . Such celebrations would prove short lived , as Steuart 's brigade was soon to be severely damaged at the Battle of Gettysburg ( July 1 – 3 , 1863 ) . At first however , Lee 's advance north went well . At the Second Battle of Winchester ( June 13 – 15 , 1863 ) Steuart fought with Johnson 's division , helping to bring about a Confederate victory , during which his brigade took around 1 @,@ 000 prisoners and suffered comparatively small losses of 9 killed , 34 wounded .
= = = Battle of Gettysburg = = =
The Battle of Gettysburg ( July 1 – 3 , 1863 ) was to prove a turning point in the war , and the end of Lee 's advance . Steuart 's men arrived at Gettysburg " exhausted and footsore ... a little before dusk " on the evening of July 1 , following a 130 @-@ mile ( 210 km ) march from Sharpsburg , " many of them barefooted " . Steuart 's men attacked the Union line on the night of July 2 , gaining ground between the lower Culp 's Hill and the stone wall near Spangler 's Spring . But fresh Federal reinforcements blocked his further advance , and no further ground was gained . During the night a large number quantity of Union artillery was wheeled into place , the sound of which caused the optimistic Steuart to hope that the enemy was retreating in its wagons .
The morning of July 3 revealed the full scale of the Union defenses , as enemy artillery opened fire at a distance of 500 yards with a " terrific and galling fire " , followed by a ferocious assault on Steuart 's position . The result was a " terrible slaughter " of the Third Brigade , which fought for many hours without relief , exhausting their ammunition , but successfully holding their position . Then , late on the morning of July 3 , Johnson ordered a bayonet charge against the well @-@ fortified enemy lines , " confident of their ability to sweep him away and take the whole Union line in reverse " . Steuart was appalled , and was strongly critical of the attack , but direct orders could not be disobeyed , and Steuart gave the order to " Left face " and " file right " , sending his men into heavy enfilading fire . Steuart 's Third Brigade advanced against the Union breastworks and attempted several times to wrest control of Culp 's Hill , a vital part of the Union Army defensive line . The result was a " slaughterpen " , as the Second Maryland and the Third North Carolina regiments courageously charged a well @-@ defended position strongly held by three brigades , a few reaching within twenty paces of the enemy lines . So severe were the casualties among his men that Steuart is said to have broken down and wept , wringing his hands and crying " my poor boys " . Overall , the failed attack on Culp 's Hill cost Johnson 's division almost 2 @,@ 000 men , of which 700 were accounted for by Steuart 's brigade alone — far more than any other brigade in the division . At Hagerstown , on the 8th July , out of a pre @-@ battle strength of 2 @,@ 200 , just 1 @,@ 200 men reported for duty . The casualty rate among the Second Maryland and Third North Carolina was between one half and two @-@ thirds , in the space of just ten hours .
Even though Steuart had fought bravely under extremely difficult conditions , neither he nor any other officer was cited by Johnson in his report . Gettysburg marked the high @-@ water mark of the Confederacy ; thereafter Lee 's army would retreat until its final surrender to General Grant at Appomattox Court House .
= = = Battle of Payne 's Farm = = =
During the winter of 1863 Steuart 's Marylanders again saw action , at the Battle of Mine Run , also known as the battle of Payne 's Farm . On November 27 Steuart 's brigade was among the first to be attacked by Union soldiers , and Johnson himself rode to Steuart 's aid , bringing reinforcements . Steuart , bringing up the Confederate rear , halted his brigade and swiftly formed a line of battle in the road , to repel the Union attack . Confused fighting followed during which the Confederates fell back taking heavy losses , but prevented a Union breakthrough . Steuart himself was wounded for the second time , sustaining an injury to his arm . According to a historical marker which commemorates the engagement , Steuart 's " boldness against a vastly superior force ... helped to stall the advance of the entire Union army " .
= = = Battle of the Wilderness = = =
In the summer of 1864 , Steuart saw severe action during the Battle of the Wilderness ( May 5 – 7 , 1864 ) . Steuart led his North Carolina infantry against two New York regiments , causing Union losses of almost 600 men . During the battle his brother , Lieutenant William James Steuart , was severely wounded in the hip , and was sent to Guinea station , a hospital for officers in Richmond , Virginia . There , on 21 May 1864 , he died of his injuries . A friend of the family at the University of Virginia wrote to their bereaved father :
" You will not charge me , I trust , with intruding on the sacredness of your grief , if I cannot help giving expression to my deep , heartfelt sympathy with your great sorrow . You have sacrificed so much for the righteous cause already , that I know you will present this last and most precious offering also with the fortitude of your character and the submission of a Christian . Still , I know how valuable this son of yours had been to your interests , how dear to your heart , and I cannot tell you , with what deep and sincere grief I heard of your terrible loss . "
= = = Disaster at Spotsylvania = = =
Soon afterward , at the Battle of Spotsylvania Court House ( May 8 – 21 , 1864 ) , Steuart was himself captured , along with much of his brigade , during the brutal fighting for the " Mule Shoe " salient . The Mule Shoe salient formed a bulge in the Confederate lines , a strategic portion of vital high ground but one which was vulnerable to attack on three sides . During the night of May 11 , Confederate commanders withdrew most of the artillery pieces from the salient , convinced that Grant 's next attack would fall elsewhere . Steuart , to his credit , was alert to enemy preparations and sent a message to Johnson advising him of an imminent enemy attack and requesting the return of the artillery .
Unfortunately , shortly before dawn on May 12 , Union forces comprising three full divisions ( Major General Winfield S. Hancock 's II Corps ) attacked the Mule Shoe through heavy fog , taking the Confederate forces by surprise . Exhaustion , inadequate food , lack of artillery support , and wet powder from the night 's rain contributed to the collapse of the Confederate position as the Union forces swarmed out of the mist , overwhelming Steuart 's men and effectively putting an end to the Virginia Brigade . Confederate muskets would not fire due to damp powder , and apart from two remaining artillery pieces , the Southerners were effectively without firearms . During the thick of the fierce hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting that followed , Steuart was forced to surrender to Colonel James A. Beaver of the 148th Pennsylvania Infantry . Beaver asked Steuart " Where is your sword , sir ? " , to which the general replied , with considerable sarcasm , " Well , suh , you all waked us up so early this mawnin ' that I didn 't have time to get it on . " Steuart was brought to General Hancock , who had seen Steuart 's wife Maria in Washington before the battle and wished to give her news of her husband . He extended his hand , asking " how are you , Steuart ? " But Steuart refused to shake Hancock 's hand ; although the two men had been friends before the war , they were now enemies . Steuart said : " Considering the circumstance , General , I refuse to take your hand " , to which Hancock is said to have replied , " And under any other circumstance , General , I would have refused to offer it . " After this episode , an offended Hancock then left Steuart to march to the Union rear with the other prisoners .
After the battle , Steuart was sent as a prisoner of war to Charleston , South Carolina , and was later imprisoned at Hilton Head , where he and other officers were placed under the fire of Confederate artillery . The fighting at Spotsylvania was to prove the end of his brigade . Johnson 's division , 6 @,@ 800 strong at the start of the battle , was now so severely reduced in size that barely one brigade could be formed . On May 14 the brigades of Walker , Jones , and Steuart were consolidated into one small brigade under the command of Colonel Terry of the 4th Virginia Infantry .
= = = Petersburg , Appomattox and the end of the war = = =
Steuart was exchanged later in the summer of 1864 , returning to command a brigade in the Army of Northern Virginia , in the division of Major General George Pickett . Steuart 's brigade consisted of the 9th , 14th , 38th , 53rd and 57th Virginia regiments , and served in the trenches north of the James River during the Siege of Petersburg ( June 9 , 1864 – March 25 , 1865 ) . By this stage of the war , Confederate supplies had dwindled to the point where Lee 's army began to go hungry , and the theft of food became a serious problem . Steuart was forced to send armed guards to the supply depot at Petersburg in order to ensure that his men 's packages were not stolen by looters .
He continued to lead his brigade in Pickett 's division during the Appomattox Campaign ( March 29 – April 9 , 1865 ) , at the Battle of Five Forks ( April 1 , 1865 ) , and at Sayler 's Creek ( April 6 , 1865 ) , the last two battles marking the effective end of Confederate resistance . During Five Forks General Pickett had been distracted by a shad bake , and Steuart was left in command of the infantry , as it bore the brunt of a huge Union assault , with General Sheridan leading around 30 @,@ 000 men against Pickett 's 10 @,@ 000 . The consequences were even more disastrous than at Spotsylvania the previous year , with at least 5 @,@ 000 men falling prisoner to Sheridan 's forces . The end of Confederate resistance was now just days away . At Sayler 's Creek Lee 's starving and exhausted army finally fell apart . Upon seeing the survivors streaming along the road , Lee exclaimed in front of Maj. Gen. William Mahone , " My God , has the army dissolved ? " to which he replied , " No , General , here are troops ready to do their duty . "
Steuart continued fighting until the end , finally surrendering with Lee to General Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House on April 9 , 1865 , one of 22 brigadiers out of Lee 's original 146 . According to one Maryland veteran , " no @-@ one in the war gave more completely and conscientiously every faculty , every energy that was in him to the Southern cause " .
= = = After the war = = =
After the war 's end , Steuart returned to Maryland , and swore an oath of loyalty to the Union . He farmed at Mount Steuart , a farmhouse on a hillside near the South River , south of Edgewater , . and served as commander of the Maryland division of the United Confederate Veterans . He died on 22 November 1903 at the age of 75 at South River , Maryland , of an ulcer . He is buried in Green Mount Cemetery in Baltimore with his wife Maria , who died three years later , in 1906 . He was survived by his two daughters , Marie and Ann . Perhaps not surprisingly , as Maryland had remained in the Union throughout the war , there is no monument to Steuart in his home state . However , the Steuart Hill area of Baltimore recalls his family 's long association with the city .
= Dayton Project =
The Dayton Project was a research and development project that was part of the larger Manhattan Project to build the first atomic bombs . Work took place at several sites in and around Dayton , Ohio . Those working on the project were ultimately responsible for creating the polonium @-@ based modulated neutron initiators which were used to begin the chain reactions in the atomic bombs . The Dayton Project ran from 1943 to 1949 , when Mound Laboratories were completed and the work moved there .
The Dayton Project began in 1943 when Monsanto 's Charles Allen Thomas was recruited by the Manhattan Project in the role of coordinating the plutonium purification and production work being carried out at various sites . Scientists at the Los Alamos Laboratory calculated that a plutonium bomb would require an internal neutron initiator . The best @-@ known neutron sources used radioactive polonium and beryllium , so Thomas undertook to produce polonium at Monsanto 's laboratories in Dayton , Ohio .
The Dayton Project developed techniques for extracting polonium @-@ 210 from the lead dioxide ore in which it occurs naturally , and from bismuth targets that had been bombarded by neutrons in a nuclear reactor . Ultimately , polonium @-@ based neutron initiators were used in both the gun @-@ type Little Boy and the implosion @-@ type Fat Man used in the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki respectively . The fact that polonium was used as an initiator was classified until the 1960s , but George Koval , a technician with the Manhattan Project 's Special Engineering Detachment , penetrated the Dayton Project as a spy for the Soviet Union .
= = Background = =
In December 1942 , during World War II , Charles Allen Thomas , a chemist and director of research at Monsanto in St. Louis , joined the National Defense Research Committee ( NDRC ) as the deputy chief of its Division 8 , which was responsible for propellants , explosives and the like . Early in 1943 , he travelled to the East with Richard Tolman , a member of the NDRC , and James B. Conant , the president of Harvard University and the chairman of the NDRC , to witness a demonstration of a new underwater explosive . Conant and Tolman took the opportunity to quietly investigate Thomas 's background . He was then invited to a meeting in Washington D.C. , with Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , the director of the wartime Manhattan Project responsible for building an atomic bomb . When he got there , Thomas found Conant was also present .
Groves and Conant were hoping to harness Thomas 's industrial expertise for the benefit of the project . They offered him a post as a deputy to Robert Oppenheimer , the director of the Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico , but he did not wish to move his family or give up his responsibilities at Monsanto . Instead he accepted the role of coordinating the plutonium purification and production work being carried out at Los Alamos , the Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago , Radiation laboratory in Berkeley , and Ames Laboratory in Iowa . Chemistry and metallurgy at Los Alamos would be led by the youthful Joseph W. Kennedy .
At Los Alamos , physicist Robert Serber proposed that instead of relying on spontaneous fission , the chain reaction inside the atomic bomb should be triggered by a neutron initiator . The best @-@ known neutron sources were radium @-@ beryllium and polonium @-@ beryllium . The latter was chosen as it had a 140 @-@ day half life , which made it intense enough to be useful but not long @-@ lived enough to be stockpiled . Thomas took charge of the development of techniques to industrially refine polonium for use with beryllium in the " urchin " initiators . This effort became the Dayton Project .
= = Organization = =
Thomas brought in key personnel from Monsanto 's Thomas and Hochwalt Laboratories in Dayton , Ohio , including Caroll Hochwalt , James Lum and Nicholas Samares . Thomas became Director of the Dayton Project , with Hochwalt as Assistant Project Director and Lum as Laboratory Director . They decided that about twelve chemists would be required , and Lum set about recruiting professors , graduate students and industrial chemists from universities and laboratories in the area . The first of these recruits commenced in August 1943 , but few had any experience with radiochemistry . Numbers increased from 46 full @-@ time employees at the end of 1943 to 101 at the end of 1944 , 201 at the end of 1945 , and 334 at the end of 1946 , including members of the Army 's Special Engineer Detachment .
= = Locations = =
Office space was initially found in the Monsanto offices at 1515 Nicholas Rd , which became known as Unit I. A laboratory site was found at 1601 W. First St. that had originally been constructed to house the Bonebrake Seminary . It was a three storey brick building built in 1879 , and owned by the Dayton Board of Education , which used it as a warehouse . Monsanto leased the site on 15 October 1943 , and began converting it into a laboratory known as Unit III . New heating and lighting was installed , windows were replaced , new flooring was laid , and some rooms were re @-@ plastered . A pair of guard houses known as buildings J and K were added , as was a chemical storage shed known as building F , and a wire fence . Laboratory activities were transferred there from Unit I on 25 September . In May 1945 , five additional temporary buildings were constructed on land leased from the Board of Education that housed offices , a cafeteria , locker rooms , a physics laboratory and a laundry . A new guardhouse was also built . To this was added two portable buildings in 1946 .
By 1944 , space was running short , and Monsanto began negotiations to acquire the Runnymede Playhouse in the wealthy residential Dayton suburb of Oakwood . Built in 1927 , the Playhouse was a leisure facility that included an outdoor swimming pool , a ballroom , a squash court , a tennis court with a cork floor and a stage for community theater . It had showers with Italian marble and a one and a half storey garage . The estate was owned by the Talbott Realty Company , which was controlled by Thomas 's wife 's family . The Talbotts were among the heirs of the Delco company , which was by then a part of General Motors . This fortune had come in large part from profits made during World War I on airplanes that never flew .
The Oakwood City Council wanted the Playhouse as a community center . Thomas appeared before the council and assured them that it would not be damaged , although he could not disclose what he was intending to use it for . When Talbott Realty proved reluctant to sell , the United States Army Corps of Engineers condemned the property , which became Unit IV on 15 February 1944 . Remodeling began on 17 March and the Production Group began moving in on 1 June . Three guard houses were added , along with a wire fence . Changes to the site were minimized in order to make it easier to restore later . Because it was located in residential area , efforts were also made to minimize noise and other disruptions .
In May 1945 , Monsanto rented three floors of a warehouse at 601 East Third Street from General Electric . Initially it was used to receive and store equipment used by the Project . Later the fourth floor was used as office space , and a laboratory was established on the fifth floor where studies were carried out on the effects of polonium on laboratory animals . Analysis of bioassay samples was carried out here so as to minimize the danger of polonium contamination of the samples .
= = Research = =
Polonium also occurs naturally in various ores , and the lead dioxide residues from the refinery in Port Hope , Ontario , left over after the removal of uranium and radium from the natural ore were known to contain polonium . It was estimated that this lead dioxide contained 0 @.@ 2 to 0 @.@ 3 milligrams ( 0 @.@ 0031 to 0 @.@ 0046 gr ) of polonium per ton . A curie of polonium weighs 0 @.@ 222473 milligrams ( 0 @.@ 00343328 gr ) . The first 7 @,@ 250 pounds ( 3 @,@ 290 kg ) of radioactive lead dioxide were delivered to the Dayton Project on 10 November 1943 . The first 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) batch was processed by 8 December , which made 30 microcuries ( 1 @.@ 1 MBq ) of polonium available for experiments a week later .
Three processes were investigated for extracting the polonium from the ore . J. H. Dillon of the Firestone Tire and Rubber Company had patented a process in which the lead oxide was dissolved in hydrochloric acid :
PbO
2 + 4 HCl → PbCl
2 + Cl
2 + 2H
2O
The polonium could then be deposited on copper or nickel sheets . This required large @-@ scale glass lined equipment not available in Dayton , but available at the Monsanto B plant in Monsanto , Illinois . After small @-@ scale tests at Unit III revealed that the process was practical , some three tons of lead dioxide were sent to the B plant , and 2 @.@ 50 curies ( 93 GBq ) were recovered . Getting the polonium off the copper and nickel sheets proved more problematic .
A second method attempted was a kiln process . The idea was to simply roast the lead dioxide and vaporize the polonium . The problem was that lead dioxide slagged at 700 ° C ( 1 @,@ 292 ° F ) , which was too low for the process to work . So the Project tried using lead orthophosphate , which slagged at 900 ° C ( 1 @,@ 650 ° F ) . This was made by mixing the lead dioxide with phosphoric acid . Experiments showed that the polonium vaporized well when the lead orthophosphate was heated to 750 ° C ( 1 @,@ 380 ° F ) for four hours . Unfortunately , the process then ran into problems with dust and other foreign matter , and presented problems of contamination of the personnel and equipment involved .
The third method involved dissolving the lead dioxide in a mixture of concentrated nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide :
PbO
2 + 2HNO
3 + H
2O
2 → Pb ( NO
3 )
2 + O
2 + 2H
2O
This proved to be the best way to separate the polonium from the lead dioxide , although there were problems with the precipitation of various contaminants , including iron and aluminum . Although about 35 tons of lead dioxide were treated with nitric acid , and about 40 curies ( 1 @.@ 5 TBq ) of polonium were produced , the process did not proceed beyond the pilot stage because a better source of polonium became available .
= = Production = =
Polonium could be produced by neutron irradiation of bismuth . In 1943 the only polonium produced in this manner was in cyclotrons , but the Manhattan Project 's development of nuclear reactors offered the prospect of producing large amounts of polonium in this manner :
209
83Bi + n → 210
83Bi → 210
84Po + β
A metric ton of bismuth irradiated in the Manhattan Project 's X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor in Oak Ridge , Tennessee , contained 32 to 83 curies ( 1 @.@ 2 to 3 @.@ 1 TBq ) of polonium , a vast improvement over the yields from Port Hope 's lead dioxide . Starting in June 1945 , the Dayton Project began receiving bismuth irradiated in the more powerful reactors at the Hanford Site in Washington , which now became the major source of supply , and by the end of 1946 Hanford was shipping material that contained up to 13 @,@ 200 curies ( 0 @.@ 49 PBq ) per metric ton of bismuth . This was much more dangerous to handle , but by then safe handling procedures had been developed .
Bismuth was purchased from the American Smelting and Refining Company of the highest purity that it could produce . It was sent to Hanford , where it was put in aluminum cans , and placed inside a reactor for 100 days . The canned slugs then shipped to Unit IV , where they were bathed in hydrochloric acid , which dissolved the aluminum . This formed an aluminum chloride solution that was disposed of , as it was highly radioactive due to iron and copper in the aluminum alloy . The bismuth slugs were then dissolved in aqua regia . This was too weak for electroplating the polonium , so the nitric acid was removed , and then the polonium deposited on bismuth by adding powdered bismuth . This resulted in a 100 @-@ 1 concentration . This could then be repeated by dissolving in aqua regia again to achieve a 1000 @-@ 1 concentration . This was again dissolved , and the polonium electroplated on platinum foils . The main problem with the process was that it required glass @-@ lined containers due to the aqua regia , and mechanisms for safe handling of the radioactive material . The Dayton Project explored alternative purification methods that were found to be workable , but less efficient or safe .
The first consignment of polonium left for Los Alamos on 15 March 1944 in a lead @-@ lined suitcase carried by a military courier . Regular shipments were made thereafter . Initiator testing at Los Alamos required more polonium than anticipated , and in December 1944 , Oppenheimer was forced to ask Thomas if he could ship 20 curies ( 0 @.@ 74 TBq ) per month . The Dayton Project was able to do so . In February 1945 , Thomas agreed to increase shipments to 100 curies ( 3 @.@ 7 TBq ) per month by June , and 500 per month by December .
= = Assay = =
Dayton Project employees were not allowed to eat or smoke in processing areas , and had to scrub their hands before leaving these areas . They also had to shower at the end of each day 's work , and were subjected to weekly urine tests . Employees with elevated levels of polonium were not allowed in the processing areas . Working with polonium without spreading contamination proved to be almost impossible . Fortunately , it was not a bone @-@ seeker like radium or plutonium , and was readily excreted in urine . Detection methods had already been developed , making it easy to track . One employee at Unit IV contaminated her hair . Combined with a practice of putting bobby pins in her mouth , this resulted in her having the highest urine count at the site .
= = Espionage = =
Zhorzh Abramovich " George " Koval was drafted into the US Army in 1943 , and was inducted into the Manhattan Project 's Special Engineering Detachment . He was initially assigned to Oak Ridge , where his job as a health physics officer gave him access to much of the plant . He began passing secrets relating to the production of polonium at Oak Ridge to his GRU handler codenamed " Clyde " . In 1945 Koval was transferred to Dayton . Again his job as a health physics officer gave him wide access to the secret installation . In 2007 Russian President Vladimir Putin posthumously awarded Koval a gold star making him a hero of the Russian Federation for his work as the GRU spy " Delmar " . Russian officials stated that the initiator for their Joe @-@ 1 bomb had been " prepared to the recipe provided by Delmar " . The fact that polonium was used as an initiator remained classified until the 1960s .
= = Initiators = =
After Leonard Schiff calculated that theoretically an initiator could improve the efficiency of a gun @-@ type nuclear weapon , Oppenheimer gave approval on 15 March 1945 for initiators to be included in the Little Boy design . Testing was carried out to ensure that the initiators were rugged enough to handle being transported in an airplane and being accidentally dropped . Eventually , about forty initiators were despatched to Tinian , where four were inserted into the bomb that was used in the bombing of Hiroshima .
The initiator used in the implosion design of the Fat Man bomb that was dropped on Nagasaki was coded named " urchin " . In order to increase the efficiency of the explosion , the initiator had to emit a large number of neutrons in a few microseconds while the plutonium core was fully compressed . At the heart of the urchin was a solid beryllium sphere 0 @.@ 4 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 16 in ) in diameter . This was gold plated and coated with 20 curies ( 0 @.@ 7
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would not be renewed by MTV .
= = = Other spin @-@ offs = = =
Aside from The City , The Hills spawned two additional related series and one proposed program . Cutrone received her own spin @-@ off program Kell on Earth , which premiered on February 1 , 2010 on Bravo . It chronicled the daily operations at People 's Revolution as well as her private life , and was canceled after airing one season .
That September , Conrad filmed a pilot episode for a program that would have focused on her professional endeavors , though MTV passed on the project after Conrad preferred not to feature her personal life . Patridge was commissioned the VH1 program Audrina in 2011 , which focused on herself and her family . However , the series was canceled after its debut season due to underwhelming ratings .
= = Distribution = =
The Hills episodes aired regularly on MTV in the United States . Most episodes are approximately thirty minutes , and were broadcast in standard definition . The series ' episodes are also available for download at the iTunes Store . Episodes were previously available for viewing through the official MTV website , though they have since become unavailable since the series ' conclusion . The series , in addition to Laguna Beach : The Real Orange County , were premiered in syndication in fall 2009 .
Since its debut , Paramount Pictures has released all six seasons of The Hills onto DVD , across seven installments . The first , second , fourth , and sixth seasons ' sets each have three discs , while that of the third season includes four . The fifth season 's release was divided into Part I and Part II , and are packaged with two discs apiece .
= Fortress of Mimoyecques =
The Fortress of Mimoyecques is the modern name for a Second World War underground military complex built by the forces of Nazi Germany between 1943 and 1944 . It was intended to house a battery of V @-@ 3 cannons aimed at London , 165 kilometres ( 103 mi ) away . Originally codenamed Wiese ( " Meadow " ) or Bauvorhaben 711 ( " Construction Project 711 " ) , it is located in the commune of Landrethun @-@ le @-@ Nord in the Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais region of northern France , near the hamlet of Mimoyecques about 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) from Boulogne @-@ sur @-@ Mer . It was constructed by a mostly German workforce recruited from major engineering and mining concerns , augmented by prisoner @-@ of @-@ war slave labour .
The complex consists of a network of tunnels dug under a chalk hill , linked to five inclined shafts in which 25 V @-@ 3 guns would have been installed , all targeted on London . The guns would have been able to fire ten dart @-@ like explosive projectiles a minute – 600 rounds every hour – into the British capital , which Winston Churchill later commented would have constituted " the most devastating attack of all " . The Allies knew nothing about the V @-@ 3 but identified the site as a possible launching base for V @-@ 2 ballistic missiles , based on reconnaissance photographs and fragmentary intelligence from French sources .
Mimoyecques was targeted for intensive bombardment by the Allied air forces from late 1943 onwards . Construction work was seriously disrupted , forcing the Germans to abandon work on part of the complex . The rest was partly destroyed on 6 July 1944 by No. 617 Squadron RAF , which used ground @-@ penetrating 5 @,@ 400 @-@ kilogram ( 11 @,@ 900 lb ) " Tallboy " earthquake bombs to collapse tunnels and shafts , entombing hundreds of slave workers underground .
The Germans halted construction work at Mimoyecques as the Allies advanced up the coast following the Normandy landings . It fell to the Canadian 3rd Infantry Division on 5 September 1944 without resistance , a few days after the Germans withdrew from the area .
The complex was partly demolished just after the war on Churchill 's direct orders ( and to the great annoyance of the French , who were not consulted ) , as it was still seen as a threat to the United Kingdom . It was later reopened by private owners , first in 1969 to serve as a mushroom farm and subsequently as a museum in 1984 . A nature conservation organisation acquired the Fortress of Mimoyecques in 2010 and La Coupole , a former V @-@ 2 rocket base turned museum near Saint @-@ Omer , took over its management . It continues to be open to the public as a vast underground museum complex .
= = Background = =
In May 1943 Albert Speer , the Reich 's Minister of Armaments and War Production , informed Adolf Hitler of work that was being carried out to produce a supergun capable of firing hundreds of shells an hour over long distances . The newly designed gun , codenamed the Hochdruckpumpe ( " High Pressure Pump " , HDP for short ) and later designated as the V @-@ 3 , was one of the V @-@ weapons – Vergeltungswaffen ( " retaliation weapons " ) – developed by Nazi Germany in the later stages of the war to attack Allied targets . Long @-@ range guns were not a new development , but the high @-@ pressure detonations used to fire shells from previous such weapons , including the Paris gun , rapidly wore out their barrels .
In 1942 , August Coenders , inspired by previous designs of multi @-@ chamber guns , suggested that the gradual acceleration of the shell by a series of small charges spread over the length of the barrel might be the solution to the problem of designing very long @-@ range guns . Coenders proposed the use of electrically activated charges to eliminate the problem of the premature ignition of the subsidiary charges experienced by previous multi @-@ chamber guns . The HDP would have a smooth barrel over 100 metres ( 330 ft ) long , along which a 97 @-@ kilogram ( 214 lb ) finned shell ( known as the Sprenggranate 4481 ) would be accelerated by numerous small low @-@ pressure detonations from charges in branches off the barrel , each fired electrically in sequence . Each barrel would be 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter .
The gun was still in its prototype stages , but Hitler was an enthusiastic supporter of the idea and ordered that maximum support be given to its development and deployment . In August 1943 he approved the construction of a battery of HDP guns in France to supplement the planned V @-@ 1 and V @-@ 2 missile campaigns against London and the south @-@ east of England . Speer noted afterwards :
On my suggestion , the Führer has decided that the risk must be stood to award contracts at once for the " high @-@ pressure pump , " without waiting for the results of firing trials . Maximum support is to be accorded to the experimental ranges at Hillersleben and Misdroy , and especially to the completion of the actual battery .
To reach England , the weapon needed barrels 127 metres ( 417 ft ) long , so it could not be moved ; it would have to be deployed from a fixed site . A study carried out in early 1943 had shown that the optimal location for its deployment would be within a hill with a rock core into which inclined drifts could be tunneled to support the barrels .
The site was identified by a fortification expert , Major Bock of the Festungs @-@ Pionier @-@ Stab 27 of the Fifteenth Army LVII Corps based in the Dieppe area . A limestone hill near the hamlet of Mimoyecques , 158 metres ( 518 ft ) high and 165 kilometres ( 103 mi ) from London , was chosen to house the gun . It had been selected with care ; the hill in which the facility was built is primarily chalk with very little topsoil cover , and the chalk layer extends several hundred metres below the surface , providing a deep but easily tunnelled rock layer . The chalk is easy to excavate and strong enough to dig tunnels without using timber supports . Although the site 's road links were poor , it was only a few kilometres west of the main railway line between Calais and Boulogne @-@ sur @-@ Mer .
The area was already heavily militarised ; as well as the fortifications of the Atlantic Wall on the cliffs of Cap Gris Nez to the northwest , there was a firing base for at least one conventional Krupp K5 railway gun about 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) to the south in the nearby quarries of Hidrequent @-@ Rinxent .
= = Design and construction = =
Construction began in September 1943 with the building of railway lines to support the work , and excavation of the gun shafts began in October . The initial layout comprised two parallel complexes approximately 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) apart , each with five drifts which were to hold a stacked cluster of five HDP gun tubes , for a total of 25 guns . The smoothbore design of the HDP would enable a much higher rate of fire than was possible with conventional guns . The entire battery would be able to fire up to 10 shots a minute , capable in theory of hitting London with 600 projectiles every hour . Both facilities were to be served by an underground railway tunnel of standard gauge , connected to the Calais @-@ Boulogne main line , and underground ammunition storage galleries which were tunneled at a depth of about 33 m ( 108 ft ) . The western site was abandoned at an early stage after being disrupted by Allied bombing , and only the eastern complex was built .
The drifts were angled at 50 degrees , reaching a depth of 105 m ( 344 ft ) . Owing to technical problems with the gun prototype , the scope of the project was reduced ; drifts I and II were abandoned at an early date and only III , IV and V were taken forward . They came to the surface at a concrete slab or Platte 30 m ( 98 ft ) wide and 5 @.@ 5 m ( 18 ft ) thick , in which there were narrow openings to allow the projectiles to pass through . The openings in the slab were protected by large steel plates , and the railway tunnel entrances were further protected by armoured steel doors . Each drift was oriented on a bearing of 299 ° , to the nearest degree – a direct line on Westminster Bridge . Although the elevation and direction of the guns could not be changed , it would have been possible to alter the range by varying the amount of propellant used in each shot . This would have brought much of London within range .
The railway tunnel ran in a straight line for a distance of about 630 m ( 2 @,@ 070 ft ) . Along its west side was an unloading platform which gave access to ten cross galleries ( numbered 3 – 13 by the Germans ) , driven at right angles to the main tunnel at intervals of 24 metres ( 79 ft ) . Each gallery was fitted with a 600 mm ( 1 ft 11 5 ⁄ 8 in ) gauge railway track . On the east side of the tunnel were chambers intended to be used as store rooms , offices and quarters for the garrison . Trains would have entered the facility and unloaded shells and propellant for the guns .
Galleries 6 – 10 , the central group , gave access to the guns , while galleries 3 – 5 and 11 – 13 were intended for use as access tunnels and perhaps also storage areas . They were all connected by Gallery No. 2 , which ran parallel to the main railway tunnel at a distance of 100 metres ( 330 ft ) . Galleries 6 – 10 were additionally connected by a second passageway , designated Gallery No. 1 , running parallel to the main tunnel at a distance of 24 @.@ 5 metres ( 80 ft ) . Further workings existed at depths of 62 m ( 203 ft ) , 47 m ( 154 ft ) and 30 m ( 98 ft ) , each serving different purposes associated with the drifts and the guns . The 62 m workings were constructed to facilitate the removal of spoil from the drifts , while those at 47 m were connected with the handling of exhaust gases from the guns and those at 30 m gave access to the breeches of the guns . The lower levels of the workings were accessed via lift shafts , and mining cages were used during construction .
The construction work was carried out by over 5 @,@ 000 workers , mostly German engineers drafted in from several companies including Mannesmann , Gute Hoffnungshütte , Krupp and the Vereinigte Stahlwerke , supplemented by 430 miners recruited from the Ruhr and Soviet prisoners of war who were used as slave labourers . The intensive Allied bombing campaign caused delays , but construction work continued nonetheless at a high pace underground . The original plans had envisaged having the first battery of five guns ready by March 1944 and the full complement of 25 guns by 1 October 1944 , but these target dates were not met .
= = Discovery and destruction = =
In 1943 French agents reported that the Germans were planning to mount an offensive against the United Kingdom that would involve the use of secret weapons resembling giant mortars sunk in the ground and served by rail links . The first signs of abnormal activity at Mimoyecques were spotted by analysts at the Allied Central Interpretation Unit in September 1943 , when aerial reconnaissance revealed that the Germans were building railway loops leading to the tunnels into the eastern and western sites . Further reconnaissance flights in October 1943 photographed large @-@ scale activity around the tunnels .
An analyst named André Kenny discovered a series of shafts when he saw from a reconnaissance photograph that a haystack concealing one of them had disintegrated , perhaps through the effects of a gale , revealing the entrance , a windlass and pulley . The purpose of the site was unclear , but it was thought to be some kind of shelter for launching rockets or flying bombs . An MI6 agent reported that " a concrete chamber was to be built near one of the tunnels for the installation of a tube , 40 to 50 metres long , which he referred to as a ' rocket launching cannon ' " . The shafts were interpreted as " air holes to allow for the expansion of the gases released by the explosion of the launching charge . "
The Allies were unaware of the HDP gun and therefore of the Mimoyecques site 's true purpose . Allied intelligence believed at the time that the V @-@ 2 rocket had to be launched from tubes or " projectors " , so it was assumed that the inclined shafts at Mimoyecques were intended to house such devices .
The lack of intelligence on Mimoyecques was frustrating for those involved in Operation Crossbow , the Allied effort to counter the V @-@ weapons . On 21 March 1944 the British Chiefs of Staff discussed the shortage of intelligence but were told by Reginald Victor Jones , one of the " Crossbow Committee " members , that little information was leaking out because the workforce was predominantly German . The Committee 's head , Duncan Sandys , pressed for greater efforts and proposed that the Special Operations Executive be tasked to kidnap a German technician who could be interrogated for information . The suggestion was approved , but was never put into effect .
In the end the Chiefs of Staff instructed General Eisenhower to begin intensive attacks on the so @-@ called " Heavy Crossbow " sites , including Mimoyecques , which was still believed to be intended for use as a rocket @-@ launching site .
The Allied air forces carried out several bombing raids on Mimoyecques between November 1943 and June 1944 but caused little damage . The bombing disrupted the construction project and the initial raids of 5 and 8 November 1943 caused work to be delayed for about a month . The Germans subsequently decided to abandon the western site , where work had not progressed very far , and concentrated on the eastern site . On 6 July 1944 the Royal Air Force began bombing the site with ground @-@ penetrating Tallboy bombs . One Tallboy hit the concrete slab on top of Drift IV , collapsing the drift . Three others penetrated the tunnels below and substantially damaged the facility , causing several of the galleries to collapse in places .
Around 300 Germans and forced labourers were buried alive by the collapses . Adding to the Germans ' difficulties , major technical problems were discovered with the HDP gun projectiles . They had been designed to exit the barrels at a speed of about 1 @,@ 500 m ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) per second , but the Germans found that a design fault caused the projectiles to begin " tumbling " in flight at speeds above 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) per second , causing them to fall well short of the target . This was not discovered until over 20 @,@ 000 projectiles had already been manufactured .
After the devastating raid of 6 July , the Germans held a high @-@ level meeting on the site 's future at which Hitler ordered major changes to the site 's development . On 12 July 1944 he signed an order instructing that only five HDP guns were to be installed in a single drift . The two others were to be reused to house a pair of Krupp K5 artillery pieces , reamed out to a smooth bore with a diameter of 310 millimetres ( 12 in ) , which were to use a new type of long @-@ range rocket @-@ propelled shell . A pair of Rheinbote missile launchers were to be installed at the tunnel entrances . These plans were soon abandoned as Allied ground forces advanced towards Mimoyecques , and on 30 July the Organisation Todt engineers were ordered to end construction work .
The Allies were unaware of this and mounted further attacks on the site as part of the United States Army Air Forces experimental Operation Aphrodite , involving radio @-@ controlled B @-@ 24 Liberators packed with explosives . Two such attacks were mounted but failed ; in the second such attack , on 12 August , Lt Joseph P. Kennedy , Jr . – the elder brother of future US President John F. Kennedy – was killed when the drone aircraft exploded prematurely . By the end of the bombing campaign , over 4 @,@ 100 tons of bombs had been dropped on Mimoyecques , more than on any other V @-@ weapons site .
The Mimoyecques site was never formally abandoned , but German forces left it at the start of September 1944 as the Allies advanced northeast from Normandy towards the Pas de Calais . It was captured on 5 September by the Canadian 3rd Infantry Division .
= = Subsequent investigations and attempted demolition = =
In September 1944 , Duncan Sandys ordered the constitution of a Technical Inter @-@ Services Mission under Colonel T.R.B. Sanders . It was given the task of investigating the V @-@ weapons sites at Mimoyecques , Siracourt , Watten , and Wizernes , collectively known to the Allies as the " Heavy Crossbow " sites . Sanders ' report was submitted to the War Cabinet on 19 March 1945 .
Even at this stage the true purpose of the site was unclear . Claims that it had been intended to be used for " electro @-@ magnetic projectors " ( railguns ) , firing huge shells at London , were debunked by Lord Cherwell , Winston Churchill 's scientific adviser , who calculated that it would take sixty times the output of Battersea Power Station to fire a one @-@ ton shell . Sanders ' investigation brought to light the V @-@ 3 project for the first time , to the alarm of the British government . He concluded that although the site had been damaged it " could be completed or adapted for offensive action against this country at some future date , and [ its ] destruction is a matter of importance . " Sandys brought the matter to the attention of Churchill and advised : " Since this installation constitutes a potential threat to London , it would be wise to ensure that it is demolished whilst our forces are still in France . " Churchill later commented that the V @-@ 3 installation at Mimoyecques " might well have launched the most devastating attack of all on London . "
The discovery of the site 's true purpose produced some recriminations in London , as – unlike the V @-@ 1 and V @-@ 2 projects – the V @-@ 3 had not been uncovered by Allied intelligence before the war 's end . The British scientist and military intelligence expert Reginald Victor Jones later commented that " techniques that had been used against the flying bomb and the rocket appeared to have failed against HDP [ V @-@ 3 ] , and there had to be a reason . Basically it was that with our limited effort we had to concentrate on the most urgent problem , and thus on catching weapons not so much at the research stage ( although we sometimes achieved this ) as in the development stage – which usually meant when trials were showing promise . " He concluded at the time , in April 1945 , that the intelligence failure had not made much practical difference given the fact that the Germans had failed to develop the HDP into an effective weapon : " there was little warning ; [ but ] there was little danger . "
Following the recommendation that the site should be destroyed , the Royal Engineers stacked ten tons of British 500 lb ( 230 kg ) bombs and captured German plastic explosive in the tunnels at Mimoyecques and detonated them on 9 May . This failed to achieve the desired effect , and on 14 May , a further 25 tons of explosives were used to bring down the north and south entrances to the railway tunnel into the site . A subsequent investigation by the British Bombing Research Mission concluded that the entrances had been heavily blocked and that it would be a very difficult and lengthy engineering task to reinstate them . The British action was taken without informing the French beforehand and infuriated Charles de Gaulle , who considered it a violation of France 's national sovereignty .
= = Reopening as a museum = =
After the war , the Mimoyecques site lay abandoned . Much of the equipment left by the Germans was disposed of as scrap metal . A complete set of four steel plates , weighing 60 tons , that were intended to protect the entrances to the drifts were bought by the manager of the Hidrequent @-@ Rixent quarries to be cut up for use in rock @-@ crushing machinery . Rediscovered by local historians in the 1990s , they remained at the quarries until 2010 , when the surviving plates were returned to Mimoyecques , where they are now on display .
Despite the closure of the railway tunnel entrances it was still possible for many years to get into the complex by climbing down one of the inclined drifts . In 1969 , Marie @-@ Madeleine Vasseur , a farmer from Landrethun , had the southern entrance excavated so that the tunnels could be used as a mushroom farm . 30 metres ( 98 ft ) of the southern tunnel had to be removed to clear the blockage ; the entrance now visible is not the original one built by the Germans . The southern entrance had been bricked up again by the 1970s . Moved to discover this forgotten construction , Vasseur , helped by family and friends , cleared the tunnels and installed an electricity supply . The société à responsabilité limitée " La Forteresse de Mimoyecques " was constituted in 1984 to operate the site as a museum under the name of Forteresse de Mimoyecques — Un Mémorial International .
The museum closed at the end of the 2008 season when the owner retired . Subsequently , the nonprofit organisation Conservatoire d 'espaces naturels du Nord et Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais ( Conservatory of natural sites of the Nord and Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais ) purchased it at a cost of € 330 @,@ 000 , with funding provided by the Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais regional council , the European Union and a private benefactor . The Conservatory 's interest was due to the presence on the site of a large bat colony that included rare species , such as the Greater Horseshoe Bat , Geoffroy 's Bat and the Pond Bat .
The intercommunality of the Terre des Deux Caps and the authorities in nearly Landrethun set up a partnership to operate the site under the management of the existing museum of La Coupole near Saint @-@ Omer . The director of the latter , historian Yves le Maner , designed the contents of a new museum that was constructed at a cost of € 360 @,@ 000 .
The site reopened to the public on 1 July 2010 . As well as presenting a history of the V @-@ weapons and of the site , the museum enables visitors to see some of the tunnels and a mock @-@ up of the HDP gun . The tunnels also house memorials to Joseph Kennedy , the other bomber crew members killed during raids on the site , and the forced labourers who lost their lives during construction . In 2011 , the museum had about 11 @,@ 000 visitors , of whom 53 % were French , 18 % Belgian and 16 % British .
= = Air raids on the Mimoyecques site = =
= Milwaukee @-@ class monitor =
The Milwaukee @-@ class monitors were a class of four riverine ironclad monitors built during the American Civil War . Several supported Union forces along the Mississippi River in mid @-@ 1864 before participating in the Battle of Mobile Bay in August . Chickasaw and Winnebago bombarded Confederate coastal fortifications during the battle and during subsequent operations as well as engaging the ironclad Tennessee II . The other two ships arrived at Mobile Bay after the battle and all four supported the land attacks on Mobile in March – April 1865 . Milwaukee struck a torpedo during this time and sank . The surviving three ships were sold in 1874 ; Chickasaw was converted into a ferry and survived until 1944 when she was scuttled . Her wreck was discovered in 2004 .
= = Design and description = =
The Milwaukee @-@ class monitors had their origin in an order from Gideon Welles , Secretary of the Navy , to Commodore Joseph Smith , Chief of the Bureau of Yards and Docks , on 16 April 1863 to recommend four more river ironclads that could mount four 11 @-@ inch ( 279 mm ) Dahlgren guns on a draft no more than 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) . James Eads received the contract to build four iron @-@ hulled , twin @-@ turreted ironclads , partly due to the influence of Missouri Congressman Frank P. Blair , Jr . Eads retained two of the ships , but subcontracted the other two to other builders .
The Milwaukee @-@ class ships were 229 feet ( 69 @.@ 8 m ) long overall and had a beam of 56 feet ( 17 @.@ 1 m ) . They had a depth of hold of 8 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 6 m ) and a draft of six feet . The ships were 970 tons burthen and displaced 1 @,@ 300 long tons ( 1 @,@ 300 t ) .
They were powered by two 2 @-@ cylinder horizontal non @-@ condensing steam engines , each driving two 7 @-@ foot @-@ 6 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) propellers , using steam generated by seven tubular boilers . The engines were designed to reach a top speed of 9 knots ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) . They had a bore of 26 inches ( 660 mm ) and a stroke of 24 inches ( 610 mm ) . They carried 156 long tons ( 159 t ) of coal .
The ships ' main armament consisted of four smoothbore , muzzle @-@ loading 11 @-@ inch Dahlgren guns mounted in two twin @-@ gun turrets . The fore turret in each ship , except Chickasaw , was designed by Eads while the aft turret was the standard Ericsson design used in most Union monitors . Unlike the latter , which rested its entire weight on a central spindle that had to be elevated in order for the turret to rotate , Eads ' design better distributed its weight because it rested on a number of ball bearings underneath the outer edge of the turret . The structure of the Eads turret extended down to be bottom of the ship and the entire structure rotated . The guns in the Eads turret were mounted on a steam @-@ powered platform that moved up and down , so that the guns could be reloaded below deck , safe from enemy interference . Both turrets used steam engines to rotate , but the Eads design also used it to power virtually every function in the turret , including running out the guns , absorbing the recoil from firing , and opening the gun ports to allow the guns to fire . The ability to adjust the level of the turret floor doubled the elevation of the guns to + 20 ° compared to the + 10 ° allowed in an Ericsson turret . Another advantage was that the Eads turret only required a crew of six men , far fewer than the Ericsson design . Each gun weighed approximately 16 @,@ 000 pounds ( 7 @,@ 300 kg ) . They could fire a 136 @-@ pound ( 61 @.@ 7 kg ) shell up to a range of 3 @,@ 650 yards ( 3 @,@ 340 m ) at an elevation of + 15 ° .
The cylindrical turrets were protected by eight layers of wrought iron 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) plates above the deck . Below the deck the side of the Eads turret was only a single layer thick and had holes through which the guns were loaded . The sides of the hull consisted of three layers of one @-@ inch plates , backed by 15 inches ( 380 mm ) of pine . The deck was heavily cambered to allow headroom for the crew on such a shallow draft and it consisted of iron plates .75 inches ( 19 mm ) thick . Milwaukee and Winnebago had an additional layer of armor to give them a total of 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) . The pilothouse , positioned behind and above the fore turret , was protected by 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of armor .
= = Ships = =
= = Careers = =
Chickasaw and Winnebago , the first two ship to be commissioned , spent some time patrolling the Mississippi River and supporting Union forces operating along its length before they were transferred to the West Gulf Blockading Squadron in early July 1864 to support the impending attack on the defenses of Mobile , Alabama Rear Admiral David Farragut organized the four monitors present into a separate column leading his wooden ships to engage Fort Morgan while the other ships proceeded into the Bay itself . Winnebago and Chickasaw were the third and fourth monitors in line , respectively , as the two more heavily armored Canonicus @-@ class monitors , Tecumseh and Manhattan , preceded them . Tecumseh struck a torpedo in front of the fort and a small boat from the gunboat Metacomet rescued 10 survivors and delivered them to Winnebago . The latter 's aft turret had jammed during her bombardment of Fort Morgan while Chickasaw 's funnel had been riddled with holes , significantly reducing her speed .
The Confederate ironclad Tennessee attacked Farragut 's wooden ships without much effect after they had passed the Confederate forts and she was engaged by Winnebago before she disengaged and briefly took shelter under Fort Morgan 's guns . About a half @-@ hour later , the ironclad attacked Farragut 's ships again . The monitors were not initially engaged , but Chickasaw managed to assume a position by the Tennessee 's stern and fired repeatedly at point @-@ blank range . Her shots failed to penetrate the Tennessee 's armor , but they did jam the armored shutter for the stern gun port and cut her exposed steering chains , rendering her unable to steer . When the crew attempted to unjam the shutter , one shell struck the edge of the shutter , creating fragments that killed the machinist attempting to knock out the shutter 's retaining pin and broke Admiral Franklin Buchanan 's leg . This damage , together with damage inflicted by the other Union ships , persuaded Commander James D. Johnston to surrender his ship . The two monitors remained in Mobile Bay and subsequently bombarded Fort Morgan and Fort Gaines until they surrendered less than three weeks later .
The other two monitors were commissioned too late to participate in the battle . After supporting forces near the mouth of the Red River during the summer , Kickapoo was transferred to the West Gulf Blockading Squadron in October for operations against Mobile itself ; Milwaukee was also transferred to the West Gulf Blockading Squadron that same month .
Union forces were too weak to attack the city itself until March 1865 . The monitors moved up the Blakeley River at the end of the month to cut off Confederate communications with Spanish Fort while Union troops besieged the fort . Milwaukee and Winnebago sortied upriver on 28 March to attack a Confederate transport and Milwaukee struck a torpedo while returning from the sortie . Her entire crew survived and was rescued by Kickapoo . The following day Kickapoo rescued the crew of the monitor Osage which had also struck a torpedo and sunk . After the occupation of Selma , Alabama in early April , Winnebago escorted a troop convoy to Selma and Montgomery , Alabama and then blockaded the Tombigbee River to prevent the ironclad Nashville and other Confederate ships from interfering with Union forces .
After the war , the three surviving ships were decommissioned and later sold on 12 September 1874 . Chickasaw 's new owners converted her to sidewheel propulsion and she became a coal and railroad ferry until 1944 when she was scuttled . Her wreck was discovered in 2004 . Milwaukee 's wreck was salvaged after the war and some of her iron was used in building the Eads Bridge over the Mississippi at St. Louis .
= Emeco 1006 =
The Emeco 1006 ( pronounced ten @-@ oh @-@ six ) , also known as the Navy chair is an aluminum chair manufactured by Emeco . The 1006 was originally built for Navy warships during World War II , but later became a designer chair used in high @-@ end restaurants and by interior designers . In the 1990s , the company began creating designer versions of the 1006 chair , such as the stackable Hudson chair and the 111 Navy Chair made from recycled plastic . Emeco also makes stools , tables , and other furniture . As of 2012 , more than one million Emeco 1006 chairs have been produced .
= = History = =
Emeco founder Wilton C. Dinges developed the Emeco 1006 chair in 1944 in collaboration with the Aluminum Company of America ( ALCOA ) . It was originally designed for the US Navy , which needed a chair for the deck of battleships that could survive sea air and a torpedo blast to the side of the ship . The chairs had eye bolts under the seat , so they could be attached to a ship @-@ deck using cables .
After the war , Emeco started selling 1006 chairs to prisons , hospitals and government offices . The chair was sold to restaurants in the 1980s and 1990s , under Jay Buchbinder 's leadership , then as a designer chair in the 2000s after Emeco was acquired by his son , Gregg . French designer Philippe Starck designed a total of 14 chairs and 4 tables for Emeco .
In 2006 Coca @-@ Cola began a collaboration with Emeco to create a 1006 @-@ based chair made out of recycled Coca @-@ Cola bottles , which was released in 2010 . Metropolis Magazine said it was a public relations effort by Coke to make a durable product out of their bottles ; they also hoped to encourage other manufacturers to do the same .
In 2005 , Target started selling an Emeco 1006 imitation product supplied by Euro Style . The supplier said it planned to modify the chair 's style to avoid a legal dispute over alleged trademark infringement . In October 2012 , Emeco filed a lawsuit against Restoration Hardware for allegedly making unauthorized reproductions of the 1006 Navy chair . Restoration Hardware removed the chair from its website , stopped selling the chair , and reached an undisclosed settlement with Emeco .
The Emeco 1006 chair is featured regularly in design magazines and movies , such as The Matrix , Law & Order and CSI . In Europe the original 1006 chair is sometimes referred to as " the prison chair " due to its use in government prisons and in prison @-@ related movie scenes .
= = Description = =
The original Emeco 1006 chair has a curved back with three vertical struts and a slight curve on the back legs . It weighs about seven pounds and is guaranteed to last 150 years . Most of the original chairs from the 1940s are still in use . The traditional aluminum chairs are made mostly out of recycled aluminum , but also silicon , iron , copper , magnesium , chromium , titanium and zinc . Emeco 111 chairs are made out of 60 percent recycled plastic and 30 percent glass fiber . The Emeco 111 chair was named based on it being made of at least 111 recycled Coca Cola bottles .
As of 2014 , there are approximately 88 Emeco chair models . The first designer version of the 1006 chair in the " Emeco by Starck " line was the Hudson chair , named after the Hudson Hotel that put a Hudson chair in every room . It has a similar silhouette as the original 1006 , but has a reflective or brushed aluminum surface , a solid backrest and is stackable . It also came in swivel and upholstered versions . The reflective glossy versions of the 1006 chair are polished for eight hours , substantially increasing their cost . There are also Emeco @-@ brand barstools , swivel chairs , rocking chairs and armchairs .
Emeco 's chairs are manufactured by hand in Hanover , Pennsylvania through a two @-@ week , 77 @-@ step process . Eames Demetrios , the grandson of designer Charles Eames , published a documentary film on the manufacturing process called " 77 Steps . " Many believe the chair is cast from a single form , but it is actually welded together from 12 pieces . Sheets of aluminum are rolled into tubes , cut to length , and bent into shapes on large hydraulic machines . Various notches and punchouts are made so pieces can fit together before welding . Workers grind down the welding joints to give it a smooth finish , creating the appearance of being cast from a single piece . The chair goes through a repeated heating and cooling cycle that increases the strength of the aluminum . The chairs are also anodized . Originally swivel chair bases and other parts were purchased from a supplier , but in the 1950s , Emeco began purchasing manufacturing equipment to manufacture them in @-@ house .
= Quiero ( Ricardo Arjona song ) =
" Quiero " ( English : " I Want " ) is a latin pop song by Guatemalan recording artist Ricardo Arjona . It was released as the second single from his compilation album Quién Dijo Ayer ( 2007 ) . Written by Arjona , the song was produced by Dan Warner , Lee Levin and Puerto Rican singer @-@ songwriter Tommy Torres , who also worked with Arjona on Adentro . " Quiero " was recorded between several studios in Miami and Mexico City , and mixed and mastered in New York City . The song was called " bohemian " and " hippie " by website ADN Mundo , stating that it was " a love story that doesn 't speak about love " .
" Quiero " became a moderate commercial success , reaching number 12 on the US Billboard Top Latin Songs chart , and number eight at the Latin Pop Songs chart . It also managed to appear at number 11 on the Latin Tropical Airplay chart , and received an American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers for Pop / Ballad Song of the year in 2009 . Its accompanying music video , directed by Ricardo Calderón and featuring Dominican model and former Miss Dominican Republic Massiel Taveras , was filmed in the Dominican Republic and premiered in November 2007 .
= = Background = =
In a press conference , Arjona stated that " yesterday is the cumulus of this that put us here , which raised us and made us what we are , for good or bad . " He also said that Quién Dijo Ayer was more than a compilation , and that " it 's an album with all the features of the typical greatest hits disc . " He further stated that , at first , it was " an album that began as an experiment , with a dose of informality " but later became " very complicated " thanks to the work done by the producers . After spending the majority of his career signed to Sony , and later , Sony BMG , Arjona signed a long @-@ term recording deal with Warner Music Latina in September 2008 . This departure made Quien Dijo Ayer the last album the artist directly released on his former label , although Sony later released another album named Simplemente Lo Mejor .
= = Composition = =
" Quiero " is a latin pop song written and performed by Arjona . It was produced by Tommy Torres , Dan Warner and Lee Levin . The song was recorded between five studios in Miami : The Tiki Room , Picks & Hammers , Jet Wash Studio , The Hit Factory Criteria and Hit Masters ; and on Jocoteco Studios in Mexico City . " Quién " was mixed in Barking Doctor Studios in New York City by Mick Guzauski , and mastered by Vlado Meller at the Sony Music Studios on that city . Website ADN Mundo called the song " bohemian " and " hippie " , saying it was " a love story that doesn 't speak about love , but instead about the recent events on the world we live and finally comes to the search of an indidivual who challenges nostalgia finding entertainment on the impossible . " In 2009 , " Quiero " was awarded , along with other selected songs , the Pop / Ballad Songs of the year award by the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Quiero " was filmed in the Dominican Republic . It premiered in November 2007 . Directed by Mexican filmmaker Ricardo Calderón , it was protagonized by Dominican model and former Miss Dominican Republic titleholder Massiel Taveras . During the shooting of the video , Arjona commented that the Dominican Republic was " an incredible country , filled with very helpful and wonderful people . " He also stated that he felt compromise of promoting the island . The clip , filmed in black @-@ and @-@ white , shows Arjona singing and playing the piano close to the beach edge . Arjona 's scenes are interpolated with aereal takes of the beach , as well as scenes of Taveras before several people start submerging into the water . Then , Arjona submerges himself , and the video ends .
= = Charts = =
= = Personnel = =
Taken from the album 's booklet .
= AJ 's Infinite Summer =
AJ 's Infinite Summer is an animated television pilot created by Toby Jones for Cartoon Network . The pilot follows AJ , whose new job during the summer drives him crazy with power . It is loosely based on Jones ' 2006 film , AJ Goes to France . Both the film and the pilot star AJ Thompson as the eponymous character . Jones additionally sought inspiration from his hometown of Fargo , North Dakota , and the comics he drew featuring Thompson and his other friends . The pilot was released on the official website of Cartoon Network on May 16 , 2014 .
= = Plot = =
Summer vacation starts for AJ and his friends Danny and Morgan , who live in the city of Downer . When AJ wants to be spontaneous for his plans to spend the vacation , he impulsively decides to get a job . The trio comes across a corporate office . AJ wants to apply for the corporation that owns it , but Danny and Morgan suggest that he prepares for the interview . AJ turns to his father , Peter , for advice . He equips AJ with an oversized business suit , and afterward the trio enter the office to help AJ apply . AJ shows his resume , and immediately he is hired by the Instructor of First Impressions . Workers of the office welcome AJ , who wears the same style of business suit as they do . When he sees that each worker has their own assistant , AJ hires Morgan as his " secretary " and tells her to fetch papers . Meanwhile , he asks " towel boy " Danny to wipe the sweat off his brow .
After this demonstration of power , AJ is promoted by his manager . A montage of AJ being promoted for doing absurd tasks follows . Soon , AJ is promoted to a rank with a private office . Danny and Morgan refuse to work for AJ further , finding him corrupt with power . AJ throws them out , and afterward he is promoted to CEO by a former officer — a decrepit man within a robotic business suit . AJ floats to the top of the suit , from which he spots a beach ball @-@ destroying machine to the side . He hallucinates the beach balls as the heads of Morgan and Danny , who say that he has destroyed the spirit of summer . Realizing his mistake , AJ rejects the promotion . He returns to his friends outside , and together they plan the rest of their summer .
= = Production = =
AJ 's Infinite Summer was created by Toby Jones . Produced by Nate Funaro at Cartoon Network Studios , the pilot had Robert Alvarez as timing director , Sue Mondt as art director , and Phil Rynda as creative director . AJ Thompson provided the voice for the eponymous character , Wallace Langham for Danny , Mae Whitman for Morgan , Chris Parnell for Peter , and David Hill for various characters .
Jones had previously codirected AJ Goes to France , a 2006 live @-@ action independent film that also has Thompson as the leading actor . It was produced as an assignment for Concordia College in Moorhead , Minnesota , where Jones majored in film . Jones had moved from his hometown of Fargo , North Dakota , to Minneapolis in 2005 , after he graduated from Fargo South High School . For AJ 's Infinite Summer , Jones was inspired by his hometown , as well as the comics he drew that featured AJ and his other friends , Danny Davy and Morgan . Additionally , the character of Peter is based on Greg Carlson , Jones ' professor from Concordia and also a film director and a critic for the High Plains Reader . Secret Cities , a Fargo @-@ based band in which Jones ' friends play , provided the score for the pilot . Jones found it excellent that both his friends and his friend 's band were allowed by the network to do work for the pilot .
Jones moved to Los Angeles in 2011 to work for Cartoon Network . He has written and storyboarded for Regular Show , another production on the network . His work on it gave Jones the foresight to pitch another show he knew the network would want . Initially unsure if he was ready to pitch AJ 's Infinite Summer , the network rejected the pilot the first time he did but approved it on the second , after he had reworked it throughout a few months . Jones contrasted the physical limitations of animating in time and energy to the animation of the pilot itself . He cited having the character of AJ run up a wall in one scene as an example of this .
= = Release and reception = =
AJ 's Infinite Summer was released without announcement on May 16 , 2014 , on the official website of Cartoon Network . Long Live the Royals , another pilot , was released on the same day . This pilot was created by Sean Szeles , who has also worked on Regular Show . Jason Krell of io9 found that the plot for AJ 's Infinite Summer was simple yet flexible . He described its take on life during summer vacation as " charming " and comparable with an " aged @-@ up Phineas and Ferb " . He said that he was amazed by both and that his viewership will be granted for both , should they be picked up as full series . John Lamb of The Forum of Fargo @-@ Moorhead recognized features of Fargo in the pilot , namely the high school , which he found analogous to Fargo South where Jones attended . Meanwhile , Amid Amidi of Cartoon Brew expected that the pilot would not have continuity from AJ Goes to France .
After the pilot was released , Jones found that people back in Fargo were amused to spot the differences in landmarks between their city and Downer . Jones told Lamb that since he worked in animation , he has been " surrounded by these people that I 've looked up to for years as a fan , and having them tell me they enjoyed it is the greatest thing ever " . As of June 2014 , Jones is still mainly working on Regular Show but said that he would like it very much to have the network commission it as a series . He expressed interest in submitting it at the Fargo Film Festival . The pilot was listed in the ballot for " Outstanding Short @-@ Format Animated Program " at the 66th Primetime Emmy Awards , although it did not win . The Long Live the Royals pilot did win in this category , however , and the network later commissioned it as a miniseries of the same name .
= HMS Audacious ( 1869 ) =
HMS Audacious was the lead ship of the Audacious @-@ class ironclads built for the Royal Navy in the late 1860s . They were designed as second @-@ class ironclads suitable for use on foreign stations and the ship spent the bulk of her career on the China Station . She was decommissioned in 1894 and hulked in 1902 for use as a training ship . The ship was towed to Scapa Flow after the beginning of the First World War to be used as a receiving ship and then to Rosyth after the war ended . Audacious was sold for scrap in 1929 .
= = Design and description = =
The Audacious @-@ class ironclads were laid out as central battery ironclads with the armament concentrated amidships . They were the first British ironclads to have a two @-@ deck battery with the upper deck guns sponsoned out over the sides of the hull . The ships were fitted with a short , plough @-@ shaped ram and their crew numbered 450 officers and men .
HMS Audacious was 280 feet ( 85 @.@ 3 m ) long between perpendiculars . She had a beam of 54 feet ( 16 @.@ 5 m ) and a draught of 23 feet ( 7 @.@ 0 m ) . The ship was first British ironclad to be completed below her designed displacement ; this meant that she was top heavy and required 360 long tons ( 370 t ) of cement ballast to raise her metacentric height . Audacious , and her sisters , were the steadiest gun platforms among the large British ironclads of their era . Audacious was given an experimental zinc sheath for her hull in an attempt to reduce biofouling that proved unsuccessful .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Audacious had two 2 @-@ cylinder horizontal return connecting rod steam engines made by Ravenhill , each driving a single 16 @-@ foot @-@ 2 @-@ inch ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) propeller . The bronze four @-@ bl
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approach was difficult for pianist Emi Okazaki , who had no experience with song production previously , and for drummer Keiichi Ejima , who learnt the guitar specifically to record demos for this album . The first finished demo , created by Yamaguchi and bassist Ami Kusakari 's for the song " Sen to Rei " strongly influenced the album 's production .
The album was well @-@ received critically , with critics noting the band 's growth ; praising the band 's electronic and pop sound , as well as Ichiro Yamaguchi 's songwriting and vocals . The album led Sakanaction to be chosen one of the ten iTunes Japan Sound of 2009 artists , as well as nominated at the Life Music Award 2009 .
In 2009 , the album was made available globally as a digital download , alongside the band 's debut and second albums Go to the Future ( 2007 ) and Night Fishing ( 2008 ) . In 2015 , the album was reissued on CD , LP record and lossless digital formats .
= = Background and development = =
Sakanaction was first formed in 2005 in Sapporo , Hokkaido . The band gained notoriety in Hokkaido after winning the audition to perform as a newcomer artist at the Rising Sun Rock Festival in Otaru in August 2006 , and after demos of their songs " Mikazuki Sunset " and " Shiranami Top Water " performed well on College Radio Japan Sapporo . The band were signed to major label Victor Entertainment , and released their debut album Go to the Future on May 7 , 2007 , through Victor 's BabeStar Label , and followed this up eight month later with the album Night Fishing ( 2009 ) .
The album is the band 's first after joining the main Victor Entertainment roster , after releasing two albums with Victor sub @-@ label BabeStar . After the release of Night Fishing , the band began looking for a new management company to sign a contract with . Originally , the members did not want to leave Sapporo , especially guitarist Motoharu Iwadera and bassist Ami Kusakari . Of the five management companies they were choosing between , none of them needed the band to relocate , except for Hipland Management . Vocalist Ichiro Yamaguchi realized that staying in Sapporo was against the band 's goal of making music for a much wider group of listeners , and was surprised when all of the members agreed with him . In Spring 2008 , the band moved to Tokyo from Hokkaido .
= = Writing and production = =
= = = Production techniques = = =
In April , Sakanaction had already started making songs for Shin @-@ shiro , despite having just finished their tour in March for the band 's second album Night Fishing , which had been released in January of the same year . The album 's production took a different approach to how Go to the Future and Night Fishing were produced . In their previous albums Yamaguchi produced the song demos , then took them to the studio and explained his vision for each song ; creating them in sessions with all of the band members . For Shin @-@ shiro , Yamaguchi created the songs , and then assigned each member of the band to create a demo based on their two @-@ person vision . This was a conscious move by Yamaguchi to create a new sound for the album , figuring that if all of members were concurrently working on the songs , it was inevitable that one person would take charge of each song .
Iwadera worked with Yamaguchi on the songs " Ame ( B ) " and " Namida Delight " , Kusakari on " Sen to Rei " , pianist Emi Okazaki on " Light Dance " , and drummer Keiichi Ejima on the instrumental composition " Minnanouta " . Kusakari and Okazaki collaborated to create demos for " Kiiroi Kuruma " . Yamaguchi worked by himself on the songs " Native Dancer " and " Enough " , while all of the band members contributed to " Adventure " and " Human " . The exception to this was " Zattō " , which was an old composition from Sakanaction 's early days in 2005 , when Yamaguchi and Iwadera were the only members of the group . The song 's arrangement was basically unchanged from the time of writing to its inclusion in the album . This pattern was not true for " Human " , which was originally a song written before the album sessions , however was completely rewritten when included in Shin @-@ shiro .
" Adventure " was created before the band left for Tokyo while they were experimenting with more approachable and pop sounds , and was intended to become the album 's leading single , in the role that was later filled by " Sen to Rei " . Similarly , in the early stages of the album 's creation , Yamaguchi also considered Adventure as a title for the album . When the members were creating demos for songs , Yamaguchi had not at that point finished composing the songs for the album . After finishing each composition , he would give it to a member to develop ; then return to composing more music while the members were all occupied . He found the two @-@ person production process invigorating , and was quickly able to write the remaining album material .
The band members all responded to this production method differently , with Iwadera and Kusakari finding the approach the easiest . Okazaki and Ejima both had trouble adopting this method . Okazaki was very anxious about her ability to create demos , having never used music software before , and not even owning a computer before moving to Tokyo . Yamaguchi bought her an iBook to help her with the process . Ejima found difficulty in recording demos due to the problem of recording drums at home for sound sampling . As a result , he learnt how to play the guitar . In June , the band were creating songs on a daily basis , and in August were still in the pre @-@ production stages of the album . The album was created at Yamaguchi 's apartment in Noborito in Kawasaki , Kanagawa , which became a meeting place for all of the band members for the album . In total , around thirty demo compositions were produced for the album . This method of song production also led to Yamaguchi being able to think of the album as a whole , as opposed to their methods on Go to the Future and Night Fishing , in which each song was thought of in its own individual context .
Kusakari was the fastest to finish her demo . Other than her , the other members brought their work half @-@ finished to their meetings with Yamaguchi . The song Kusakari was working on , " Sen to Rei " , became crucial to the creation of Shin @-@ shiro , as the band created the entire album in response to the song . Taking note of the musical style of " Sen to Rei " , the band created songs that showcased the other genres they performed , in order to expose new listeners to the entirety of the band 's sound . This was for first @-@ time listeners who came to know Sakanaction through " Sen to Rei " to be able to the entirety of the band 's sound . Kusakari 's version of the song " Sen to Rei " had a very strong guitar @-@ based rock sound , which the band mixed with electronic music . " Sen to Rei " was a challenge for the band , to bring as many entertaining and popular aspects to their music as they could , to balance the underground attributes of their sound .
= = = Demo production and location = = =
Sakanaction found that after moving to Tokyo , where the band stood in the Japanese music scene was a lot clearer to them . The album 's sound was inspired by Tokyo , and was a search to more consciously define what Sakanaction 's identity was , compared to their first two albums . As a result , Shin @-@ shiro felt like the end of the first chapter of Sakanaction to the band members . The music the band created on Shin @-@ shiro was a mix of everything that the band wanted to try musically , and an attempt to make a more " colorful " album inspired by both new wave and live performance @-@ style arrangements . They increased the tempo on the songs for the album , and focused on the beat of each song more than whether each song was structurally a pop song or not . Consciously attempting to create an album with a more popular sound , Yamaguchi was anxious about how his works would be received , and felt that these anxieties expressed themselves more on the album . For the song " Enough " , however , Yamaguchi wanted to create one song on the album that expressed his own thoughts on the album without being influenced by these pressures . The final studio takes of the songs were recorded in September 2008 .
The large amount of demos and separated work that each member was doing led to the creation of the instrumental song " Minnanouta " by Ejima . Originally Yamaguchi asked Ejima to create a song out of elements that Yamaguchi and Kusakari had discarded when making " Namida Delight " , but Ejima eventually took his favorite parts from all of the discarded demo takes to create the piece . At first , the band did not intend to have an interlude on the album , however found it was a helpful guide for new listeners to Sakanaction 's sound , and a good separator between the two halves of the album . " Namida Delight " also began as an instrumental song , however a melody and lyrics were added to the song after the band had entirely finished the piece .
The song " Ame ( B ) " was originally written as a folk song that Iwadera reworked into a progressive rock song . In the final stages of creation , Yamaguchi suggested they feature choral vocals in the song . Yamaguchi and Iwadera sung the vocal chorus themselves , with an additional three takes of Iwadera 's voice layered on top of each other . It was inspired by British rock band Queen 's 1980s dance music , and was written as what Yamaguchi thought was an " old style cool " song in a verse – chorus form , featuring two verses and a chorus . The version of the song featured on the album was built around the B verse alone , and felt similar to a remix to Yamaguchi because of this .
The demo version of the song " Light Dance " originally sounded similar to a war march , created this way by Okazaki was not very familiar with dance music . After fine @-@ tuning the arrangement , and inserting " oriental " synths in the style of Japanese bands Yellow Magic Orchestra and Godiego , " Light Dance " settled at a new wave sound . Yamaguchi considered aspects of " Light Dance " and " Adventure " were similar to heavy metal , such as the bass drum being layered with different instruments , but felt that these would be interpreted as new wave by most people .
The final studio versions of the album songs were recorded at Galva Studio in Kyūden , Setagaya , Tokyo . Several compositions had additional recorded elements . For " Zattō " , Iwadera and Yamaguchi incorporated a recording they had made of the crowds at Jiyūgaoka Station in Tokyo . Parts of " Ame ( B ) " were recorded outside , during a summer thunderstorm .
= = = Title = = =
The album 's title Shin @-@ shiro was intended to represent the kanji 新白 , a neologism created by Yamaguchi meaning " new white " , although it could also be interpreted as the homonym 真白 ( " pure white " ) . Yamaguchi hoped to express how the album was compiled with new feelings , and express the theme of the album as newness . The word " shin @-@ shiro " first appeared in Ichiro Yamaguchi 's blog in February 2008 , right after the release of Night Fishing . The cover design was created by the creative team Hatos , and features a waveform visual representation of the album title " Shin @-@ shiro " being spoken .
= = Promotion and release = =
The album was preceded by two singles . " Sen to Rei " was released on November 12 , 2008 , and later as the band 's first physical CD single release on December 10 . This was followed by a digital single " Native Dancer " in January 2009 . " Native Dancer " served as the leading promotional track on Shin @-@ shiro , promoted with a music video directed by Yuichi Kodama , featuring a pair of Nike sneakers performing an intricate dance . The video was critically successful , winning the best conceptual video award at the 2010 Space Shower Music Video Awards , and winning director Kodama the overall best director award .
The band performed a national tour of Japan in February and March 2009 , entitled Sakanaquarium 2009 : Shinshiro . The 13 date tour began in Kyoto on February 14 , and ended with two performances in Sapporo on March 20 and 21 . Following this , Sakanaction performed at three dates on Base Ball Bear 's Live Mathematics Tour : April 29 in Kōriyama , Fukushima , April 30 in Mito , Ibaraki and on May 7 in Kōfu , Yamanashi . On October 10 , Sakanaction performed their first overseas concert , the Gentra X Ssamzie Sound Festival in Paju , South Korea .
In 2015 the album was reissued , initially on vinyl record and a CD re @-@ release in March , followed by a lossless digital release . Originally the band had planned on releasing a new studio album in March 2015 , but they could not due to bassist Kusakari 's pregnancy .
= = Reception = =
= = = Retrospective = = =
In a retrospective interview on the album with Rockin ' On Japan in 2011 , Yamaguchi believed that many aspects of Sakanaction were not represented on the album , and felt that songs such as " Light Dance " , " Zattō " and " Enough " only showed surface @-@ level Sakanaction . The album 's comparative commercial success created an odd feeling for the band , as even though it sold many more copies than their previous works , they were not sure why it had stopped selling at 30 @,@ 000 copies . As a result of the album 's disappointing sales , Yamaguchi felt that Sakanaction needed to create a signature song that would be recognisable to a wide audience and would represent Sakanaction as a band , and spent most of 2009 experimenting on the song " Aruku Around " ( 2010 ) , released as the band 's next single after Shin @-@ shiro .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Critics positively reviewed Shin @-@ shiro , with both CDJournal and Vibe reviewers noting the strong contrast to their first two studio albums . Mio Yamada of Vibe wrote that the album was completely different direction to their previous albums , feeling it was more accessible , while CDJournal felt that the album was more " colorful " and " radical " . Yamada described it as a " Sakanaction @-@ style road movie " about finding yourself , while being lonely , anxious and fed up with the tedium of everyday . Shirō Ise of Listen.jp noted the album 's " high sense and edgy sound " based on " electronica and guitar rock " , while being inspired by a variety of genres such as 1990s alternative rock , new wave , technopop , house , ambient music and African @-@ American music . He praised the fact that despite how many genres the music was inspired by , the band 's music did not forget the heart of songs . CDJournal praised the fact that each song stands on its own musically , instead of being drowned out by the album 's overarching digital sound . Yuji Tanaka of CDJournal described the album as " dynamic technotronica rock " that fused the feel of live music with four on the floor beats . Alexey Eremenko of AllMusic gave the album four or of five stars , comparing it to the works of Asian Kung @-@ Fu Generation . He felt that Sakanaction created " a fresh version of new wave " , and felt that the album was " emotionally cohesive " . He felt that none of the songs on Shin @-@ shiro were " big catchy numbers " , but felt that this was beneficial for the musical flow . Eremenko , however , criticized the album for being " too lightweight " .
For the leading single " Sen to Rei " , CDJournal reviewers praised Sakanaction 's " ever @-@ changing sound " , and were impressed with the changing vocals in the song 's chorus . They noted that the song was not very " showy " , however felt that despite this , Sakanaction still expressed a " high quality hybrid " sound . Sakiko Okazaki of Rockin ' On Japan praised the song 's high @-@ pitched synthesizers , fast @-@ paced guitars , groovy bass and heart @-@ hitting drums , and felt the song expressed the vigor of Sakanaction .
CDJournal praised Yamaguchi 's " mostly detached but somehow cheerful vocals " in " Ame ( B ) " , and felt that " Light Dance " was an " addictive , danceable number " , and were impressed with the song 's guitar solo , as well as how the digital sound brought up feelings of impatience and doubt . They noted the gap in " Native Dancer " between its dance rhythm and painful lyrical content , and were impressed with its transition from a " nostalgic " piano sound , developing into a dance song . For the instrumental track " Minnanouta " , the reviewers praised the arrangement as " marvelous techno " , and noted the song 's distinctive sound loop , that " called out intoxication and ecstasy " . Kuniko Yamada of Bounce felt the album was " fresh " , and demonstrated the many senses that Sakanaction members had . She noted that the band were also comfortable in producing " guitar rock " songs such as " Sen to Rei " , and that the four on the floor such as " Adventure " and " Ame ( B ) " would be comfortable on the dance floor . She singled out " Native Dancer " for its " beautiful fusion of acoustic and synth sounds " , and felt that " Zattō " managed to be profound despite its simple arrangement .
In February , Sakanaction were named as one of the ten iTunes Japan Sound of 2009 artists : musicians who iTunes Japan staff expected to make it big in 2009 . At Life Music Award 2009 , a Tokyo FM competition based on radio DJ nominations , Sakanaction were the runners up for the Best Impact of Life award for most surprising act , however lost to 9mm Parabellum Bullet . In the 2009 CD Shop Awards , the album was chosen as one of the ten finalists .
= = = Commercial reception = = =
In its debut week , Shin @-@ shiro was the eighth most sold album in Japan according to the Japanese music chart Oricon , selling 12 @,@ 000 copies . This resulted in the band having their first top fifty release , and outselling their first two albums in a single week . Rival sales tracking agency SoundScan Japan tracked 10 @,@ 000 physical copies sold in the single 's first week , and a total of 16 @,@ 000 copies over two weeks . The album continued to chart in the top 100 albums for four more weeks , and the top 300 for an additional three , selling an additional 16 @,@ 000 units . During the release of the band 's single " Aruku Around " in January 2010 , the album re @-@ charted for a seven weeks , selling an additional 4 @,@ 000 copies . After re @-@ entering the chart for a single week in 2012 and being reissued in 2015 , the album 's current sales total adds to 34 @,@ 000 copies . In tracking regional sales , CDJournal noted the album had broad charting success across all of Japan , and was the band 's first album to perform well in the regional centers of Nagoya , Osaka and Fukuoka .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Ichiro Yamaguchi .
= = Personnel = =
Personnel details were sourced from Shin @-@ shiro 's liner notes booklet .
Sakanaction
Personnel and imagery
= = Charts = =
= = = Sales = = =
= = Release history = =
= Fort Steuben Bridge =
The Fort Steuben Bridge , originally the Weirton @-@ Steubenville Bridge , was a suspension bridge which spanned the Ohio River from Steubenville , Ohio to Weirton , West Virginia and carried U.S. Route 22 and then Ohio State Route 822 during its existence . Completed in 1928 and opened as a toll bridge , the Fort Steuben Bridge was a more direct route for the flow of traffic across the river ; particularly for trucks and heavy vehicles from the industrial area . The Fort Steuben Bridge was weight @-@ restricted in 2006 and closed in 2009 due to deterioration . The bridge was demolished by Joseph B. Fay Co. on February 21 , 2012 .
= = Construction = =
Originally named the Weirton @-@ Steubenville Bridge , construction of the bridge began in 1927 and was completed in 1928 . Under the direction of the Dravo Contracting Company 's Engineering Works Department , based in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , the project was referred to as the " Stanton Bridge over the Ohio River at Steubenville , Ohio " . The bridge spanned 1 @,@ 584 ft 9 in ( 483 @.@ 03 m ) and had a width of 29 ft 3 in ( 8 @.@ 92 m )
= = Service life = =
Serving as a link between Steubenville , Ohio and Weirton , West Virginia , the Fort Steuben Bridge opened as a toll bridge in November 1928 . The bridge was the main carrier of U.S. Route 22 over the Ohio River , its traffic included trucks and heavy duty vehicles associated with the industrial facilities in Weirton @-@ Steubenville area and along the Ohio River . The Fort Steuben Bridge provided a more direct route for the flow of traffic which previously had to use the Market Street Bridge . As of 1940 the toll for the bridge was 5 cents ( US $ 0 @.@ 84 with inflation ) for pedestrians and 25 cents ( US $ 4 @.@ 22 with inflation ) for automobiles . The toll was removed in 1947 , when ownership of the bridge was transferred to the State of Ohio . Improvements to the bridge were made in 1956 .
By the late 1970s , traffic congestion on the bridge had become a serious problem . A 1978 study revealed that although the bridge could handle a peak 1 @,@ 600 vehicles passing over the bridge per hour , excess traffic pushing it towards its theoretical capacity of 1 @,@ 920 vehicles per hour could potentially cause gridlock on the bridge . The United States Senate report accompanying the fiscal 1983 appropriation bill for the United States Department of Transportation mentioned that its replacement had become a high priority . A proposed schedule was for the Federal Highway Administration ( FHWA ) to receive plans for a cable stayed superstructure by February 1 , 1983 , and for the project to be approved by mid @-@ April 1983 .
Fort Steuben Bridge 's replacement , the Veterans Memorial Bridge , was completed in 1990 . The Ohio Department of Transportation capped funding for maintaining the Fort Steuben Bridge in 1998 at around $ 200 @,@ 000 ( US $ 290 @,@ 000 with inflation ) per year . The Fort Steuben Bridge was weight @-@ restricted in 2006 due to the weakening of the structure over time . The assessment prompted a weight limit ; reducing the bridge 's traffic which consisted of heavy trucks . The bridge was known to be affected by rain vibration .
= = Closing and demolition = =
On January 8 , 2009 , a dip in the floor of the bridge was reported in the course of routine maintenance , prompting an inspection on the bridge . On January 15 , 2009 , the Ohio Department of Transportation deemed the bridge unfit for traffic , citing " significant deteriorating changes in the floor condition of the bridge . " Repairs to the bridge were not conducted because the bridge was expected to be demolished in late 2009 and the cost of the repairs would not be " cost effective or prudent " .
The Fort Steuben Bridge was destroyed in a controlled demolition on February 21 , 2012 . The Ohio Department of Transportation contracted Joseph B. Fay Co. to demolish the bridge . The roadway and approaches were removed in preparation for the demolition . A collection of 490 linear shape charges were used in 136 locations along the span , totaling 153 pounds ( 69 kg ) of explosives . The charges were rigged in a series of 20 blasts , each lasting only 0 @.@ 35 seconds and occurring only nine milliseconds apart . The cleanup of the debris was done by River Salvage Co. of Pittsburgh . The demolition was featured in a Scholastic SuperScience article and it included a picture of the demolition spread across two pages .
= Blonde @-@ class cruiser =
The Blonde @-@ class cruisers were a pair of scout cruisers built for the Royal Navy in the first decade of the 20th century . Upon completion in 1910 – 11 , they served as flotilla leaders for destroyer flotillas of the First Fleet until 1913 when they were assigned to battleship squadrons . When the First World War began in August 1914 , they remained with their squadrons as the First Fleet was incorporated into the Grand Fleet , although they changed squadrons over the course of the war . Blonde did not participate in the Battle of Jutland in mid @-@ 1916 , unlike her sister ship , Blanche , which did , but never fired a shot . They were converted into minelayers the following year , but only Blanche actually laid mines . The sisters were reduced to reserve in 1919 and sold for scrap in 1920 – 21 .
= = Design and description = =
These scout cruisers were too slow to lead destroyers in battle or to defend the fleet against enemy destroyer attacks , but they were still used as flotilla leaders . The Blonde class was essentially a repeat of the preceding Boadicea class , albeit with a more powerful armament and less fuel . Displacing 3 @,@ 350 long tons ( 3 @,@ 400 t ) , the ships had an overall length of 405 feet ( 123 @.@ 4 m ) , a beam of 41 feet 6 inches ( 12 @.@ 6 m ) and a deep draught of 15 feet 6 inches ( 4 @.@ 7 m ) . They were powered by four sets of Parsons steam turbines , each driving two shafts . The turbines produced a total of 18 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 13 @,@ 000 kW ) , using steam produced by 12 Yarrow boilers that burned both fuel oil and coal , and gave a maximum speed of 24 @.@ 5 knots ( 45 @.@ 4 km / h ; 28 @.@ 2 mph ) . They carried a maximum of 780 long tons ( 790 t ) of coal and 190 long tons ( 190 t ) of fuel oil that gave them a range of 4 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 600 km ; 4 @,@ 700 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Their crew consisted of 314 officers and ratings .
The main armament of the Blonde class consisted of ten breech @-@ loading ( BL ) 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) Mk VII guns . The forward pair of guns were mounted side by side on a platform on the forecastle , six were amidships , three on each broadside , and the two remaining guns were on the centreline of the quarterdeck , one ahead of the other . The guns fired their 31 @-@ pound ( 14 kg ) shells to a range of about 11 @,@ 400 yards ( 10 @,@ 400 m ) . Their secondary armament was four quick @-@ firing ( QF ) three @-@ pounder ( 1 @.@ 9 @-@ inch ( 47 mm ) ) Vickers Mk I guns and two submerged 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes .
As scout cruisers , the ships were only lightly protected to maximise their speed . They had a curved protective deck that was one inch ( 25 mm ) thick on the slope and 0 @.@ 5 inches ( 13 mm ) on the flat . Their conning tower was protected by four inches of armour .
= = Ships = =
= = Service = =
Both Blonde and Blanche began their careers with destroyer flotillas , Blonde as senior officers ' ship for the 7th Flotilla of the Mediterranean Fleet and Blanche with the 1st Destroyer Flotilla of the First Fleet . But the sisters were transferred to the 4th and the 3rd Battle Squadrons , respectively , of the First Fleet in 1913 .
Blonde remained with the 4th Battle Squadron through 1916 , although she was detached for several months mid year . She had been transferred to the 1st Battle Squadron by April 1917 and was converted into a minelayer later in the year , although she never laid any mines in combat . Similarly , Blanche remained with the 3rd Battle Squadron until January 1916 when she joined her sister in the 4th Battle Squadron . The ship participated in the Battle of Jutland , but was on the unengaged side of the fleet and did not have the opportunity to fire at the Germans . She was detached from the 4th Battle Squadron at the beginning of 1917 , presumably to be converted into a minelayer . Blanche was assigned to the 5th Battle Squadron by April and laid some mines at the entrance to the Kattegat in February 1918 .
Blonde was in reserve by February 1919 and had been assigned to the Nore Reserve by 1 May , together with Blanche . The sisters were listed for sale by 18 March 1920 and Blonde was sold for scrap on 6 May . Blanche followed on 27 July 1921 .
= Bless Me Indeed ( Jabez 's Song ) =
" Bless Me Indeed ( Jabez 's Song ) " ( sometimes called " Bless Me Indeed " ) is a song by Christian rock band MercyMe . Written by the band and produced by Pete Kipley , it was released as the lead single from the band 's 2001 album Almost There . The song was written at the request of the band 's record label , who wanted to produce a song based on the popular book The Prayer of Jabez ( 2000 ) . Although the band did not want to write it at first , they eventually relented and recorded it .
Lyrically , " Bless Me Indeed " asks God for blessing , paralleling Jabez 's prayer in 1 Chronicles . It received a mixed to positive response from critics ; lead singer Bart Millard has since described it as one of the band 's worst songs . The song did not perform well at Christian radio , peaking at number 27 on the Radio & Records Christian AC chart , leading to initial album sales that were lower than expected .
= = Background and composition = =
The idea behind " Bless Me Indeed ( Jabez 's Song ) " came from MercyMe 's record label , INO Records , who wanted to capitalize off the success of Bruce Wilkinson 's popular book The Prayer of Jabez ( 2000 ) . According to lead singer Bart Millard , the label figured that the book could introduce the band and set up a successful career . Although the band did not want to write the song , they eventually relented . " Bless Me Indeed ( Jabez 's Song ) " was written by Jim Bryson , Nathan Cochran , Bart Millard , Mike Scheuchzer , and Robby Shaffer - all five members of MercyMe at the time . Like the rest of Almost There , it was recorded at Ivy Park , The Indigo Room , Paradise Sound , and IBC Studios . Kipley produced and programmed the song , while Skye McCaskey and Julian Kindred engineered it . Salvo mixed the song . String instruments were recorded by the Paltrow Performance Group .
" Bless Me Indeed ( Jabez 's Song ) " has a length of four minutes and fourteen seconds . According to the sheet music published by Musicnotes.com , it is in set common time in the key of C major and has a tempo of 108 beats per minute . Bart Millard 's vocal range in the song spans from the low note of G ♯ 4 to the high note of F ♯ 5 . The song lyrically relates to the Biblical figure Jabez . In 1 Chronicles 4 : 10 , Jabez requests that God bless him by expanding his territory and keeping him free from evil , a request God accepts . In " Bless Me Indeed ( Jabez 's Song ) " , Millard requests the same from God .
= = Reception = =
" Bless Me Indeed " received a mixed to positive response from critics . Steve Losey of AllMusic selected it as a ' track pick ' . The J Man of Crosswalk.com described it as a " winner " , and appreciated that it was based on The Prayer of Jabez . In Amazon.com 's product description of Almost There , the reviewer stated the track " is a glimmer of brilliance where the group brings it all together " . However , Russ Breimeier of Christianity Today described the song as " [ not ] particularly remarkable " , preferring another song based on Jabez , According to John 's " Song of Jabez " . In an interview in 2014 , Millard stated that it is one of " one of the worst songs we ’ ve ever done " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Bless Me Indeed " was released as the first single from Almost There . Although the label anticipated the song 's connection with The Prayer of Jaebz would make it a success , it performed poorly on Christian radio . The song debuted at number 29 on the Radio & Records Christian AC chart for the week of August 31 , 2001 . The following week , it advanced to its peak of number 27 . The song spent four weeks on the chart before dropping off . The poor performance of the song at radio led to initial album sales that were lower than anticipated , although the album would later be certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) following the success of the album 's second single , " I Can Only Imagine " .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits from the album liner notes )
= = Charts = =
= Dion Phaneuf =
Dion Phaneuf ( born April 10 , 1985 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey defenceman for the Ottawa Senators of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . He has previously also played for the Calgary Flames and Toronto Maple Leafs . He was drafted ninth overall in the 2003 NHL Entry Draft by Calgary and made his NHL debut in 2005 after a four @-@ year junior career with the Red Deer Rebels of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) , in which he was twice named the Defenceman of the Year . He set a Flames record for most goals by a first @-@ year defenceman and was named a finalist for the Calder Memorial Trophy as top rookie in 2005 – 06 . Two years later , he was a finalist for the James Norris Memorial Trophy as top defenceman , though he did not win either award . Since going pro , Phaneuf has been involved in two blockbuster trades . The first came in late 2009 , when he was involved in a seven @-@ player trade that saw him move from Calgary to Toronto . Six years later , Phaneuf was the centrepiece of a 9 @-@ player deal that saw him sent from Toronto to Ottawa .
Phaneuf is a three @-@ time NHL All @-@ Star . He has represented Team Canada internationally five times in his career , winning a silver medal and a gold medal at the World Junior Hockey Championship in 2004 and 2005 , respectively , as well as a gold medal at the 2007 Men 's World Ice Hockey Championships .
Phaneuf is active in the community ; the Flames honoured Phaneuf for his role as an ambassador to the Alberta Children 's Hospital , where he participated in events that help sick and injured children during his time in Calgary . Phaneuf was a common sight at Toronto events , often appearing at fundraisers , promotional activities or visiting patients at Sick Kids Hospital .
In 2013 , he married Elisha Cuthbert .
= = Early life = =
Dion Phaneuf was born April 10 , 1985 , in Edmonton , Alberta , to Paul , a construction worker , and Amber , a nurse , both originally from the province of Prince Edward Island . Dion attended Harry Ainlay Composite High School . Dion has a younger brother , Dane , who played for the P.E.I. Rocket of the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League ( QMJHL ) . Paul and Amber Phaneuf describe their family as close @-@ knit .
Paul Phaneuf maintained a backyard rink each winter that the young Phaneuf practiced on . His mother , a former figure skater who competed for Prince Edward Island at the 1975 Canada Winter Games , taught him to skate . Phaneuf also practiced his shot relentlessly in the basement of his family 's home , frequently breaking the nets his father bought .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior = = =
The Red Deer Rebels selected Phaneuf in the third round of the 2000 WHL Bantam Draft . One year later , he joined the Rebels for the 2001 – 02 season and recorded 17 points in 67 games . He added two assists in 21 games as the Rebels lost in the WHL Final against the Kootenay Ice . He improved to 16 goals and 30 points in 2002 – 03 as the Rebels again reached the WHL Finals , again losing , this time to the Kelowna Rockets . Phaneuf 's development earned him comparisons to Hall of Famer Scott Stevens , as he was lauded by scouts for his physical style and ability to excel both defensively and offensively . Then @-@ Calgary Flames General Manager Darryl Sutter valued Phaneuf so highly in the 2003 NHL Entry Draft that he attempted to trade up from his ninth overall selection in the Draft , though to no avail . Nonetheless , he was able to select Phaneuf with Calgary 's first selection in the draft .
Phaneuf established himself as the junior hockey team 's top player following the draft , earning the Bill Hunter Memorial Trophy as the top defenceman in the WHL . He was also named an Eastern Conference All @-@ Star by the WHL , and a First Team All @-@ Star by the Canadian Hockey League ( CHL ) . He was considered a candidate to join the Flames in 2004 . The 2004 – 05 NHL lockout , however , forced Phaneuf to play one final year of junior hockey . He scored 56 points in 55 games to finish his junior career with 146 total points . He repeated as the WHL 's Defenceman of the Year , and was again named to both WHL and CHL All @-@ Star Teams . Prospects Hockey rated Phaneuf as the top player in the CHL in both 2004 and 2005 , ahead of Sidney Crosby , naming him one of the best junior defencemen of the previous decade .
= = = Calgary Flames = = =
Phaneuf joined the Flames for the 2005 – 06 NHL season after signing his first professional contract in September 2005 . Phaneuf made his NHL debut on October 5 , 2005 , against the Minnesota Wild . Five nights later , he scored his first career goal , assist and points against the Colorado Avalanche . He was named the NHL 's Rookie of the Month for November after leading all rookie defencemen with nine points and two game @-@ winning goals . By January , Phaneuf was being named alongside Sidney Crosby and Alexander Ovechkin as a candidate for the NHL 's top rookie . He finished the season with 20 goals , only the third player in NHL history after Brian Leetch and Barry Beck to score 20 as a rookie defenceman . His 20 goals also broke the Flames franchise record for goals by a rookie defenseman , surpassing Gary Suter 's total of 18 . Phaneuf was named a finalist for the Calder Memorial Trophy as top rookie , but lost out to Ovechkin .
A 50 @-@ point sophomore season earned Phaneuf his first NHL All @-@ Star Game appearance in 2006 – 07 . He participated in the hardest shot competition at the SuperSkills competition , losing to Zdeno Chára , and scored a goal and an assist in the game itself to help the Western Conference defeat the East 12 – 9 . The Flames signed Phaneuf to a six @-@ year , US $ 39 million contract extension midway through the 2007 – 08 season . He responded by posting a career @-@ high 60 points , and was voted into the starting lineup by the fans for the 2008 All @-@ Star Game . Phaneuf was named to the NHL First All @-@ Star Team following the season , and was a finalist for the James Norris Memorial Trophy as defenceman of the year , losing to the Detroit Red Wings ' Nicklas Lidström .
The 2008 – 09 season was a frustrating one for Phaneuf , as he recorded a career @-@ low 11 goals and 47 points , and his poor plus @-@ minus rating of – 11 led fans to question his defensive commitment . His poor season and high salary also led to speculation that Phaneuf might be traded . In spite of his struggles , Phaneuf averaged 26 minutes and 31 seconds of ice time per game , the fourth highest in the League . He missed the final game of the Flames ' 2009 Stanley Cup playoff Western Quarter @-@ final series against the Chicago Blackhawks with broken ribs , after battling a hip injury during the regular season . Flames management defended Phaneuf , claiming that the injuries he battled affected his play .
= = = Toronto Maple Leafs = = =
On January 31 , 2010 , the Flames dealt Phaneuf , along with Fredrik Sjöström and Keith Aulie , to the Toronto Maple Leafs in exchange for Matt Stajan , Niklas Hagman , Ian White and Jamal Mayers .
On February 2 , 2010 , Phaneuf made his Toronto Maple Leaf debut , leading all Maple Leafs players in time on ice and ended the night with a fight and given second star of the game honours . He would record his first point , an assist , four nights later in a game against the Ottawa Senators and scored his first goal as a Leaf on April 7 , 2010 , on Henrik Lundqvist of the New York Rangers . Phaneuf was named an alternate captain in Toronto nine games after being acquired after Mike Komisarek suffered a season @-@ ending injury . While Phaneuf struggled offensively to begin his tenure in Toronto – he played 25 games in Toronto before scoring his first goal – then @-@ Leafs Head Coach Ron Wilson credited him with creating a positive change in the mood in the Toronto dressing room .
Phaneuf was named the 18th captain of the Toronto Maple Leafs on June 14 , 2010 , at a press conference held by General Manager Brian Burke , succeeding Mats Sundin , who left after the 2007 – 08 season .
On November 2 , 2010 , in a game against the Ottawa Senators , Phaneuf sustained an injury in the leg by having it cut open with a skate from Peter Regin while crashing into the boards . He was carried off the ice immediately and had surgery done the same night . Phaneuf was said to be off the ice for four @-@ to @-@ six weeks , and made a return to the Leafs ' lineup on December 9 , 2010 , a home ice game against the Philadelphia Flyers , which Philadelphia won 4 – 1 , though he had one assist on the lone Toronto goal .
On January 5 , 2012 , it was announced that Phaneuf would compete in his third All @-@ Star Game , having finished second amongst all defencemen on the fan ballot , gaining 614 @,@ 933 votes , behind the Ottawa Senators ' Erik Karlsson . On April 21 , 2013 , Phaneuf and the Leafs clinched a Stanley Cup playoff spot , the first time for Phaneuf since the 2008 – 09 season with the Calgary Flames . On December 10 , 2013 , Phaneuf received a two @-@ game suspension on a boarding hit on Boston Bruins defenceman Kevan Miller , which occurred on December 8 , 2013 , in Toronto . Phaneuf forfeited the amount of US $ 66 @,@ 666 @.@ 66 for his action .
= = = Ottawa Senators = = =
After parts of seven seasons with Toronto , Phaneuf was dealt to the Ottawa Senators on February 9 , 2016 , in a blockbuster nine @-@ player trade . Both fans and media alike viewed the trade with shock , as a significant deal between the arch @-@ rivals was viewed as very unlikely to happen . Phaneuf , Matt Frattin , prospects Casey Bailey , Ryan Rupert and Cody Donaghey were sent to the Senators in exchange for Jared Cowen , Colin Greening , Milan Michalek , prospect Tobias Lindberg and Ottawa 's 2017 second round draft pick . Due to the Battle of Ontario rivalry , this was the first time the Maple Leafs and Senators had made a trade since March 17 , 1998 , when Per Gustafsson was shipped to Ottawa in exchange for an 8th round pick . Phaneuf played a shortened 2015 – 16 season due to an " oblique injury and soreness in his right foot " after blocking a shot during a game against the Toronto Maple Leafs on March 12 , ending the season with 20 games played with the Senators , amassing one goal and eight points .
= = International play = =
Phaneuf made his international debut for the Canadian junior team at the 2004 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships in Helsinki , earning a leadership role under Head Coach Mario Durocher . A devastating bodycheck to the Czech Republic 's Rostislav Olesz led the referee to eject Phaneuf from the semi @-@ final game ; he was not suspended , however , and played in the gold medal game . The Canadians lost the final to the United States , while Phaneuf was named a tournament All @-@ Star at defence .
The Canadian team at the 2005 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships dominated the tournament , outscoring their opposition 35 – 6 in the games leading up to the gold medal match @-@ up with Russia .
Phaneuf scored a goal and threw a memorable bodycheck that knocked down two Russian players in the championship game as Canada routed the Russians 6 – 1 to win their first gold medal in eight years . He was again named a tournament All @-@ Star , as well as being named the outstanding defenceman of the tournament .
Following the Flames ' elimination in the 2007 Stanley Cup playoffs , Phaneuf joined the Canadian senior team at the 2007 Men 's World Ice Hockey Championships in Moscow . He recorded eight assists in seven games to help Canada win the gold medal over Finland . Once considered a virtual lock to join team Canada at the 2010 Winter Olympics , his struggles in the 2008 – 09 season placed his candidacy in doubt . Team Canada General Manager Steve Yzerman continued to express confidence in Phaneuf during a summer camp held in Calgary , but Phaneuf was not among the seven defencemen ultimately selected for the team .
After the Leafs missed the 2011 playoffs , Phaneuf served as alternate captain of Team Canada at the 2011 IIHF World Championship in Bratislava , Slovakia , where Canada finished fifth . Phaneuf was once again alternate captain of the Canadian team at the 2012 World Championship in Sochi , Russia . Canada repeated its fifth @-@ place finish of the prior year .
In August 2013 , Phaneuf attended the summer orientation camp for Team Canada in preparation for the 2014 Winter Olympics . Phaneuf , however , was not named to the final Olympic roster .
= = Playing style = =
In junior hockey , Phaneuf was known not only for his physical presence , but also his calm demeanour and offensive ability . He was compared to Hockey Hall of Famer Scott Stevens by his former coach , Brent Sutter . Scouts praised his defensive ability , and the poise he showed at both ends of the ice . Praised for his leadership abilities , Phaneuf was named the captain of Team WHL at the 2004 ATD Canada @-@ Russia Challenge , and was counted upon to take a leadership role with the Canadian junior team at the 2004 and 2005 World Junior Championships .
Entering his sophomore season , Phaneuf 's potential impact on a game was compared to that of Russian star Alexander Ovechkin , and a poll released by ESPN in 2008 revealed that 43 % of players asked argued Phaneuf was the hardest hitter in hockey , at the age of 22 . He was named an alternate captain by the Flames at the start of the 2008 – 09 season , though Brent Sutter chose to alternate amongst a group of veterans , including Phaneuf , in 2009 – 10 .
While he earned a James Norris Memorial Trophy nomination for his defensive play in 2008 , he struggled enough during the 2008 – 09 season that some observers began to question his defensive commitment . Phaneuf 's teammates were quick to defend his play and noted that he was among the League leaders in average time on ice per game . His hitting game has also earned criticism at times . The New York Islanders were especially upset at an open @-@ ice charge Phaneuf delivered to Kyle Okposo during a 2009 exhibition game that resulted in the latter suffering a concussion . Phaneuf has also been criticized for occasionally refusing to fight opponents who challenge him after throwing a big hit . For his part , Phaneuf stated he does not believe that he should be forced to fight after every big hit , though he would do so when necessary . His coaches have praised Phaneuf 's mentality . He has also been accused of playing " dirty " and " stupid " by opponents who feel that he occasionally takes unnecessary liberties with opposing players . A 2010 Sports Illustrated poll of 229 NHL players saw 21 % of respondents name Phaneuf as the most overrated player in the NHL , three times as many votes as any other player . Phaneuf dismissed the poll while several of his current and former teammates expressed their disagreement with the result .
= = Personal life = =
Phaneuf began dating Canadian actress Elisha Cuthbert in May 2008 . Their relationship became the centre of controversy in December 2008 when then @-@ Dallas Stars forward Sean Avery , who had dated Cuthbert in the past , commented on how other NHL players , such as Phaneuf — as well as Los Angeles Kings ' center Jarret Stoll , who was dating model Rachel Hunter , another ex @-@ girlfriend — fell in love with his " sloppy seconds . " NHL Commissioner Gary Bettman referred to the remarks as " disgusting " and subsequently suspended Avery six games ; the Stars later cut ties with the player .
Phaneuf and Cuthbert announced their engagement in September 2012 , and they married on July 6 , 2013 , at St. James Catholic Church in Summerfield , Prince Edward Island . Living in Toronto during the hockey season , Phaneuf and Cuthbert spend their summers at Phaneuf 's waterfront estate outside of New London , Prince Edward Island , in his parents ' home province .
While with the Flames , he was the official ambassador to the Alberta Children 's Hospital in Calgary and donated tickets to Flames games to help families at the facility . The Flames named him the recipient of the Ralph T. Scurfield Humanitarian Award in 2008 in recognition of his participation with the Children 's Hospital . Phaneuf has appeared on the cover of the NHL 09 video game , and played a role in NHL promotions and commercials .
Phaneuf is a fourth cousin of Canadian figure skater Cynthia Phaneuf .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = = All @-@ Star Games = = =
= = Awards and honours = =
= Mongrels ( TV series ) =
Mongrels is a British puppet @-@ based situation comedy series first broadcast on BBC Three between 22 June and 10 August 2010 , with a making @-@ of documentary entitled " Mongrels Uncovered " broadcast on 11 August 2010 . A second and final series of Mongrels began airing on 7 November 2011 .
The series revolves around the lives of five anthropomorphic animals who hang around the back of a pub in Millwall , the Isle of Dogs , London . The characters are Nelson , a metrosexual fox ( voiced by Rufus Jones , performed by Andy Heath ) ; Destiny , an Afghan hound ( voiced by Lucy Montgomery , performed by Richard Coombs and Sue Beattie ) ; Marion , a " borderline @-@ retarded " cat ( voiced by Dan Tetsell , performed by Warrick Brownlow @-@ Pike ) ; Kali , a grudge @-@ bearing pigeon ( voiced by Katy Brand , performed by Iestyn Evans ) ; and Vince , Nelson 's friend , a sociopathic foul @-@ mouthed fox ( voiced by Paul Kaye , performed by various puppeteers ) .
The show is aimed at an adult audience , features " neutering , incontinence , cannibalism and catnip overdoses " and humour styles such as slapstick and farce . For example , the first episode begins with a scene in which Marion , portrayed as desperately trying to revive his deceased owner , learns she has actually been dead for four months , whereupon he casually gives his cat friends permission to eat her . Mongrels has attracted accusations of plagiarism , with claims that Mongrels stole ideas from a similar Channel 4 show called Pets .
On 18 January 2012 it was announced via Twitter that Mongrels had not been renewed for a third series by the BBC due to a decision made by Zai Bennett .
= = Plot = =
Mongrels looks at the lives of five animals that hang around the back of a pub called The Lord Nelson in Millwall , on the Isle of Dogs in the East End of London . The hero of the series is Nelson ( Vulpus metrosexualus ) , a fox who lives a metrosexual lifestyle . Described as : " The only wild fox in East London with subscriptions to all the major broadsheets ( excluding The Sunday Times ) , Nelson is , as he never tires of introducing himself at dinner parties ... ' An urbane fox ! ' "
Nelson 's love interest is Destiny , an Afghan hound . However , Destiny has no interest in Nelson . She is the pet dog of Gary ( Tony Way ) , the landlord of The Lord Nelson . However , like the other humans that appear in the series , he cannot understand what Destiny or what the other animals are saying . Elsewhere there is Marion ( Felis retardicus ) , an idiotic cat to whom Nelson acts as a father @-@ figure . Marion has been abandoned by several owners and is very corruptible . Then there is Kali ( Aves aggravaticus ) , a pigeon who likes to revel in the misfortune of others . She has several grudges , including a hatred of all humans and foxes for the way they treat birds . Lastly , there is Vince , Nelson 's older brother ( Vulpus c * * * itcus ) , a violent , foul @-@ mouthed fox who considers himself a proper animal . Almost all his lines contain at least one swear word that is always bleeped over .
There is no over @-@ riding story arc between episodes , but each episode does contain recurring elements . During each episode there are cutaways from the main plot to create extra gags . Most episodes also feature at least one celebrity appearance and every episode features a comic song .
= = Cast and characters = =
Rufus Jones as the voice of Nelson , an urban fox who has embraced a middle @-@ class , metrosexual lifestyle . Operated by Andy Heath
Dan Tetsell as the voice of Marion , a homeless Persian alley cat . Operated by Warrick Brownlow @-@ Pike
Lucy Montgomery as the voice of Destiny , a beautiful Afghan Hound . Operated by Richard Coombs and Sue Beattie
Katy Brand as the voice of Kali , a cynical , vindictive and street smart pigeon . Operated by Iestyn Evans
Paul Kaye as the voice of Vince , a violent , foul @-@ mouthed sociopathic fox .
Tony Way as Gary , Destiny 's owner .
Ruth Bratt – various incidental characters .
= = Creation = =
The show took five years to make . The idea was first suggested between the creator and director of Mongrels , Adam Miller , and the show 's head puppeteer , Andy Heath , when they worked on ITV children 's show Ripley and Scuff .
Miller described Mongrels as : " an adult sitcom , trying to do for puppetry what American shows like The Simpsons have done for animation . Obviously that 's aiming very high . Think [ stage musical ] Avenue Q meets Family Guy but with puppet animals . " He also said that : " We wanted to make something that had the pace of an American animation but with British sensibilities , that was adult , but not crude , that was based in the realities of the animal world , and that didn 't rely on the puppets to do the comedy . "
The original idea , known as The Un @-@ Natural World was of an urban fox living in Brixton called Nelson , who was so used to living in the city that he had lost any sense of being an animal . It also featured a cat , Marion , who was trying to encourage Nelson to be more animal @-@ like .
While Miller was working on a BBC Three sitcom he pitched the idea to producer Stephen McCrum . McCrum criticised the way Miller ended the first script , which ended with Nelson and Marion leave where they live . McCrum told him it was best to set the series in a single place rather than have the characters move from one place to another . McCrum then suggested taking Nelson and Marion , and writing a script about them . Later , another writer , Jon Brown came in to write and at this time rules were set out with regards to writing the show , such as the animals could not be dressed in clothes unless it was in a flashback sequence or during a song .
The new script was then pitched to the BBC . The pitch tape they made was based on the same pitch used by The Muppet Show . This was done as a tribute to it , with Miller arguing that when The Muppet Show did it , " it just must have just knocked the socks off the people who saw it , because it 's like nothing you 've ever seen before , and we thought : ' Why fix what ain 't broke , so we did our own very British version of that . " The producers liked it but did not fully understand what the show was about . Miller , Brown and a third writer , Daniel Peak began to write scripts over a period of four years . A pilot was eventually filmed and the BBC commissioned a full series , targeted at adults . Despite the adult nature , Miller did not want to make the show too crude . Eight episodes were filmed so as to spread the cost of making the series over each episode .
= = = Character development = = =
When writing for the commissioned series began , the character of Nelson was originally depicted as being brash and obnoxious . This was later changed to make him more metrosexual , middle class and likeable . Developing the character of Destiny , Nelson 's love interest , was a challenge to the programme makers . Kali was created to be a villain , with Miller describing her as a " Hitler @-@ figure " . Vince was partly based on the brash version of Nelson .
In the unbroadcast pilot We Are Mongrels , another character was included called Debbie . Debbie was a suicidal chicken who never left her coop . However , it was decided that the character did not go anywhere and could not be sustained for a full series , so the character was axed . Another chicken character called Wendy appeared in the first broadcast episode as a reference to Debbie . Both characters had the same voice actress , Ruth Bratt , who performed Wendy 's voice in exactly the same manner as that of Debbie .
= = = Casting = = =
Rufus Jones was among the first people auditioned for the role of Nelson . After several other auditions with other actors , Jones was called upon to play the part . Paul Kaye at one time provided the voice for Nelson before taking the role of Vince .
It was then decided by the creators to make Marion a foreign character and to find an accent that reflected this . There was discussion about Iranian @-@ British comic Omid Djalili playing the role . In the end , Tetsell was cast after auditioning with a poor version of Djalili 's Iranian accent . Tetsell describes the voice as a mixture of , " every accent on the planet " , but with the joke that Marion was meant to be a Persian cat .
= = = Puppets = = =
When the puppet for Marion was first created , he was depicted as having stripy fur , but looked more like a mouse in the eyes of the crew , so his puppet was changed . Marion 's image was based on topless photos of the comic actor James Corden .
The show 's puppeteers claim there are different problems working with different characters . For example , Destiny is the largest puppet and so moving her is more difficult . As Marion spends much of his time sitting on top of a rubbish bin , his puppeteer , Brownlow @-@ Pike , has to stand inside a bottomless bin for long periods of time . Kali is said to be the most difficult puppet to work with , because as she has no hands she is limited to what she can hold .
= = = Recording = = =
The show was originally entitled We Are Mongrels , but the title had to be changed for two reasons : one was that the title was too similar to another BBC Three comedy show , We Are Klang . The other is that none of the characters were mongrels . Therefore new suggestions were called for . Rejected titles included I , Nelson ; Humans ! Everywhere ! ; Undergrowth and Never Been Stroked . The last of these titles was rejected after one of the show 's additional writers , Danielle Ward ; " said it sounded like ' a makeover show for virgins ' . " During this time the crew referred to the show as Mongrels and it eventually became the show 's title .
When writing for Vince the writers blanked out all of the characters swearing like it is done on the show , but when it came to recording the programme the swear words had to be put in for Kaye to read them . During read @-@ throughs of the scripts , a toy horn was honked whenever Kaye swore to give an idea of what it would sound like during the programme .
The show also aims to be environmentally friendly in its production . A report from the BBC 's in @-@ house publication Ariel : " From reusable water bottles filled from tanks of tap water to double @-@ sided scripts , Mongrels is aiming to be the most sustainable production at the BBC . " The production team also use reusable or compostable cutlery in their canteen , reducing any future merchandise packaging to just a barcode , and replacing conventional lighting with fluorescent tube lights . This last move reduced the electricity bill for the second series by a third , saving £ 500 a week .
= = Cancellation = =
On 18 January 2012 , Tetsell revealed on Twitter that Mongrels had been cancelled , saying : " we 've all been sacked now " .
Miller posted another , longer message online saying :
" Mongrels friends , it is my unbearably sad duty to announce that we will not be returning for a third series on BBC Three , a decision that has been made based on the fact that apparently you need more than two people watching a programme to make it successful . Crazy talk . I 'd like to take this opportunity to thank everyone at BBC Comedy , BBC Three and BBC Worldwide who have supported us so strongly over the years , and helped us put our silly puppet show on the digital screens of the nation . I 'd also like to thank , from the bottom of my heart , all the writers , cast , crew and support team who have made a horribly challenging show such an utter joy to make . This news could not be less of a reflection on your brilliant work . Most of
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Prior to 2010 , New Jersey was one of a few states in the United States that did not have a lieutenant governor to succeed to the governorship in the event of a vacancy in that office . Only two individuals had previously held the title — both during brief periods in the colonial era ( 1664 – 1776 ) under commission or letters patent from the British Crown . For most of the state 's ( and previously the colony 's ) history , a vacancy in the position of governor was filled by the president of the State Senate ( called the " Legislative Council " from 1776 to 1844 ) , or during the colonial era by the president of the royal governor 's Provincial Council .
After several episodes where the state had multiple " acting governors " in the span of a few years following the resignations of Governor Christine Todd Whitman in 2001 and Governor James E. McGreevey in 2004 , popular sentiment and political pressure from the state 's residents and news media outlets sought a permanent and tenable solution to the issue of gubernatorial succession . A referendum put before the state 's voters authorized the amendment of the state 's constitution in 2006 . This amendment provided for the state 's first lieutenant governor to be elected in the state 's 2009 gubernatorial election .
Republican Kim Guadagno is the first to serve in the post in its modern form . Guadagno , previously the sheriff in Monmouth County , was chosen by Governor Chris Christie to be his running mate on the Republican party ticket in the 2009 election . In addition to being lieutenant governor , Guadagno serves in Governor Christie 's cabinet as New Jersey 's 33rd Secretary of State .
= = Appointments during the colonial period ( 1702 – 1776 ) = =
During the proprietary period ( 1664 – 1702 ) , New Jersey was divided into two separate colonies , East Jersey and West Jersey . These were often administered in its first years by deputies who resided in North America and represented the province 's governor and its major investors ( the " proprietors " ) , who typically resided in London . In 1702 , the proprietors of East and West Jersey surrendered their political authority to Queen Anne . The Queen united both provinces into one crown colony to be administered by a royal governor appointed by the Crown .
Only two individuals held the post of Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey during its colonial history . This position existed by direct commission from the British monarch only for two brief periods , 1702 – 09 and 1755 – 57 . For most of the colonial period , in the event of the resignation , prolonged absence or death of the royal governor , the province would be administered by an " acting governor " who was the president of the Provincial Council ( also called the " Governor 's Council " ) — the upper house of the colonial legislature . The council presidency was an honorary ceremonial post given to the council 's oldest member .
Richard Ingoldesby ( d . 1719 ) , a British army captain who was dispatched to New York to restore royal authority in New York after Leisler 's Rebellion , was commissioned as the Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey and New York in November 1702 . Ingoldesby served under the colony 's first royal governor , Edward Hyde , Lord Cornbury and then his successor John Lovelace , 4th Baron Lovelace . Although Lord Cornbury was frequently absent from New Jersey and focused most of his efforts in New York , he refused to permit Ingoldesby any authority to govern . Ingoldesby became acting governor of both provinces briefly after the sudden death of Lord Lovelace on May 6 , 1709 . However , his authority was opposed by rival factions of the colony 's proprietors who asserted that his commission was invalid . Ingoldesby further angered the colony 's Quaker leaders after he retaliated against them for their opposition to raising troops from New Jersey to support a planned invasion of French colonies in Canada . His commission as governor was revoked in October 1709 , but the news of his removal did not reach him until April 1710 .
The second lieutenant governor , Thomas Pownall ( 1722 – 1805 ) , was appointed to the post in 1755 under royal governor Jonathan Belcher ( 1681 / 2 – 1757 ) . Pownall had little responsibility beyond anticipating the death of the aging governor who for most of his tenure was in declining health from a progressive paralytic disorder . Belcher lived longer than expected , and Pownall grew restless . In 1756 , Pownall journeyed to England , where he was offered the governorship of Pennsylvania , but this offer was retracted after he made demands for wide @-@ ranging powers . While in England , Pownall advised the government organized by Thomas Pelham @-@ Holles , 1st Duke of Newcastle , and his close foreign affairs advisor William Pitt on the state of affairs in the colonies during the Seven Years ' War ( called the French and Indian War in North America ) . Because the insights and first @-@ hand knowledge he shared had impressed his superiors in Britain , Pownall was commissioned as Royal Governor of Massachusetts in March 1757 . Pownall arrived in Boston to assume the new post on August 3 , 1757 . When Belcher died on August 31 , 1757 , Pownall did not assume the governorship of New Jersey . Pownall 's appointment in Massachusetts left the New Jersey to be administered by John Reading ( 1686 – 1767 ) in his second tenure as " acting governor " — continuing the previous convention of the president of the Governor 's Council assuming the governorship in an acting capacity . Reading assumed the post reluctantly , after first requesting unsuccessfully that Pownall return to New Jersey to assume the office .
From Ingoldesby 's removal in 1710 until the tenure of Pownall , four appointed royal governors ( John Montgomerie , Sir William Cosby , Lewis Morris , and Jonathan Belcher ) died in office and were replaced with acting governors from the provincial council . Two of these acting governors ( John Anderson and John Hamilton ) died in office , and were replaced by another acting governor drawn from the members of the provincial council .
= = Gubernatorial succession ( 1776 – 2001 ) = =
Prior to the creation of the modern lieutenant governor position , the only state @-@ wide , non @-@ federal , elected office was the Governor of New Jersey . New Jersey was one of eight states without a lieutenant governor and one of four states without any other state @-@ wide elected official ( including County Prosecutors ) . Further , the state constitution does not provide for elections for state @-@ wide cabinet @-@ level positions — it grants the governor the power to appoint the " principal department heads " for the executive branch . For these reasons , New Jersey 's governor was considered the most powerful elected chief executive in the United States .
In the event of a vacancy in the governor 's office , the state constitution specified that the President of the New Jersey State Senate , the upper chamber of the state legislature , would assume the role of acting governor without relinquishing his or her powerful role in the state senate . Further , if the acting governorship filled by the state senate president were vacated or that person could not assume the office , he or she would be succeeded by the Speaker of the New Jersey General Assembly , the state legislature 's lower chamber . This order of succession was included in the first state constitution in 1776 , reinstated in the subsequent 1844 constitution , and kept in the 1947 Constitution until the 2006 amendment .
On several occasions in the state 's history , proposals for a lieutenant governor were raised and rejected . Governor Alfred E. Driscoll backed a proposal to create the office in 1947 as the state was rewriting its constitution at a constitutional convention held at Rutgers University in New Brunswick . Driscoll 's proposal was not approved . In 1986 , Governor Thomas Kean proposed the creation of the office in a move seen at the time as a political maneuver " apparently to preclude the possibility of a Democratic successor " as Kean was being considered as a viable presidential or senatorial candidate in the 1988 election and the senate president was a Democrat . Kean 's proposal was not successful .
= = Modern creation of the office ( 2001 – present ) = =
= = = Resignations and succession controversies ( 2001 – 06 ) = = =
New Jersey had two recent periods during which several politicians assumed the governorship within the span of a few years . In 2001 , Governor Christine Todd Whitman resigned with one year remaining in her second term after being appointed by President George W. Bush to the position of administrator of the federal Environmental Protection Agency . Senate President Donald DiFrancesco became acting governor following Whitman 's resignation on January 31 , 2001 , and remained in office until he retired from the state senate on January 8 , 2002 .
In an unusual political circumstance , the 2001 legislative elections returned a senate with equal numbers of Republicans and Democrats , with each party having 20 senators . Both sides negotiated to choose two senators from their respective parties to serve as co @-@ presidents . Because of an 8 @-@ day gap between the seating of the new state legislature and the inauguration of Governor @-@ elect Jim McGreevey , four men held the position of acting governor :
Outgoing Senate President Donald DiFrancesco continued to serve until 12 : 00 noon on January 8 , 2002 , until the new senate session was convened .
New Jersey 's Attorney General John J. Farmer , Jr. was acting governor for 90 minutes on January 8 , 2002 , while awaiting the swearing in of the next senate president .
Senate co @-@ President John Bennett , a Republican , served as acting governor from January 8 to 12 , 2002 .
Senate co @-@ President Richard Codey , a Democrat , served as acting governor from January 12 , 2002 , until McGreevey was sworn in as governor at noon on January 15 , 2002 .
After Governor McGreevey resigned in the midst of a sex scandal in 2004 , Richard Codey served again as acting governor from November 15 , 2004 to January 17 , 2006 . Codey was the only acting governor during this time , as the 2003 legislative elections had given the Democrats outright control of the state senate . Codey 's tenure ended with the inauguration of Governor Jon Corzine on January 17 , 2006 .
Public attention was directed to the issue of succession in the wake of the resignations of Governor Whitman and Governor McGreevey during so brief a period . The response of the general public and the media was that the situation of acting governors and resignations made the situation untenable and that the state needed a permanent solution such as a lieutenant governor . There were three chief arguments in favor of establishing a lieutenant governor :
That the senate president was chosen by the members of the state senate , not elected by voters — eligible to be acting governor solely by virtue of having been elected by the citizens in only one of state 's forty legislative districts .
That an acting governor serving simultaneously in the executive branch and legislative branch made the position of governor incredibly powerful and was a breach of the " separation of powers " between branches of the government .
That there potentially would be a lack of continuity between political platforms from a governor of one party and a senate president of another who assumes the post as acting governor . As there was no guarantee the two individuals would be members of the same party , there was greater concern that the policies of the acting governor might be in direct conflict with those of the preceding governor .
= = = Referendum on a constitutional amendment = = =
In 2005 , the state legislature passed resolutions for a proposed constitutional amendment to create the position of lieutenant governor . In accordance with the state constitution , this proposal was put before the voters as a public question on the ballot for the general election held on November 8 , 2005 . The General Assembly considered legislation , designated as " Assembly Concurrent Resolution No. 100 " ( ACR100 ) , which it passed on February 24 , 2005 , with 73 votes in favor and 1 opposed The senate followed by approving the legislation , under the title " Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 2 ( SCR2 ) , with 32 votes in favor and 5 opposed on March 21 , 2005 . The senate was still run by Acting Governor Richard Codey as senate president .
The question proposed on the ballot read :
Shall the amendment of Articles II , IV , V and XI of the Constitution , agreed to by the Legislature , establishing the office of lieutenant governor , and providing for the term , election , succession , salary , qualifications , and duties of the office , and for an interim succession to be employed in the event of a vacancy in the office of the governor before the election of the first lieutenant governor , be adopted ?
The amendment question was approved by voters by a tally of 836 @,@ 134 votes ( 56 @.@ 1 % ) to 655 @,@ 333 ( 43 @.@ 9 % ) . In the interim period before the next election in 2009 , any vacancy in the office of governor after January 17 , 2006 would be filled first by the senate president , followed by the speaker of the general assembly , who would vacate their legislative seat upon assuming the governor 's office .
= = = 2009 gubernatorial election = = =
New Jersey elected its first lieutenant governor in 2009 . After the primary election in June 2009 , Governor Corzine signed into law A.3902 , a bill from the state legislature that sought to clarify a vague passage in the state constitution concerning a gubernatorial candidate 's selection of a running mate . Corzine signed the bill into law on June 25 , 2009 . The constitution provided that a gubernatorial candidate select a running mate within 30 days after the " nomination . " The confusion that arose concerned whether the " nomination " was the date of the primary election or the date that the vote count of that election was confirmed as final and certified by the state 's Secretary of State . As defined by state law , the primary election is held on " Tuesday after the first Monday in June " . However , the reported winner of a primary election is not official until the state 's 21 county clerks are canvassed for official results after an election . This allows time for the Secretary of State to tabulate stray late absentee ballots ( i.e. from military voters stationed outside the state ) ; calculate final adjustments of vote tallies ; litigate legal disputes ; and conduct recounts if necessary . A.3902 provided a clarification of this deadline as " 30 days after primary results are certified by the secretary of state , not the primary election itself . " The bill also reduced the number of days in which the June primary election results must be certified from 86 days ( which would place the deadline in August ) to the fourth Friday in June , less than 4 weeks after the election . By enacting this bill , New Jersey 's gubernatorial candidates had an extra three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half weeks to announce their selection of a lieutenant governor running mate . The 2009 deadline for such an announcement was moved from July 2 ( 30 days after the primary election ) to July 27 ( 30 days after the certification of election results ) .
In the week before the deadline , the three candidates nominated for governor and running in the November general election selected their running mates . The incumbent , Democratic nominee Governor Jon Corzine , chose State Senator Loretta Weinberg . His Republican challenger , Chris Christie , a former U.S. Attorney for New Jersey , selected Monmouth County Sheriff Kim Guadagno . Independent candidate Chris Daggett selected Frank J. Esposito , a history professor and former administrator at Kean University . On November 3 , 2009 , Christie defeated Corzine by a margin of 48 @.@ 5 % ( 1 @,@ 174 @,@ 445 votes ) to 44 @.@ 9 % ( 1 @,@ 087 @,@ 731 votes ) , with 5 @.@ 8 % ( 139 @,@ 579 votes ) of the vote going to Daggett . With Christie 's election as governor , Kim Guadagno was slated to become the state 's first lieutenant governor in its modern form . Christie and Guadagno were installed at inaugural ceremonies held on January 19 , 2010 .
= = Constitutional provisions = =
= = = Qualifications and duties = = =
As amended on January 17 , 2006 , New Jersey 's state constitution mandates that a person may only be eligible for the position of lieutenant governor if they meet the eligibility qualifications to serve as governor . Article V , Section I , paragraph 2 , requires that a candidate for governor ( and thus lieutenant governor ) be at least 30 years old , a citizen of the United States for at least 20 years , and a resident of New Jersey for at least seven years . Within 30 days after the certification of the statewide primary election , the candidate for governor selects a running mate to join his ticket as the candidate for lieutenant governor . The governor and lieutenant governor must be members of the same political party . As candidates they campaign on the same ticket , are elected conjointly , and serve the same four @-@ year term concurrently .
Additional requirements are imposed by Article V , Section I , paragraph 10 of the state constitution , which provides that the lieutenant governor be appointed as a head of a cabinet @-@ level department or administrative agency within the governor 's administration , with the exception that he or she cannot be the state 's attorney general . The current lieutenant governor , Kim Guadagno , serves as New Jersey 's 33rd Secretary of State .
= = = Order of succession = = =
The order of succession in the event the governor 's office is left vacant is specified in Article V , Section I , paragraph 6 of the New Jersey State Constitution , as amended , effective January 17 , 2006 , which states :
In the event of a vacancy in the office of Governor resulting from the death , resignation or removal of a Governor in office , or the death of a Governor @-@ elect , or from any other cause , the Lieutenant Governor shall become Governor , until a new Governor is elected and qualifies .
In the event of simultaneous vacancies in both the offices of Governor and Lieutenant Governor resulting from any cause , the President of the Senate shall become Governor until a new Governor or Lieutenant Governor is elected and qualifies . In the event that there is a vacancy in the office of Senate President , or the Senate President declines to become Governor , then the Speaker of the General Assembly shall become Governor until a new Governor or Lieutenant Governor is elected and qualifies . In the event that there is a vacancy in the office of Speaker of the General Assembly , or if the Speaker declines to become Governor , then the functions , powers , duties and emoluments of the office shall devolve for the time being upon such officers and in the order of succession as may be provided by law , until a new Governor or Lieutenant Governor is elected and qualifies .
= = List of lieutenant governors = =
= = = In the colonial period = = =
= = = In the modern era ( 2010 – present ) = = =
Democratic ( 0 ) Republican ( 1 )
= German cruiser Deutschland =
Deutschland was the lead ship of her class of heavy cruisers ( often termed a pocket battleship ) which served with the Kriegsmarine of Nazi Germany during World War II . Ordered by the Weimar government for the Reichsmarine , she was laid down at the Deutsche Werke shipyard in Kiel in February 1929 and completed by April 1933 . Originally classified as an armored ship ( Panzerschiff ) by the Reichsmarine , in February 1940 the Germans reclassified the remaining two ships of this class as heavy cruisers . In 1940 , she was renamed Lützow , after the Admiral Hipper @-@ class heavy cruiser Lützow was handed over to the Soviet Union .
The ship saw significant action with the Kriegsmarine , including several non @-@ intervention patrols in the Spanish Civil War , during which she was attacked by Republican bombers . At the outbreak of World War II , she was cruising the North Atlantic , prepared to attack Allied merchant traffic . Bad weather hampered her efforts , and she only sank or captured a handful of vessels before returning to Germany . She then participated in Operation Weserübung , the invasion of Norway . Damaged at the Battle of Drøbak Sound , she was recalled to Germany for repairs . While en route , she was torpedoed and seriously damaged by a British submarine .
Repairs were completed by March 1941 , Lützow returned to Norway to join the forces arrayed against Allied shipping to the Soviet Union . She ran aground during a planned attack on convoy PQ 17 , which necessitated another return to Germany for repairs . She next saw action at the Battle of the Barents Sea with the heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper , which ended with a failure to destroy the convoy JW 51B . Engine problems forced a series of repairs culminating in a complete overhaul at the end of 1943 , after which the ship remained in the Baltic . Sunk in shallow waters in the Kaiserfahrt in April 1945 by Royal Air Force ( RAF ) bombers , Lützow was used as a gun battery to support German troops fighting the Soviet Army until 4 May 1945 , when she was disabled by her crew . Raised by the Soviet Navy in 1947 , she was subsequently sunk as a target in the Baltic .
= = Construction = =
Deutschland was ordered by the Reichsmarine from the Deutsche Werke shipyard in Kiel as Ersatz Preussen , a replacement for the old battleship Preussen . Her keel was laid on 5 February 1929 , under construction number 219 . The ship was launched on 19 May 1931 ; at her launching , she was christened by German Chancellor Heinrich Brüning . The ship accidentally started sliding down the slipway while Brüning was giving his christening speech . After the completion of fitting out work , initial sea trials began in November 1932 . The ship was commissioned into the Reichsmarine on 1 April 1933 .
Deutschland was 186 meters ( 610 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 20 @.@ 69 m ( 67 @.@ 9 ft ) and a maximum draft of 7 @.@ 25 m ( 23 @.@ 8 ft ) . The ship had a design displacement of 12 @,@ 630 t ( 12 @,@ 430 long tons ; 13 @,@ 920 short tons ) and a full load displacement of 14 @,@ 290 long tons ( 14 @,@ 520 t ) , though the ship was officially stated to be within the 10 @,@ 000 long tons ( 10 @,@ 000 t ) limit of the Treaty of Versailles . Deutschland was powered by four sets of MAN 9 @-@ cylinder double @-@ acting two @-@ stroke diesel engines . The ship 's top speed was 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) , at 54 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 40 @,@ 000 kW ) . At a cruising speed of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) , the ship could steam for 10 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 19 @,@ 000 km ; 12 @,@ 000 mi ) . As designed , her standard complement consisted of 33 officers and 586 enlisted men , though after 1935 this was significantly increased to 30 officers and 921 – 1 @,@ 040 sailors .
Deutschland 's primary armament was six 28 cm ( 11 @.@ 0 in ) SK C / 28 guns mounted in two triple gun turrets , one forward and one aft of the superstructure . The ship carried a secondary battery of eight 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK C / 28 guns in single turrets grouped amidships . Her anti @-@ aircraft battery originally consisted of three 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) L / 45 guns , though in 1935 these were replaced with six 8 @.@ 8 cm L / 78 guns . In 1940 , the 8 @.@ 8 cm guns were removed , and six 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) L / 65 guns , four 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns , and ten 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) guns were installed in their place . By the end of the war , her anti @-@ aircraft battery had again been reorganized , consisting of six 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) guns , ten 3 @.@ 7 cm guns , and twenty @-@ eight 2 cm guns .
The ship also carried a pair of quadruple 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) deck @-@ mounted torpedo launchers placed on her stern . The ship was equipped with two Arado Ar 196 seaplanes and one catapult . Deutschland 's armored belt was 60 to 80 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 to 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick ; her upper deck was 17 mm ( 0 @.@ 67 in ) thick while the main armored deck was 17 to 45 mm ( 0 @.@ 67 to 1 @.@ 77 in ) thick . The main battery turrets had 140 mm ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) thick faces and 80 mm thick sides . Radar initially consisted of a FMG G ( gO ) " Seetakt " set ; in 1942 , a FuMO 26 set was also installed .
= = History = =
Deutschland spent the majority of 1933 and 1934 conducting training maneuvers ; early speed trials in May 1933 indicated that a top speed of 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) was preferable , but the ship comfortably reached 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) on speed trials in June . Trials were completed by December 1933 , and the ship was ready for active service with the fleet . The ship also made a series of goodwill visits to foreign ports , including visits to Gothenburg , Sweden , and in October 1934 , a formal state visit to Edinburgh , Scotland . In April 1934 , Adolf Hitler visited the ship ; he reportedly toured the ship alone , speaking informally with crewmen .
The ship conducted a series of long distance training voyages into the Atlantic in 1935 . In March 1935 , she sailed as far as the Caribbean and South American waters . After returning to Germany , she went into dock for routine maintenance work , as well as installation of additional equipment . She had her aircraft catapult installed in this period , and was provided with two Heinkel He 60 floatplanes . Deutschland participated in fleet maneuvers in German waters in early 1936 . She was joined by her newly commissioned sister ship Admiral Scheer for a cruise into the mid @-@ Atlantic , which included a stop in Madeira .
= = = Spanish Civil War = = =
Following the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 1936 , Deutschland and Admiral Scheer were deployed to the Spanish coast on 23 July 1936 to conduct non @-@ intervention patrols off the Republican @-@ held coast of Spain . During the deployment , her gun turrets were painted with large black , white , and red bands to aid in identification from the air and indicate her neutral status . Her duties during the deployment included evacuating refugees fleeing from the fighting , protecting German ships carrying supplies for Francisco Franco 's Nationalists , and gathering intelligence for the Nationalists .
In May 1937 , the ship was docked in the port of Palma on the island of Majorca , along with several other neutral warships , including vessels from the British and Italian navies . The port was attacked by Republican aircraft , though anti @-@ aircraft fire from the warships drove them off . The torpedo boats Seeadler and Albatross escorted Deutschland to the island of Ibiza on 24 May . While moored in port there , she was again attacked by Republican bombers ; a pair of Soviet @-@ built SB @-@ 2 bombers , secretly flown by Soviet Air Force pilots , bombed the ship . Two bombs struck the ship ; the first penetrated the upper deck near the bridge and exploded above the main armored deck while the second hit near the third starboard 15 cm gun , causing serious fires below decks . The attack killed 31 German sailors and wounded 74 .
Deutschland quickly weighed anchor and left port . She rendezvoused with Admiral Scheer to take on additional doctors before proceeding to Gibraltar where the dead were buried with full military honors . Ten days later , however , Hitler ordered the men be exhumed and returned for burial in Germany . The ship 's wounded men were also evacuated in Gibraltar for treatment . Hitler , furious over the attack , ordered Admiral Scheer to bombard the port of Almería in retaliation for the so @-@ called " Deutschland incident " . Stalin subsequently issued orders that further attacks on German and Italian warships were strictly prohibited .
Deutschland spent the majority of 1938 and 1939 conducting training maneuvers with the rest of the fleet and making goodwill visits to various foreign ports . She made an official visit to Spain following the Nationalist victory in the Spanish Civil War 1939 . The ship participated in a major fleet exercise into the Atlantic with her sister Admiral Graf Spee , the light cruisers Köln , Leipzig , and Nürnberg , and several destroyers , U @-@ boats , and support vessels .
= = = World War II = = =
On 24 August 1939 , a week before the German invasion of Poland , Deutschland set sail from Wilhelmshaven , bound for a position south of Greenland . Here , she would be ready to attack Allied merchant traffic in the event of a general war following the attack on Poland . The supply ship Westerwald was assigned to support Deutschland during the operation . Deutschland was ordered to strictly observe prize rules , which required raiders to stop and search ships for contraband before sinking them , and to ensure that their crews are safely evacuated . The ship was also ordered to avoid combat with even inferior naval forces , as commerce disruption was the primary objective . Hitler hoped to secure a negotiated peace with Britain and France after he overran Poland , and he therefore did not authorize Deutschland to begin her raiding mission against British and French shipping until 26 September . By this time , Deutschland had moved south to hunt in the Bermuda @-@ Azores sea lane .
On 5 October , she found and sank the British transport ship Stonegate , though not before the freighter was able to send a distress signal informing vessels in the area of Deutschland 's presence . She then turned north to the Halifax route , where on 9 October , she encountered the American ship City of Flint . The 4 @,@ 963 gross register tons ( GRT ) freighter was found to be carrying contraband , and so was seized . A prize crew was dispatched to the ship ; they took the ship with the original crew held prisoner to Germany via Murmansk . The ship was seized by Norway when she anchored in Haugesund , however , and control of the ship was returned to the original crew . Meanwhile , on 14 October , Deutschland encountered and sank the Norwegian transport Lorentz W Hansen , of some 1 @,@ 918 GRT . The same day , she stopped the neutral Danish steamer Kongsdal , though when it became apparent that she was headed for a neutral port , the prisoners from Lorentz W Hansen were placed aboard her and she was allowed to proceed . Kongsdal would eventually report to the British Royal Navy the incident and confirm Deutschland as the raider operating in the North Atlantic .
Severe weather in the North Atlantic hampered Deutschland 's raiding mission , though she did tie down several British warships assigned to track her down . The French Force de Raid , centered on the battleship Dunkerque , was occupied with protecting convoys around Britain to prevent them from being attacked by Deutschland . In early November , the Naval High Command recalled Deutschland ; she passed through the Denmark Strait on 15 November and anchored in Gotenhafen on the 17th . In the course of her raiding mission , she sank only two vessels and captured a third . In 1940 , the ship underwent a major overhaul , during which a raked clipper bow was installed to improve the sea @-@ keeping qualities of the ship . At this time , she was re @-@ rated as a heavy cruiser and renamed Lützow . Hitler in person made the decision to rename the ship , recognizing the propaganda value of the sinking of a ship that bore the name of its country . Admiral Erich Raeder , the commander in chief of the Kriegsmarine , also hoped that renaming the ship would confuse Allied intelligence ; the Admiral Hipper @-@ class cruiser Lützow was designated for sale to the Soviet Navy , and it was hoped that the usage of her name for Deutschland would hide the transaction . The refit lasted until March 1940 , after which it was intended to send the ship on another commerce raiding operation into the South Atlantic . In April , however , she was assigned to forces participating in the invasion of Norway .
= = = = Operation Weserübung = = = =
Lützow was assigned to Group 5 , alongside the new heavy cruiser Blücher and the light cruiser Emden under the command of Konteradmiral Oskar Kummetz . Kummetz flew his flag in Blücher . Group 5 was tasked with capturing Oslo , the capital of Norway , and transported a force of 2 @,@ 000 mountain troops from the Wehrmacht . Lützow embarked over 400 of the soldiers for the voyage to Norway . The force left Germany on 8 April and passed through the Kattegat . While en route , the British submarine HMS Triton attacked the flotilla , though her torpedoes missed . German torpedo boats attacked the submarine and drove her off .
Shortly before midnight on the night of 8 April , Group 5 , with Blücher in the lead , passed the outer ring of Norwegian coastal batteries . Lützow followed directly behind the flagship , with Emden astern . Heavy fog and neutrality requirements , which required the Norwegians to fire warning shots , permitted the Germans to avoid damage . The Norwegians , including those manning the guns at the Oscarsborg Fortress were on alert , however . Steaming into the Oslofjord at a speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) , the Germans came into range of the Norwegian guns ; the 28 cm , 15 cm and 57 mm guns opened fire on the invaders . During the ensuing Battle of Drøbak Sound , Blücher was hit by many shells and two torpedoes . She quickly capsized and sank with the loss of approximately 1 @,@ 000 sailors and soldiers . Lützow was hit three times by 15 cm shells from Oscarsborg 's Kopås battery , causing significant damage .
Lützow 's forward gun turret was hit by one of the 15 cm rounds , which disabled the center gun and damaged the right barrel . Four men were wounded . A second shell struck the ship 's deck and penetrated the upper and main armored decks ; starting a fire in the cruiser 's hospital and operating theater , killing two soldiers and severely wounding six others . A third struck her superstructure behind the port @-@ side aircraft crane . One of the aircraft on board was damaged , and four gunners were killed by the third shell . The ship was only able to fire her secondary battery in return . The heavy damage forced Lützow and the rest of the squadron to reverse course and exit the fjord . She eventually landed her troop complement in Verle Bay , after which she used her operational 28 cm guns to provide fire support . By the afternoon of 9 April , most of the Norwegian fortresses had been captured and the commander of the remaining Norwegian forces opened negotiations for surrender . The delay had , however , allowed enough time for the Norwegian government and royal family to flee Oslo .
The damage Lützow sustained prompted the Kriegsmarine to order her to return to Germany for repairs . The rest of Group 5 remained in Norway , so Lützow cruised at top speed to avoid submarines . Nevertheless , the British submarine HMS Spearfish attacked the ship and scored a serious hit . The torpedo destroyed Lützow 's stern , causing it to collapse and nearly fall off , and blew off her steering gear . Unable to steer , she was towed back to port and decommissioned for repairs , which lasted for nearly a year . During the attack on Norway , the ship suffered nineteen dead , and another fifteen were killed by the torpedo strike . Despite the setback , KzS August Thiele , Lützow 's commander , was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross for his actions during the Battle of Drøbak Sound , during which he took command of the task force after the loss of Blücher .
She was recommissioned for service on 31 March 1941 , after which the Kriegsmarine initially planned to send the ship on the commerce raiding operation planned the previous year . Her sister Admiral Scheer was to join Lützow for the operation , and on 12 June , she departed for Norway with an escort of destroyers . British torpedo bombers attacked the ship off Egersund and scored a single hit that disabled her electrical system and rendered the ship motionless . She took on a severe list to port and the port shaft was damaged . The crew effected emergency repairs that allowed her to return to Germany ; repair work in Kiel lasted for six months . By 10 May 1942 , the ship was finally pronounced ready for action .
= = = = Deployment to Norway = = = =
Lützow left Germany on 15 May 1942 for Norway ; by 25 May she had joined Admiral Scheer in Bogen Bay . She was made the flagship of the now Vizeadmiral Kummetz , the commander of Kampfgruppe 2 . Fuel shortages restricted operations , although Lützow and Admiral Scheer were able to conduct limited battle training exercises . Kampfgruppe 2 was assigned to Operation Rösselsprung , a planned attack on the Allied convoy PQ 17 , which was headed to the Soviet Union . On 3 July , the force left their anchorages , and in heavy fog Lützow and three destroyers ran aground and suffered significant damage . The British detected the German departure and ordered the convoy to scatter . Aware that surprise had been lost , the Germans broke off the surface attack and turned the destruction of PQ @-@ 17 over to the U @-@ boats and Luftwaffe . Twenty @-@ four of the convoy 's thirty @-@ five transports were sunk . Lützow returned to Germany for repairs , which lasted until the end of October . She began a brief set of trials starting on 30 October . She returned to Norway in early November with a destroyer escort , arriving in Narvik on the 12th .
On 30 December , Lützow , the heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper , and six destroyers left Narvik for Operation Regenbogen , an attack on convoy JW 51B , which was reported by German intelligence to be lightly escorted . Kummetz 's plan was to divide his force in half ; he would take Admiral Hipper and three destroyers north of the convoy to attack it and draw away the escorts . Lützow and the remaining three destroyers would then attack the undefended convoy from the south . At 09 : 15 on the 31st , the British destroyer Obdurate spotted the three destroyers screening for Admiral Hipper ; the Germans opened fire first . Four of the other five destroyers escorting the convoy rushed to join the fight , while Achates laid a smoke screen to cover the convoy . Kummetz then turned back north to draw the destroyers away . Captain Robert Sherbrooke , the British escort commander , left two destroyers to cover the convoy while he took the remaining four to pursue Admiral Hipper .
Lützow meanwhile steamed toward the convoy from the south , and at 11 : 42 she opened fire . The harsh conditions negatively affected her shooting , which ceased by 12 : 03 without any hits . Rear Admiral Robert Burnett 's Force R , centered on the cruisers Sheffield and Jamaica , standing by in distant support of the Allied convoy , raced to the scene . The cruisers engaged Admiral Hipper , which had been firing to port at the destroyer Obedient . Burnett 's ships approached from Admiral Hipper 's starboard side and achieved complete surprise . Lützow was then ordered to break off the attack on the convoy and reinforce Admiral Hipper . Lützow inadvertently came alongside Sheffield and Jamaica , and after identifying them as hostile , engaged them , though her fire remained inaccurate . The British cruisers turned toward Lützow and came under fire from both German cruisers . Burnett quickly decided to withdraw in the face of superior German firepower ; his ships were armed with 6 in ( 150 mm ) guns , while Admiral Hipper and Lützow carried 20 @.@ 3 cm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) and 28 cm ( 11 in ) guns , respectively .
= = = = Operations in the Baltic = = = =
Hitler was furious over the failure to destroy the convoy , and ordered that all remaining German major warships be broken up for scrap . In protest , Raeder resigned ; Hitler replaced him with Admiral Karl Dönitz , who persuaded Hitler to rescind the order to dismantle the Kriegmarine 's surface ships . In March , Lützow moved to Altafjord , where she experienced problems with her diesel engines . The propulsion system proved to be so problematic that repairs in Germany were necessary . She briefly returned to Norway , but by the end of September 1943 , a thorough overhaul was required . The work was completed in Kiel by January 1944 , after which she remained in the Baltic Sea to conduct training cruises for new naval personnel .
On 13 April 1945 , twenty @-@ four Avro Lancaster bombers attacked Lützow and Prinz Eugen without success due to cloud cover . The RAF made another failed attack two days later , but on 16 April , a force of eighteen Lancasters scored a single hit and several near misses on Lützow with Tallboy bombs in the Kaiserfahrt . The water was shallow enough that her main deck was still 2 m ( 6 ft 7 in ) above water , permitting her use as a stationary gun battery against advancing Soviet forces under control of Task Force Thiele . She continued in this role until 4 May , by which time she had expended her main battery ammunition . Her crew rigged scuttling charges to destroy the hull , but a fire caused the explosives to detonate prematurely . The ultimate fate of Lützow was long unclear , as with most of the ships seized by the Soviet Navy . According to historians Erich Gröner and M. J. Whitley , the Soviet Navy raised the ship in September 1947 and broke her up for scrap in 1948 – 1949 . Historians Hildebrand , Röhr and Steinmetz , in their book Die Deutschen Kriegsschiffe , state that she instead sank off Kolberg , claiming that the Lützow broken up in the late 1940s was instead the Admiral Hipper @-@ class cruiser Lützow that had been sold to the Soviet Union in 1940 . The historian Hans Georg Prager examined the former Soviet archives in the early 2000s , and discovered that Lützow actually had been sunk in weapons tests in July 1947 , sinking in the Baltic Sea off Świnoujście , Poland , on 22 July 1947 .
= Interstate 80 in Utah =
Interstate 80 ( I @-@ 80 ) is a part of the Interstate Highway System that runs from San Francisco , California , to Teaneck , New Jersey . The portion of the highway in the U.S. state of Utah is 196 @.@ 35 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 315 @.@ 99 km ) , through the northern part of the state . From west to east , I @-@ 80 crosses the state line from Nevada in Tooele County and traverses the Bonneville Salt Flats — which are a part of the larger Great Salt Lake Desert . It continues alongside the Wendover Cut @-@ off — the corridor of the former Victory Highway — U.S. Route 40 ( US @-@ 40 ) and the Western Pacific Railroad Feather River Route . After passing the Oquirrh Mountains , I @-@ 80 enters the Salt Lake Valley and Salt Lake County . A short portion of the freeway is concurrent with I @-@ 15 through Downtown Salt Lake City . At the Spaghetti Bowl , I @-@ 80 turns east again into the mouth of Parley 's Canyon and Summit County , travels through the mountain range and intersects the eastern end of I @-@ 84 near Echo Reservoir before turning northwest towards the Wyoming border near Evanston . I @-@ 80 was built along the corridor of the Lincoln Highway and the Mormon Trail through the Wasatch Range . The easternmost section also follows the historical routes of the First Transcontinental Railroad and US @-@ 30S .
Construction of the controlled @-@ access highway began in the 1950s , and by the late 1970s most of the freeway across the state of Utah had been completed . The four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ mile @-@ long ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) section of I @-@ 80 between Utah State Route 68 ( SR @-@ 68 , Redwood Road ) and the Salt Lake City International Airport was the last piece of the nearly 2 @,@ 900 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 4 @,@ 700 km ) freeway to be completed . It was opened on August 22 , 1986 , and was about 50 miles ( 80 km ) from the site of another cross @-@ country milestone in Utah , the driving of the Golden Spike of the First Transcontinental Railroad at Promontory Summit . Average daily traffic volumes in 2012 ranged between 6 @,@ 765 vehicles using the freeway at SR @-@ 58 and 121 @,@ 205 vehicles using the freeway at the Spaghetti Bowl in Downtown Salt Lake City . Throughout the state , the highway is also known as the Purple Heart Trail .
= = Route description = =
Out of the eleven states which I @-@ 80 passes through , the 196 @.@ 34 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 315 @.@ 98 km ) segment in Utah is the fourth shortest . The longest stretch of I @-@ 80 in a single state is the 455 @.@ 32 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 732 @.@ 77 km ) segment in Nebraska . As part of the Interstate Highway System , the entire route is listed on the National Highway System , a system of roads that are important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility .
Every year , the Utah Department of Transportation ( UDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways to measure traffic volumes . This measure is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2012 , UDOT calculated that as few as 6 @,@ 765 vehicles traveled I @-@ 80 at the interchange with SR @-@ 58 in Wendover , and as many as 121 @,@ 205 vehicles used the highway at the Spaghetti Bowl in downtown Salt Lake City . Between seven and 58 percent of the traffic recorded consisted of trucks . These counts are for the portion of the freeway in Utah .
= = = Tooele County = = =
The freeway enters Utah from Nevada in the city of Wendover on the edge of the Bonneville Salt Flats . The cities of West Wendover , Nevada and Wendover are accessible by I @-@ 80 's only business loop in Utah , whose interchange is just south of Danger Cave . The highway closely follows the historical routes of the Wendover Cutoff , the Victory Highway , and of the ex @-@ Western Pacific Railroad 's Feather River Route ( now part of the Union Pacific Railroad Central Corridor ) across the salt flats and the larger Great Salt Lake Desert . Bonneville Speedway , home to many land speed records , is accessible from I @-@ 80 . In the middle of the salt flats is a concrete sculpture , Metaphor : The Tree of Utah , which stands just off the westbound carriageway of I @-@ 80 , 30 mi ( 48 km ) east of Wendover .
Bounded on each sides by military training grounds , the I @-@ 80 corridor is overflown by commercial airliners traveling west from Salt Lake City International Airport . The freeway veers north around the Cedar Mountains in a small gap between them and the Lakeside Mountains . Further east , the highway passes the Stansbury Mountains , which are located in the Wasatch @-@ Cache National Forest . After the mountain ranges , the freeway arrives at the southern shore of the Great Salt Lake and closely follows the shore towards the western suburbs of Salt Lake City . However , the historical routes from which the route of I @-@ 80 was derived were routed further from the lake , passing through the towns of Grantsville and Tooele before crossing a bottleneck between the Oquirrh Mountains and Stansbury Island in the Great Salt Lake . These communities are now served by SR @-@ 138 and SR @-@ 36 respectively .
= = = Salt Lake County = = =
While traversing the neck , views can be had from I @-@ 80 of the Lake and Antelope Island . After passing the neck , the road forks , with I @-@ 80 proceeding towards the north end of Salt Lake City and SR @-@ 201 proceeding towards the south end . Historically , this intersection was the separation of US @-@ 40 and US @-@ 50 . After the intersection , the freeway corridor is again bottlenecked with the Great Salt Lake to the north and the Kennecott Copper smelter and tailings pond to the south . The Kennecott 's Bingham Canyon Mine , which was once considered to be the largest open @-@ pit copper mine , can be seen in the distance . The 1 @,@ 215 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 370 m ) Kennecott Smokestack is one of the tallest freestanding structures in the United States . Along this portion , the freeway passes the historical site of the Saltair Resort .
The freeway enters the Salt Lake Valley on the former alignment of North Temple Street until it passes the Salt Lake City International Airport , where the freeway veers slightly south and leaves the North Temple Street corridor which leads to Temple Square in downtown Salt Lake City . The Green Line of the Utah Transit Authority ( UTA ) TRAX system briefly parallels I @-@ 80 before traveling down the center of North Temple Street . I @-@ 80 becomes concurrent with I @-@ 15 after interchanges with SR @-@ 58 and 600 South and continues south for about three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) , passing along the western and southern edges of downtown Salt Lake City . The southern interchange with I @-@ 15 , which also includes SR @-@ 201 ( 21st South Freeway ) and marks the end of the concurrency , is known as the Spaghetti Bowl , . In the southwestern corner of the Spaghetti Bowl is another portion of the UTA TRAX Green Line as it travels towards West Valley City . After separating from I @-@ 15 , the freeway continues easterly through South Salt Lake , loosely following an alignment just south of 2100 South and the UTA S Line streetcar through the Sugar House neighborhood and past Sugar House Park — once the home of the Sugar House Prison towards the clockwise terminus of the I @-@ 215 270 ° belt route around Salt Lake . It continues through Parley 's Canyon , where the freeway joins the historical route of the Lincoln Highway . Between the mouth of the canyon and the Summit county line , the route re @-@ enters the Wasatch National Forest .
= = = Summit County = = =
Parley 's Canyon carries I @-@ 80 up the western slope of the Wasatch Front as a six @-@ lane freeway , cresting the mountains at an elevation of 7 @,@ 028 feet ( 2 @,@ 142 m ) at Parley 's Summit . Both the canyon and summit were named for Parley P. Pratt , an early settler to the Salt Lake Valley and an early Mormon leader who was asked to survey a new route across the mountains to replace the route through Emigration Canyon . Between 1848 and 1851 , Pratt surveyed , completed , and operated the Golden Pass toll road through the canyon that today bears his name . Pratt had unsuccessfully solicited for $ 800 ( equivalent to $ 399 thousand in 2015 ) to build the road , and sold it for $ 1 @,@ 500 ( equivalent to $ 740 thousand in 2015 ) . On and off ramps for the Wyoming port @-@ of @-@ entry are located just within Utah . In January 2014 , UDOT introduced variable speed limits to I @-@ 80 in Parley 's Canyon , allowing a speed limit between 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) up to the normal 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) depending on weather or traffic conditions .
Beyond Parley 's summit lies Park City , a mining town today better known for its many ski resorts . The Historic Union Pacific Rail Trail State Park travels in the median between carriageways of I @-@ 80 before paralleling the highway until the southern end of Echo Reservoir . The freeway turns north upon reaching the Rockport Reservoir at Wanship following the tributaries of the Weber River toward Echo Reservoir and dam . Upon reaching Echo Canyon and the junction with the eastern terminus of the western section of I @-@ 84 , the freeway follows the canyon east until it reaches the Wyoming state line near Evanston . I @-@ 80 forms the northeastern border between Rich and Summit Counties .
The portion through Echo Canyon follows the historical routes of the Mormon Trail , US @-@ 30S , and the First Transcontinental Railroad . A rest area in the canyon just east of the junction with I @-@ 84 features signs pointing out features that were obstacles for both the Mormon pioneers and the railroad construction workers , including Pulpit Rock , which was partially demolished when the I @-@ 80 was built through the canyon .
= = History = =
= = = Earlier roads = = =
I @-@ 80 follows the routes of two major auto trails through the state . In western Utah , I @-@ 80 follows the historical route of the Victory Highway from Wendover at the Nevada state line to the junction of US @-@ 40 near Park City . Throughout Utah , I @-@ 80 is signed as the modern route of the Lincoln Highway — except through Salt Lake City , where the Lincoln Highway is routed along State Route 201 and Parley 's Way . The route of the Lincoln Highway across Utah was generally derived from the route of the Pony Express and the Central Overland Route . However , much of the original route of the Lincoln Highway west of Salt Lake City is inaccessible . The original route of the Lincoln Highway proceeded southwest from Tooele towards Ely , Nevada . This area is now used for military bases , such as the Dugway Proving Ground and Tooele Army Depot . The area was closed to the public when these bases were established . I @-@ 80 and US @-@ 93 are the modern signing of the Lincoln Highway between those two cities . East of Salt Lake City , I @-@ 80 closely parallels the original route of the Lincoln Highway .
In 1926 , much of the route covered by I @-@ 80 , including Pratt 's former toll road from the Nevada state line into Salt Lake City , was signed as US @-@ 40 then as US @-@ 30 to the Wyoming state line . It was also part of the Victory Highway west of Salt Lake and the Lincoln Highway east of Salt Lake at this time . Most of the route had been improved but some stretches of graded road remained . In 1937 , parts of the route near Wanship were numbered US @-@ 530 . In 1950 , the highway near Echo was designated US @-@ 30S and US @-@ 189 . By 1959 , US @-@ 50 Alternate was also routed along the western portion of I @-@ 80 .
= = = Current road = = =
The first Utah State Route to have the number 80 is now known as SR @-@ 92 , which was originally numbered SR @-@ 80 until the 1977 renumbering of Utah State highways . Previously , the freeway 's legislative designation was SR @-@ 2 .
Passage of the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956 formed the Interstate Highway System , and the I @-@ 80 number was first designated to a then @-@ unconstructed controlled @-@ access highway across the state by 1957 . I @-@ 80 was constructed in segments , starting in the late 1950s . By the late 1970s , the Utah portion of I @-@ 80 — except for a gap on the western edge of Salt Lake City — was largely complete . A four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ mile @-@ long ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) section between Redwood Road and Salt Lake City International Airport holds the distinction of being the final link of the transcontinental freeway to be completed . As an Interstate Highway , design specifications require a controlled @-@ access highway with no at @-@ grade intersections . This section was dedicated on August 22 , 1986 , and was the last to be completed to Interstate Highway specifications along the almost 2 @,@ 900 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 4 @,@ 700 km ) route of I @-@ 80 between San Francisco , California and Teaneck , New Jersey . The section was completed close to the thirtieth anniversary of the Interstate Highway System , which was noted at the dedication and considered to be a milestone in the history of highway construction in the United States . It was also noted at the dedication that this was only 50 miles ( 80 km ) south of Promontory Summit , where the golden spike of the United States First Transcontinental Railroad was laid .
The original designation of I @-@ 84 , which begins at an interchange with I @-@ 80 in Echo , was I @-@ 80N . This designation was changed to I @-@ 84 in 1977 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials despite objections from the Washington State Department of Transportation and the Idaho Transportation Department , and with the support of UDOT and the Oregon Department of Transportation . The legislative designation for this highway was SR @-@ 3 until the 1977 renumbering .
Rebuilding of the first portions of I @-@ 80 began in October 1990 with a one @-@ point @-@ four @-@ mile @-@ long ( 2 @.@ 3 km ) stretch near Redwood Road in Salt Lake City . By 1991 , UDOT estimated that the reconstruction of all federally funded highways in the state would cost up to $ 4 @.@ 3 billion ( equivalent to $ 9 @.@ 85 billion in 2015 ) . The Spaghetti Bowl interchange was first proposed in 1996 to accommodate traffic for the 2002 Winter Olympics being held in the city . Most of the Spaghetti Bowl was open by November 2000 ; the remainder opened in early 2001 . In 2002 , the Utah State Legislature named the highway the Purple Heart trail , in honor of wounded war veterans . Additional reconstruction work — which involved replacing most of the bridges along the route , resurfacing and installation of sound barriers — was done on I @-@ 80 between the Spaghetti Bowl and Parley 's Canyon in 2007 and 2008 .
= = Exit list = =
= Calais =
Calais ( / ˈkæleɪ / CAL @-@ ay , traditionally / ˈkælᵻs / ; French pronunciation : [ kaˈlɛ ] ; Picard : Calés ; Dutch : Kales ) is a town and major ferry port in northern France in the department of Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais , of which it is a sub @-@ prefecture . Although Calais is by far the largest city in Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais , the department 's prefecture is its third @-@ largest city of Arras . The population of the metropolitan area at the 2010 census was 126 @,@ 395 . Calais overlooks the Strait of Dover , the narrowest point in the English Channel , which is only 34 km ( 21 mi ) wide here , and is the closest French town to England . The White Cliffs of Dover can easily be seen on a clear day from Calais . Calais is a major port for ferries between France and England , and since 1994 , the Channel Tunnel has linked nearby Coquelles to Folkestone by rail .
Due to its position , Calais since the Middle Ages has been a major port and a very important centre for transport and trading with England . It was annexed by Edward III of England in 1347 and grew into a thriving centre for wool production . The town came to be called the " brightest jewel in the English crown " owing to its great importance as the gateway for the tin , lead , lace and wool trades ( or " staples " ) . Calais was a territorial possession of England until its capture by France in 1558 . In 1805 it was a staging area for Napoleon 's troops for several months during his planned invasion of the United Kingdom . The town was virtually razed to the ground during World War II , when in May 1940 , it was a strategic bombing target of the invading German forces who took the town during the Siege of Calais . During World War II , the Germans built massive bunkers along the coast in preparation for launching missiles on England .
The old part of the town , Calais proper ( known as Calais @-@ Nord ) , is situated on an artificial island surrounded by canals and harbours . The modern part of the town , St @-@ Pierre , lies to the south and south @-@ east . In the centre of the old town is the Place d 'Armes , in which stands the Tour du Guet , or watch @-@ tower , a structure built in the 13th century , which was used as a lighthouse until 1848 when a new lighthouse was built by the port . South east of the Place is the church of Notre @-@ Dame , built during the English occupancy of Calais . It is arguably the only church built in the English perpendicular style in all of France . In this church former French President Charles de Gaulle married his wife Yvonne Vendroux . South of the Place and opposite the Parc St Pierre is the Hôtel @-@ de @-@ ville ( the town hall ) , and the belfry from the 16th and early 17th centuries . Today , Calais is visited by more than 10 million annually . Aside from being a key transport hub , Calais is also a notable fishing port and a centre for fish marketing , and some 3 @,@ 000 people are still employed in the lace industry for which the town is also famed .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
Although the early history of habitation in the area is limited , the Romans called the settlement Caletum . Julius Caesar mustered 800 to 1 @,@ 000 sailing boats , five legions and some 2 @,@ 000 horses at Calais due to its strategic position to attack Britannia . At some time prior to the 10th century , it would have been a fishing village on a sandy beach backed by pebbles and a creek , with a natural harbour located at the western edge of the early medieval estuary of the River Aa . As the pebble and sand ridge extended eastward from Calais , the haven behind it developed into fen , as the estuary progressively filled with silt and peat . Subsequently , canals were cut between Saint @-@ Omer , the trading centre formerly at the head of the estuary , and three places to the west , centre and east on the newly formed coast : respectively Calais , Gravelines and Dunkirk . Calais was improved by the Count of Flanders in 997 and fortified by the Count of Boulogne in 1224 .
The first document mentioning the existence of this community is the town charter granted by Mathieu d 'Alsace in 1181 to Gerard de Guelders , Count of Boulogne ; Calais thus became part of the county of Boulogne . In 1189 , Richard the Lionheart is documented to have landed at Calais on his journey to the Third Crusade .
= = = 14th @-@ 15th century – the Pale of Calais = = =
English wool trade interests and King Edward III 's claims to be heir to the Kingdom of France led to the Battle of Crécy between England and France in 1346 , followed by Edward 's siege and capture of Calais in 1347 . Angered , the English king demanded reprisals against the town 's citizens for holding out for so long and ordered that the town 's population be killed en masse . He agreed , however , to spare them , on condition that six of the principal citizens would come to him , bareheaded and barefooted and with ropes around their necks , and give themselves up to death . On their arrival he ordered their execution , but pardoned them when his queen , Philippa of Hainault , begged him to spare their lives . This event is commemorated in The Burghers of Calais ( Les Bourgeois de Calais ) , one of the most famous sculptures by Auguste Rodin , erected in the city in 1895 . Though sparing the lives of the delegation members , King Edward drove out most of the French inhabitants , and settled the town with English . The municipal charter of Calais , previously granted by the Countess of Artois , was reconfirmed by Edward that year ( 1347 ) .
In 1360 the Treaty of Brétigny assigned Guînes , Marck and Calais — collectively the " Pale of Calais " — to English rule in perpetuity , but this assignment was informally and only partially implemented . On 9 February 1363 the town was made a staple port . It had by 1372 become a parliamentary borough sending burgesses to the House of Commons of the Parliament of England . It remained part of the Diocese of Thérouanne from 1379 , keeping an ecclesiastical tie with France .
The town came to be called the " brightest jewel in the English crown " owing to its great importance as the gateway for the tin , lead , cloth and wool trades ( or " staples " ) . Its customs revenues amounted at times to a third of the English government 's revenue , with wool being the most important element by far . Of its population of about 12 @,@ 000 people , as many as 5 @,@ 400 were recorded as having been connected with the wool trade . The governorship or Captaincy of Calais was a lucrative and highly prized public office ; the famous Dick Whittington was simultaneously Lord Mayor of the City of London and Mayor of the Staple in 1407 .
Calais was regarded for many years as being an integral part of the Kingdom of England , with its representatives sitting in the English Parliament . The continued English hold on Calais however depended on expensively maintained fortifications , as the town lacked any natural defences . Maintaining Calais was a costly business that was frequently tested by the forces of France and the Duchy of Burgundy , with the Franco @-@ Burgundian border running nearby . The British historian Geoffrey Elton once remarked " Calais — expensive and useless — was better lost than kept " . The duration of the English hold over Calais was , to a large extent , the result of the feud between Burgundy and France , under which both sides coveted the town , but preferred to see it in the hands of the English rather than their domestic rivals . The stalemate was broken by the victory of the French crown over Burgundy following Joan of Arc 's final battle in the Siege of Compiègne in 1430 , and the later incorporation of the duchy into France .
= = = 16th century = = =
In 1532 , English king Henry VIII visited Calais and his men calculated that the town had about 2400 beds and stabling to keep some
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Ray Lindwall with a diving one @-@ handed catch . He also dropped Compton three times , allowing the English batsman to go from 50 to 145 not out as he held the hosts ' first innings together .
Tallon 's little left finger swelled up after the Third Test and he exacerbated the injury during a tour match against Middlesex , ruling him out of the Fourth Test at Headingley , which Australia won to secure the series . He returned for the Fifth Test at The Oval , taking three catches , including an acrobatic catch of Len Hutton down the leg side that was considered the catch of the season . He scored 31 as Australia sealed the series 4 – 0 with an innings win . When the last match of the tour against Scotland in Aberdeen became safe , with Australia in an unassailable position , Bradman allowed Tallon to dispense with his wicket @-@ keeping pads and try his luck at bowling leg spin . Tallon never bowled in his Test career and only rarely in first @-@ class cricket , where he delivered 301 balls , the approximate workload of a specialist bowler in one match .
Tallon had had moderate success with his batting during the Test series , aggregating 114 runs at 28 @.@ 50 . In 14 first @-@ class matches , he scored 283 runs at 25 @.@ 72 . The Australian team strategy of primarily depending on pace bowling saw Tallon make 12 catches and no stumpings during the Tests ; however , Bradman rested his lead pace bowlers Miller and Lindwall during the tour games to save energy for the Tests and allowed the spinners do more work , so that overall Tallon took 29 catches and 14 stumpings for the tour . Bradman deemed Tallon more agile than Saggers and better at taking acrobatic catches . Tallon 's performances during the English summer saw him named by Wisden as one of its five Cricketers of the Year .
= = Later career = =
Upon Tallon 's return to Australia , he made an unbeaten 146 in Bradman 's Testimonial match at the MCG in December 1948 . He featured in a tenth @-@ wicket partnership of 100 with Geff Noblet , who scored only nine as Tallon farmed the strike effectively . This saw the match scores tied on the last ball of the match . Tallon also made seven dismissals for the match . Queensland lost more than they won during the season , but Tallon continued to be productive , scoring 453 runs at 34 @.@ 85 and making 26 dismissals in seven matches .
Tallon was selected for but withdrew from the 1949 – 50 tour to South Africa due to illness caused by stomach ulcers , and employment reasons . His place was taken by Saggers , who made 21 dismissals in the five Tests . In the meantime , Tallon recovered and played in the Australian domestic season . After scoring 52 in the opening match for the season , he scored 98 and two scores of 58 not out to help Queensland end the season with consecutive wins . He ended with 349 runs at 43 @.@ 63 and 11 dismissals in six matches . Tallon was selected for a brief tour of New Zealand at the end of the season with an Australian Second XI led by Bill Brown , and scored 116 in an unofficial Test in Dunedin . It was the top @-@ score in Australia 's 299 and the hosts led by only eight runs with one wicket in hand in their second innings when the match ended in a draw . Many of the matches during the tour were not first @-@ class but in one such game , Tallon scored 70 not out as Australia defeated Otago by an innings .
For the home Ashes series of 1950 – 51 Tallon was fit once more and available for national selection . Despite making only 37 runs in four innings in the lead @-@ up matches , Tallon was chosen for all five Tests . He had a poor time with the bat , making only 39 runs at an average of just 6 @.@ 50 . He took only eight catches , but kept tidily to retain his place in the team . His performances for Queensland were hardly more productive ; he scored 161 runs at 16 @.@ 10 and aside from a rain @-@ affected draw , his state lost their remaining six matches .
By this time , Tallon was losing his hearing , and gained the derisive nickname Deafy . In one Test , he had been told by captain Lindsay Hassett before going out to bat that there was to be an appeal for bad light . Hassett said " go for the light " but Tallon misheard it as " go for a lash " . Tallon walked out and was dismissed for a low score after attempting to attack the English bowlers , leaving his skipper displeased .
Tallon missed selection during the 1951 – 52 season due his increasingly error @-@ prone glovework and a combination of health reasons including stomach ulcers and deafness . He did not play a first @-@ class match because of lack of his fitness . In any case , Tallon had secretly been barred from selection by the Australian Board of Control for making unauthorised comments in the media ; this fact was not revealed for half a century .
He was unable to reclaim his Test place in 1952 – 53 despite making 133 against the touring South Africans and 84 against New South Wales for Queensland before the Tests . Tallon totalled 508 runs at 33 @.@ 87 for the season and made 33 dismissals in eight matches , including seven in one fixture against Western Australia , but failed to taste victory in a single Queensland match . His omission angered Queensland fans , who relentlessly heckled the Australians during the First Test against the tourists in Brisbane , making fun of the mistakes made by Tallon 's replacement Gil Langley in particular .
He was selected for the 1953 tour of England , and scored 76 against Tasmania before the tourists departed . Despite making only 35 runs at 7 @.@ 00 in the lead @-@ up matches , Tallon was selected for the First Test at Trent Bridge , his first match at the top level in more than two years . He took two catches and scored a duck and 15 . Hassett and his deputy Arthur Morris then made the decision to replace Tallon with Langley . Still troubled by stomach ulcers , Tallon played in another eight first @-@ class matches for the tour , scoring 119 runs at 19 @.@ 83 . His most notable effort was an unbeaten 83 in an innings win over Kent . He was unable to regain his Test position .
Tallon retired in dramatic circumstances after the first match of the 1953 – 54 Sheffield Shield season . During the match , he suddenly took off his gloves and handed the keeping duties to Peter Burge . He scored 21 and 54 not out in a drawn match against New South Wales . Two months later , he played for Arthur Morris 's XI against Hassett 's XI , a testimonial match for the latter . Tallon made 17 not out and nine in a 121 @-@ run win . Tallon continued to play local cricket in Bundaberg for another decade .
= = Style = =
Regarded as one of Australia 's finest ever wicket @-@ keepers , Tallon was lean and relatively tall for a wicket @-@ keeper , standing 180 cm . Tallon 's high acclaim among cricket pundits derived from his style , rather than raw statistics . In 21 Tests , Tallon kept wicket in 41 innings , making 58 dismissals at an average of 1 @.@ 41 per innings . Modern Australian glovemen such as Rod Marsh and Ian Healy , both of whom held the Test world record for dismissals , averaged closer to two . Tallon 's Test batting average of 17 @.@ 13 pales in comparison to that of contemporary wicket @-@ keepers such as Australia 's Adam Gilchrist and Sri Lanka 's Kumar Sangakkara , both of whom have made a double century and more than ten centuries . English wicket @-@ keepers from two decades after World War II such as Godfrey Evans and Jim Parks scored two Test centuries apiece and averaged substantially more than Tallon .
Tallon had an understated style , which was without flourish or flamboyancy . He was known for his anticipation of the flight , length and spin of the ball . He was particularly regarded for his stumping efficiency and his ability to catch balls down the leg side . Tallon often stood up to the stumps for medium pace bowlers and he had a textbook stumping technique in which he lifted the bails without disturbing the stumps . Tallon 's crouch was more pronounced than most other keepers and he rebounded upwards further and faster than others . He had a particularly smooth and graceful catching technique that left his hands undamaged from the ball 's impact , the injury in England in 1948 being a notable exception that proved the rule . In recognising him as one of their five Cricketers of the Year in the 1949 Wisden , the Almanack noted that his hands resembled those of a violinist , while Bradman noted that all his " fine , longer fingers were intact " as though he had not played much cricket . According to his English counterpart Godfrey Evans , Tallon was the " best and most nimble keeper ever " while Australian team @-@ mate Alan Davidson called him the " Bradman of keepers " . Due to financial reasons , Tallon could not afford new equipment and he used an outdated pair of iron @-@ coated gloves for most of his career .
Strong driving and quick scoring were hallmarks of his batting , made possible by his swift footwork . According to Bradman , Tallon 's batting was " attacking , positive and with a technique to rival most first @-@ class batsmen " . This led Bradman to select Tallon in his all @-@ time best XI . Tallon was a vociferous and frequent appealer behind the stumps , something that led to complaints from opposition batsmen who felt that the pressure he exerted was unfair .
= = Outside cricket = =
Tallon married his first wife Marjorie Beattie in 1946 . The constant travel , interstate and overseas , took a toll on his marriage and the pair divorced in 1950 . In 1954 , he married Lynda Kirchner from his native Bundaberg , with whom he had two daughters . In retirement , Tallon helped his younger brother Mat in running a corner store in Bundaberg . His nephew Ross played one match for Queensland Colts in 1967 – 68 . The Tallon bridge , built in 1995 in Bundaberg was named after the famous Bundabergian which links west & north Bundaberg . He died of heart disease in 1984 .
= = Test match performance = =
= The Merger ( The Office ) =
" The Merger " is the eighth episode of the third season of the American comedy television series The Office and the show 's 36th overall . It was written by consulting producer Brent Forrester and directed by Ken Whittingham . It first aired on November 16 , 2006 , as a special " super @-@ sized " 40 @-@ minute ( including commercials ) episode on NBC .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton and Stamford branches of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , the two branches are merged . Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) and Pam Beesley ( Jenna Fischer ) have an awkward reunion , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) tries to make his new employees feel welcome , and a rivalry begins between Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) and Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) .
The episode featured recurring guest stars Helms , Creed Bratton , Rashida Jones , Wayne Wilderson , Mike Bruner , and Ursula Burton . According to Nielsen Media Research , an estimated 8 @.@ 63 million viewers watched " The Merger " on its first broadcast . Critical reception to the episode was mainly positive , with many reviewers spotlighting Helms and his character in particular as highlights .
= = Synopsis = =
The Scranton and Stamford branches prepare for the upcoming merger . Pam Beesley ( Jenna Fischer ) professes excitement over the merger , mostly because of the return of Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) . Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) proclaims he 'll be the No. 2 man in Scranton in six weeks time through " name repetition , personality mirroring and never breaking off a handshake . " A rivalry between Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) and Andy begins over the No. 2 position in the office . At the welcoming party , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) plays a videotape he has created called " Lazy Scranton " , which features him and Dwight rhyming over the music of Saturday Night Live 's " Lazy Sunday " .
Michael embarrasses overweight new employee Tony Gardner ( Mike Bruner ) by attempting to push him onto a table with the rest of the new employees ; this causes Tony to quit . However , an angered Michael fires him instead , unintentionally entitling him to severance pay . Michael learns that Jim is the No. 2 in the office , which prompts Andy and Dwight to argue over who is No. 3 . After a plan to unite the employees goes awry . They find that they have a common interest : their contempt of Michael .
= = Production = =
" The Merger " was the fourth episode of the series to be directed by Ken Whittingham . It was written by consulting producer Brent Forrester , his first writing credit for The Office . The episode featured guest appearances from recurring actor Creed Bratton as well as from Ed Helms , Rashida Jones , Wayne Wilderson , Mike Bruner , and Ursula Burton , whose characters joined the Scranton branch . In her weekly blog for TV Guide , actress Kate Flannery stated that it " was a really fun episode " to film , as she was able to work with a variety of new actors . She added , " They double the size and they double the comedy ... It was like a party all week shooting this episode . "
The season three DVD contains a number of deleted scenes , including Kevin and Angela reacting to Jim 's return , Karen noting that she and Meredith have the same thermos and being offered alcohol , Andy introducing himself to Kevin , Michael telling Karen and Phyllis that eventually they will " share the same menstrual cycle , " Hannah and Meredith fighting over desk space , Andy asking Kevin if he has lost weight , and Michael performing a magic trick in front of the office . The original broadcast contained a small subplot involving Kevin and a new paper shredder from Staples Inc . , where Kevin talks about how he is given almost no responsibility at work but is content as long as they let him shred documents . It was removed from the episode for the DVD release and is not contained in the deleted scenes .
= = Reception = =
" The Merger " was first broadcast on November 16 , 2006 in the United States on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) . As a special promotion , the network broadcast " super @-@ sized " , forty @-@ minute episodes of The Office , 30 Rock , and My Name is Earl . According to Nielsen Media Research , an estimated 8 @.@ 63 million viewers watched the episode . Among adults aged 18 to 49 , it earned 4 @.@ 2 / 10 ratings share , meaning that it was seen by 4 @.@ 2 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 10 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of broadcast . The episode reached second place for the night in that demographic , and twenty @-@ fourth for the week among all the major networks .
IGN 's Brian Zoromski rated " The Merger " 9 out of 10 , an indication of an " amazing " episode . He called the opening sequence " arguably the funniest " scene , and believed " Andy 's proven to be an even better source of hilarity than he ever was in the Stamford office . " Zoromski was unhappy however with the " outright product placement " with Staples , writing that " the show 's quality felt a little compromised . It 's one thing to see blatant product placement in a reality show like Survivor or American Idol but when it invades a great scripted comedy … well , it kinda drags the show down to the reality level . " Doug Elfman of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times thought the episode was " funnier than it 's been in a while , " praising Kelly but criticizing the " fat @-@ guy joke . " Elfman cited Michael and Andy 's new relationship as a positive element . Television Without Pity graded the episode with an A + .
Entertainment Weekly columnist Abby West praised Fischer 's " masterful " performance , writing that it " really is nice to see Pam coming into her own ... And I love that she didn 't inhibit herself when Jim walked in — she just ran right up and hugged him . " West also highlighted Carell and Helms , explaining that with the former , " Michael is never completely loathsome — because Steve Carell imbues him with such vulnerability . " AOL TV writer Michael Sciannamea also enjoyed Helms ' performance , believing that " the competiton [ sic ] between Andy and Dwight will surely make for some classic moments . " Sciannamea concluded his review , " What makes this show so great is that the supporting players have a chance to shine at the right moments . I thought Stanley 's reactions to the whole situation were hysterical , and Creed is just great . He deserves some more airtime . "
= The Silence ( song ) =
" The Silence " is a song by British singer Alexandra Burke from her debut studio album Overcome ( 2009 ) . The song was written by Bilal Hajji and Savan Kotecha , along with the song 's producer Nadir " RedOne " Khayat . The song was released as a promotional single in anticipation of the re @-@ release of Overcome ( 2010 ) . Burke stated that the song was written when her aunt told the singer about how she and her partner were experiencing troubles in their relationship , and that they were not telling each other how they felt . In response , Burke asked her aunt why he was letting the silence in their relationship do the talking instead of them discussing it . " The Silence " is an R & B and pop @-@ influenced power ballad and instrumentation consists of a piano , a guitar and drums . The lyrics of the song feature the protagonist asking why the other person in the relationship remains silent about their difficulties instead of talking about them .
The song garnered positive reviews from music critics , who praised Burke 's vocal performance . It also received comparisons to songs by Bonnie Tyler , Beyoncé Knowles and Leona Lewis . Upon the release of Overcome , the song debuted at number 95 on the UK Singles Chart on the strength of digital download sales . A year later when released as a promotional single , it peaked at number 16 on the chart . It peaked inside the top thirty on the singles charts in Hungary , Ireland and Scotland , and peaked at number 66 in Switzerland . An accompanying music video was directed by Nzingha Stewart and shot in black and white . It features Burke in a variety of different stylized sets in different outfits and dresses . The singer has performed the song on The Paul O 'Grady Show and The X Factor . It was included on the set list of her All Night Long Tour ( 2011 ) .
= = Background and release = =
After the release and success of the lead single " Bad Boys " from her debut album Overcome in October 2009 , the singer released " Broken Heels " as the second single in January 2010 , with the intention of releasing " The Silence " as the album 's third single . However , a remix single version of " All Night Long " featuring Pitbull was released as the third single from the album instead in May 2010 . On 25 October 2010 , Burke announced via Twitter that " The Silence " would be the final song to be released from Overcome , writing " Some of you might be surprised at my choice of next single and some of you guys will hopefully be really happy . " The song was re @-@ recorded with a new vocal for inclusion on the re @-@ release of the album , entitled " The Silence ( New Single Mix ) " . In an interview with Eamonn Holmes for Sky News Sunrise in December 2010 , Burke stated that " The Silence " was released as a promotional single for the re @-@ release of Overcome and for Christmas . During an interview talking about the song for Virgin Media in December 2010 , Burke stated that " The Silence " is a " very special song " and that despite it being a " very emotional song to sing " , it is one of her most favourite songs on Overcome .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" The Silence " is a power ballad , which lasts for a duration of three minutes and 35 seconds . It draws influence from the music genre of R & B and pop , while instrumentation consists of a piano , a guitar and drums . The song is written in the key of A minor and is set in simple time with a metronome of 76 beats per minute . Burke 's vocal range in the song spans from the low note of F3 to the high note of F5 . In an interview with Peter Andre on The Paul O 'Grady Show on 3 November 2009 , Burke explained the meaning of the songs lyrics , saying " I 'm sure everyone has been in that situation where you are in a relationship , it might not be going so well and you kinda want your other half to speak out and say what is on their mind , and I 've had relationships like that . " Burke continued to explain that when she was in the recording studio with RedOne , her Aunt was experiencing problems in her relationship which related to the lyrics in " The Silence , " and that she felt that her Aunt 's partner should not " let the silence do the talking ? Why doesn 't he let you know how he feels ? , " and that " The Silence " was written as a result . The songs begins with the lyrics " Oh , you lift me up . "
= = Response = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
" The Silence " garnered positive reviews from music critics . Al Fox for BBC Music described the song as " a gargantuan power ballad " and that it displays Burke 's " rich and emotive vocals . " Fox also compared the song to the work of Bonnie Tyler and Beyoncé Knowles . Nick Levine for Digital Spy wrote that Overcome features ballads which are reminiscent to songs performed by previous X Factor winner Leona Lewis , with regard to " The Silence " and the title track " Overcome . "
= = = Chart performance = = =
Upon the release of Overcome , " The Silence " debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number 95 in the chart issue dated 31 October 2009 . Upon its release as a promotional single in December 2010 , it re @-@ entered the singles chart at number 126 on 11 December 2010 , and leaped to its peak of number 16 the following week . In the chart issue dated 25 December 2010 , the song fell twenty positions to number 36 . " The Silence " leaped from number 125 to number 13 on the UK Digital Chart . The following week , it dropped to number 35 . In Scotland , the song peaked at number 16 on the Scottish Singles Chart on 18 December 2010 . The following week , it descended to number 37 . " The Silence " debuted and peaked at number 30 on the Irish Singles Chart on 9 December 2010 . The following week , it dropped to number 35 . The song debuted and peaked on the Swiss Singles Chart at number 66 on 12 December 2010 , and fell to number 69 the following week . A month later , the song re @-@ entered the chart at number 72 on 23 January 2011 for one week . In Hungary , the song peaked at number 26 .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " The Silence " was directed by Nzingha Stewart before the video for " All Night Long " was shot . The video was shot in black and white , and features Burke in different outfits and dresses , as well as in a variety of sets with props . It begins with a couple of establishing shots of Burke of her posing with a balloon wearing and in another set where she is sitting on music speakers . Throughout the video , Burke is visibly in a studio with different backdrops , where she is preparing to be photographed . During the first verse , Burke is shown in the two sets while she sings the lyrics . Prior to the first chorus , a new set is introduced of Burke wearing a black dress which exposes all of her back while sitting on the floor next to a stereo . During the first verse , all three sets show Burke carrying out different tasks with he props , as well as a new set where she sits in front of a white backdrop in a plain white oversized shirt . As the second verse begins , the set of Burke sitting on the floor next to a stereo changes to that of her standing up in front of a microphone singing the lyrics , with the backdrop of a city skyline . During the second verse , another set is introduced of Burke posing against a stuffed animal . During the bridge , Burke sings the lyrics standing in front of the camera without any props surrounding her ; prior to sustaining a long note , Burke has her back to the camera and is nude from the waist up . During the final verse , Burke 's anger and desperation is shown to be heightened , as she sings to her herself in the mirror and places more emphasis on her movement . The video ends with the singer nude from the waist up and facing the camera , covering herself with her arms crossed over her chest .
= = Live performances = =
Burke performed the song for the first time on MTV Push upon the release of Overcome . Burke then performed the song on 3 November 2009 on The Paul O 'Grady show , where she gave an interview about her experience on The X Factor and how the lyrics for " The Silence " were conceptualised . Upon the announcement that the song and music video were going to be released , Burke included the song on her set list of the Jingle Bell Ball concerts around the country , where other artists including Nicole Scherzinger , Olly Murs and The Wanted also performed . During the performance at The O2 Arena in London , Burke was moved to tears and apologised to the audience , saying " I 'm sorry for getting emotional , but that song means way too much to me . " Burke performed the song on the semi final of the seventh series of The X Factor on 5 December 2010 . At the end of the performance , Burke was lifted into the air on a harness . The song was also included on the set list of Burke 's All Night Long Tour ( 2011 ) .
= = Track listings = =
2009 standard edition
" The Silence " – 4 : 01
2010 deluxe edition
" The Silence " ( New Single Mix ) – 3 : 35
= = Credits and personnel = =
" The Silence " ( 2009 ) credits adapted from the liner notes of Overcome , and " The Silence " ( New Single Mix ) ( 2010 ) credits adapted from the deluxe edition of Overcome .
= = Charts = =
= Blackford County , Indiana =
Blackford County is located in the east central portion of the U.S. state of Indiana . The county is named for Judge Isaac Blackford , who was the first speaker of the Indiana General Assembly and a long @-@ time chief justice of the Indiana Supreme Court . Created in 1838 , Blackford County is divided into four townships , and its county seat is Hartford City . Two incorporated cities and one incorporated town are located within the county . The county is also the site of numerous unincorporated communities and ghost towns . Occupying only 165 @.@ 58 square miles ( 428 @.@ 9 km2 ) , Blackford County is the fourth smallest county in Indiana . As of the 2010 census , the county 's population is 12 @,@ 766 people in 5 @,@ 236 households . Based on population , the county is the 8th smallest county of the 92 in Indiana . Although no interstate highways are located in Blackford County , three Indiana state roads cross the county , and an additional state road is located along the county 's southeast border . The county has two railroad lines . A north – south route crosses the county , and intersects with a second railroad line that connects Hartford City with communities to the west .
Before the arrival of European @-@ American settlers during the 1830s , the northeastern portion of the future Blackford County was briefly the site of an Indian reservation for Chief Francois Godfroy of the Miami tribe . The first European @-@ American pioneers were typically farmers that settled near rivers where the land had drainage suitable for agriculture . Originally , the county was mostly swampland , but more land became available for farming as the marshes were cleared and drained . Over the next 30 years , small communities slowly developed throughout the county . When the county 's rail lines were constructed in the 1860s and 1870s , additional communities evolved around railroad stops .
Beginning in the late 1880s , the discovery of natural gas and crude oil in the county ( and surrounding region ) caused the area to undergo an economic boom period known as the Indiana Gas Boom . Manufacturers relocated to the area to take advantage of the low @-@ cost energy and railroad facilities . The boom period lasted about 15 years , and is reflected in Blackford County 's population , which peaked in 1900 at 17 @,@ 213 . The new construction associated with the additional prosperity of the boom period caused a significant upgrade in the county 's appearance , as wooden buildings were replaced with structures made with brick and stone . Much of the infrastructure built during that time remains today — including Montpelier 's historic Carnegie Library and many of Hartford City 's buildings in the Courthouse Square Historic District .
Agriculture continues to be important to the county , and became even more important after the loss of several large manufacturers during the 20th century . Today , 72 percent of Blackford County is covered by either corn or soybean fields ; additional crops , such as wheat and hay , are also grown .
= = Geography = =
According to the 2010 census , Blackford County has a total area of 165 @.@ 58 square miles ( 428 @.@ 9 km2 ) , of which 165 @.@ 08 square miles ( 427 @.@ 6 km2 ) ( or 99 @.@ 70 % ) is land and 0 @.@ 50 square miles ( 1 @.@ 3 km2 ) ( or 0 @.@ 30 % ) is water , making it the fourth smallest county in the state . The county is located in East Central Indiana , about 55 miles ( 89 km ) south of Fort Wayne , Indiana , and about 78 miles ( 126 km ) northeast of Indianapolis . Along the north side of the county is Wells County , and on the eastern side of the county is Jay County , which separates Blackford County from Indiana 's border with the state of Ohio . Delaware County is located on Blackford County 's southern border , and to the west is Grant County .
The county land was flattened by two glaciers millions of years ago . These glaciers are also responsible for the rich Blackford County farmland that became available after the county was cleared and drained . During the early 20th century , the Renner Stock Farm , in Licking Township , was known statewide for its quality cattle , hogs , and horses .
The county has some small streams and lakes , although the lakes are man @-@ made . The Salamonie River , flowing out of Jay County ( Indiana ) from the east , crosses the northeast corner of Blackford County . Big and Little Lick Creek flow westward in Licking and Jackson townships in the southern half of the county . Early settlers were attracted to Lick Creek , and then the Salamonie River , because the nearby land had suitable drainage for farming . The county 's lakes include Lake Blue Water in Harrison Township ; Cain 's Lake , Shamrock Lakes and Lake Mohee in Licking Township ; and Lake Placid in Jackson Township . Lake Blue Water is a spring @-@ fed former stone quarry located one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) east of Montpelier . The Shamrock Lakes ( a group of six lakes ) were created between 1960 and 1965 , and the first lake was originally intended to be a water supply for a farmer 's cattle .
Licking and Harrison townships were original to the county . Washington Township , which is named after President George Washington , was created June 29 , 1839 , by the county commissioners . Jackson Township , which is thought to be named after President Andrew Jackson , was created by the commissioners on September 22 , 1839 .
= = = Communities = = =
Two incorporated cities are located within the county , and a small portion of a third city occupies the county 's southeast corner . The largest city is county seat Hartford City , located in the southern half of the county . Hartford City 's population in 2010 was 6 @,@ 220 — well below its 1970 peak of 8 @,@ 207 . Another incorporated city is Montpelier , which is located on the southern banks of the Salamonie River in the northeastern part of the county . Montpelier 's 2010 population was 1 @,@ 805 , which is below its Census Bureau peak of 3 @,@ 405 achieved in 1900 — and less than one half of an unofficial peak of 5 @,@ 000 estimated during the city 's oil boom in 1895 . A small portion of the city of Dunkirk , known as Shadyside , is located in the Jackson Township portion of Blackford County , but most of Dunkirk is located in Jay County . The population for the entire city of Dunkirk was 2 @,@ 362 in 2010 . Shamrock Lakes is Blackford County 's only incorporated town , achieving that status on May 21 , 1973 — and was the first community in Indiana to do so in 50 years . Its 2010 population was 231 .
Road maps typically show five unincorporated communities in Blackford County : Converse ( formerly named Crumley 's Crossing ) , Matamoras , Millgrove , Roll ( formerly named Dundee ) , and Trenton ( former post office named Priam ) . These communities are sometimes listed as ghost towns , as nearly all businesses in these communities have closed . However , residences are still maintained in these communities , and they are listed as populated places by the U.S. Geological Survey . Millgrove , Roll , and Trenton all had post offices during the 19th or 20th centuries .
= = = = Extinct settlements = = = =
Blackford County has over 10 communities that do not exist anymore . In some cases , a church , farm or single residence remains at the extinct community 's location . Among these former communities , Bowser Station , Dorsey Station , Mollie , Silas , and Slocum all had post offices during the 19th century . Mollie 's post office lasted until 1907 .
Bowser Station — This community was a railroad stop in southern Licking Township , and had a post office during the 1870s .
Dorsey Station — This Harrison Township community was a railroad stop , and had a post office during the 1870s .
Frog Alley — This Washington Township community had a church and school . The name Frog Alley was bestowed on the community because of the swampy condition of the area . The school , which began in 1863 , lasted until 1923 .
Greenland — Located in Harrison Township at 400 North and 600 East .
Little Chicago — Located in northwest corner of Harrison Township , and in Wells County .
Mollie — This community thrived in the 1890s as a railroad stop with a grain elevator , post office , and general store . The Harrison Township oil fields were located nearby .
Pleasantdale — Located in Harrison Township , at 300 North and 600 East .
Renner — This Licking Township community was a railroad stop next to the Renner Stock Farm . Housing for the farm 's employees was also located there . It thrived from the 1890s until the 1920s . Renner is still listed as a populated place by the U.S. Geological Survey , but its " population " is a farm .
Silas — The Washington Township land that became the community of Silas was purchased in 1848 , and the original owner established a church and school . By 1880 , a general store was established at that location , and its owner was community namesake Silas Rayl . During the first decade of the 20th century , the Silas general store closed , contributing to the demise of the community .
Slocum — This community was located in southeastern Harrison Township ( exact location not known ) , and had a post office from 1886 until 1902 .
The Town of Luck — Located in Harrison Township at 250 North and 800 East .
Winterhurst — Located in Licking Township , at 200 South and 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) East .
= = History = =
Following thousands of years of varying cultures of indigenous peoples , the historic Miami and Delaware Indians ( a.k.a. Lenape ) are the first @-@ recorded permanent settlers in the Blackford County area , living on the Godfroy Reserve after an 1818 treaty . The site is located in Blackford County 's Harrison Township , east of Montpelier . Although the Godfroy Reserve was allotted to Miami Indian Chief Francois ( a.k.a. Francis ) Godfroy , Delaware Indians were also allowed to stay there . The Miami tribe was the most powerful group of Indians in the region , and Francois Godfroy ( who was half French ) was one of their chiefs . By 1839 , Godfroy had sold the reserve , and the Indians had migrated west . Benjamin Reasoner was the first European – American to enter future Blackford County , and its first land owner . He entered what would become Licking Township on July 9 , 1831 . Reasoner and his sons built the county 's first mill , which was located on the family farm .
For a brief period , the land that would become Blackford County was the western part of Jay County . An act of the Indiana General Assembly , which was approved January 30 , 1836 , created Jay County effective after March 1 , 1836 . In December 1836 , a motion was made in the Indiana House of Representatives to review dividing Jay County , but that resolution was not adopted . Two Blackford County communities , Matamoras and Montpelier , originally existed as part of Jay County . Both of these communities are located along the Salamonie River in what became the northeast portion of Blackford County . John Blount founded Matamoras , arriving in 1833 . This village is Blackford County 's oldest community , and is the site of the county 's largest water mill . The mill , constructed around 1843 , was considered one of the finest in the state . Blackford County 's other former Jay County community is Montpelier , which is located west of Matamoras on the Salamonie River . Led by Abel Baldwin , the community was started in 1836 by groups of migrant settlers from Vermont . The Vermont natives named the settlement after the capital of their home state , Montpelier . Blackford County 's Montpelier was platted in 1837 ( before Matamoras ) , and is the county 's oldest platted community .
Several sources claim Blackford County was created in 1837 . However , the law was not finalized until 1838 . Indiana bill of the House No. 152 was originally for the creation of a county named Windsor . The name " Windsor " was replaced with the name " Blackford " by the House of Representatives in January 1838 . An " act for the formation of the county of Blackford " was approved on February 15 , 1838 . This act intended that the county would be " open for business " on the first Monday in April , 1838 , which was April 2 . However , the county was not organized . Finally , on January 29 , 1839 , the original February 15 act was amended , stating that Blackford County shall " enjoy the rights and privileges " of an independent county . The act also appointed commissioners , and corrected a misprint that defined the southeast corner of the new county .
Over the next two years , a political " battle " continued over the location of the county seat . The tiny community of Hartford was repeatedly selected by the commissioners , but those decisions were challenged by individuals favoring Montpelier . While Licking Township ( location of community of Hartford ) was the most populous township in the county , the community of Montpelier was the county 's oldest platted community . After a third and fourth act of the Indiana General Assembly , Hartford was finalized as the location of the county seat — and construction of a courthouse began . Because it was discovered that another community in Indiana was also named Hartford , Blackford County 's Hartford was eventually renamed Hartford City .
During the next 25 years , the county grew slowly . Plans were made for roads and railroads , and swampland was drained . The first railroad line was authorized in 1849 . The plan was for the Fort Wayne & Southern Railroad Company to connect the Indiana cities of Fort Wayne and Muncie — running north – south through the Blackford County communities of Montpelier and Hartford City . Although work constructing the railroad line began in the 1850s , it was not completed ( by connecting Fort Wayne to Muncie ) until 1870 , and this delay caused it to be the second railroad to operate in Blackford County . By the time the railroad began operations , it was named Fort Wayne , Cincinnati & Louisville Railroad . The Lake Erie and Western Railroad acquired this railroad in 1890 .
The first railroad to operate in Blackford County crossed somewhat east – west through the county 's southern half . The railroad was named Union and Logansport Railroad Company by the time it entered Blackford County . This line was proposed in 1862 , and completed to Hartford City in 1867 — running through the Blackford County communities of Dunkirk , Crumley 's Crossing , and Hartford City . The small community of Crumley 's Crossing was renamed Converse , and two other communities ( Millgrove and Renner ) became established on this line . The railroad was eventually named Pittsburgh , Cincinnati and St. Louis Railroad . Other names for the railroad since that time include the Panhandle division of the Pennsylvania Railroad , Penn Central Railroad Company , Conrail , and Norfolk Southern Railway . A portion of this line is now abandoned , and the track has been removed between Converse and Hartford City , south of State Road 26 .
= = = Gas boom = = =
In 1886 , natural gas was discovered in two counties adjacent to Blackford County . The discoveries were in the small community of Eaton ( south of Hartford City along railroad line ) in Delaware County , and in the city of Portland in Jay County ( east of Hartford City and Millgrove ) . The Hartford City Gas & Oil Company was formed in early 1887 , and successfully drilled a natural gas well later in the year . In Montpelier , the Montpelier Gas & Oil Mining company was organized in the spring of 1887 . While natural gas was found throughout Blackford County , crude oil was found mostly in the county 's Harrison Township ( somewhat between Montpelier and Mollie ) . Blackford County 's first successful oil well , located just south of Montpelier , began producing during 1890 . Montpelier was thought to be " the very heart of the greatest natural gas and oil field in the world " . Oil was also found in parts of Washington Township , including a well that was thought to be " the most phenomenal well ever drilled in America " . By 1896 , Blackford County had 18 natural gas companies . These companies were headquartered in all four of the county 's townships , including the communities of Hartford City , Montpelier , Roll , Dunkirk , Trenton ( Priam Post Office ) , and Millgrove .
In June 1880 , only 171 people held manufacturing jobs in Blackford County . The Indiana Gas Boom transformed the region , as manufacturers moved to the area to utilize the natural gas and railroad system . During 1901 , Indiana state inspectors visited 21 manufacturing facilities in Blackford County , and these companies employed 1 @,@ 346 people ( compare to 171 two decades earlier ) . Since these inspections were in Hartford City and Montpelier only , additional manufacturing employees from the county 's small communities ( such as Millgrove 's glass factory ) could be added to the count of 1 @,@ 346 . The county 's two largest employers were glass factories : American Window Glass plant number 3 and Sneath Glass Company . Hartford City 's resources ( low cost energy , two railroads , and workforce ) were especially favored by glass factories , and a 1904 directory lists 10 of them .
In addition to an economic transformation , another byproduct of the gas boom was an upgrade of Blackford County 's appearance . Many of the county 's landmark buildings were constructed during the gas boom , including the current courthouse and surrounding buildings in Hartford City 's Courthouse Square Historic District . The city 's waterworks was also built during that period . Additional buildings include the Carnegie Library and historic Presbyterian Church . In Montpelier , many of the buildings in its Downtown Historic District were also constructed during the gas boom . Montpelier 's historic Baptist Church and Montpelier 's Carnegie Library were constructed in the early 1900s – near the end of the gas boom .
= = = Post @-@ gas boom = = =
The Indiana Gas Boom gradually came to an end during the first decade of the 20th century . The end of the gas boom meant less prosperity for the county . The gas and oil workers left , some of the manufacturers moved , and the service industries were forced to close or cut back operations because of fewer customers . Adding to the county 's problems , machines made the labor – intensive method originally used for producing window glass obsolete , causing many of the county 's skilled glass workers at the large American Window Glass plant to lose their jobs . By 1932 , the window glass plant of the county 's former largest employer was closed . According to the United States Census , Blackford County 's population peaked at 17 @,@ 123 in 1900 , and it still has not returned to that zenith over 100 years later .
The end of the gas boom was especially difficult for the smaller communities in the county , since the loss of a single business had more of an impact on undersized communities than it did for a town with many businesses . In the case of Millgrove , the community 's major manufacturer ( a glass factory ) closed . For other communities , such as Mollie , the loss of the gas and oil workers meant that the local post office was a " waste of time " , and consumer demand at the general store was significantly diminished .
Improvements to the automobile and highways , which coincided with the end of the gas boom , may have also contributed to the decline of the county 's smaller communities . The automobile changed " business and shopping patterns at the expense of the small @-@ town merchant . " Small town residents began to drive to larger communities to purchase goods , because of the wider selection . The improved quality of automobiles and roads competed with passenger service on the railroads ( and interurban lines ) , causing a decline in passenger traffic on the rails . Small towns associated with railroad stations suffered from the loss in traffic . In Blackford County , passenger service on the Lake Erie and Western Railroad line ( owned by the Nickel Plate Road by that time ) was discontinued in 1931 , and the last interurban train ran on January 18 , 1941 .
Although the natural gas and oil workers left the area after the gas ( and oil ) boom , Montpelier 's population eventually stabilized — and Hartford City 's grew . Some of the manufacturers remained in the county 's two largest cities because of a lack of better alternatives . Hartford City 's Sneath Glass Company , a major employer , continued operations until the 1950s . Hartford City leaders attracted businesses such as Overhead Door ( 1923 ) and 3M ( 1955 ) to replace some of the companies that left the area . Overhead Door was a major employer in Hartford City for over 60 years . A major setback for the community involving Overhead Door occurred during the 1980s , although it began in the 1960s . During the 1960s , Overhead Door moved its headquarters from Hartford City to Dallas , Texas . Its Hartford City manufacturing plant continued to be a major employer until the 1980s , when Overhead Door cut back local operations . The Hartford City facility finally closed in 2000 . The county lost another major Hartford City employer in 2011 when the Key Plastics plant closed , as 200 people lost their jobs .
Agriculture continues to be an important factor in the county 's economy . Over 70 percent of Blackford County 's land is occupied by soybean or corn fields . Additional crops and livestock are also raised . Good returns in agriculture are not always reflected in the economy of nearby towns , as industrial agriculture has reduced the number of workers it needs , and family farms have declined . Many small towns in the " Corn Belt " , such as the communities in Blackford County , continue to decline in size and affluence .
= = Demographics = =
As of the 2010 United States Census , Blackford County 's population density was 77 @.@ 3 inhabitants per square mile ( 29 @.@ 8 / km2 ) , well below the average for Indiana , which was 180 @.@ 8 inhabitants per square mile ( 69 @.@ 8 / km2 ) . Blackford County had 12 @,@ 766 people , 5 @,@ 236 households , and 3 @,@ 567 families residing within its borders . The racial makeup of the county was 97 @.@ 7 percent white , 0 @.@ 4 percent black or African American , 0 @.@ 2 percent Native American , 0 @.@ 1 percent Asian , 0 @.@ 3 percent from other races , and 1 @.@ 3 percent from two or more races . Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 0 @.@ 9 percent of the population .
The average household size was 2 @.@ 41 , and the average family size was 2 @.@ 88 . Families accounted for 68 @.@ 1 percent of the county 's 5 @,@ 236 households , and 75 @.@ 5 percent of these families included a husband and wife living together . Children under the age of 18 were living in 38 @.@ 9 percent of the family households . Non @-@ family households accounted for 31 @.@ 9 percent of total households , and 86 @.@ 8 percent of them were occupied by someone living alone . People 65 years and older , living alone , accounted for 40 @.@ 1 percent of non @-@ family households — or 12 @.@ 8 percent of all types of households .
In terms of age distribution , 22 @.@ 8 percent of the population were under the age of 18 , and 21 @.@ 6 percent were 62 years of age or older . The median age was 42 @.@ 4 years . For every 100 females , there were 97 @.@ 2 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 93 @.@ 7 males .
As of the 2000 United States Census , the median income for a household in the county was $ 34 @,@ 760 , and the median income for a family was $ 41 @,@ 758 . Males had a median income of $ 30 @,@ 172 versus $ 21 @,@ 386 for females . The per capita income for the county was $ 16 @,@ 543 . About 6 @.@ 0 percent of families and 8 @.@ 7 percent of the population were below the poverty line , including 12 @.@ 3 percent of those under age 18 and 8 @.@ 6 percent of those age 65 or over . In terms of ancestry , 16 @.@ 7 percent were German , 15 @.@ 5 percent were American , 9 @.@ 3 percent were Irish and 7 @.@ 8 percent were English .
= = Government = =
The county government is a constitutional body granted specific powers by the Constitution of Indiana and the Indiana Code . The county council is the legislative branch of the county government and controls all spending and revenue collection . Representatives are elected from county districts . The council members serve four @-@ year terms and are responsible for setting salaries , the annual budget and special spending . The council also has limited authority to impose local taxes , in the form of an income and property tax that is subject to state level approval , excise taxes and service taxes . In 2010 , the county budgeted approximately $ 3 @.@ 95 million for the district 's schools and $ 3 @.@ 18 million for other county operations and services , for a total annual budget of approximately $ 7 @.@ 1 million .
The executive body of the county is made of a board of commissioners . The commissioners are elected county @-@ wide , in staggered terms , and each serves a four @-@ year term . One of the commissioners , typically the most senior , serves as president . The commissioners are charged with executing the acts legislated by the council , collecting revenue and managing day @-@ to @-@ day functions of the county government . The 2011 president of Blackford County 's board of commissioners is Fred Walker .
The county maintains a small claims court that can handle some civil cases . The judge on the court is elected to a term of four years and must be a member of the Indiana Bar Association . The judge is assisted by a constable who is elected to a four @-@ year term . In some cases , court decisions can be appealed to the state level circuit court .
The county has several other elected offices , including sheriff , coroner , auditor , treasurer , recorder , surveyor and circuit court clerk . Each of these elected officers serves a term of four years and oversees a different part of county government . Members elected to county government positions are required to declare party affiliations and be residents of the county .
Each of the townships has a trustee who administers rural fire protection and ambulance service , provides poor relief and manages cemetery care , among other duties . The trustee is assisted in these duties by a three @-@ member township board . The trustees and board members are elected to four @-@ year terms .
Based on 2000 census results , Blackford County is part of Indiana 's 6th congressional district , Indiana Senate district 19 and Indiana House of Representatives district 31 .
= = Climate and weather = =
Blackford County has a typical Midwestern humid continental seasonal climate , and its Köppen climate classification is Dfa . There are four distinct seasons , with winters being cold with moderate snowfall , while summers can be warm and humid . In recent years , average temperatures in county seat Hartford City have ranged from a low of 18 ° F ( − 8 ° C ) in January to a high of 84 ° F ( 29 ° C ) in July , although a record low of − 26 ° F ( − 32 ° C ) was recorded in January 1994 and a record high of 103 ° F ( 39 ° C ) was recorded in June 1988 . Average monthly precipitation ranged from 1 @.@ 94 inches ( 49 mm ) in February to 4 @.@ 33 inches ( 110 mm ) in June .
March and April are considered tornado season in Indiana . Blackford County endured a category 4 storm on Palm Sunday ( April 11 ) in 1965 . This storm was one of many tornados that occurred in the Midwest on that day . Category 4 tornados have maximum speeds of 207 to 260 miles per hour ( 333 to 418 km / h ) , and this one crossed Blackford County farmland east of Roll . Although there were no fatalities in Blackford County from this tornado , two people were killed in neighboring Wells County . The county has experienced at least five other tornados . The most recent tornados were two that occurred in Hartford City in 2002 . However , the two Hartford City tornados were rated category 1 on the Fujita scale — much less dangerous than a category 4 .
Blackford County has a record for hail . Hail 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 110 mm ) in diameter fell in Hartford City on April 9 , 2001 . In a tie with the city of Cayuga , those hail " stones " are the largest ever recorded in the state of Indiana .
The biggest recorded snow storm was the Great Blizzard of 1978 , which occurred on January 26 – 27 , 1978 . A federal state of emergency was declared for Indiana at that time . Indiana governor Otis R. Bowen authorized the use of National Guard equipment , facilities , and personnel throughout the state . Low temperatures , high winds , and deep snow caused Hartford City to look like a ghost town , as schools and businesses closed . Wind gusts up to 45 miles per hour ( 72 km / h ) caused snowdrifts up to 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) high , making travel by any type of truck or automobile almost impossible . Snowmobiles were the only viable means of transportation , and volunteers from Hartford City 's Snowmobile Club provided emergency assistance .
= = Economy = =
Blackford County 's economy is supported by a labor force of approximately 5 @,@ 900 workers with an unemployment rate for June 2013 of 9 @.@ 8 percent . Industrial parks are located in both Montpelier and Hartford City , and both cities are served by railroad line owned by Norfolk Southern . Over 30 employers of varying size are located in the county . The Blackford County School System has the most employees , with locations in both Hartford City and Montpelier . 3M Company is currently the largest manufacturer in the county , and has been located in Hartford City since its purchase of the Hartford City Paper Mill in 1955 . Another business employing more than 100 people is Blackford County Community Hospital , located in Hartford City . Emhart Gripco is Montpelier 's leading employer , with over 100 people working at its facility .
Four categories of employment account for over 50 percent of employment in the county : manufacturing , government , retail trade , and health care . The largest category is manufacturing , and it accounts for about 19 percent of the county 's employed workforce . In addition to local Blackford County businesses , larger local economies in the more populous counties to the south and west offer employment and commerce , particularly in the city of Muncie in Delaware County , and the city of Marion in Grant County . Both counties employ more workers than their local workforce can provide .
Agriculture has a significant impact on the county , although farm workers account for only about 5 percent of the county 's workers . In 2007 , the county had 250 farms occupying 84 @,@ 626 acres ( 34 @,@ 247 ha ) . Therefore , roughly 80 percent of Blackford County is farmland . Nearly 72 @,@ 000 acres ( 29 @,@ 000 ha ) are devoted to the cultivation of soybeans and corn . Wheat , hay , and oats were also grown . Livestock include over 24 @,@ 000 hogs and pigs .
= = Transportation = =
There are no interstate highways in Blackford County , although Interstate 69 passes about 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) to the west of the county 's western border . U.S. Route 35 shares a portion of I @-@ 69 's route in this area ; it also does not enter Blackford County .
State Road 3 enters the county from the south after passing through Eaton in neighboring Delaware County . It passes directly north through Hartford City and leaves the county near Roll , continuing north into Wells County . State Road 18 runs from west to east through the north end of the county , on its way from Marion to the Ohio border ; it passes through Montpelier and Matamoras .
State Road 26 also runs from west to east , entering from Upland in neighboring Grant County and passing through Hartford City where it crosses State Road 3 . Going on through Trenton , it enters Jay County on its way to the Ohio border .
State Road 167 runs along the eastern border of the county for about 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) as it goes north from Dunkirk ; it terminates when it reaches State Road 26 .
A Norfolk Southern Railway railroad line enters the county from the south after leaving Eaton ; it runs about a mile to the east of State Road 3 until it reaches Hartford City where it veers to the northeast and passes through Montpelier . It continues into Wells County to the north . Norfolk Southern also owns Blackford County 's east – west line located in the southern half of the county . An 8 @-@ mile ( 13 km ) section of this line , between Converse and Hartford City , was abandoned during the last decade , and track has been removed . The line is still in service north of State Road 26 , between Hartford City and Upland in Grant County . In October 2009 , Central Railroad Company of Indianapolis pursued a leasing agreement to operate the east – west line with Norfolk Southern Railway in Blackford County . However , the line currently does not appear on the Central Railroad Company of Indianapolis system map .
= = Education and health care = =
The county 's five public schools are administered by the Blackford County School Corporation . During the 2010 – 11 school year , a total of 1 @,@ 943 students attended these schools . The county school system was reorganized in 1963 , after a county @-@ wide vote favored a single school system for the entire county . As a result of this decision , Hartford City and Montpelier High Schools graduated their last classes in 1969 , and a new high school serving the entire county was constructed in time for the 1969 – 1970 school year . Like the county , the new high school was named after Isaac Newton Blackford , and is called Blackford High School . The school is located a few miles north of Hartford City , and is therefore somewhat near the center of the county . The school was designed for 1 @,@ 200 students , and initial enrollment totaled to 1 @,@ 150 students , serving grades 9 through 12 . Current high school enrollment is less than 650 . All students in grades 7 and 8 attend Blackford Junior High School . Although the county was served by eight elementary schools during the 1980s , consolidations have decreased the number of elementary schools to three . Montpelier Elementary School serves grades 1 through 6 , and also has kindergarten classes . In Hartford City , Southside Elementary School hosts a kindergarten and grades 1 through 3 , while students in grades 4 through 6 attend Northside Elementary School .
At least four universities are located close to Blackford County . All four are located in adjacent counties , but are less than 25 miles ( 40 km ) from Hartford City . Ball State University is the largest and most well known , and is located south of Hartford City in Muncie . Muncie is also home to Ivy Tech State College @-@ East Central . Private school Indiana Wesleyan University is located in Marion , which is west of Montpelier . Another private school , Taylor University , is less than 10 miles ( 16 km ) west of Hartford City in Upland .
The cities of Montpelier and Hartford City both have public libraries . The Public Library of Montpelier and Harrison Township was built in 1907 and 1908 . This building is also known as the Montpelier Carnegie Library because it was made possible by a grant from philanthropist ( and former business magnate ) Andrew Carnegie . The library was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2007 . Hartford City 's Public library was also made possible by a grant from Carnegie , and it was built in 1903 . The Carnegie Fund required local towns to do fundraising to match the grants , and to commit to operating the libraries after their construction . In many localities , women 's groups were instrumental in organizing and doing fundraising for the libraries , both at the time of construction and since . Another library located in Hartford City belongs to the Blackford County Historical Society , and a museum is housed in the same building .
The Blackford County Health Department is located in Hartford City , and has a staff of nine people that serves and educates the county . Immunization and blood pressure clinics are provided in addition to educational services and emergency preparedness . The county 's hospital is Indiana University Health Blackford Hospital , a 15 @-@ bed facility located on Hartford City 's north side . This facility was opened January 2005 , and includes a medical office building and ambulance garage .
= = Media = =
The first newspaper in Blackford County was The Hartford City Times , which was started by Dr. John Moler in 1852 . Moler ran a drug store and print shop , and the Times was mostly an advertiser . At least one source considers The Blackford County News , which was started later in 1852 , as the county ’ s first newspaper — possibly because the Times was mostly for advertising . Across the county in Montpelier , the The Montpelier Examiner was first published in 1879 , and that newspaper is the predecessor of the town ’ s long @-@ time newspaper , The Montpelier Herald . The county 's first daily newspaper , the Evening News , was started in 1894 by Edward Everett Cox . This Hartford City newspaper was eventually renamed Hartford City News . After Cox ’ s death in the 1930s , the Cox family sold the Hartford City News to the owners of Hartford City ’ s Times @-@ Gazette , and the combined entity became the Hartford City News @-@ Times . Changing ownership over the years , the Hartford City News @-@ Times continued operations through the 20th century . During the 21st century , the newspaper began using the name News @-@ Times , and calls itself " Blackford County ’ s only daily newspaper " .
The two major television markets that reach Blackford County are Indianapolis and Fort Wayne . Although a few lower @-@ powered stations are located closer to Blackford County in cities such as Muncie , Marion , and Kokomo , these stations typically do not have a broadcast range that covers all of Blackford County . There are no AM radio stations based in Blackford County , but plenty of nearby areas have AM stations in broadcast range . This includes Indianapolis , Fort Wayne , Muncie , and Marion among others . Plenty of FM stations are also in broadcast range , and Blackford County has FM radio stations located in Hartford City and Montpelier . Hartford City , Montpelier , and portions of the county 's rural areas have internet access available .
= = Notable people = =
Kevin A. Ford was born in Portland , Indiana , in 1960 . His family moved to Montpelier , Indiana , and he graduated from Blackford High School in 1978 . Ford holds four academic degrees , and retired from active duty as a colonel in the United States Air Force in 2008 . He was the pilot for the Space Shuttle Discovery during its August 2009 flight , and has logged over 332 hours in outer space . On October 23 , 2012 , Ford began another voyage into outer space . This time , his journey was aboard a Russian spacecraft , with the International Space Station as his destination .
Clarence G. Johnson was the first president of Overhead Door Corporation , and lived in Hartford City , Indiana , from 1923 until he died in 1935 . He was a pioneer in the development of garage doors , and holds numerous patents . One of Johnson 's more notable inventions is the first " electric operator for sectional upward @-@ acting doors " . Johnson 's Overhead Door Corporation was a major employer in Blackford County for over 60 years , employing as many as 515 people during its peak years .
Maurice Clifford Townsend was born August 11 , 1884 , on a small farm in Blackford County 's Licking Township . After graduating from college in Marion , Indiana , Townsend served as superintendent of Blackford County schools , superintendent of Grant County schools , and as a representative of the Blackford @-@ Grant District in the Indiana General Assembly . Townsend was elected as Indiana 's lieutenant governor in 1932 . He won the 1936 election for governor , and served the single four @-@ year term allowed by law . After Townsend 's public service in Indiana , he served in the administration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt , and worked in agriculture related offices . Townsend 's legacy is directing school buses to be painted yellow for safety and identification purposes , an idea that spread nationwide .
Erika Wicoff is one of the most decorated female athletes in Indiana University history , earning three Big Ten Player of the Year awards as a golfer . She was the Big Ten women 's golf champion in 1994 , 1995 , and 1996 . A native of Hartford City , Indiana , she later competed in the Ladies Professional Golf Association . Wicoff was inducted into the Indiana Athletics Hall of Fame in 2006 .
= No. 1 Basic Flying Training School RAAF =
No. 1 Basic Flying Training School ( No. 1 BFTS ) was a flying training
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war Canadian Air Force ( CAF ) , later the Royal Canadian Air Force . In 1920 , the Canadian Air Board sponsored a project to conduct the first Trans @-@ Canada flight to determine the feasibility of such flights for air mail and passenger services . Rivière du Loup to Winnipeg was flown by Leckie and Major Basil Hobbs in a Felixstowe F.3 and the remainder of the relay was completed using several of the CAF 's DH @-@ 9As . All aircraft were part of the Imperial Gift . Although not considered suitable for the harsh Canadian weather , the Imperial Gift aircraft soldiered on into the 1930s ; the last aircraft in service , an Avro 504K , was retired in 1934 .
= = Australia = =
The Imperial Gift to Australia originally consisted of 100 aircraft , spare engines , tools , motor transport and 13 transportable hangars shipped in over 19 @,@ 000 packing cases . An additional 28 aircraft were provided at the same time to replace aircraft donated by the people of Australia to Great Britain during the First World War . Australia 's aircraft allotment consisted of :
35 × Avro 504K trainers
35 × Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5a fighters
30 × Airco / de Haviland DH @-@ 9a bombers
28 × Airco / de Haviland DH @-@ 9 bombers
On 30 June 1919 , the Australian Army Service Corps recommended the creation of a temporary " Australian Air Corps " ( AAC ) formed into two wings ( one wing to meet the needs of the Navy and the other for the Army ) . The Imperial Gift enabled the formation of the Royal Australian Air Force on 31 March 1921 . An Air Board , answering to the Minister for Defence , would administer the new service .
Imperial Gift aircraft were shipped to Australia in 1919 , assembled upon delivery in 1920 and served for up to 10 years . The Airco / de Haviland DH @-@ 9a ( A1 @-@ 17 / F2779 ) was the longest serving Imperial Gift aircraft , being written off on 4 February 1930 . The only original surviving Imperial Gift aircraft in Australia are an Avro 504K ( A3 @-@ 4 / H2174 ) , stored at the Treloar Technology Centre ( Canberra ) and an S.E.5a ( A2 @-@ 4 / C1916 ) , in the collection of the Australian War Memorial , exhibited in the ANZAC Hall of the main Australian War Memorial displays .
= = New Zealand = =
At first New Zealand refused the offer , but later accepted 34 aircraft and 42 aero engines :
21 × Avro 504K trainers
9 × Airco / de Haviland DH @-@ 9 bombers
2 × Bristol F.2b Fighter two seat fighters
2 × Airco / de Haviland DH @-@ 4 bombers
The F.2bs , DH @-@ 4s and one Avro 504K were retained for government use , and the balance were issued on loan as transports and training aircraft to civil aviation companies between 1920 and 1924 . By the mid @-@ 1920s , all of the private firms involved had collapsed , and surviving aircraft were taken back by the government to constitute the New Zealand Permanent Air Force .
All Imperial Gift aircraft in military service were either wrecked , scrapped or burnt and nothing has survived .
= = South Africa = =
South Africa was the second country after Britain to establish an air force independent from army or naval control on 1 February 1920 . The South African Air Force 's ( SAAF ) share of the Imperial Gift was :
48 × Airco / de Haviland DH @-@ 9 bombers
30 × Avro 504 trainers
22 × Royal Aircraft Factory SE.5a fighters
10 × Airco / de Haviland DH @-@ 4 bombers
The 10 DH @-@ 4s were war loss replacements sponsored by the Over @-@ Seas Club of London . An additional DH @-@ 9 was donated by the city of Birmingham . The SAAF 's initial fleet was completed by two Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2s left over from Allister Miller 's wartime recruitment campaign and handed over to the Union Defence Force in October 1919 . According to author Dave Becker , there is no record of the B.E.2s ever being used after 1919 .
The ancillary equipment and materials from the donation included 20 steel hangars , 30 portable wood and canvas Bessonneau hangars , radio and photographic equipment , complete engine and airframe workshops with tools , trucks , tenders , trailers , 50 @,@ 000 gallons of engine oils and 20 @,@ 000 gallons of paints , varnishes and dope . The total value of the donation was estimated at £ 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 .
An offer of four Type Zero airships was turned down due to doubts about their usability above 6 @,@ 000 feet and the expense of replacing the envelopes , which were estimated to have a useful life of only three months in the harsh South African sunshine .
The first batch of aircraft arrived in South Africa in September 1919 at the Artillery Depot at Roberts Heights , Pretoria where an Air Depot was established on 1 January 1920 . The combined facility was then known as the Aircraft and Artillery Depot .
Two Avro 504s were sold for £ 1 @,@ 563 @-@ 11s @-@ 8d to the South African Aerial Transport Company in 1920 .
A 23 @.@ 5 morgen ( 20 @.@ 1 hectare ) piece of land two miles east of Roberts Heights was acquired for an aerodrome and named Zwartkop after a nearby hill . No. 1 Flight was formed at Zwartkop Air Force Station on 26 April 1920 , equipped with DH @-@ 9s . After the formation of a second flight , 1 Squadron was established in early 1922 .
The SAAF Museum 's Pretoria branch is housed in six of the original steel hangars .
= = India = =
India 's share of the Imperial Gift was :
60 × Airco / de Haviland DH @-@ 9 bombers
40 × Avro 504 trainers
Unlike other recipients , India did not use the gift to establish a national air force . The RAF in India received 20 Avro 504 airframes for military use . The rest went to various colonial government departments and entities , or were sold to commercial and private operators .
The remains of three DH @-@ 9s were discovered in 1995 in disused elephant stables at the palace of the Maharajah of Bikaner . Taken to the Imperial War Museum ( IWM ) in the UK , parts of all three were used to restore one of the aircraft , with the addition of an engine the IWM had in storage . It is on display at the IWM 's Duxford facility .
= Operation Pleshet =
Operation Pleshet ( Hebrew : מִבְצָע פְּלֶשֶׁת , Mivtza Pleshet , lit . " Operation Philistia " ) , named after the geographical region where it took place , was an Israeli military operation during the 1948 Arab – Israeli War . It was carried out from May 29 to June 3 , 1948 , in the Isdud / Ad Halom area of the southern front , against the Egyptian Army . The aim of the operation was to capture Isdud and stop the Egyptian advance northwards . While only the June 2 – 3 engagements are officially named Operation Pleshet , the events immediately preceding are historiographically joined with it .
The preceding events consisted of an aerial bombardment , followed by small @-@ scale Israeli harassment of the Egyptian lines , and later a ground assault ( Operation Pleshet ) . The original plan was to attack on June 1 – 2 , but this was canceled due to an impending ceasefire , and re @-@ attempted on June 2 – 3 . The Israelis , under the Givati Brigade 's umbrella command , attacked in two main forces : one from the north ( 3 companies ) and one from the south ( 4 reinforced companies ) . The Israelis had little intelligence on their enemy and were forced to retreat . They failed to capture territory , and suffered heavy casualties . However , following the operation , Egypt changed its strategy from offensive to defensive , thus halting their advance northwards .
Two unsettled historiographic debates exist revolving around the operation : whether the Egyptians were intending to advance toward Tel Aviv , which most historians agree was not the case ; and whether the operation was a turning point on the Israeli southern front . Traditional Israeli historiography , supported by early Arab accounts , maintains that it was a turning point , while later Arab sources , and New Historians , dispute this .
= = Background = =
Prior to the founding of the State of Israel , the Yishuv leadership anticipated an attack by regular Arab armies , of which Egypt 's was the strongest in terms of manpower , arms and equipment . As such , Plan Dalet took stopping a potential Egyptian attack into account , and the Ad Halom ( Sukrir ) dual bridge over the Lakhish River was blown up as part of Operation Barak on May 12 . In the eyes of the Givati command , this part of the operation was of marginal importance . A platoon from the 54th Battalion , two mules and 300 kilograms of explosives were allocated for it . The mules fled the scene , and the explosives were divided among the soldiers , who delivered them to the bridge . It took two attempts to destroy it , as some of the explosives did not work the first time .
The original bridge was built over the Lakhish River ( Wadi Sukrir / Wadi Fakhira ) during the Roman period , and re @-@ built by the Ottoman Empire at the end of the 19th century . A parallel railway bridge was added when the coastal railway ( Lebanon – Egypt ) was laid . After numerous armed raids in the area during the 1936 – 1939 Arab revolt in Palestine , the British authorities set up a series of pillboxes in the area , one of them next to the bridges .
Egypt invaded the newly declared State of Israel on May 15 , 1948 . Their strength was approximately one division , commanded by Major General Ahmed Ali al @-@ Mwawi . Their advance was three @-@ pronged : The main column moved north through what is today the Gaza Strip and attacked Kfar Darom , another column went east toward Beersheba , and a third attacked kibbutz Nirim . On May 17 , a small force split off from Beersheba to link up with more Egyptian forces at Auja al @-@ Hafir , on May 19 the main column attacked Yad Mordechai , and on May 20 , the main force in Beersheba set out to link with the Jordanian Arab Legion in Hebron .
On May 21 , Cairo sent an urgent message to its units in Palestine , saying " we want al @-@ Majdal today " . Following the Israeli Operation Bin Nun , on May 25 , the Jordanian Arab Legion pressured the Egyptians to move northwards to the Ramla – Aqir – Yibna area , in order to connect later with the legion at Bab al @-@ Wad . Doing so would divide the Israeli forces into two — the Negev , and the rest of Israel . The Egyptian commander al @-@ Mwawi , was opposed to such a move , but the leadership in Cairo dismissed his worries , and on May 28 ordered a quarter of his total combat forces to move north from Majdal .
Gamal Abdel Nasser wrote in his memoirs that already by May 25 , the Egyptian forces were spread so thin that they had no mobile reserves to assault a Jewish force , and considered it strange that they would be ordered to allocate a major contingent to fight in an unfamiliar area . Following @-@ up his victory in the Battle of Yad Mordechai on May 23 – 24 , al @-@ Mwawi pushed north along the coast , bypassing the relatively well @-@ defended Israeli village of Nitzanim . His column was reinforced by sea near Majdal , where he sent part of his force to the Majdal – Hebron road , hoping it would be able to link with another column , under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Abd el @-@ Aziz , south of Jerusalem . Reduced to about 2 @,@ 500 men , al @-@ Mwawi resumed his march northwards . Brigadier General Muhammad Naguib was put in charge of the column by al @-@ Mwawi , because the original commander was on vacation in Egypt .
On the afternoon of May 29 , 1948 , the observation post in Nitzanim spotted an Egyptian column , including tanks , armoured fighting vehicles and artillery moving north up the coastal road . The figure it reported at 16 : 45 was about 1 @,@ 300 vehicles , although Yehoshua Goldrat , the operations officer of the Givati Brigade , being familiar with Egyptian formations , estimated that it was a brigade with about 500 vehicles . Estimates from the General Staff stood at 200 vehicles and 2 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 000 soldiers . At the time , the Israeli decision makers did not know where the Egyptians were headed . They envisioned one of three possibilities : A march on Tel Aviv , about 40 kilometers ( 25 mi ) northwards — the view adopted by David Ben @-@ Gurion ; an attempt to connect to the Transjordanian Arab Legion in the Hebron area and capture the Negev — proposed by Nahum Sarig of the Negev Brigade ; or an attempt to connect with the remaining Arab forces in Lydda and Ramla .
The IDF command did not see the forces in the western Negev as sufficient to fully stop an Egyptian invasion , wherever it was headed , and ordered an operation to stop or delay the advancing column . The command also feared that the Arab forces would try to create facts on the ground before the impending UN @-@ imposed ceasefire . The two Arab forces that were considered a threat were the Iraqis in the Triangle ( Jenin – Nablus – Tulkarm ) and the Egyptians at Majdal – Isdud . Thus , Golani and Carmeli were to attack Jenin , Alexandroni was to harass Tulkarm , and Givati was to attack Isdud .
= = Prelude = =
At 11 : 00 on May 29 , the Egyptian 2nd Battalion passed through Isdud , and at 12 : 00 – 13 : 00 , the 9th Battalion took the village itself , their progress hampered only by occasional machine gun fire from Nitzanim . Later on the same day , the 2nd Battalion stopped at the Lakhish River , about 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) north of Isdud . The Egyptians began preparations to cross the river by erecting a Bailey bridge . Volunteers from Sudan and Saudi Arabia also joined the Isdud position .
Shimon Avidan , the commander of the Givati Brigade , which was responsible for the southern Shephelah area ( including most southern Israeli villages at the time ) , asked to allocate forces to stop or hinder the Egyptian advance . A number of 65 mm Napoleonchik cannons were given to Givati , and units from the Palmach 's Negev Brigade were poised to assist it , despite a severe shortage of manpower and munitions in the brigade . On May 28 , Czech technicians at the Ekron Airbase finished assembling four Avia S @-@ 199 planes ( a Messerschmitt variant ) brought from Czechoslovakia , which were meant to harass the Egyptian air force base at El Arish , thus forming the IDF 's first fighter squadron . Despite being untested , the Chief of Operations Yigael Yadin ordered the planes to assist Avidan 's forces . According to Lou Lenart , an American pilot who flew one of the fighters , Avidan told the pilots that Givati " were desperate because between the Egyptian army of ten thousand men with several hundred vehicles and Tel Aviv stood only about 250 Israeli soldiers . The Egyptians were so confident of victory that they were lined up bumper to bumper behind the bridge " .
= = = Airstrike = = =
At 18 : 00 , the four fighter planes left Ekron to bomb and strafe the Egyptian lines concentrated near the bridge . Each plane had two 70 kilograms ( 150 lb ) bombs , two 13 mm machine guns and two 20 mm cannons . The pilots were Lou Lenart , Mordechai Alon ( Kalibansky ) , Ezer Weizmann and Eddie Cohen , in that order . The attack was disorganized , and the damage it did was minimal . Lenart came from the north and dropped his bombs in the middle of Isdud . He them circled and strafed the Egyptians from the southeast and then the north again , before his cockpit was hit and he decided to return to Ekron . According to him , the cannons ceased to fire after the first ten rounds , and he began to smell cordite . Alon also made three runs , on a large concentration of vehicles south of Isdud . He returned to Ekron through the sea . Weizmann circled and attacked the Egyptians from the south , then the west , and then the south again . His cannons stopped firing after one round .
The Egyptian army unleashed its full anti @-@ aircraft arsenal and hit Alon 's plane , but he managed to crash @-@ land unharmed at 20 : 05 , performing a ground loop . Weizmann landed at 20 : 15 . Eddie Cohen , a volunteer pilot from South Africa , crashed and died , although it is unknown whether he was hit by anti @-@ aircraft fire , or a technical problem caused the plane to malfunction . A report by Dan Tolkovsky , the Israeli Air Force operations officer at the time , stated that Cohen likely attempted to land at the Hatzor Airbase instead of Ekron , where eyewitnesses saw a burning plane crashing in the distance . He was the first Israeli Air Force KIA , and was buried in Tel Aviv ( Nahalat Yitzhak ) after his remains were found at the end of 1949 .
Even so , the Egyptians were caught by complete surprise and the attack had a profound psychological effect . This was the first time that such aircraft had been used . The Arab armies had previously had complete air superiority and had no knowledge of the existence of fighter aircraft in the Israeli Air Force . An intercepted Egyptian radio message stated : " We have been heavily attacked by enemy aircraft , we are dispersing " . The official Egyptian report assessed that there were only two airplanes , and that they were Spitfires . According to Ezer Weizmann , the airplanes had not been tested before the attack , and there was no evidence that they could fly or fire their weapons . However , the pilots considered this a minor issue in light of the fact that they were making history by being the first to fly Israeli fighter planes . The combination of the appearance of the IAF , the introduction of Israeli artillery , the Israeli defenses and the threat to his flank convinced al @-@ Mwawi to stop . He concluded that his forces were overstretched and that his positions needed to be consolidated . He left Brigadier General Muhammad Naguib in command of Isdud and ordered him to dig in .
= = = Operations on May 30 – June 1 = = =
Between May 29 and June 2 , the Israel Defense Forces constantly bombarded the Egyptians in Isdud with Napoleonchik cannons and Givati patrols harassed the Egyptian lines . The 51st Battalion was tasked with laying mines along the main road near Isdud , Yavne and Hill 69 . The 3rd Company of the 53rd Battalion , commanded by Yosef Geva , was tasked with harassing the enemy lines , while the 1st Company of the 54th Battalion , commanded by Aryeh Kotzer , was ordered to assault several targets . In his book In the Fields of Philistia , Uri Avnery , who participated in the battles , wrote of the harassment operation that during those days the Egyptians were fearing an Israeli attack and were firing in all directions and launching flares in hopes of discovering their enemy .
Of the preparations , he wrote :
On the night of May 30 , the 54th Battalion 's 1st Company attacked the area around Isdud 's railway station , but was outgunned and had to retreat with four wounded . According to the company 's report , the food that was given to them was rotten and further deteriorated the soldiers ' ability to fight . On May 31 , the Egyptian radio described the attack as a victory , and claimed hundreds of dead Israelis . The 3rd Company was unsuccessful , as intelligence on precise Egyptian positions was sparse , while the company gave its position away quickly . An Egyptian mortar scored a direct hit on one of the company 's squads , which caused casualties and panic . One of the soldiers ran for cover , but lost direction , and ended up in Isdud . He walked around the village unnoticed and found a chance to return to Givati , and provided the command with invaluable information for the operation .
On May 30 , the General Staff ordered the creation of a new battalion in Givati , the 57th , that would consist of about 200 Irgunists . A hundred rifles for the battalion were provided by Givati , with 50 – 80 more provided by the General Staff . The brigade commander Avidan also created two new companies , one in the 54th Battalion , and one in the 55th , consisting of 80 persons each . These combined forces were tasked with the mission of capturing the Arab Yibna ( May 31 ) , although the attack never materialized because the battalion took off completely unprepared , lost its way , and returned to its starting position . Also on May 30 , four light planes set out from Sde Dov Airport to bomb the area of Isdud , although only one Rapide pilot spotted his target . He could not tell if any of the bombs actually exploded .
The General Staff issued an order to attack the Egyptian positions with a force three battalions strong ( from the Givati and Palmach 's Negev brigades ) . The attack was meant to take place on the night of June 1 – 2 , and at about midnight the units involved took up positions from which the assault was meant to take off . The 51st Battalion set up positions in the Yavne – Gan Yavne – Hatzor area , the 53rd Battalion — in the Be 'er Tuvia – Kfar Warburg area , and the 54th entered a company into the Gedera – Bashit area . At the last minute , the General Staff cancelled the order because of an imminent ceasefire . The ceasefire did not take effect however , and the attack was postponed to the night of June 2 – 3 . The Egyptians discovered the original plan , and were prepared to engage the Israeli forces .
= = = Cancelled attack on June 1 – 2 and subsequent reorganizations = = =
The Israeli General Staff called for a full @-@ scale assault on the Egyptian positions , but backed out at the last minute due to ceasefire talks . The General Staff 's order , sent among others to the Givati , 7th and Negev brigades , estimated that the Egyptian forces consisted of 2 @,@ 000 troops between Ashdod and the bridges to the north . The order called for the annihilation of the force on the night of June 1 – 2 , first by staging a major attack on the supply lines , and later by assaulting and capturing Isdud . The command was officially given to Givati . The forces outlined were : seven Givati companies ( of them three from the Irgun ) , three infantry companies and one Jeep regiment from Negev , three companies from Yiftach , a 65 mm artillery battery , and 4 @.@ 2 " and 25 @-@ pounder platoons . The order also said , however , and if all forces and equipment were not assembled by zero hour , Givati would have to do with the forces that were mustered .
Immediately upon receiving the order , Shimon Avidan called an emergency meeting at Hatzor . Yehoshua Goldrat , the only officer in the brigade who had experience from the British Army operating a combined force of infantry , armor , artillery and air , wrote the operational order . The order was in English , as Goldrat was not fluent in Hebrew , and was handed out to the battalion commanders on June 1 . The battalion commanders translated the document into Hebrew for the company commanders . According to the plan , six companies ( 3 Palmach and 3 Irgun ) would attack the Egyptians from the south . Three companies ( 2 from the 52nd and one from the 51st battalions ) would attack from the north , and two companies ( one from the 53rd Battalion and one from Irgun ) would prevent a retreat to the east . A company from the 53rd Battalion would block reinforcement from Majdal . Only senior officers knew of the full plans however . Simha Shiloni , commander of the Palmach forces ( Negev Beasts Battalion ) , commented that his forces came exhausted and completely unprepared to the assembly points , and he had given consent for their deployment only after being assured that they would serve as the operational reserve ( the plan in fact called for these forces to lead the southern assault ) .
Zero hour was set for 03 : 00 on the night of June 1 – 2 , but at the last moment an order came down to cancel the attack . This was a significant blow to the troops ' morale , especially because before the operation , Abba Kovner , the culture officer of Givati , made a speech claiming that the attack would be an historic moment when the IDF would annihilate the Egyptian forces . Shraga Gafni , in his book The Good Sapper Alex , and Uri Avnery in In the Fields of Philistia , provided excerpts from the speech :
Tonight for the first time you will hear the wrath of our airplanes and the thunder of our cannons ... because the goal is not to capture a single village or territory , but to destroy the Egyptian column ... The air force , artillery and infantry this time will act together ... Everything that could possibly have been prepared , was .
Orders were immediately issued ( at 06 : 00 ) to start new preparations . Under the new ones , two companies from the 51st Battalion were to base themselves in Hatzor and Barqa , respectively . The 52nd Battalion was to prepare at Camp Bilu ( next to Kfar Bilu ) . The 53rd Battalion was to put two companies in Be 'er Tuvia , two platoons in Negba , and one in Kfar Warburg . Two companies from the 54th were to be placed at Tel Nof ( Eqron Airbase ) . Six platoons from the 55th were to be based between al @-@ Maghar and al @-@ Qubayba . The 8th Brigade was to be based between Gat , Gal On and Nitzanim , as well as remaining in the Gedera – Bashit area . A battalion was also temporarily transferred from Kiryati to Givati ( now referred to as the 56th ) , preparing in Abu Shusha and Hulda . The 57th Battalion ( Irgun ) was to be placed in Zarnuqa . Of the Negev Brigade , two companies would be in Camp Julis and one in Camp Beit Daras . Finally , the artillery forces were to keep their former positions , as well as taking new ones in Bitzaron .
On the same day , the Egyptian forces also changed the disposition of their forces , moving the 9th Battalion to the Ad Halom bridge , the 2nd to Isdud itself , and the 1st to Iraq Suwaydan and Faluja . Heavy machine gun and armored units were dispersed in between . Staff soldiers and those who manned Bren carriers took positions together with regular infantry soldiers . The Israeli side did not know of this development , but was aware that they had been detected in the previous night 's preparations . The army was against attacking Isdud soon , but the order was given by the political echelon . The attack was expected to be a tactical failure ; Avraham Ayalon writes that it could have succeeded if only the southern Egyptian force in Isdud itself was attacked , but attributes that lack of such a plan to the inexperience of the command and the heterogeneous nature of the Israeli force , which according to him could not have pulled off such an offensive .
The new IDF plans put forth for the June 2 – 3 operation were slightly changed from the original . These included 1 @,@ 150 fighters , as opposed to 1 @,@ 300 in the initial plan . The forces consisted of the following : two Palmach companies from the Beersheba Battalion and one from the Negev Beasts Battalion , under Yohanan Zariz , a light vehicle company , two companies from the 54th Battalion and one from the 51st , under Zvi Zur , three Irgun companies , a reinforced company and platoon from the 53rd Battalion and eight artillery pieces ( six Napoleonchiks and two 4 @.@ 2 " mortars ) . Another light vehicle company would be in the operational reserve . Against them were placed Egypt 's 2nd Brigade , including the 2nd and 9th Battalions , three medium gun platoons , the brigade headquarters , and 12 pieces of artillery .
= = Operation = =
The operation officially began when a lone Israeli S @-@ 199 bombed Egyptian positions in Isdud at 18 : 00 on June 2 . Five light planes — two Fairchild 24s , two Rapides and one Bonanza — also made bombing runs between 20 : 25 and 21 : 30 . The bombardment did not make an impression on the readying Israeli soldiers , and in light of the noise created by the Egyptian anti @-@ aircraft guns , the Israelis considered that the plane was lucky to have survived the run . In addition , the troops were exhausted , not having had proper sleep in the four days preceding the operation . At 22 : 00 , the Israeli forces started moving against the Egyptian positions .
A soldier from the 54th Battalion said of the airstrike :
= = = Northern effort = = =
The forces that were to attack the Isdud bridge ( today Ad Halom ) set out from Gan Yavne at 22 : 20 : the 3rd Company of the 51st Battalion ( commanded by Yosef " Yosh " Harpaz ) , a mixed company from the 54th ( from the 2nd and 3rd companies ) under Asher Dromi , and the 54th 's 1st Company under Aryeh Kotzer . The overall commander was Zvi Zur , who was accompanied by the battalion staff , soldiers from a light vehicle company , and from the 54th 's 3rd Company . According to plan , Zur was meant to flank the Egyptians from the west and achieve surprise . When they reached Wadi Fakhira however , about 700 m from the Egyptian position , it proved difficult to cross and caused a significant delay .
The movement was discovered at about 00 : 30 on June 3 , and Zur 's force lost the element of surprise . The Egyptian position that engaged the Israelis had two companies , but Harpaz , the 51st 's 3rd Company 's commander , underestimated the force and reported that it contained only one platoon . Zur decided to regroup in the wadi and ordered Aryeh Kotzer 's 1st Company to stay and engage the Egyptians at the spot where they were originally discovered and assault the pillbox there , while the rest of the forces would try a turning movement .
Kotzer estimated that a frontal assault against the Egyptians would be useless , as they were dug in on both sides of the pillbox . In complete darkness , the 1st Company made its way south through the wadi hoping to avoid enemy fire from superior positions and weapons until they were close enough to respond . At 03 : 00 , the Israeli artillery barrage started , but did not do significant damage and only alerted all Egyptian positions to the Israeli presence . The only Israeli unit close to engagement at the time was Kotzer 's company . About 100 m away from the Egyptian defense line , they stepped into an ambush and the leading squad was eliminated . Kotzer ordered the machine gunners to climb to the east bank of the wadi to provide cover for a counterattack , and this move also led to Israeli casualties . The counterattack was difficult and only destroyed some small Egyptian entrenchments .
Even though some of his soldiers came within 60 meters of the pillbox , after 19 of them ( over a third ) were killed and the sun began rising in the horizon , Kotzer decided to retreat , unable to receive official permission due to communication problems . He ordered all of his troops to collect the wounded and any weapons they could carry , helping with the task himself . The dead were left in the field , including the medics ( not a single medic survived ) . The injured were brought under fire into the wadi and at about 07 : 00 the force made its way to an unoccupied two @-@ storey building on the east bank . After the Egyptians started shelling the building with mortars , Kotzer 's company began to move towards Gan Yavne .
A soldier who witnessed the events stated :
Zur 's maneuver sent Israel 's forces into unknown territory , and they encountered an Egyptian entrenchment that caught them unawares . His original plan was to send Yosef Harpaz and the 3rd Company and then Dromi 's company , but when fire was opened on Harpaz 's men ( at approximately 04 : 00 ) , Zur ordered him to execute a frontal assault . Harpaz decided to do this in three single @-@ platoon waves : the first two would attack the Egyptians , while the third would provide cover for the forces . The first platoon was inexperienced and had never fought against Egypt 's army . After advancing , they encountered what were probably Bren carriers , which their commander reported were tanks . Harpaz then sent the second , more experienced , platoon of 15 men , who were also able to better utilize the cover fire . Eventually , the first platoon fled from the battlefield without being ordered to do so and the attack was only two platoons strong . However , this still assisted Aryeh Kotzer on the other side of the Egyptian positions to evacuate his injured troops .
At dawn , after his attacked failed to overtake any major positions , Zur decided to withdraw , for the first time in his life . He ordered Harpaz 's company , which had the most casualties , to go first , and at 06 : 00 told Dromi 's company to follow . Harpaz 's company had five men missing in action , four of whom were picked up by Dromi 's people . One of Dromi 's platoons remained on top of a sand dune to provide cover fire for the retreat . Meanwhile , the rest of the company made its way under the road and the railway through culverts . On the eastern side , Dromi met Harpaz . They sent the cover platoon home with the injured , and remained in their place to wait for Zur . Their lookout also spotted Kotzer 's retreating company and Harpaz requested artillery cover using the only working communication device they had . The Napoleonchiks missed their targets , but deterred the Egyptians , who stopped following Kotzer .
Zur was extremely reluctant to withdraw his personal forces . He decided to do so only at 09 : 00 , when it became clear that the other two companies were at a safe distance , and the Egyptians were massing for a counterattack . First , the injured were evacuated , then the rest of the forces made their way back , each squad providing cover for the next . The Egyptian artillery caused the forces to scatter , and the commanders had difficulty diverting them to the general retreat path . After they came to a small grove to the west of the main road , it was discovered that three were missing and 17 injured , who were treated by the only remaining medic . Approximately at noon , Zur 's men met with Dromi and Harpaz , and the working communication device was used to summon vehicles to take the soldiers to Gan Yavne .
= = = Southern effort = = =
Four motorized companies from the Negev Brigade left Be 'er Tuvia . They set up a position of 4 @.@ 2 inch mortars and medium machine guns about midway between Isdud and Beit Daras , to shell Isdud from the southeast . A reinforced company also left Be 'er Tuvia and took up positions between Hill 69 and the military base near Nitzanim to cut off Egyptian reinforcements coming from Majdal . The 57th Battalion ( consisting of Irgun veterans ) left Hatzor to assault Isdud from the northeast . The 53rd Battalion was accompanied by a reinforced platoon of 44 soldiers from the temporary 58th Battalion ( a new recruit unit ) , which made its way to Nitzanim in order to be replaced by a more experienced platoon from the 53rd .
When the Negev forces reached the coastal road , they realized that they could not continue on their vehicles , which could not travel in the sand dunes to the west of the road . The vehicles were therefore left with a platoon to the south of Isdud to block a possible Egyptian retreat . The other soldiers continued on foot into the sand dunes in an attempt to flank the Egyptian positions . On the second try , the Negev forces successfully captured several key points in the village , and destroyed a cannon . Nahum Sarig , the Negev Brigade commander , later wrote that the lack of intelligence on the enemy prevented the Israeli force from continuing its assault , while the Egyptians had time to regroup .
Despite Negev 's achievements , they were also given an order to retreat , as the Israeli command did not wish to fight in broad daylight . The retreating forces had no choice but to use a route similar to the ones they came from , which slowed down their movement . Most of the machine guns that they had brought had broken down in the sandy environment , and could not provide them with cover . They were also carrying a multitude of wounded soldiers . Muhammad Naguib decided to use the armored vehicles in his operational reserve against the retreating forces , fearing a possible cut @-@ off from the rest of the Egyptian forces in Palestine . According to Simha Shiloni , commander of the Negev Beasts battalion , the Israelis , especially the wounded , thought that all was lost when this happened . However , the vehicles stopped eventually as they got bogged down in the sands , and the troops made it back to Nitzanim . Sixteen Israeli soldiers were killed in the retreat .
Meanwhile , the 57th Battalion made its way via Barqa towards Isdud . These troops were meant to serve as a diversionary force . As such , when they reached Wadi al @-@ Jurf , about 750 m ( 820 yd ) from the Egyptian position , they decided not to cross the wadi and instead fired on the Egyptians from the other side . They were too far away however to inflict concrete damage , but also did not suffer any casualties . Nahum Sarig later accused this force of also falsely reporting their positions , undermining the efforts of his Negev Brigade .
On Hill 69 and the coastal road , the 53rd Battalion intercepted and engaged a contingent of Egyptian reinforcements from Majdal . After the battles , the 53rd Battalion reported that at 03 : 00 , they had been ready to ambush possible reinforcements , and at 06 : 00 , an Egyptian convoy of two armored vehicles and 4 other vehicles made their way to Isdud . They were hit by Israeli mines , operated by Avraham Schwarzstein 's platoon ( see Battle of Nitzanim ) , and only two vehicles made it out and back to Majdal . At 09 : 00 the general retreat order was given , and after reaching Nitzanim , Schwarzstein 's platoon set out to assist the Negev forces ' retreat , helping carry the 20 @-@ so casualties . The forces on Hill 69 retreated only at noon to Be 'er Tuvia .
= = Aftermath and significance = =
In all , 45 Israelis were killed , 50 were wounded , and 5 captured by Egypt . Of them , 29 killed and 34 wounded were from Zur 's 54th Company . Egyptian sources reported 15 killed and 30 wounded , although this does not include the casualties suffered by the intercepted reinforcements from Majdal . Even before the final retreating troops came home , the Givati command had issued a new operation order , calling for renewed artillery and air bombardment of Isdud , and small harassment operations . The 57th Battalion , which gained a bad reputation after its failures in Yibna and Isdud , carried out several such successful operations , regaining prestige in the brigade .
While the Israelis suffered a major tactical defeat in Operation Pleshet , it is generally believed in Israel that the strategic goal of the operation — stopping the Egyptian advance — was achieved , unbeknown to the Israeli command at the time . This also allowed the capture of Arab Yibna , where the remaining residents expected the Egyptian Army to reach them , and mostly fled following the battle . Since the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine line ran between Isdud and Yibna , the outcome of the battle meant that on the coastal strip , the Egyptians had failed to cross over into territory assigned to the State of Israel . The bridge over the Lakhish River has since been known as Ad Halom ( " thus far " ) .
Even though in his 1955 book Egypt 's Destiny , Naguib wrote that his brigade 's successful stand was a glorious victory with few consequences , estimating 450 Israeli dead ( out of a perceived 4 @,@ 000 attackers ) , a logbook captured by Israel during the war revealed that he was extremely worried about the future fate of his forces . He requested immediate assistance , including air support to determine the location of the Israeli cannons , a medevac unit , reinforcements , munitions and communication wires . It is also likely that he believed that the 53rd Battalion 's force blocking the road from Majdal was still in place , and therefore thought that he was surrounded .
Sizable reinforcements — the 6th Battalion — came to Naguib only when his 9th Battalion was poised to attack Nitzanim . Aside from Nitzanim ( June 7 ) , the Egyptian Army shifted its entire concentration on clearing it flanks , successfully clearing a path between Majdal and al @-@ Faluja . The Israeli chronicler and officer Avraham Ayalon wrote that the Israeli retreat from Hill 69 on June 3 , along with the rest of the forces , which he believed unnecessary , was a major contributing factor to the subsequent Egyptian victories .
= = = Historiography = = =
The main points of historiographical dispute about the battle are whether or not the Egyptians were planning to advance northward toward Tel Aviv , and whether or not the battle was one of the turning points of the 1948 Arab – Israeli War . On June 18 , after the first truce of the war took effect , Nahum Sarig said in a staff meeting , attended by the Minister of Defense , that at the time the Egyptian plans were not clear , but that now their plans were to penetrate the Negev . Ben Gurion , on the other hand , noted in his diary that the Egyptians were set on taking Tel Aviv and advancing north . In 1958 , Major General Yitzhak Rabin addressed the issue ; he felt that the Egyptian stop at Isdud was the result of technical difficulties , following fifteen days of continuous movement , including battles along the way . This , Rabin thought , along with ground and aerial counterattacks , eventually delayed their drive on Tel Aviv . Later , he said , the Egyptians tried to make contact with the Jordanian forces at Latrun and , after a failed pincer movement , tried to cut the Negev off from Israel . According to Israeli historian Reuven Aharoni , the battle 's glorification and idealization suited the sentimental needs of the Israeli people . He believes that there is still no definite answer to the question of whether or not the Egyptians planning to drive on to Tel Aviv .
Israeli Arab historian Mustafa Kabha wrote that Egyptian and other Arab historians did not attribute
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World War II is primarily concrete and Pennant sandstone . The roofs , added in the post @-@ war period , are made of Welsh slate and lead . The West front of the cathedral is gabled along its length and contains the grand central doorway , higher in level than the floor of the nave . It is described as being " double lobed " with an " arched head with continuous chamfer outline , colonnettes and dripmould " .
The south side of the nave is characterised by eight bays with stepped buttresses between them , with aisle windows featuring reticulated heads . At the side of the south aisle of the sanctuary is Chapter House , a small , square building , of two storeys . It dates to the mid 13th century and is made from Chipping Camden and Bath limestone , with some local red sandstone from Radyr . The octagonal roof was the brainchild of Prichard , though it was lowered in pitch by Pace and later worked on by Donald Buttress . The buttresses of the building are made from ashlar . The seven stained glass roundels are of 16th century Flemish origin . In the interior is a pulpit featuring Moses . Also of note is the St David 's Chapel , added by George Pace in 1953 – 56 , which is accessed through the Norman north door of the cathedral .
= = Music = =
For many years , the cathedral had the traditional Anglican choir of boys and men , and more recently a girls ' choir , with the only dedicated choir school in the Church in Wales , the Cathedral School , Llandaff . In addition , the parish choir sings at the weekly Parish Eucharist , and is a mixed choir of boys , girls , men and women . The cathedral has a ring of twelve bells ( with an additional " flat sixth " , to make thirteen in total ) hung for change @-@ ringing , located in the Jasper tower . The current bells were installed in 1992 , replacing a previous ring of ten . Only one other church in Wales has a ring of twelve bells ; the cathedral is the only church in Cardiff with a set of twelve bells .
The organ , dating from 1900 , had been rebuilt in 1937 and again after the wartime damage ; it was never entirely satisfactory , even before the lightning damage made it unusable . Originally it had been planned to install a new organ at that time , but the costs of about £ 1 million were deemed to be too high in the austere climate of post @-@ war Britain . Work on installing the new organ , by the Nicholson 's of Malvern firm of organ builders , began in autumn 2008 . Though not fully completed , it was brought to a playable stage by Easter 2010 and had its inaugural performance ( the Gloria of Louis Vierne 's Messe Solennelle ) at the Easter Vigil service on 3 April 2010 . Proceeds from the 2011 Llandaff Festival of Music were donated to the cathedral for the completion of the new organ . The remaining stops were added in the late summer of 2013 . This is the first entirely new organ for a British cathedral since the Coventry installation in the 1960s .
In 2012 the cathedral premiered its own record label with a recording called Majestas . The music focuses on both the new cathedral organ and the Llandaff Cathedral choir . The recording 's title was taken from the Jacob Epstein sculpture in the cathedral 's nave that was part of the post war renewal of the structure . Proceeds from sales of the record were donated to African charities . In December 2013 , five days before Christmas , the cathedral chapter announced that all salaried adult members of the choir ( altos , tenors and basses ) were being made redundant , along with the assistant organist . The cathedral was in the midst of a financial crisis , and the chapter intended to save £ 45 @,@ 000 a year by taking these measures .
= = = List of organists = = =
= = = Assistant organists = = =
Arthur Charles Edwards 1894
R. M. Powney 1940 – ?
V. Anthony Lewis c . 1948 – 1966
Graham John Elliott 1966 – 1970 ( afterwards organist of St Asaph Cathedral )
Anthony Burns @-@ Cox 1970 – 1980 laterly organist of Romsey Abbey
Michael Hoeg M.B.E 1980 – 2010
James Norrey 2010 – 2012 ( afterwards Assistant Director of Music at Newcastle Cathedral )
Sachin Gunga 2012 – 2013 ( post dissolved December 2013 )
= = Burials = =
Dubricius , 6th @-@ century Briton Saint who evangelised Ergyng ( now Archenfield ) and much of South @-@ East Wales ; his body was transferred to Llandaff Cathedral in 1120 .
Meurig ap Tewdrig , King of Gwent and the husband of Onbrawst , daughter of Gwrgan Fawr , who was a cousin of Dubricius
Teilo , 6th @-@ century Welsh clergyman , church founder and Saint
Oudoceus , 7th @-@ century third Bishop of Llandaff , was supposedly buried at the church in Llandaff on the site where the present Cathedral now stands .
Henry de Abergavenny , Bishop of Llandaff ( 1193 – 1218 )
William de Braose ( bishop ) , Bishop of Llandaff ( 1266 – 1287 )
John of Monmouth ( bishop ) , Bishop of Llandaff ( 1297 – 1323 )
Edmund de Bromfield , Bishop of Llandaff ( 1390 – 1393 )
John Paschal , Bishop of Llandaff ( 1347 – 1361 )
John Smith , Bishop of Llandaff ( 1476 – 1478 )
Sir David Mathew , ( 1484 )
John Marshall ( bishop ) , Bishop of Llandaff ( 1478 – 1496 )
Miles Salley , Bishop of Llandaff ( 1500 – 1516 / 17 )
Hugh Lloyd ( bishop ) , Bishop of Llandaff ( 1660 – 1667 )
Francis Davies , Bishop of Llandaff ( 1667 – 1675 )
Edward Copleston , Bishop of Llandaff ( 1828 – 1849 )
Alfred Ollivant , Bishop of Llandaff ( 1849 – 1882 )
= The Beatles in the United States =
The Beatles ' rise to prominence in the United States in February 1964 was a significant development in the history of the band 's commercial success . In addition to establishing the Beatles ' international stature , it changed attitudes to popular music in the United States , whose own Memphis @-@ driven musical evolution had made it a global trend @-@ setter .
The Beatles ' first visit to the United States came at a time of great popularity in Britain . The band 's UK commercial breakthrough , in late 1962 , had been followed by a year of successful concerts and tours . The start of the Beatles ' popularity in the United States , in early 1964 , was marked by intense demand for the single " I Want to Hold Your Hand " — which sold one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half million copies in under three weeks — and the band 's arrival the following month . The visit , advertised across the United States on five million posters , was a defining moment in the Beatles ' history , and the starting @-@ point of the British Invasion .
Following popular television appearances and concerts during their February 1964 visit , the Beatles returned to the United States in August 1964 , and again in August 1965 , for tours . In August 1966 they returned once more , and although this tour was commercially successful , it coincided with a storm of U.S. public protest after publication of a quote from John Lennon 's remarks about Christianity . The 1966 U.S. tour marked the end of the Beatles ' concert days . The band ceased to perform commercial concerts , instead devoting their efforts to creating new material in the recording studio .
= = Background = =
= = = Impact of Beatlemania = = =
In the United Kingdom , the Beatles had experienced popularity since the start of 1963 . But in the United States , Capitol Records , owned by the band 's record company EMI , had for most of the year declined to issue any of the singles . The phenomenon of Beatlemania in the UK was regarded with amusement by the U.S. press , once it made any comment . When newspaper and magazine articles did begin to appear towards the end of 1963 , they cited the English stereotype of eccentricity , reporting that the UK had developed an interest in something that had come and gone a long time ago in the United States : rock and roll . Headlines included " The New Madness " and " Beatle Bug Bites Britain " , and writers employed word @-@ play linking " beetle " with the " infestation " afflicting the UK . In late 1963 , Capitol Records agreed to release the single " I Want to Hold Your Hand " with a large accompanying promotional campaign , due to Ed Sullivan 's agreement to headline the Beatles on The Ed Sullivan Show . The Beatles ' American television debut was on 18 November 1963 on The Huntley @-@ Brinkley Report , with a four @-@ minute long piece by Edwin Newman . On 22 November 1963 , the CBS Morning News ran a five @-@ minute feature on Beatlemania in the UK which heavily featured their then current UK hit " She Loves You . " The evening 's scheduled repeat was cancelled following the assassination of John F. Kennedy the same day . On 10 December , Walter Cronkite decided to transmit the piece again on the CBS Evening News , and the resulting interest led to the rush @-@ release of " I Want to Hold Your Hand " and — only weeks before the Beatles ' arrival — a U.S. commercial breakthrough .
= = = American political climate , early 1964 = = =
Eleven weeks before the Beatles ' arrival in the U.S. President John F. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas , Texas . The nation was in mourning , in fear , and in disbelief . The assassination came after a fifteen @-@ year build @-@ up of Cold War tension . The motivation and identity of the assassin would be doubted by many Americans for decades , despite the Warren Commission 's issued report in September 1964 . As the United States tried to restore a sense of normality , teenagers in particular struggled to cope , as their disbelief began to be replaced by a personal reaction to what had happened : in school essays , teenagers wrote that " then it became real " , and " I was feeling the whole world is going to collapse on me " , and " I never felt so empty in all my life " .
= = = Musical influences = = =
The music industry in Memphis had large role in bringing bands to the attention of the American public , and in the 1960s , many British bands , among them the Beatles , aspired to emulate the sounds of Memphis musicians including Elvis Presley — without whom , according to Lennon , " there would not have been the Beatles " . The sudden popularity of the Beatles , and the British Invasion triggered by their arrival , became a major new influence in the United States , which not only established the popularity of British bands , but also affected the musical style of U.S. bands — including those subsequently formed in Memphis .
During their U.S. tours , the Beatles were introduced to both Elvis Presley and Bob Dylan . Strongly influenced by Presley since before their formation , the band had tried to meet him in the past , but arrangements had fallen through . At Presley 's suggestion , guitars were set up in his living room and the gathering played music for an hour , following which they discussed the music business and exchanged anecdotes . The other meeting , with Dylan , influenced the music subsequently produced by the Beatles as well as shaping Dylan 's own musical style . This was made evident both in Dylan 's controversial adoption of electric guitar , and in changes that were apparent in Lennon 's vocal and guitar @-@ playing styles .
However , before their visits to United States in 1964 the Beatles still doubted that they could bring anything new to the country . In apprehensive conversation among the Beatles on board the aircraft to New York February 1964 , McCartney had questioned , " They 've got their own groups . What are we going to give them that they don 't already have ? "
= = The Beatles ' U.S. performances = =
= = = February 1964 – First U.S. Concerts = = =
An estimated four thousand Beatles ' fans were present on 7 February 1964 as Pan Am Flight 101 left Heathrow Airport . Among the passengers were the Beatles , on their first trip to the United States as a band , with their entourage of photographers and journalists , and Phil Spector . When the group arrived at New York 's newly renamed John F. Kennedy Airport , they were greeted by a second large crowd , with Beatles fans again estimated to number four thousand , and journalists , two hundred . From having so many people packed in a little space , a few people in the crowd got injured . The airport had not previously experienced such a large crowd .
After a press conference , where they first met disc jockey Murray the K , the Beatles were put into limousines — one per Beatle — and driven to New York City . On the way , McCartney turned on a radio and listened to a running commentary : " They have just left the airport and are coming to New York City ... " After reaching the Plaza Hotel , the Beatles were besieged by fans and reporters . Harrison had a fever of 102 ° F ( 39 ° C ) the next day and was ordered to stay in bed , so Neil Aspinall , the band 's personal assistant , replaced Harrison on guitar during the Beatles ' first rehearsal for The Ed Sullivan Show . On 9 February 1964 , the Beatles made their first live U.S. television appearance . 73 million viewers — about two @-@ fifths of the total American population — watched the group perform on The Ed Sullivan Show at 8 P.M. According to the Nielsen ratings audience measurement system , the show had the largest number of viewers that had been recorded for a U.S. television program .
Two days after the television appearance , on 11 February 1964 , the Beatles ' first U.S. concert took place , at Washington Coliseum , a sports arena in Washington , D.C. The concert was attended by eight thousand fans . The Beatles performed on a central stage in the arena , with the audience on all sides , and there were regular pauses to enable the band to turn their equipment around and perform facing in another direction . The concert generated intense excitement . The following day , the Beatles performed a second concert , in Carnegie Hall , New York , which was attended by two thousand fans . The concert was again well received . Following the Carnegie Hall concert , the Beatles flew to Miami Beach and on Sunday 16 February 1964 made their second television appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show , which this time was broadcast live from the Napoleon Ballroom of the Deauville Hotel in Miami Beach . As it had done on 9 February , the television broadcast attracted around 70 million viewers . On 22 February 1964 , the Beatles returned to the UK . Arriving at Heathrow airport at 7 am , they were met by an estimated ten thousand fans .
= = = August 1964 – First U.S. Tour = = =
In August 1964 , the Beatles returned to the United States for a second visit , this time remaining for a month @-@ long tour . A request was received from the White House press office , which asked for the Beatles to be photographed with the new President of the United States , Lyndon B. Johnson , laying a wreath on the grave of John F. Kennedy . The request was politely declined by Epstein , as it was not the group 's policy to accept " official " invitations . During the tour , the Beatles performed at thirty concerts , starting in San Francisco and ending in New York , twenty @-@ three cities in all . One of the major stipulations for the tour was that the band would not perform for segregated audiences or at venues that excluded African Americans .
At each venue , the concert was treated as a major event by the local press and attended by between ten and twenty thousand fans , whose enthusiastic response to the Beatles produced sound levels that left the music only semi @-@ audible . The tour earned the Beatles over a million dollars in ticket sales . It also stimulated a further increase in record sales , and resulted in the sale of a considerable quantity of Beatle @-@ related merchandise .
By this point in the year , the British Invasion — started by the Beatles ' previous U.S. visit — was gathering momentum , and several more UK acts had come to the United States , including The Dave Clark Five , Billy J. Kramer , and Gerry & the Pacemakers . One third of all U.S. top ten hits in 1964 were by British acts . After the tour 's final concert in New York , the Beatles were introduced to Bob Dylan , a meeting brought about at the instigation of the New York journalist Al Aronowitz , who arranged for Dylan to visit the Beatles at their hotel before they returned to the UK .
= = = August 1965 – Second U.S. Tour = = =
In June 1965 , after completing a two @-@ week European tour of France , Italy and Spain , the Beatles attended the London premiere of Help ! , their second film , and then returned to the United States for another two @-@ week tour . The tour commenced at Shea Stadium , New York City on Sunday 15 August 1965 . The circular stadium had been constructed the previous year , opening on 17 April 1964 , with seating arranged in four ascending decks , all of which were filled for the concert . It was the first time in history that a large outdoor stadium had been used for such a purpose , and the event sold out in seventeen minutes .
The 1965 tour was highly successful , with well @-@ attended concerts on each of its ten dates . The opening concert at Shea Stadium attracted an audience of fifty @-@ five thousand , the largest of any live concert that the Beatles would perform . The band arrived by armoured car . After the 1965 tour 's final concert , which took place at Cow Palace , San Francisco , the Beatles accepted an invitation to visit Elvis Presley before returning to the UK .
= = = August 1966 – Third U.S. Tour = = =
Following the UK and U.S. releases of their new album Revolver in August 1966 , the Beatles returned to the United States for what would be their last tour . The tour coincided with a storm of U.S. public protest against the Beatles , caused by a published quote from a remark Lennon had made about Christianity . Because of the severity of the protests , which included Beatles ' records being publicly burned and claims being made that the Beatles were " anti @-@ Christ " , Epstein had considered cancelling the fourteen @-@ concert tour , fearing for their lives . Nevertheless , the tour went ahead .
In Memphis , the city council decided not to let " municipal facilities be used as a forum to ridicule anyone 's religion " , and voted to cancel their Beatles concert , although it did in fact take place . There were disturbances during the tour , and one performance was brought to a temporary halt when a member of the audience threw a firecracker , leading the Beatles to believe they were being shot at . In other incidents , telephone threats were received , and the Ku Klux Klan picketed the Beatles ' concerts . The tour ended with a concert at Candlestick Park . Although commercially successful , the tour had been affected by the prevailing mood of controversy , and there had been rows of empty seats at some venues .
= = After the United States = =
The Beatles ' arrival in the United States in 1964 marked the spread of Beatlemania from the UK to the wider world , established the group 's international stature , and , triggering the British Invasion , caused changes in U.S. popular culture . The Candlestick Park concert at the close of the 1966 U.S. tour marked the end of a four @-@ year period dominated by touring and concerts , including nearly sixty U.S. appearances , and over one thousand four hundred internationally . The Beatles , from the end of their 1966 U.S. tour until their break @-@ up in 1970 , gave no further commercial concerts , instead devoting their efforts to creating new material in the recording studio .
= Effects of Hurricane Ivan in the Lesser Antilles and South America =
The effects of Hurricane Ivan in the Lesser Antilles and South America in September 2004 included 44 deaths and over $ 1 billion in damage ( 2004 USD ) , primarily in Grenada where it was considered the worst hurricane in nearly 50 years . Hurricane Ivan developed from a tropical wave on September 2 and rapidly intensified to become a major hurricane , passing through the southern Lesser Antilles on September 7 with winds of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) . At the time , its typical storm force winds extended outward up to 160 miles ( 260 km ) with hurricane @-@ force winds outward to 70 miles ( 110 km ) , and the northern portion of the eye passed over Grenada .
In the region , the worst damage occurred on Grenada , where the damage total of $ 1 @.@ 1 billion ( 2004 USD , ( $ 1 @.@ 38 billion 2016 USD ) ) represented 200 % of its GDP . The hurricane damaged more than 14 @,@ 000 homes and destroyed 30 % of the houses , leaving about 18 @,@ 000 people homeless . A total of 39 people were killed by the hurricane on the island . Elsewhere , Hurricane Ivan caused at least three fatalities and moderate damage in northern Venezuela . One person died each in Trinidad and Barbados . The name Ivan was later retired .
= = Preparations = =
Early in the duration of the storm , the National Hurricane Center consistently forecast Ivan to track further to the north than it eventually did . Late on September 5 , the government of Barbados issued a hurricane watch for its territory . Shortly thereafter , Saint Lucia was put under a hurricane watch and Grenada and its dependencies were put under a tropical storm watch . As the hurricane approached the southern Lesser Antilles , more watches were issued , and by 24 hours prior to Ivan passing through the island chain a hurricane warning was in effect for Barbados , Saint Vincent and the Grenadines , Saint Lucia , Tobago , and Grenada , and a tropical storm warning was in effect for Trinidad . With the path of Ivan more southerly than predicted , the hurricane warnings were downgraded to tropical storm warnings for the northern islands , and by late on September 7 when the eye of the hurricane passed near Grenada , hurricane warnings were in effect for Saint Vincent and the Grenadines , Trinidad and Tobago , and Grenada . Subsequently , a tropical storm warning was issued for the northern coast of Venezuela through the Guajira Peninsula of Colombia .
In Venezuela , citizens in coastal areas of Falcón , Sucre and Isla Margarita were moved to safer areas , and several thousands were evacuated due to the hurricane . The Simón Bolívar International Airport , as well as three other mainland airports , were closed . Petróleos de Venezuela S.A. temporarily closed its oil refinery in Curaçao , and two ports were briefly shut down ; this caused a delay in two oil deliveries . The Valero Energy Corporation shut down its largest oil refinery in Aruba . Prior to the arrival of the hurricane , oil companies in Trinidad and Tobago ceased production and removed workers from offshore rigs ; the Atlantic LNG company closed exports . Seven shelters were opened on Tobago , where about 560 people evacuated for the storm . Two people died : one man trying to save his car , and one girl sleeping in her bed , when a tree fell on the roof above her room . Most evacuees were from low @-@ lying areas , and on the day of the storm 's passage most schools and businesses were closed . The two main airports in the country were closed , with one airline canceling all of its flights .
Over 1 @,@ 000 people evacuated to emergency shelters on Grenada , including hundreds in low @-@ lying areas in the capital city . Some shelters were damaged during the hurricane , forcing the evacuees to go elsewhere . Overall , the population responded little to the official advisories and recommendations , which potentially contributed to the death toll on the island . More than 1 @,@ 000 residents of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines evacuated to 28 emergency shelters . On Barbados , officials closed schools and government buildings and prepared shelters prior to the arrival of the hurricane . To minimize danger , the island power grid was shut down . Four shelters opened on Saint Lucia , where many people sought safety during the storm .
= = Impact = =
= = = Venezuela , Trinidad and Tobago , and the ABC islands = = =
Along the northern coastline of Venezuela , the hurricane produced heavy precipitation and a storm surge of about 13 feet ( 4 m ) , which damaged 60 homes . Sustained winds on Isla Margarita peaked at 26 mph ( 42 km / h ) , and the most affected states were Falcón , Vargas , Aragua , Carabobo , and Anzoátegui . Rough waves capsized 10 boats and closed several beaches , and one person drowned due to the surf . Further inland , two people drowned when a river overflowed its banks , and near Caracas a man died after strong winds toppled a wall . The combination of rainfall and winds destroyed 21 houses and blew off the roof of several others , affecting 1 @,@ 376 people , of whom 80 were left homeless . Power outages and lack of water were reported . In the country , the hurricane caused 127 injuries , and a death toll reported between three and five . An initial news story reported 28 people missing offshore on three boats .
Moderate wind gusts of up 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) were reported in Tobago , which downed several trees and caused power outages in seven villages ; power was cut to more than 30 % of the island . Twenty villages on the island suffered various forms of damage , and at least 45 homes lost their roofs . The hurricane left 22 people homeless and directly impacted about 1 @,@ 000 people . The hurricane caused one death when a falling tree killed a woman . Wave heights were estimated at 65 feet ( 20 m ) , and at least one home collapsed and fell into the ocean . Rainfall from the storm 's passage unofficially peaked at 16 @.@ 2 inches ( 411 mm ) on the island , which caused some mudslides . Some crop damage was also reported , and overall damage on Tobago was estimated at $ 4 @.@ 9 million ( 2004 USD , ( $ 6 @.@ 14 million 2016 USD ) ) ; damage in neighboring Trinidad was minimal .
As Ivan continued to strengthen , it proceeded about 80 mi ( 130 km ) north of the ABC islands on September 9 . High winds blew away roof shingles and produced large swells that battered several coastal facilities . A developing spiral band dropped heavy rainfall over Aruba , causing flooding and $ 1 @.@ 1 million worth in structural damage .
= = = Grenada = = =
Passing just to the south of the island , Hurricane Ivan produced strong winds in Grenada , with sustained winds reaching 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) and gusts peaking at 133 mph ( 215 km / h ) at Point Salines International Airport . The airport recorded 5 @.@ 26 inches ( 134 mm ) of precipitation during the hurricane 's passage . Of the nation 's six parishes , the four southernmost ones were most severely affected , constituting 80 percent of the total population .
The strong winds impacted more than 14 @,@ 000 homes on Grenada with 90 percent of the nation 's houses damaged and of which 30 percent were destroyed . The capital city of St. George 's was severely damaged , where every major building was either damaged or destroyed . Ivan 's passage either damaged or destroyed 85 percent of the structures on the island , including the nation 's emergency operations center and a 17th @-@ century prison , which allowed many inmates to briefly escape during the height of the storm . The hurricane damaged or destroyed 75 primary or secondary schools , with only two left in working condition . All of Grenada was left without power or running water .
Tourism was adversely affected ; an estimated 60 percent of hotel rooms were damaged . The winds downed 80 percent of the nutmeg trees on the island , with other crop losses varying between 60 – 90 percent . An estimated 18 @,@ 000 people were left homeless by the hurricane , and about 700 people sustained injuries from the storm . Ivan was considered the worst hurricane to strike the nation since Hurricane Janet in 1955 ; its passage resulted in 39 fatalities and $ 1 @.@ 1 billion in damage ( 2004 USD , ( $ 1 @.@ 38 billion 2016 USD ) , about 200 % of its GDP and of which about 45 % resulted from housing damage .
= = = Saint Vincent and the Grenadines , Barbados , and northward = = =
Wave heights from the hurricane reached 20 feet ( 6 m ) along coastline portions of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines , which washed away 2 homes ; the storm surge destroyed 19 homes and damaged 40 more . On Union Island , the winds damaged the roof of a hospital , while the northern portion of the island sustained heavy damage from the waves . Moderate damage was also reported on Palm Island and Carriacou and Petite Martinique . The winds left more than two @-@ thirds of the island without power , and also damaged the island 's banana crop . Damage in the country totaled $ 40 million ( 2004 USD , ( $ 50 @.@ 1 million 2016 USD ) .
On the island of Barbados , sustained winds peaked at 69 mph ( 112 km / h ) while gusts reached 92 mph ( 149 km / h ) , which damaged many trees and roofs . A total of 531 houses were damaged , of which 43 were completely destroyed . Additionally , four hotels sustained some damage . The winds left most of island without electricity , though officials worked quickly to restore the power . Rainfall from the storm was light , with less than 1 inch ( 25 mm ) in most areas . Storm surge and wave action caused beach erosion that severely damaged most coastal roads . One death was reported on the island , and damage was estimated at more than $ 5 million ( 2004 USD , ( $ 6 @.@ 26 million 2016 USD ) .
Strong winds and rough surf caused moderate coastal damage to southern portions of Saint Lucia ; the combination impacted houses near the coast and also led to losses in the banana crop . Minor roof damage was also reported , and damage totalled $ 2 @.@ 6 million ( 2004 USD $ 3 @.@ 26 million 2016 USD ) ) on the island ; three serious injuries were reported on the island due to the hurricane , though no fatalities were reported . In Dominica , winds reached 43 mph ( 69 km / h ) . High waves from Ivan caused light damage to southwestern Martinique and Guadeloupe .
Cayman Islands
Damage Sustained by the System . Contrary to what was done in other places , electricity was not shut down in Grand Cayman before arrival of the hurricane . Total system failure came at around 01 : 40 hours on 12 September . Slight damage was sustained by the North Sound Road power plant , and more extensive damage occurred in transmission lines and several substations as well as in distribution grids . Furthermore , it was found that the submarine cable in the North Sound was damaged 1 @,@ 500 feet offshore .
= = Aftermath = =
The government of Barbados created a Hurricane Ivan Housing Recovery Project , which repaired or rebuilt 190 houses for people without the available funds ; around 90 homes required minor immediate repairs , while the rest required significant reconstruction . The project finished in early 2006 for a total of $ 5 million ( 2004 BBD , ( $ 6 @.@ 26 million 2016 USD ) .
Several nearby countries assisted Grenada in its aftermath . The government of Guyana shipped about $ 250 @,@ 000 ( 2004 USD , $ 40 million 2004 GYD ) worth of sugar , as well as 100 members of the Guyana Defense Force to assist in restoring order and reconstruction . The government of Trinidad and Tobago sent 190 policemen , and the government of Anguilla sent 1 @,@ 230 cases of water . A committee of Caribbean nations realized the local governments could not provide the support that Grenada needed in its aftermath , and thus turned to international assistance . Within a day of Ivan passing to the south of Grenada , the United States Agency for International Development ( USAID ) deployed 67 @,@ 600 gallons of water , 500 rolls of plastic sheeting , four 10 @,@ 000 liter water bladder kits , and a water treatment kit ; assistance from USAID totaled $ 6 million ( 2004 USD ) within a few weeks of the storm 's passage , primarily in aid for reconstruction and rehabilitation . In the weeks subsequent to the hurricane , the European Commission Humanitarian aid Office ( ECHO ) provided € 3 million ( 2004 EUR ) . By a year later , housing redevelopments and disaster preparation problems continued after being impacted by Hurricane Emily ; as a result , the ECHO provided € 1 @.@ 2 million ( 2005 EUR ) to Grenada in September 2005 . Nine months after the hurricane , Chinese officials provided assistance in reconstruction and handling foreign debts after meeting with the Grenadian Prime Minister ; in 2007 , Chinese officials funded the construction of a new $ 40 million ( 2007 USD ) cricket stadium near St. George 's . The Caribbean Development Bank approved a $ 10 million loan ( 2004 USD ) requested by the government of Grenada in July 2005 , which was intended to assist in long @-@ term development of the housing , business , and environmental sectors . Emergency operations in Grenada in coordination with the Pan American Disaster Response Unit ended in July 2005 .
Within a few days after the hurricane passed , the Grenada Emergency Operations Center temporarily prevented relief supplies from entering the country to ensure the safety of the incoming items ; the decision was reversed shortly thereafter , and planes flew supplies during daylight hours into the reopened airport . Severe looting occurred in the immediate aftermath of Ivan , prompting police officials to enact a curfew for the night hours . In the first week following the hurricane , aid was slow to the affected residents , due to the lack of an efficient aid distribution system . 30 official shelters and 17 prepared ones housed over 5 @,@ 000 people in the aftermath of the storm . Thousands of people lost their jobs due to the hurricane , with all businesses shut down following the hurricane . By two months after the hurricane struck , 65 schools were opened , some of which serving as shelters ; water and power were gradually restored to the island . By a year after the storm 's passage , all schools were reopened , and most buildings enacted provisional repairs . Officials determined around 10 @,@ 000 houses on the island required complete reconstruction , while a further 22 @,@ 000 needed repairs . The government of Grenada initially planned to rebuild 1 @,@ 000 houses in the year after the hurricane struck ; by June 2005 , 260 families were provided houses , with a further 85 under construction . The government also established a Material Assistance Programme , which provided $ 5 @,@ 000 ( 2004 XCD ) of free materials to more than 5 @,@ 000 families , as well as a total of $ 4 @.@ 3 million ( 2004 XCD ) in low interest loans to 148 families . Several indirect fatalities occurred in the aftermath of the hurricane , primarily senior citizens .
= Remedies in Singapore administrative law =
The remedies available in Singapore administrative law are the prerogative orders – the mandatory order ( formerly known as mandamus ) , prohibiting order ( prohibition ) , quashing order ( certiorari ) , and order for review of detention ( habeas corpus ) – and the declaration , a form of equitable remedy . In Singapore , administrative law is the branch of law that enables a person to challenge an exercise of power by the executive branch of the Government . The challenge is carried out by applying to the High Court for judicial review . The Court 's power to review a law or an official act of a government official is part of its supervisory jurisdiction , and at its fullest may involve quashing an action or decision and ordering that it be redone or remade .
A mandatory order is an order of the High Court commanding a public authority to perform a public duty , while a prohibiting order operates to prevent illegal action by an authority from occurring in the first place . A quashing order , the most commonly sought prerogative order , has the effect of invalidating an ultra vires decision made by an authority . Obtaining a mandatory , prohibiting or quashing order is a two @-@ stage process , as an applicant must be granted leave by the Court to apply for the order . The Court must find the existence of a proper public law issue and available grounds of review . Leave will be granted provided that an arguable and prima facie case of reasonable suspicion that the authority has acted in breach of administrative law rules is established .
An order for review of detention directs someone holding a person in detention to produce the detainee before the High Court so that the legality of the detention can be established . The power of the Court to require that this be done is specifically mentioned in Article 9 ( 2 ) of the Constitution of Singapore . While the other prerogative orders may only be applied for with the court 's permission , an order for review of detention may be applied for without prior permission from the court .
A declaration is a pronouncement by a court stating the legal position between the parties to an action , based on the facts that have been presented to the court . Before 1 May 2011 , it was not possible to apply for prerogative orders and declarations in the same set of legal proceedings . Following that date , changes to Order 53 of the Rules of Court permitted an application for a declaration to be made together with an application for one or more prerogative orders . However , the application for a declaration cannot be made unless the court grants leave for the prerogative orders to be applied for .
The Government Proceedings Act bars the High Court from granting injunctions against the Government or one of its officers . An injunction is an equitable private law remedy that restrains a public authority from doing an act that is wrongful or ultra vires . In place of an injunction , the Court may make a declaration concerning the parties ' rights . At common law , there is no general right to claim damages – that is , monetary compensation – if rules of public law have been breached by an authority . In order to obtain damages , an aggrieved person must be able to establish a private law claim in contract or tort law .
= = Introduction = =
= = = Supervisory jurisdiction of the High Court = = =
The aim of administrative law is to regulate the executive government by providing remedies which individuals can apply for when challenging administrative actions and decisions , and failures to take action and make decisions . Where the exercise of statutory or other discretionary power by public authorities contravenes the Constitution or is unlawful under administrative law , various remedies may be available when a judicial review action is taken .
Judicial review , the means by which the High Court controls the exercise of legislative and executive power , is part of the Court 's supervisory jurisdiction . The basis of this jurisdiction was affirmed by the Court of Appeal in Ng Chye Huey v. Public Prosecutor ( 2007 ) as inherent in nature , that is , deriving from the common law rather than statute . The Court noted that this jurisdiction had " existed historically at common law " and " is still very much a part of our judicial system " . The inherent power of the High Court to review the decisions of inferior courts and other administrative bodies does not , however , extend to co @-@ ordinate bodies . In other words , one High Court judge may not exercise judicial review over a decision by another High Court judge . In addition , there are no provisions in the Supreme Court of Judicature Act which confer on the Court of Appeal the power to exercise supervisory jurisdiction over the High Court or – as pointed out in Ng Chye Huey – the Subordinate Courts .
The effective scope of the principles of judicial review depends on how the Court chooses to exercise its discretion in pursuance of its supervisory jurisdiction .
= = = Remedies = = =
The remedies available in a judicial review action are the prerogative orders – the mandatory order ( formerly known as mandamus ) , prohibiting order ( prohibition ) , quashing order ( certiorari ) , and order for review of detention ( habeas corpus ) – and the declaration , a form of equitable remedy . All these remedies that the High Court may grant are discretionary . A successful claimant has no absolute right to a remedy . In deciding whether to grant a remedy , the Court will take into account factors such as the following :
any prejudicial delay by the claimant in bringing the case ;
whether the claimant has suffered substantial hardship ;
any impact the remedy may have on third parties ;
whether a remedy will have any practical effect , or whether the matter has become academic ( in which case a remedy will usually not be granted ) ;
the merits of the case ; and
whether the remedy will promote good administration .
= = Prerogative orders = =
The ancient remedies of certiorari , mandamus , prohibition and habeas corpus were originally only available to the British Crown and thus termed prerogative writs , that is , writs that could be issued at the prerogative of the sovereign . By the end of the 16th century , they could theoretically be sought by any aggrieved citizen . In 1938 , the writs were abolished in the United Kingdom and replaced by prerogative orders with essentially the same names and functions . As a former British colony , Singapore inherited English administrative law at independence and the Singapore courts continue to pay close attention to English cases . In Singapore , the prerogative orders were known by their traditional names until 2006 , when the names were modernized .
Following the change , paragraph 1 of the First Schedule to the Supreme Court of Judicature Act , which is entitled " Prerogative orders " , now states that the High Court possesses the following power :
Power to issue to any person or authority any direction , order or writ for the enforcement of any right conferred by any written law or for any other purpose , including the following prerogative orders :
( a ) a Mandatory Order ( formerly known as mandamus ) ;
( b ) a Prohibiting Order ( formerly known as a prohibition ) ;
( c ) a Quashing Order ( formerly known as certiorari ) ; and
( d ) an Order for Review of Detention ( formerly known as a writ of habeas corpus ) .
The Subordinate Courts are not empowered to grant prerogative orders .
The amendment of the provision removed a specific reference to the High Court 's power to issue writs of quo warranto , a remedy used to challenge a person 's right to hold public office . There are no reported cases of quo warranto having been issued in Singapore . Since paragraph 1 still empowers the High Court " to issue to any person or authority any ... order or writ for the enforcement of any right conferred by any written law or for any other purpose " , it may be that the Court 's power to issue an order equivalent to a quo warranto has not been impaired .
= = = Mandatory orders = = =
A mandatory order is an order of the High Court which commands a public body to perform a public duty , and is usually employed to compel public bodies to exercise the powers given to them . It may be used in combination with another remedy , most commonly a quashing order . In such a case , the quashing order will set aside the unlawful decision , and the mandatory order will require the public body to reconsider the matter . A person who complies with a mandatory order cannot have legal proceedings taken against him or her for doing so .
Since it is the responsibility of the High Court to determine the legality of a decision rather than its merits , it will not order a public body to take a certain course of action , but will merely enjoin it to perform its duty in a lawful manner . In R. v. Justices of Kingston , ex parte Davey ( 1902 ) , it was held :
[ T ] his court does not by mandamus direct justices or any public body or anybody else upon whom a duty is cast , how and in what manner they are to perform their duty . They simply direct them by mandamus to perform their duty . I think also that even where the facts are all admitted , so that in the particular circumstances of a particular case – as my brother has pointed out in this case – there happens to be but one way of performing that duty , still the mandamus goes to perform the duty , and not to perform it in a particular way .
In Re San Development Co 's Application ( 1971 ) , the applicant sought certiorari to quash the decision of a Commissioner of Appeals of an Appeals Board under the Land Acquisition Act 1966 refusing to allow the applicant to proceed with an appeal against an award made by the Collector of Land Revenue as the notice of appeal had been filed late , and a mandamus directing the Commissioner to hear the appeal . Relying on the above case , the High Court held that it could not grant a mandamus in such terms . Instead , it quashed the Commissioner 's decision and issued a mandamus directing him to " consider and determine the application of the applicants according to law " . Similarly , in Borissik v. Urban Redevelopment Authority ( 2009 ) , the High Court held that the applicant should not have asked for a mandatory order requiring the Urban Redevelopment Authority to unconditionally approve the redevelopment plan for her property that she sought , and for a processing fee she had paid to be refunded .
Re Lim Chor Pee , ex parte Law Society of Singapore ( 1985 ) is another example of a case where a mandatory order was granted by the High Court . The appellant , Lim Chor Pee , who was an advocate and solicitor , had been convicted of several income tax offences and had been found to have tampered with a witness . On 16 July 1982 , the Attorney @-@ General wrote to the President of the Law Society of Singapore , providing information on the appellant 's conviction and other records . Following a report by the Society 's Inquiry Committee that a formal inquiry into the appellant 's conduct was necessary , a Disciplinary Committee was appointed . The appellant successfully applied to the Disciplinary Committee to delete certain paragraphs of the statement of case which had been formulated against him by the Council of the Law Society , on the ground that the facts in those paragraphs did not appear in the Inquiry Committee 's report . Consequently , three of the six charges against the appellant and a major portion of one other charge did not require investigation by the Disciplinary Committee . Dissatisfied with this decision , the Law Society applied to the High Court for an order of mandamus to direct the Disciplinary Committee to hear and investigate all the six charges against the appellant . The High Court granted the application , holding that under the Legal Profession Act , the Inquiry Committee 's only function was to consider the matters before it and decide whether or not there should be a formal investigation by a Disciplinary Committee . It was the duty of the Council of the Law Society to draw up the charges , and the duty of the Disciplinary Committee to hear and investigate the charges properly before the Committee in the statement of case . Thus , the appellant could not object that some of the charges against him were based on facts not mentioned in the Inquiry Committee 's report . The decision was affirmed by the Court of Appeal .
One of the issues before the Court of Appeal in Lim Chor Pee was whether the Law Society had standing ( locus standi ) to apply for mandamus against the Disciplinary Committee . The Court cited R. v. Inland Revenue Commissioners , ex parte National Federation of Self Employed and Small Businesses Ltd . ( 1981 ) , in which the House of Lords noted that although the law had formerly required an applicant to show that he or she " has a legal specific right to ask for the interference of the Court " to obtain a mandamus , this was no longer correct and that the courts had moved to a sufficient interest standard . The Court then went on to find that the Law Society had sufficient interest to apply for mandamus as under the Legal Profession Act one of its purposes was " to maintain and impose the standards of conduct ... of the legal profession in Singapore " , and the Council of the Society was empowered by the Act to formulate charges against advocates and solicitors whom the Inquiry Committee felt should be formally investigated .
= = = Prohibiting orders = = =
A prohibiting order operates to prevent illegal action by a public authority from occurring in the first place . It may be granted by the High Court in cases where the applicant is aware that the authority is about to take an unlawful course of action , or to prevent the authority from repeating an unlawful act . Like a quashing order , a prohibiting order is used to help maintain good standards of public administration .
R. v. Kent Police Authority , ex parte Godden ( 1972 ) is an instance of a United Kingdom case in which an order of prohibition was issued to avert action that would not have complied with administrative law rules . In July 1970 , Godden , a police chief inspector of Kent Police Authority , was examined by the police authority 's chief medical officer , who took the view that he was suffering from a mental disorder and thus unfit for duty . Godden was therefore placed on sick leave , although his own specialist found that he did not have any psychiatric illness . Subsequently , in January 1971 , the police authority informed him that it would be appointing the chief medical officer to assess if he was permanently disabled , for the purpose of determining if he should be compulsorily retired . The Court of Appeal of England and Wales found that since the medical officer had previously formed the opinion that Godden was mentally disordered , he could not be impartial when assessing if Godden was permanently disabled . Thus , an order of prohibition should be issued to prohibit him from carrying out this assessment .
In the Singapore case Re Fong Thin Choo ( 1991 ) , a company had removed a large quantity of cigarettes from a warehouse , ostensibly for loading on board a vessel to be exported . However , the alleged loading had not been supervised by the Customs and Excise Department . The Director @-@ General of Customs and Excise subsequently concluded that the goods had never been exported , and requested that the company pay import duty of $ 130 @,@ 241 @.@ 30 on them . The company applied for an order of prohibition to bar the Director @-@ General from proceeding to recover a sum of $ 130 @,@ 241 @.@ 30 by deducting it from several bankers ' guarantees that had been lodged with Customs as security . As regards whether an order of prohibition could be obtained against the Director @-@ General , the High Court said :
Prohibition will issue against any inferior court , tribunal or public authority to carry out any order or decision which is invalid under the law as being in excess of its authority to make . The principles applicable to certiorari to quash such an order or decision are equally applicable to prohibition . The law in this field has reached the stage where the test as to amenability to prohibition is whether the tribunal concerned is exercising a public duty .
As the Director @-@ General was a public officer appointed by statute to discharge public duties , he was subject to an order of prohibition in an appropriate case . The Court found that on the affidavit evidence produced by the applicants , the Director @-@ General could not reasonably have come to the conclusion he came to without hearing the applicants ' witnesses . He had thus misdirected himself on the law as to the nature of the evidence that was required to be produced to prove the export of the goods . Finally , there had been an insufficient inquiry which had resulted in a failure to take into account relevant considerations , and an investigation that was unfair to the applicant . The Court therefore made an order of prohibition against the Director @-@ General to prevent him from deducting money from the bankers ' guarantees .
A person seeking to obtain a prohibiting order must demonstrate that he or she has a sufficient interest to do so . In Chan Hiang Leng Colin v. Minister for Information and the Arts ( 1995 ) , the High Court cited the following passage from Sir William Wade 's Administrative Law ( 4th ed . , 1977 ) :
One of the valuable features of the " public " character of certiorari and prohibition , already emphasized , is that they may be awarded to a member of the public without any special personal right . In other words , there is no restrictive requirement of standing on the part of an applicant . ... Consequently the court is prepared to act at the instance of a mere stranger , though it retains discretion to refuse to do so if it considers that no good would be done to the public . Every citizen has standing to invite the court to prevent some abuse of power , and in doing so he may claim to be regarded not as a meddlesome busybody but as a public benefactor .
When the case was appealed , the sufficient interest test was upheld by the Court of Appeal .
= = = Quashing orders = = =
The effect of a quashing order is to invalidate an ultra vires decision made by a public body , usually acting under some statutory authority . It is the most commonly sought of the prerogative orders in judicial review proceedings .
Quashing orders may only be obtained against decisions which have some direct or indirect actual or ostensible legal effect , and not against mere opinions . In Comptroller of Income Tax v. ACC ( 2010 ) , the respondent , a locally incorporated company , had arranged to enter into interest rate swap agreements with Singapore banks or Singapore branches of foreign banks on behalf of its offshore subsidiaries . The Comptroller of Income Tax took the position that payments made by the respondent to its subsidiaries pursuant to those swap agreements fell within the ambit of section 12 ( 6 ) of the Income Tax Act , such that the withholding tax requirements imposed by section 45 of the same statute applied . As the respondent had not complied with the relevant withholding tax requirements with respect to the payments in question , the respondent was required to account to the Comptroller for the amount of tax which should have been withheld . This was conveyed to the respondent in a letter . The respondent sought leave to apply to quash the determination by the Comptroller . The Court of Appeal held that the Comptroller 's letter was no more than advice to the respondent , and did not amount to a legal determination that withholding tax was due from the respondent . Thus , technically speaking , there was no determination to quash and the respondent should have applied for a declaration instead . However , since the parties had accepted a ruling by the High Court that the Comptroller 's letter did amount to a legal determination of the respondent 's tax liability and the Comptroller had not questioned this aspect of the High Court 's judgment , the Court of Appeal proceeded on the basis that the letter did contain a determination that was judicially reviewable . It said that , " given the particular circumstances of this case , for the court to require the respondent to recommence proceedings for a declaratory judgment would be to take an overly legalistic view of what procedural justice requires " .
As mentioned above in relation to prohibiting orders , the test for standing to apply for a quashing order is that of sufficient interest in the matter . The High Court in Chan Hiang Leng Colin held that to have standing for certiorari , " [ i ] t was not necessary that the applicant had to have a particular grievance arising out of the order complained about . It was sufficient that there had been an abuse of power which inconvenienced someone . " In support of this rule , it cited Lord Denning , the Master of the Rolls , in R. v. Greater London Council , ex parte Blackburn ( 1976 ) :
I regard it as a matter of high constitutional principle that if there is good ground for supposing that a government department or a public authority is transgressing the law , or is about to transgress it , in a way which offends or injures thousands of Her Majesty 's subjects , then anyone of those offended or injured can draw it to the attention of the courts of law and seek to have the law enforced and the courts in their discretion can grant whatever remedy is appropriate .
This passage was also approved by the Court of Appeal in Chan Hiang Leng Colin .
= = = Orders for review of detention = = =
An order for review of detention directs someone holding a person in detention to produce the detainee before the High Court so that the legality of the detention can be established . In Re Onkar Shrian ( 1969 ) , the High Court held :
[ T ] he writ [ of habeas corpus ] is a prerogative process of securing the liberty of the subject by affording an effective means of immediate release from unlawful or unjustifiable detention , whether in prison or in private custody . By it the High Court and the judges of that court , at the instance of a subject aggrieved , command the production of that subject , and inquire into the cause of his imprisonment . If there is no legal justification for the detention , the party is ordered to be released .
The power of the Court to require that this be done is specifically mentioned in Article 9 ( 2 ) of the Constitution of Singapore , which states : " Where a complaint is made to the High Court or any Judge thereof that a person is being unlawfully detained , the Court shall inquire into the complaint and , unless satisfied that the detention is lawful , shall order him to be produced before the Court and release him . "
In Chng Suan Tze v. Minister for Home Affairs ( 1988 ) , the appellants had been detained without trial under section 8 ( 1 ) of the Internal Security Act ( " ISA " ) for alleged involvement in a Marxist conspiracy to subvert and destabilize the country . The detention orders were subsequently suspended under section 10 of the Act , but the suspensions were revoked following the release of a press statement by the appellants in which they denied being Marxist conspirators . Having applied unsuccessfully to the High Court for writs of habeas corpus to be issued , the appellants appealed against the ruling . The Court of Appeal allowed the appeal on the narrow ground that the Government had not adduced sufficient evidence to discharge its burden of proving the President was satisfied that the appellants ' detention was necessary to prevent them from endangering , among other things , Singapore 's security or public order , which was required by section 8 ( 1 ) of the ISA before the Minister for Home Affairs could make detention orders against them . However , in a lengthy obiter discussion , the Court held that an objective rather than a subjective test should apply to the exercise of discretion by the authorities under sections 8 and 10 of the ISA . In other words , the executive could not insist that the exercise of the discretion was unchallengeable . The exercise of discretion could be reviewed by the court , and the executive had to satisfy the court that there were objective facts justifying its decision .
In the course of its judgment , the Court of Appeal noted that at common law if the return to a writ of habeas corpus – the response to the writ that a person holding a detainee had to give – was valid on its face , the court could not inquire further into the matter . However , section 3 of the UK Habeas Corpus Act 1816 broadened the court 's power by entitling it to examine the correctness of the facts mentioned in the return . The section stated , in part :
Judges to inquire into the Truth of Facts contained in Return . Judge to bail on Recognizance to appear in Term , & c .
In all cases provided for by this Act , although the return to any writ of habeas corpus shall be good and sufficient in law , it shall be lawful for the justice or baron , before whom such writ may be returnable , to proceed to examine into the truth of the facts set forth in such return by affidavit ... ; and to do therein as to justice shall appertain ...
Section 3 of the Act thus " contemplates the possibility of an investigation by the court so that it may satisfy itself where the truth lies " . The extent of the investigation depends on whether a public authority 's exercise of the power to detain rests on the existence or absence of certain jurisdictional or precedent facts . If so , the court must assess if the authority has correctly established the existence or otherwise of these facts . However , if the power to detain is not contingent on precedent facts , the court 's task is only to determine whether there exists evidence upon which the authority could reasonably have acted .
The UK Habeas Corpus Act 1816 applied to Singapore by virtue of the Second Charter of Justice 1826 , which is generally accepted to have made all English statutes and principles of English common law and equity in force as at 27 November 1826 applicable in the Straits Settlements ( including Singapore ) , unless they were unsuitable to local conditions and could not be modified to avoid causing injustice or oppression . In 1994 , after Chng Suan Sze was decided , the Application of English Law Act was enacted with the effect that only English statutes specified in the First Schedule of the Act continued to apply in Singapore after 12 November 1993 . The Habeas Corpus Act 1816 is not one of these statutes , and so appears to have ceased to be part of Singapore law . Nonetheless , it may be argued that High Court should continue to apply a rule equivalent to section 3 of the Act to orders for review of detention because of the combined effect of Article 9 ( 2 ) of the Constitution which should not be regarded as having been abridged unless the legislature has used clear and unequivocal language , and the following principle from Eshugbayi Eleko v. Government of Nigeria ( 1931 ) stated by Lord Atkin :
In accordance with British jurisprudence no member of the executive can interfere with the liberty or property of a British subject except on the condition that he can support the legality of his action before a court of justice . And it is the tradition of British justice that judges should not shrink from deciding such issues in the face of the executive .
Since an order for review of detention is a remedy for establishing the legality of detention , it may not be used to challenge the conditions under which a person is held , if the detention itself is lawful . Moreover , an order can only be sought where a person is being physically detained , and not if he or she is merely under some other form of restriction such as being out on bail .
Both nationals and non @-@ nationals of a jurisdiction may apply for orders for review of detention . In the UK context , Lord Scarman disagreed with the suggestion that habeas corpus protection only extends to British nationals , stating in Khera v. Secretary of State for the Home Department ; Khawaja v. Secretary of State for the Home Department ( " Khawaja " , 1983 ) , that " [ e ] very person within the jurisdiction enjoys the equal protection of our laws . There is no distinction between British nationals and others . He who is subject to English law is entitled to its protection . "
= = = Procedure for prerogative orders = = =
According to the Government Proceedings Act , civil proceedings against the Government must be commenced against an appropriate authorized Government department . If there is no appropriate authorized Government department , or the person wishing to commence proceedings has reasonable doubt as to which department ( if any ) is appropriate , proceedings should be commenced against the Attorney @-@ General . This rule applies to judicial review proceedings in which prerogative orders or declarations are sought .
The minister charged with responsibility for the Act is required to publish in the Government Gazette a list stating the Government departments which are authorized departments for the purposes of the Act , and the names and addresses for service of the solicitors for the departments . As of 7 December 2005 , no such list had been published . For this reason , in Chee Siok Chin v. Minister for Home Affairs ( 2005 ) , decided on that date , the High Court
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held that instead of instituting the action against the Minister for Home Affairs and the Commissioner of Police , the applicants should have done so against the Attorney @-@ General . Nonetheless , the suit should not be dismissed as this was a procedural irregularity that could be cured by substituting the Attorney @-@ General as the respondent .
= = = = Mandatory , prohibiting and quashing orders = = = =
If a mandatory order , prohibiting order or quashing order is sought , the applicant must follow the procedure set out in Order 53 of the Rules of Court . In general , there are two stages . At the first stage , an applicant must obtain leave to apply for the prerogative order . This requirement prevents unmeritorious applications from being taken against decision @-@ makers by filtering out groundless cases at an early stage to prevent wastage of judicial time , and protects public bodies from harassment , intentional or otherwise . An application for such leave must be made by ex parte originating summons and must be supported by a statement setting out the name and description of the applicant , the relief sought and the grounds on which it is sought ; and by an affidavit , to be filed when the application is made , verifying the facts relied on . In granting leave , the judge hearing the application for leave may impose such terms as to costs and as to security as he or she thinks fit .
In addition , there is a time requirement which stipulates that leave shall not be granted to apply for a quashing order to remove any judgment , order , conviction or other proceeding for the purpose of its being quashed , unless the application for leave is made within three months after the date of the proceeding or such other period ( if any ) as may be prescribed by any written law . However , the High Court may allow an application for leave to be filed out of time if the delay " is accounted for to the satisfaction of the Judge " , as was the case in Chai Chwan v. Singapore Medical Council ( 2009 ) . No such time limit requirements exist for mandatory or prohibiting orders , but such orders should be applied for without undue delay .
The test for whether leave should be granted to an applicant was expressed by the High Court in Lai Swee Lin Linda v. Public Service Commission ( 2000 ) , and approved by the Court of Appeal , in the following terms :
[ T ] he duty of the court hearing an ex parte application ... was not to embark upon any detailed and microscopic analysis of the material placed before it but ... to peruse the material before it quickly and appraise whether such material disclosed an arguable and a prima facie case of reasonable suspicion .
Once leave is granted , an applicant moves on to the second stage and applies for a prerogative order by filing in the High Court a document called a summons within the legal proceedings already started earlier . This must be done between eight and 14 days after leave to do so is granted by the Court ; beyond that , the leave lapses . The applicant must serve the ex parte originating summons , the statement , the supporting affidavit , the order granting leave , and the summons by which the prerogative order is actually applied for , on all persons directly affected . Where the application relates to court proceedings and is intended to compel the court or a court official to do an act relating to the proceedings , or to quash the proceedings or any order made in them , the documents must be served on the registrar of the court and the other parties to the proceedings . The documents must also be served on the judge if his or her conduct is being objected to . If the Court is of opinion that any person who ought to have been served with the documents has not been served , the Court may adjourn the hearing on such terms as it may direct in order that the documents may be served on that person .
The High Court has dispensed with the two @-@ stage process and dealt with applications on the merits at the first stage in cases that involved only pure questions of law and where there were no factual disputes .
= = = = Orders for review of detention = = = =
The procedure for applying for an order for review of detention differs from that for obtaining a mandatory order , prohibiting order or quashing order because the latter orders are only available by leave of court , whereas an order for review of detention may be applied for without prior permission from the court . The procedure for doing so is set out in Order 54 of the Rules of Court . An application must be made to the High Court by way of an ex parte originating summons , supported , if possible , by an affidavit from the person being restrained which shows that the application is being made at his or her instance and explaining the nature of the restraint . If the person under restraint is unable to personally make an affidavit , someone may do so on his or her behalf , explaining the reason for the inability .
Upon the filing of the application , the Court may either make an order immediately , or direct that a summons for the order for review of detention be issued to enable all the parties involved to present arguments to the Court . If the latter course is taken , the ex parte originating summons , supporting affidavit , order of court and summons must be served on the person against whom the order is sought . Unless the Court directs otherwise , it is not necessary for the person under restraint to be brought before the Court for the hearing of the application . In addition , the Court may order that the person be released while the application is being heard . Once the Court decides to make an order for review of detention , it will direct when the person under restraint is to be brought before the court .
The applicant has the initial burden of showing that he or she has a prima facie case that should be considered by the Court . Once this has been done , it is for the executive to justify the legality of the detention . One commentator has said that the applicant 's task is to discharge his or her evidential burden , following which the public authority detaining the applicant has a legal burden of showing that the detention is lawful . The standard of proof required to be achieved by the authority is the civil standard of a balance of probabilities , but " flexibly applied " in the sense that the degree of probability must be appropriate to what is at stake . Thus , in Khawaja Lord Bridge of Harwich said that given the seriousness of the allegations against a detainee and the consequences of the detention , " the court should not be satisfied with anything less than probability of a high degree " .
= = Declarations = =
In addition to prerogative orders , the equitable remedy of a declaration can be employed to control an excess of legal authority . A declaration is a pronouncement by a court stating the legal position between the parties to an action , based on the facts that have been presented to the court . In contrast to the prerogative orders which are termed public law remedies , the declaration is called a private law remedy as it was originally developed in court cases between private parties . Only the High Court may grant declarations in judicial review cases ; although the Subordinate Courts are generally empowered by the Subordinate Courts Act to grant declarations , a District Court exercises no judicial review jurisdiction over acts or decisions of persons or authorities , and a Magistrate 's Court cannot deal with any action in which there is no claim for any sum of money .
A declaration is only as effective as the willingness of a public body to abide by the court 's statement of the law in it , as it is not a contempt of court to ignore a declaration . In Webster v. Southwark London Borough Council ( 1982 ) , Webster was a parliamentary candidate for the National Front , a far right racial nationalist political party , who wanted to hold an election meeting in a hall owned by Southwark London Borough Council . Despite being required by provisions of the Representation of the People Act 1949 to permit Webster to use the hall , the local council refused to do so as it did not agree with Webster 's political views . The court made a declaration that Webster was legally entitled to use the hall at a certain time for the purpose of his election campaign , on the assumption that the local council would obey it . Nonetheless , the local council still refused to allow Webster use of the hall . It was held that a declaration is not a coercive order of the court and , accordingly , refusal to comply with it is not contempt .
There is some authority to the effect that a court will not generally grant a declaration if it considers the issue at hand to be an academic question or one that is entirely hypothetical . For instance , in Vince v. Chief Constable of Dorset Police ( 1992 ) , proceedings against the Chief Constable of Dorset Police were brought by the plaintiffs on behalf of members of the Police Federation of England and Wales to , among other things , enable chief constables throughout the country to know where they stood on a question of law with respect to the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 , namely , whether it was unlawful to appoint an acting sergeant as a custody officer under section 36 ( 3 ) of the Act . Affirming the decision of the judge below , a majority of the Court of Appeal declined to make a declaration on the matter . It took the view that since there was no evidence that any chief constable had ever appointed an acting sergeant as a custody officer , the issue was academic or hypothetical .
However , at least in the UK , there are signs that the courts may be moving towards showing more flexibility in granting advisory declarations . In R. v. Secretary of State for the Home Department , ex parte Salem ( 1999 ) , Salem , a citizen of Libya , was granted temporary admission to the UK to pursue an asylum claim . One month later , the Home Office recorded in an internal file that Salem 's asylum claim had been refused , but did not communicate the decision to him . Salem only found out when his income support ceased , and the Benefits Agency told him that they had been informed that he had been refused asylum . Subsequently , Salem unsuccessfully sought leave to apply for judicial review of the Home Secretary 's decision to notify the Department of Social Security that his asylum claim had been rejected . He then obtained leave to appeal the matter to the House of Lords , but was then granted refugee status . Before the House of Lords , Salem argued that his appeal should still be heard as the question of law in his case was one of general public importance . The court held that it had discretion to hear an appeal which concerns an issue involving a public authority as to a question of public law , even where there is no longer any live issue which would affect the rights and duties of the parties themselves . However , the court cautioned that this discretion has to be exercised with circumspection and entertained only where there was a good public interest reason to do so . It is not yet known whether the Singapore High Court will adopt a similar approach .
The Singapore courts have also yet to directly address the issue of the standing required to apply for a declaration in an administrative law case . In Karaha Bodas Co . LLC v. Pertamina Energy Trading Ltd . ( 2005 ) – not a judicial review case – the Court of Appeal expressed the view that the applicant " must be asserting the recognition of a ' right ' that is personal to him " . It cited the House of Lords ' decision of Gouriet v. Union of Post Office Workers ( 1977 ) , which held that a plaintiff could not be granted a declaration unless he or she :
... in proper proceedings , in which there is a dispute between the plaintiff and the defendant concerning their legal respective rights or liabilities either asserts a legal right which is denied or threatened , or claims immunity from some claim of the defendant against him or claims that the defendant is infringing or threatens to infringe some public right so as to inflict special damage on the plaintiff .
The Court preferred the position taken in Gouriet rather than the more flexible approach taken in Re S ( Hospital Patient : Court 's Jurisdiction ) ( 1995 ) where , so long as there existed a " real and present dispute between the parties as to the existence or extent of a legal right " and each of the parties to the litigation " would be affected by the determination of the issue " , it was not necessary for the legal right to be vested in the parties . One of the reasons it came to this conclusion was that Re S is regarded by some scholars as more consistent with rule 40 @.@ 20 of the Civil Procedure Rules , which states : " The court may make binding declarations whether or not any other remedy is claimed . " On the other hand , the relevant Singaporean provision is Order 15 , rule 16 , of the Rules of Court , which reads : " No action or other proceedings shall be open to objection on the ground that a merely declaratory judgment or order is sought thereby , and the Court may make binding declarations of right whether or not any consequential relief is or could be claimed . " [ Emphasis added . ] Hence , the Court concluded that its jurisdiction to make declarations is " confined to declaring contested legal rights of the parties represented in the litigation " .
In Tan Eng Hong v. Attorney @-@ General ( 2011 ) , the applicant sought a declaration that section 377A of the Penal Code was unconstitutional . The High Court stated that a person who is asserting an infringement of a constitutional liberty must establish that he or she has not merely a sufficient interest but a substantial interest in the matter , that is , he or she must be alleging a violation of a fundamental liberty . The Court did not discuss the issue of standing in the context of administrative law .
= = = Procedure for declarations = = =
Before May 2011 , it was not possible to apply for prerogative orders and declarations in the same set of legal proceedings . In Chan Hiang Leng Colin , the appellants contended that a declaration might be obtained in proceedings taken under Order 53 of the Rules of Court . The Court of Appeal , following Re Application by Dow Jones ( Asia ) Inc . ( 1987 ) , held that it had no power to grant a declaration under Order 53 because a declaration is not a form of prerogative order . If a declaration was sought , it had to be applied for by way of writ if there were substantial factual disputes between the parties , or , if not , by originating summons . In Yip Kok Seng v. Traditional Chinese Medicine Practitioners Board ( 2010 ) , the High Court expressed the view that due to the lack of a unified regime in Singapore for applying for prerogative orders and declarations , it was not an abuse of process for an applicant to seek redress for a public law right by way of a declaration instead of applying for a prerogative order .
With effect from 1 May 2011 , it became possible to include an application for a declaration together with an application for one or more prerogative orders . However , the application for a declaration cannot be made unless the court grants leave for the prerogative orders to be applied for .
= = Remedies that are unavailable = =
= = = Injunctions = = =
An injunction is an equitable private law remedy that restrains a public body from doing an act that is wrongful or ultra vires . Following law reforms in the United Kingdom in 1977 , it became possible for the High Court of England and Wales to grant prerogative orders as well as a declaration or injunction in the same set of legal proceedings . As these reforms have not been followed in Singapore , the Singapore High Court is not empowered to grant injunctions under Order 53 of the Rules of Court .
In addition , if civil proceedings are taken against the Government , section 27 of the Government Proceedings Act bars the High Court from granting injunctions against it . In place of an injunction , the Court may make a declaration concerning the parties ' rights . The Court also may not make an injunction against a government officer if the effect of doing so would be to provide relief that could not be obtained against the Government directly . Section 2 ( 2 ) of the Act makes it clear that the term civil proceedings includes proceedings for judicial review .
= = = Damages = = =
At common law , there is no general right to claim damages – that is , monetary compensation – if rules of public law have been breached by a public authority . In order to obtain damages , an aggrieved person must be able to establish a private law claim in contract or tort law . While such a person would previously have had to take out a legal action for damages separately from any judicial review proceedings , since May 2011 it has been possible for a person who has successfully obtained prerogative orders or a declaration to ask the High Court to also award him or her " relevant relief " , that is , a liquidated sum , damages , equitable relief or restitution . The Court may give directions to the parties relating to the conduct of the proceedings or otherwise to determine whether the applicant is entitled to the relevant relief sought , and must allow any party opposing the granting of such relief an opportunity to be heard .
A special tort that applies only against public authorities is the tort of misfeasance in public office . To successfully make out the tort , a claimant must establish the following elements :
the public authority acted maliciously , or while knowing that it had no power to act ;
it is foreseeable that the claimant would be harmed in some way by the act ; and
the claimant suffered damage as a result of the act .
In Lines International Holding ( S ) Pte . Ltd. v. Singapore Tourist Promotion Board ( 1997 ) , the plaintiff , a cruise operator , claimed that the Singapore Tourism Promotion Board and the Port of Singapore Authority had committed the tort by denying it berths for its ship conducting " cruises to nowhere " on which the main activity was gambling . The High Court found that the plaintiff had failed to establish this claim . Since the authorities had not acted ultra vires , they could not have acted while knowing they lacked the power to do so . Moreover , the plaintiff had not adduced any evidence of the financial damage it had incurred due to the denial of berths . It has been said that " the tort is of quite limited value and importance as a means of controlling the ordinary run of inadvertent government illegality " .
If a claimant establishes that a public authority 's wrongful action amounts to a tort , he or she may be able to obtain exemplary damages if it can be shown that the authority has been guilty of " oppressive , arbitrary or unconstitutional action " in the exercise of a public function .
= = = Cases = = =
Re Onkar Shrian [ 1968 – 1970 ] S.L.R. ( R. ) 533 , High Court ( Singapore ) .
R. v. Inland Revenue Commissioners , ex parte National Federation of Self Employed and Small Businesses Ltd . [ 1981 ] UKHL 2 , [ 1982 ] A.C. 617 , House of Lords ( UK ) .
Khera v. Secretary of State for the Home Department ; Khawaja v. Secretary of State for the Home Department [ 1983 ] UKHL 8 , [ 1984 ] A.C. 74 , H.L. ( UK ) ( " Khawaja " ) .
Re Lim Chor Pee , ex parte Law Society of Singapore [ 1985 @-@ 1986 ] S.L.R. ( R. ) [ Singapore Law Reports ( Reissue ) ] 226 , H.C. ( Singapore ) . ( " Lim Chor Pee ( H.C. ) " ) .
Re Lim Chor Pee , ex parte Law Society of Singapore [ 1985 – 1986 ] S.L.R. ( R. ) 998 , Court of Appeal ( Singapore ) ( " Lim Chor Pee ( C.A. ) " ) .
Chng Suan Tze v. Minister for Home Affairs [ 1988 ] SGCA 16 , [ 1988 ] 2 S.L.R. ( R. ) 525 , C.A. ( Singapore ) , archived from the original on 24 December 2011 .
Re Fong Thin Choo [ 1991 ] 1 S.L.R. ( R. ) 774 , H.C. ( Singapore ) .
Chan Hiang Leng Colin v. Minister for Information and the Arts [ 1995 ] 2 S.L.R. ( R. ) 627 , H.C. ( Singapore ) ( " Chan Hiang Leng Colin ( H.C. ) " ) .
Chan Hiang Leng Colin v. Minister for Information and the Arts [ 1996 ] 1 S.L.R. ( R. ) 294 , C.A. ( Singapore ) ( " Chan Hiang Leng Colin ( C.A. ) " ) .
Salijah bte Ab Latef v. Mohd Irwan bin Abdullah Teo [ 1996 ] 2 S.L.R. ( R. ) 80 , C.A. ( Singapore ) .
Ng Chye Huey v. Public Prosecutor [ 2007 ] SGCA 3 , [ 2007 ] 2 S.L.R. ( R. ) 106 , C.A. ( Singapore ) .
Chai Chwan v. Singapore Medical Council [ 2009 ] SGHC 115 , H.C. ( Singapore ) .
Comptroller of Income Tax v. ACC [ 2010 ] 2 S.L.R. 1189 , C.A. ( Singapore ) ( " ACC ( C.A. ) " ) .
Yip Kok Seng v. Traditional Chinese Medicine Practitioners Board [ 2010 ] 4 S.L.R. 990 , H.C. ( Singapore ) .
UDL Marine ( Singapore ) Pte . Ltd. v. Jurong Town Corporation [ 2011 ] 3 S.L.R. 94 , H.C. ( Singapore ) .
= = = Legislation = = =
Government Proceedings Act ( Cap . 121 , 1985 Rev. Ed . ) ( " GPA " ) .
Rules of Court ( Cap . 322 , R 5 , 2006 Rev. Ed . ) ( " ROC " ) .
Subordinate Courts Act ( Cap . 321 , 2007 Rev. Ed . ) ( " SCA " ) .
Supreme Court of Judicature Act ( Cap . 322 , 2007 Rev. Ed . ) ( " SCJA " ) .
= = = Other works = = =
Leyland , Peter ; Anthony , Gordon ( 2009 ) , Textbook on Administrative Law ( 6th ed . ) , Oxford ; New York , N.Y. : Oxford University Press , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 921776 @-@ 2 .
Pinsler , Jeffrey , ed . ( 2005 ) , " Order 53 : Application for Order of Mandamus , Prohibition , Certiorari , etc . " , Singapore Court Practice 2005 , Singapore : LexisNexis , pp. 1129 – 1141 , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 236 @-@ 441 @-@ 8 .
Rawlings , H.F. ( 1983 ) , " Habeas Corpus and Preventive Detention in Singapore and Malaysia " , Malaya Law Review 25 : 324 – 350 .
= = = Articles and websites = = =
Bingham , T [ homas ] H [ enry ] ( 1991 ) , " Should Public Law Remedies be Discretionary ? " , Public Law : 64 – 75 .
Huang , Su Mien ( July 1960 ) , " Judicial Review of Administrative Action by the Prerogative Orders " , University of Malaya Law Review 2 ( 1 ) : 64 – 82 .
Kolinsky , Daniel ( December 1999 ) , " Advisory Declarations : Recent Developments " , Judicial Review 4 ( 4 ) : 225 – 230 .
Oliver , [ A. ] Dawn ( January 2002 ) , " Public Law Procedures and Remedies – Do We Need Them ? " , Public Law : 91 – 110 .
Tan , John Chor @-@ Yong ( December 1960 ) , " Habeas Corpus in Singapore " , University of Malaya Law Journal 2 ( 2 ) : 323 – 334 .
= = = Books = = =
Cane , Peter ( 1997 ) , " The Constitutional Basis of Judicial Remedies in Public Law " , in Leyland , Peter ; Woods , Terry , eds . , Administrative Law Facing the Future : Old Constraints and New Horizons , London : Blackstone Press , pp. 242 – 270 , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 85431 @-@ 689 @-@ 9 .
Lewis , Clive ( 2009 ) , Judicial Remedies in Public Law ( 4th ed . ) , London : Sweet & Maxwell , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84703 @-@ 221 @-@ 8 .
Lord Woolf ; Woolf , Jeremy ( 2011 ) , Zamir & Woolf : The Declaratory Judgment ( 4th ed . ) , London : Sweet & Maxwell , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 414 @-@ 04135 @-@ 6 .
= Ulysses S. Grant presidential administration scandals =
An examination of the Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant reveals many scandals and fraudulent activities associated with his administration , and a cabinet that was in continual transition , divided by the forces of political corruption and reform . President Grant , ever trusting of associates , himself was influenced by both forces . The standards in many of Grant 's appointments were low , and charges of corruption were widespread . Starting with the Black Friday ( 1869 ) gold speculation ring , corruption would be discovered during Grant 's two presidential terms in seven federal departments , including the Navy , Justice , War , Treasury , Interior , State , and the Post Office . Reform movements initiated in both the Democratic Party and the Liberal Republicans , a faction that split from Republican Party to oppose political patronage and corruption in the Grant Administration . Nepotism was prevalent , with over 40 family members benefitting from government appointments and employment . The prevalent corruption in the Grant Administration was eventually called Grantism . Certain historians believe that charges of corruption were exaggerated by reformers , since Grant was the first president to initiate civil service reform , and several of Grant 's cabinet members made solid advances towards ending abuses that occurred in previous administrations .
The unprecedented way that Grant ran his cabinet , in a military style rather than civilian , contributed to the scandals . For example , in 1869 , Grant 's private secretary Orville E. Babcock , rather than a State Department official , was sent to negotiate a treaty annexation with Santo Domingo . Grant never even consulted with cabinet members on the treaty annexation ; in effect , the annexation proposal was already decided . A perplexed Secretary of Interior Jacob D. Cox reflected the cabinet 's disappointment over not being consulted : " But Mr. President , has it been settled , then , that we want to Annex Santo Domingo ? "
Another instance of Grant 's military @-@ style command arose over the McGarrahan Claims , a legal dispute over mining patents in California , when Grant overrode the official opinion of Attorney General Ebenezer R. Hoar . Both Cox and Hoar , who were reformers , eventually resigned from the cabinet in 1870 .
Grant 's reactions to the scandals ranged from prosecuting the perpetrators to protecting or pardoning those who were accused and convicted of the crimes . For example , when the Whiskey Ring scandal broke out in 1875 , Grant , in a reforming mood , wrote : " Let no guilty man escape " . However , when it was found out that his personal secretary Orville E. Babcock was indicted , Grant testified on behalf of the defendant . During his second term Grant appointed reformers such as Benjamin Bristow , Edwards Pierrepont , and Zachariah Chandler who cleaned their respected departments of corruption . Grant dismissed Orville Babcock from the White House in 1876 , who was linked to several corruption charges and scandals .
= = Grant 's temperament and character = =
Grant was personally honest with money matters . However , he was extremely careless with his associates . Historian C. Vann Woodward stated that Grant had neither the training nor temperament to fully comprehend the complexities of rapid economic growth , industrialization , and western expansionism . Grant himself had been educated and trained at West Point in subjects as conduct , French , mathematics , artillery , cavalry tactics , and infantry . He had come from a humble background where men of superior intelligence and ability were threats rather than assets . Instead of responding with trust and warmth to men of talent , education , and culture , he turned to his military friends from the Civil War and to politicians as new as himself . A majority of Grant 's cabinet had studied at or graduated from various colleges and universities , including Harvard , Princeton , and Yale . Grant 's son , Grant Jr . , stated that Ulysses S. Grant was " incapable of supposing his friends to be dishonest . " President Grant 's Attorney General George H. Williams stated that Grant 's " trusting heart was the weakness of his character " . Williams stated that Grant was slow to make friends , however , once friendships were made " they took hold with hooks of steel . "
Many of Grant 's associates were able to capture his confidence through flattery and brought their intrigues openly to his attention . One of these men , Orville E. Babcock , was a subtle and unscrupulous enemy of reformers , having served as Grant 's personal secretary for seven years while living in the White House . Babcock , twice indicted , gained indirect control of whole departments of the government , planted suspicions of reformers in Grant 's mind , plotted their downfall , and sought to replace them with men like himself . Grant allowed Babcock to be a stumbling block for reformers who might have saved the President from scandal . Grant 's secretary of state , Hamilton Fish , who was often at odds with Babcock , made efforts to save Grant 's reputation by advocating that reformers be appointed to or kept in public office . Grant also unwisely accepted gifts from wealthy donors that cast doubts on his reputability .
= = Scandals and corruption = =
The following are scandals or instances of federal corruption associated with the Ulysses S. Grant presidential administration from 1869 to 1877 . Particularly noteworthy are Black Friday and the Whiskey Ring . The Crédit Mobilier is not included as a Grant scandal since the company was founded during the President Abraham Lincoln administration . The fraudulent Emma Silver Mine swindle that involved Ambassador to Britain Robert C. Schenck was a Grant administration embarrassment and is not included as a scandal . An analysis of the scandals and frauds reveals that a majority had to do with illicit financial gain ; the Safe Burglary Conspiracy , however , involved breaking and entering , property damage , and framing an innocent citizen . Two scandals involved women : Black Friday and the Trading Post Ring . Orville E. Babcock , who was indicted in the Whiskey Ring , insinuated that the coded entry " Sylph " signed on communication letters referred to a woman intimately involved with the President . That allegation was never proven and there was nothing to suggest that a presidential affair took place . Babcock invented the story to frustrate the prosecution . Although Grant was never proven to be directly involved with or to have personally profited from the scandals or frauds , his acceptance of personal gifts and his associations with men of questionable character severely damaged his own presidential legacy and reputation . Most of these scandals began during the eight years of prosperity after the Civil War , while many prominent scandals were exposed after the U.S. economy crashed after the Panic of 1873 .
= = = Black Friday Gold Panic 1869 = = =
The first scandal to taint the Grant administration in 1869 was Black Friday , also known as the Gold Panic , which was an attempt by two aggressive financiers to corner the price of gold without regard to the nation 's economic welfare . The intricate financial scheme was primarily conceived and administered by Wall Street manipulators Jay Gould and his partner James Fisk . Their plan was to convince President Grant not to sell Treasury gold , in order to increase the sales of agriculture products overseas and increase the shipping business of Gould 's Erie Railroad . Gould and Fisk were able to get Grant 's brother in law Abel Rathbone Corbin involved with the scheme as a way to get access to Grant himself . Gould had also given a $ 10 @,@ 000 bribe to the assistant secretary of the treasury , Daniel Butterfield , in exchange for inside information . On June 5 , 1869 while Grant was traveling from New York to Boston , on The Providence , a ship owned by both Gould and Fisk , the two speculators urged Grant not to sell any gold from the Treasury and attempted to convince Grant that a high price of gold helped farmers and the Erie Railroad . President Grant , however , was stoic , and did not agree to Fisk and Gould 's suggestion to stop releasing Treasury Gold into the market . Grant 's Secretary of Treasury , George S. Boutwell , continued to sell Treasury gold on the open market . In late August 1869 President Grant consulted with businessman , A. T. Stewart , Grant 's initial Cabinet nominee , for Secretary of Treasury , concerning the Treasury selling gold . Stewart advised Grant that the Treasury should not sell gold in order that the Government would not be involved in the Gold market . Grant , accepted Stewart 's advise , and wrote to Boutwell that selling extra Treasury gold would upset agriculture sales . Boutwell on September 1 , had originally ordered $ 9 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in gold to be sold from the Treasury in order to buy up U.S. Bonds with greenbacks . However , after receiving a letter from Grant , Boutwell cancelled the order to sell gold . Previously Secretary Boutwell had been selling gold regularly at $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 of gold each week . On September 6 , 1869 , Gould had bought the Tenth National Bank that was used as a buying house for gold , and Gould and Fisk began buying gold in earnest . As the price of gold began to rise , Grant became suspicious of gold manipulation and wrote a letter to Secretary Boutwell on September 12 , " The fact is , a desperate struggle is now taking place ... I write this letter to advise you of what I think you may expect , to put you on your guard . " However , President Grant 's personal associations with Gould and Fisk gave them the clout needed to continue their financial scam on Wall Street .
Sometime around September 19 , 1869 , Corbin had sent a letter to Grant , at the urging of Gould , desperately urging Grant not to release gold from the treasury . Grant received the letter from a messenger while playing croquet with Porter at a deluxe Pennsylvania retreat . Grant finally realized what was going on and he was determined to stop the gold manipulation scheme . When pressed for a reply to Corbin 's letter , Grant responded curtly that everything was " all right " and that there was no reply . One Grant biographer described the comical nature of the events as an Edwardian farce . Grant , however , did have his wife Julia respond in a letter to Corbin 's wife that Abel Corbin needed to get out of the gold speculation market . When Gould visited Corbin 's house , he read Julia 's letter with the warning from Grant . After reading the letter , Gould started to sell gold , buying a bit of gold at the same time to keep people from getting suspicious . Gould never told Fisk , who kept buying gold in earnest , that Grant was catching onto their predatory scheme .
Secretary Boutwell was already keeping track of the situation and knew that the profits made in the manipulated rising gold market could ruin the nation 's economy for several years . By September 21 the price of gold had jumped from $ 37 to $ 141 , and Gould and Fisk jointly owned $ 50 million to $ 60 million in gold . Boutwell and Grant finally met on Thursday , September 23 , and agreed to release gold from the treasury if the gold price kept rising . Grant wanted $ 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in gold to be released while Boutwell wanted $ 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 released . Then , on ( Black ) Friday , September 23 , 1869 , when the price of gold had soared to $ 160 an ounce , Boutwell released $ 4 million in gold specie into the market and bought $ 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in bonds . Boutwell had also ordered that the Tenth National Bank be closed on the same day . The gold market crashed and Gould and Fisk were foiled , while many investors were financially ruined .
The gold panic devastated the United States economy for months . Stock prices plunged and the price of food crops such as wheat and corn dropped severely , devastating farmers who did not recover for years afterward . Gould had earlier claimed to Grant that raising the price of gold would actually help farmers . Also Fisk refused to pay off many of his investors who had bought gold on paper . The volume of stocks being sold on Wall Street decreased by 20 % . Fisk and Gould , who could afford to hire the best lawyers , were never held accountable for their profiteering , as favorable judges declined to prosecute . Gould remained a powerful force on Wall Street for the next 20 years . Fisk , who practiced a licentious lifestyle , was killed by a jealous rival on January 6 , 1872 . Butterfield later resigned .
In an 1869 Congressional investigation into the gold panic , Democrats on the House investigation committee questioned why Julia Grant had received a package from the Adams Express Company containing money reported to be $ 25 @,@ 000 . Another source claims that the package was just $ 25 @.@ 00 , but nonetheless , it was highly unusual for a First Lady to receive cash in the mail . Corbin had bought gold at 33 margin and sold at 37 , leaving Julia a profit of $ 27 @,@ 000 . Neither Mrs. Grant nor Mrs. Corbin testified in front of the investigation committee . In 1876 Secretary of State Hamilton Fish revealed to Grant in that Orville E. Babcock , another private secretary to the President , had also been involved in gold speculations in 1869 .
= = = New York custom house ring = = =
In 1871 , the New York Custom House collected more revenue from imports than any other port in the United States . By 1872 , two congressional investigations and one by the Treasury Office under Secretary George S. Boutwell looked into allegations of a corruption ring set up at the New York Custom House under two Grant collector appointments , Moses H. Grinnell and Thomas Murphy . Both Grinnell and Murphy allowed private merchants to store goods not claimed on the docks in private warehouses for exorbitant fees . Grant 's secretaries Horace Porter and Orville E. Babcock and Grant 's friend George K. Leet , owner of a private warehouse , allegedly shared in these profits . Secretary Boutwell advocated a reform to keep imports on company dock areas rather than being stored at designated warehouses in New York . Grant 's third collector appointment , Chester A. Arthur , implemented Boutwell 's reform . On May 25 , 1870 , Boutwell had implemented reforms that reduced public cartage and government costs , stopped officer gratuities , and decreased port smuggling , but on July 2 , 1872 , U.S. Senator Carl Schurz insinuated in a speech that no reforms had been undertaken and that the old abuses at the custom house continued . The New York Times claimed that Schurz 's speech was " carefully prepared " and " more or less disfigured and discolored by error . " The second thorough congressional investigation concluded that abuses either did not exist , had been corrected , or were in the process of being corrected .
= = = Star route postal ring = = =
In the early 1870s , lucrative postal route contracts were given to local contractors on the Pacific coast and southern regions of the United States . These were known as Star Routes because an asterisk was placed on official Post Office documents . These remote routes were hundreds of miles long and went to the most rural parts of the United States by horse and buggy . Previously inaccessible areas on the Pacific coast received weekly , semi @-@ weekly , and daily mail because of these routes . However , corruption ensued , with contractors paid exorbitant fees for fictitious routes and for providing low quality postal service to the rural areas . One contractor , F.P. Sawyer , made $ 500 @,@ 000 a year on routes in the Southwest .
To obtain these highly prized postal contracts , contractors , postal clerks , and various intermediary brokers set up an intricate ring of bribery and straw bidding in the Postal Contract Office . Straw bidding reached a peak under Postmaster General John Creswell , who was exonerated by an 1872 congressional investigation that was later revealed to have been tainted by a $ 40 @,@ 000 bribe from western postal contractor Bradley Barlow . An 1876 Democratic investigation was able to temporarily shut down the ring , but it reconstituted itself and continued until a federal trial in 1882 finally ended the Star Route frauds .
= = = Salary grab = = =
On March 3 , 1873 , President Grant signed a law that increased the president 's salary from $ 25 @,@ 000 a year to $ 50 @,@ 000 a year . The law raised salaries of members of both houses of the United States Congress from $ 5 @,@ 000 to $ 7 @,@ 500 . Although pay increases were constitutional , the act was passed in secret with a clause that gave the congressmen $ 5 @,@ 000 in bonus payouts for the previous two years of their terms . The Sun and other newspapers exposed the $ 5 @,@ 000 bonus clause to the nation . The law was repealed in January 1874 and the bonuses returned to the treasury . This pay raise proposal was submitted as an amendment to the government 's general appropriations bill . Had Grant vetoed the bill , the government would not have any money to operate for the following fiscal year , which would have necessitated a special session of Congress . However , Grant missed an opportunity to make a statement by threatening a veto .
= = = Sanborn contracts and reform = = =
In 1874 , Grant 's cabinet reached its lowest ebb in terms of public trust and qualified appointments . After the presidential election of 1872 , Grant reappointed all of his cabinet with a single exception . Charges of corruption were rife , particularly from The Nation , a reliable journal that was going after many of Grant 's cabinet members . Treasury Secretary George S. Boutwell had been elected to the U.S. Senate in the 1872 election and was replaced by Assistant Treasury Secretary William A. Richardson in 1873 . Richardson 's tenure as Treasury Secretary was very brief , as another scandal erupted . The government had been known to hire private citizens and groups to collect taxes for the Internal Revenue Service . This moiety contract system , although legal , led to abuse in the loosely run Treasury Department under Sec . Richardson . John D. Sanborn was contracted by Sec . Richardson to collect certain taxes and excises that had been illegally withheld from the government ; having received an exorbitant moiety of 50 % on all tax collections . Treasury officials pressured Internal Revenue agents not to collect delinquent accounts so Sanborn could accumulate more . Although the collections were legal , Sanborn reaped $ 213 @,@ 000 in commissions on $ 420 @,@ 000 taken in taxes . A House investigation committee in 1874 revealed that Sanborn had split $ 156 @,@ 000 of this with unnamed associates as " expenses . " Although Richardson and Senator Benjamin Butler were suspected to have taken a share of the profit money , there was no paper trail to prove such transactions , and Sanborn refused to reveal with whom he split the profits . While the House committee was investigating , Grant quietly appointed Richardson to the Court of Claims and replaced him with the avowed reformer Benjamin H. Bristow . On June 22 , 1874 President Grant , in an effort of reform , signed a bill into law that abolished the moiety contract system .
= = = Delano affair = = =
In 1875 , the U.S. Department of the Interior was in serious disrepair due to corruption and incompetence . Interior Secretary Columbus Delano , discovered to have taken bribes for fraudulent land grants , was forced to resign from office on October 15 , 1875 . Delano had also given lucrative cartographical contracts to his son John Delano and Ulysses S. Grant 's own brother , Orvil Grant . Neither John Delano nor Orvil Grant performed any work , nor were they qualified to hold such surveying positions .
On October 19 , 1875 , Grant made another reforming cabinet choice when he appointed Zachariah Chandler as Secretary of the Interior . Chandler immediately went to work reforming the Interior Department by dismissing all the important clerks in the Patent Office . Chandler had discovered that during Delano 's tenure , money had been paid to fictitious clerks while other clerks had been paid without performing any services . Chandler next turned to the Department of Indian Affairs to reform another Delano debacle . President Grant ordered Chandler to fire everyone , saying , " Have those men dismissed by 3 o 'clock this afternoon or shut down the bureau . " Chandler did exactly as Grant had ordered . Chandler also banned bogus agents , known as " Indian Attorneys , " who had been paid $ 8 @.@ 00 a day plus expenses for , ostensibly , providing tribes with representation in the nation 's capital . Many of these agents were unqualified and swindled the Native American tribes into believing they had a voice in Washington .
= = = Pratt & Boyd = = =
Attorney General George H. Williams administered the United States Department of Justice with slackness . There were rumors that Williams was taking bribes in exchange for declining to prosecute pending trial cases . In 1875 , Williams was supposed to prosecute the merchant house Pratt & Boyd for fraudulent customhouse entries . The Senate Judiciary Committee had found that Williams had dropped the case after his wife had received a $ 30 @,@ 000 payoff . When informed of this , Grant forced Williams 's resignation . Williams had also indiscreetly used Justice Department funds to pay for carriage and household expenses .
= = = Whiskey Ring = = =
The worst and most famous scandal to hit the Grant administration was the Whiskey Ring of 1875 , exposed by Treasury Secretary Benjamin H. Bristow and journalist Myron Colony . Whiskey distillers had been evading taxes in the Midwest since the Lincoln Administration . Distillers of whiskey bribed Treasury Department agents who in turn aided the distillers in evading taxes to the tune of up to $ 2 million per year . The agents would neglect to collect the required excise tax of 70 cents per gallon , and then split the illegal gains with the distillers . The ringleaders had to coordinate distillers , rectifiers , gaugers , storekeepers , revenue agents , and Treasury clerks by recruitment , impressment , and extortion .
On January 26 , 1875 , Bristow ordered Internal Revenue officers in various sites to different locations , effective February 15 , 1875 , on a suggestion from Grant . This would keep the fraudulent officers off guard and allow investigators to uncover their misdeeds . Grant later rescinded the order on the grounds that advance notice would cause the ringleaders to cover their tracks and become suspicious . Rescinding Secretary Bristow 's order would later give rise to a rumor that Grant was interfering with the investigation . Although moving the supervisors most certainly would have disrupted the ring , Bristow conceded that he would need documentary evidence on the ring 's inner workings to prosecute the perpetrators . Bristow , undaunted , kept investigating , and found the ring 's secrets by sending Myron Colony and other spies to gather whiskey shipping and manufacturing information .
On May 13 , 1875 , with Grant 's endorsement , Bristow struck hard at the ring , seized the distilleries , and made hundreds of arrests . The Whiskey Ring was broken . Bristow , with the cooperation of Attorney General Edwards Pierrepont and Treasury Solicitor Bluford Wilson , launched proceedings to bring many members of the ring to trial . Bristow had obtained information that the Whiskey Ring operated in Missouri , Illinois , and Wisconsin . Missouri Revenue Agent John A. Joyce and two of Grant 's appointees , Supervisor of Internal Revenue General John McDonald and Orville E. Babcock , the private secretary to the President , would eventually be indicted in the Whiskey Ring trials . Grant 's other private secretary Horace Porter was also involved in the Whiskey Ring according to Solicitor General Bluford Wilson .
= = = = Special prosecutors appointed = = = =
Grant then appointed a special prosecutor , former senator John B. Henderson , to go after the ring . Henderson , while in the Senate , had been the administration 's worst critic , and Grant appointed him to maintain integrity in the Whiskey Ring investigation . Henderson convened a grand jury , which found that Babcock was one of the ringleaders . Grant received a letter to this effect , on which he wrote , " Let no guilty man escape . " It was discovered that Babcock sent coded letters to McDonald on how to run the ring in St. Louis . During the investigation McDonald claimed he gave Babcock $ 25 @,@ 000 from the divided profits and even personally sent him a $ 1 @,@ 000 bill in a cigar box .
After Babcock 's indictment , Grant requested that Babcock go through a military trial rather than a public trial , but the grand jury denied his request . In a reversal of his " let no guilty man escape , " order to Sec . Bristow , Grant unexpectedly issued an order not to give any more immunity to persons involved in the Whiskey Ring , leading to speculation that he was trying to protect Babcock . Although this reversal had the appearance of not letting the guilty get away , the prosecutor 's trial cases were made more difficult to prove in court . The order caused strife between Sec . Bristow and Grant , since Bristow needed distillers to testify with immunity in order to pursue the ringleaders . Prosecutor Henderson , himself , while going after members of the ring in court accused Grant of interfering with Secretary Bristow 's investigation .
The accusation angered Grant , who fired Henderson as special prosecutor . Grant then replaced Henderson with James Broadhead . Broadhead , though a capable attorney , had little time to get acquainted with the facts of Babcock 's case and those of other Whiskey Ring members . At the trial a deposition was read from President Grant stating that he had no knowledge that Babcock was involved in the ring . The jury listened to the president 's words and quickly acquitted Babcock of any charges . Broadhead went on to close out all the other cases in the Whiskey Ring . McDonald and Joyce were convicted in the graft trials and sent to prison . On January 26 , 1877 , President Grant pardoned McDonald .
= = = = President Grant 's deposition = = = =
The Whiskey Ring scandal even came to the steps of the White House . There were rumors that Grant himself was involved with the ring and was diverting its profits to his 1872 re @-@ election campaign . Grant needed to clear his own name as well as Babcock 's . Earlier , Grant had refused to believe Babcock was guilty even when Bristow and Wilson personally presented him with damaging evidence , such as two telegrams signed " Sylph " ; Babcock suggested that the signature was that of a woman giving the president " a great deal of trouble " , hoping that Wilson would back off for fear of igniting a presidential sex scandal , but Wilson was not bluffed .
On the advice of Secretary of State Hamilton Fish , the President did not testify in open court but instead gave a deposition in front of a congressional legal representative at the White House . Grant was the first and , to date , only president ever to testify for a defendant . The historic testimony came on Saturday , February 12 , 1876 . Chief Justice Morrison R. Waite , a Grant appointment to the U.S. Supreme Court , presided over the deposition . The following are excerpts from President Grant 's deposition .
Eaton : " Have you ever seen anything in the conduct of General Babcock , or has he ever said anything to you , which indicated to your mind that he was in any way interested in or concerned with the Whiskey Ring at St. Louis or elsewhere ? "
President Grant : " Never . "
Eaton : " Did General Babcock on or about April 23 , 1875 , show you a dispatch in these words : " St. Louis , April 23 , 1875 . Gen. O.E. Babcock , Executive Mansion , Washington , D.C. Tell Mack to see Parker of Colorado ; & telegram to Commissioner . Crush out St. Louis enemies . "
Cook : " Objection . " Made for the record .
President Grant : " I did not remember about these dispatches at all until since the conspiracy trials have commenced . I have heard General Babcock 's explanation of most or all of them since that . Many of the dispatches may have been shown to me at the time , and explained , but I do not remember it . "
Eaton : " Perhaps you are aware , General , that the Whiskey Ring have persistently tried to fix the origins of that ring in the necessity for funds to carry on political campaigns . Did you ever have intimation from General Babcock , or anyone else in any manner , directly or indirectly , that any funds for political purposes were being raised by any improper methods ? "
Cook : " Objection . " Made for the record .
President Grant : " I never did . I have seen since these trials intimations of that sort in the newspapers , but never before . "
Eaton : " Then let me ask you if the prosecuting officers have not been entirely correct in repelling all insinuations that you ever had tolerated any such means for raising funds . "
Cook : " Objection . " Made for the record .
President Grant : " I was not aware that they had ever attempted to repel any insinuations . "
On February 17 , 1876 , U.S. Circuit Justice John F. Dillon , another Grant appointment , overruled Cook 's objections , declaring the questions admissible in court . Grant , who was known for a photographic memory , had many uncharacteristic lapses when it came to remembering incidents involving Babcock . The deposition strategy worked and the Whiskey Ring prosecution never went after Grant again . During Babcock 's trial in St. Louis the deposition was read to the jury . Babcock was acquitted at trial . After the trial , Grant distanced himself from Babcock . After the acquittal , Babcock initially returned to his position as Grant 's private secretary outside the Oval Office . At public outcry and the objection of Hamilton Fish , Babcock was dismissed as private secretary and focused on another position that he had been given by Grant in 1871 : superintending engineer of public buildings and grounds .
Grant 's Pulitzer Prize winning biographer , William S. McFeely , stated that Grant knew Babcock was guilty and perjured himself in the deposition . According to McFeely the " evidence was irrefutable " against Babcock , and Grant knew this . McFeely also points out that John McDonald also stated that Grant knew that the Whiskey Ring existed and perjured himself to save Babcock . Grant historian Jean Edward Smith counters that evidence against Babcock was " circumstantial " and the St. Louis jury acquitted Babcock " in the absence of adequate proof . " Many of Grant 's friends who knew him claimed that the President was " a truthful man " and it was " impossible for him to lie . " Grant 's popularity , however , decreased significantly in the country as a result of his testimony and after Babcock was acquitted in the trial . Grant 's political enemies used this deposition as a launchpad to public office . The New York Tribune stated that the Whiskey Ring scandal " had been met at the entrance of the White House and turned back . " However , the national unpopularity of Grant 's testimony on behalf of his friend Babcock ruined any chances for a third term nomination .
= = = = Bristow 's investigation results = = = =
When Secretary Benjamin Bristow struck suddenly at the Whiskey Ring in May 1875 , many people were arrested and the distilleries involved in the scandal were shut down . Bristow 's investigation resulted in 350 federal indictments . There were 110 convictions , and three million dollars in tax revenues were recovered from the ring .
= = = Trading post ring = = =
Grant had no time to recover after the Whiskey Ring graft trials ended , for another scandal erupted involving War Secretary William W. Belknap . A Democratic House investigation committee revealed that Belknap had taken extortion money in exchange for an appointment to a lucrative Native American trading post . In 1870 , responding to extensive lobbying by Belknap , Congress had authorized the War Department to award private trading post contracts to military forts throughout the nation . Native Americans would come into the forts and trade for food and clothing , generating huge profits ( at the natives ' expense ) . Belknap 's wife Carrie , who desired to profit from these wealthy contracts , managed to secure a private trading post at Fort Sill for a personal friend from New York , Caleb P. Marsh .
An extortion arrangement was set up among Carrie Belknap , Caleb P. Marsh , and incumbent contract holder John S. Evans , in which Carrie Belknap and Marsh would receive $ 3 @,@ 000 every quarter , splitting the proceeds , while Evans would be able to retain his post at Fort Sill . Carrie Belknap died within the year , but William Belknap and his second wife continued to accept payments , though they were smaller due to a dip in Fort Sill 's profits . By 1876 Belknap had received $ 20 @,@ 000 from the illicit arrangement . On February 29 , 1876 , Marsh testified in front of a House investigation committee headed by Representatives Lyman K. Bass and Hiester Clymer . During the testimony Marsh testified that Belknap and both his wives had accepted money in exchange for the lucrative trading post at Fort Sill . The scandal was particularly upsetting , in this Victorian age , since it involved women . Lieut . Col. George A. Custer later testified to the Clymer committee on March 29 and April 4 that Sec . Belknap had received kick back money from the profiteering scheme of post traders through the resale of food meant for Indians .
On March 2 , 1876 , Grant was informed by Benjamin Bristow at breakfast of the House investigation against Secretary Belknap . After hearing about Belknap 's predicament , Grant arranged a meeting with Representative Bass about the investigation . However , Belknap , escorted by Interior Secretary Zachariah Chandler , rushed to the White House and met with Grant before his meeting with Representative Bass . Belknap appeared visibly upset or ill , mumbling something about protecting his wives ' honor and beseeching Grant to accept his resignation " at once . " Grant , in a hurry to get to a photography studio for a formal portrait , regretfully agreed and accepted Belknap 's resignation without reservation .
Grant historian Josiah Bunting III noted that Grant was never put on his guard when Secretary Belknap came to the White House in a disturbed manner or even asked why Belknap wanted to resign in the first place . Bunting argues that Grant should have pressed Belknap into an explanation for the abrupt resignation request . Grant 's acceptance of the resignation indirectly allowed Belknap , after he was impeached by the House of Representatives for his actions , to escape conviction , since he was no longer a government official . Belknap was acquitted by the Senate , escaping with less than the two @-@ thirds majority vote needed for conviction . Even though the Senate voted that it could put private citizens on trial , many senators were reluctant to convict Belknap since he was no longer Secretary of War . It has been suggested that Grant accepted the resignation in a Victorian impulse to protect the women involved .
= = = Cattellism = = =
Congress allotted Secretary George M. Robeson 's Department of the Navy $ 56 million for construction programs . In 1876 , a congressional committee headed by Representative Washington C. Whitthorne discovered that $ 15 million of that sum was unaccounted for . The committee suspected that Robeson , who was responsible for naval spending , embezzled some of the missing money and laundered it in real estate transactions . This allegation remained unproven by the committee .
The main charge against Robeson was taking financial favors from Alexander Cattell & Co . , a grain contractor , in exchange for giving the company profitable contracts from the Navy . An 1876 Naval Affairs committee investigation found Robeson to have received such gifts as a team of horses , Washington real estate , and a $ 320 @,@ 000 vacation cottage in Long Branch , New Jersey , from Alexander Cattell & Company . The same company also paid off a $ 10 @,@ 000 note that Robeson owed to Jay Cooke and offered itself as an influence broker for other companies doing business with the Navy , thus turning away any competitive bidding for naval contracts . Robeson was also found to have $ 300 @,@ 000 in excess to his yearly salary of $ 8000 . The House Investigation committee had searched the disorganized books of Cattell , but found no evidence of payments to Robeson . Without enough evidence for impeachment , the House ended the investigation by admonishing Robeson for gross misconduct and claimed that he had set up a system of corruption known as Cattellism .
In a previous investigation that Charles Dana headed in 1872 , Robeson had been suspected of awarding a $ 93 @,@ 000 bonus to a building contractor in a " somewhat dangerous stretch of official authority " known as the Secor claims . A competent authority claimed that the contractor had already been paid in full and there was no need for further reward . Robeson was also charged with awarding contracts to ship builder John Roach without public bidding . The latter charge proved to be unfounded . The close friendship with Daniel Ammen , Grant 's longtime friend growing up in Georgetown , Ohio , helped Robeson keep his cabinet position .
On March 18 , 1876 , Admiral David D. Porter wrote a letter to William T. Sherman , " ... Our cuttle fish [ Robeson ] of the navy although he may conceal his tracks for a while in the obscure atmosphere which surrounds him , will eventually be brought to bay .... " Robeson later testified in front of a House Naval Committee on January 16 , 1879 , about giving contracts to private companies . Robeson was asked about the use of old material to build ironclads and whether he had the authority to dispose of the Puritan , an outdated ironclad . Although Robeson served ably during the Virginius Affair and did authorize the construction of five new Navy ships , his financial integrity remained in question and was suspect during the Grant administration . To be fair , Congress gave Robeson limited funding to build ships and as Secretary was constantly finding ways to cut budgets .
= = = Safe burglary conspiracy = = =
In September 1876 , Orville E. Babcock was involved in another scandal . Corrupt building contractors in Washington , D.C. , were on trial for graft when bogus Secret Service agents working for the contractors placed damaging evidence into the safe of the district attorney who was prosecuting the ring . On the night of April 23 , 1874 , hired thieves opened the safe , using an explosive to make it appear that the safe had been broken into . One of the thieves then took the fake evidence to the house of Columbus Alexander , a citizen who was active in prosecuting the ring . The corrupt agents " arrested " the " thieves " who then committed perjury by signing a document falsely stating Alexander was involved in the safe burglary .
The conspiracy came apart when two of the thieves turned state evidence and Alexander was exonerated in court . Babcock was named as part of the conspiracy , but later acquitted in the trial against the burglars ; evidence suggests that the jury had been tampered with . Evidence also suggests that Babcock was involved with the swindles by the corrupt Washington contractors ' ring and with those who wanted to get back at Columbus Alexander , an avid reformer and critic of the Grant Administration . In 1876 Grant dismissed Babcock from the White House under public pressure due to Babcock 's unpopularity . Babcock continued on in government and became Chief Light House Inspector . In 1883 , Babcock drowned at sea at the age of 48 while supervising the building of Mosquito Inlet Light station .
= = Scandal summary table = =
= = Nepotism = =
Grant was accused by Senator Charles Sumner in 1872 of practicing nepotism while President . Sumner 's accusation was not an exaggeration . Grant 's cousin Silas A. Hudson was appointed minister to Guatemala . His brother @-@ in @-@ law Reverend M.J. Cramer was appointed as consul at Leipzig . His brother @-@ in @-@ law James F. Casey was given the position of Collector of Customs in New Orleans , Louisiana where he made money by stealing fees . Frederick Dent , another brother @-@ in @-@ law was the White House usher and made money giving out insider information . In all , it is estimated that 40 relatives somehow financially prospered indirectly while Grant was President .
= = Liberal Republican @-@ Democratic reform = =
= = = Liberal Republican = = =
The Liberal Republican movement initially began out of dissatisfaction with the centralized federal government controlled by the Radicals , a faction of the Republican Party who favored African American civil rights , a patronage system , high tariffs , and disenfranchising former confederates . It was the Radicals who sponsored the Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant . Senator Schurz , did not favor federal military intervention in Southern affairs or protecting blacks , and he was against miscegenation . In 1870 , Senator Carl Schurz and B. Gratz Brown , Governor of Missouri , broke away from the Radicals and officially founded the Liberal Republican Party . The founders argued that dependent citizens , corruption , and centralized power endangered people 's liberty . The party advocated confederate amnesty , civil service reform , and free trade . As the party grew nationally prominent persons joined including Charles Francis Adams , Jr . , Senator Charles Sumner , and editor of the Missouri Democrat , William M. Grosvenor . Grant , who was persuaded that the Liberal Republicans were bolting from the Republican Party , used the patronage system to purge them out of office in Missouri .
In 1872 , the Republican party split completely in half with Horace Greely nominated by the Liberal Republicans and Ulysses S. Grant again nominated by the more conservative Radicals . A few prominent Democratic Party leaders supported the Liberal Republican cause in Missouri . The result being that
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the Democratic Party endorsed the reformer and Liberal Republican presidential candidate Horace Greeley . Grant , though , remained very popular in the nation and won the national election of 1872 by a landslide . However , as more scandals broke out the Liberal Republicans became a party of reform who , along with the Democrats , wanted to purge the government from corruption . The wave of reform was beginning in 1875 with the Democrats controlling the House of Representatives . Eventually , Grant put reformers on his cabinet as House investigations in 1875 were beginning to expose the Whiskey Ring depleting tax revenues in the United States Treasury Department . Newspapers exposed bogus agents in Interior Department in 1875 . Navy Department corruption was exposed in 1876 . These Grant reformers included Benjamin Bristow as Secretary of Treasury ( 1874 ) , Edwards Pierrepont as Attorney General ( 1875 ) , and Zachariah Chandler as Secretary of the Interior ( 1875 ) . No reformer was appointed to the Navy Department , however .
The Liberal Republican movement lasted from 1870 to 1875 and at times it is difficult to distinguish between party members , both Democrat and Republican , who adopted all or parts of the Liberal Republican reform agenda . President Ulysses S. Grant signed the Amnesty Act of 1872 , a Liberal Republican platform , that gave amnesty to former Confederates . Another instance occurred when the Democratic Party reluctantly and chaotically melded with the Liberal Republican Party in the presidential election of 1872 , in support of the reformer , Horace Greeley . The height of the Liberal Republican era in the U.S. Congress was from the periods of 1873 to 1875 with 7 Liberal Republicans in the Senate and 4 Liberal Republicans in the House of Representatives .
= = = Democratic Party = = =
The Democratic Party reform movement in Congress , although initially a minority after the American Civil War , began during their investigation into the Grant Administration following the Black Friday gold speculation scandal in 1869 . The Democratic reform movement sought to expose the corruption in the Grant Administration and to do this needed a majority in the House of Representatives . Following the inability of the Grant Administration and Republican Congress to stop the damaging economic effects from Panic of 1873 , in addition to the unpopularity of the Republican Reconstruction Acts , the Democratic Party , on March 4 , 1875 gained a majority in the House of Representatives . Having gained the majority , the Democrats became the reforming party . For the next two years they investigated corruption scandals in the Grant Administration to increase their chances of winning the 1876 presidential election .
= = Causes of national corruption = =
The scandals in the Grant Administration were indicative of greater national moral decline . According to one respected historian , C. Vann Woodward , there are three primary forces that caused national corruption during this time period . The most compelling event that lead to corruption was the Civil War itself , unleashing a torrent of human depravity , deaths and unscrupulously gained riches enabled by persons who rose from deserved obscurity to powerful military and civilian positions . These men — the claim agents , speculators , subsidy @-@ seekers , government contractors , and the all @-@ purpose crooks — were born from the war and entered politics after the fighting stopped . The second generator of corruption was the opening of the West and South to unrestrained exploitation that caused older parts of the country to fall into moral confusion . The third cause , according to Vann Woodward , was the rapid rise of American industrialism , which loosened the nation 's standards and values . Americans found themselves released from discipline and restraint by the rapid growth of industrial wealth after the Civil War .
= = Legacy = =
The nation and the constitution survived the rising tide of financial and political corruption during President Grant 's two terms in office from 1869 to 1877 . With slavery no longer the clear moral issue for the American people , and absent the dynamic leadership of Abraham Lincoln taken by an assassin 's bullet , the nation for a while floundered in the seas of financial and political indulgence . The high @-@ water mark of the flood of corruption that swept the nation took place in 1874 , after Benjamin Bristow was put in charge to reform the Treasury . In 1873 , Grant 's friend and publisher , Mark Twain , along with coauthor Charles Dudley Warner , called this American era of speculation and corruption the Gilded Age . Between 1870 and 1900 , the United States population nearly doubled in size , gainful employment increased by 132 percent , and non farm labor constituted 60 percent of the work force .
Inevitably , Grant 's low standards in cabinet appointments , and his readiness to cover for associates or friends involved in condemnable behavior , defied the popular notion of a government free of corruption and favoritism . Stemming the flood of corruption that swept the nation during Grant 's presidency and the Reconstruction period would have required the strength of a moral giant in the White House . Grant was no moral giant . In fairness , the booming economy that proceeded after the Civil War enveloped the whole nation in a chaotic frenzy for achieving financial gain and success . The caricature and cliché of the Grant Presidency is eight years of political plundering and that little was accomplished . Grant , however , was committed to complete the unification of a bitterly divided country torn by Civil War , to honor Abraham Lincoln , and give full citizenship rights to African Americans and their posterity .
An analysis of the scandals reveals the many powers at Grant 's disposal as the President of the United States . His confidants knew this and in many situations took advantage of Grant 's presidential authority . Having the ability to pardon , accept resignations , and even vouch for an associate in a deposition , created an environment difficult , though not impossible , for reformers in and outside of the Grant Administration . Grant himself , far from being politically naive , had played a shrewd hand at times in the protection of cabinet and appointees . Examples include not allowing Benjamin Bristow to move the Tax Revenue Supervisors and relinquishing immunity in the Whiskey Ring cases , made Grant a protector of political patronage . In fairness , Grant did appoint cabinet reformers and special prosecutors that were able to clean up the Treasury , Interior , War , and Justice departments . Grant , himself , personally participated in reforming the Department of Indian Affairs , by firing all the corrupt clerks . No reforming cabinet member , however , was installed in the Department of Navy .
= = = Books = = =
Ambrose , Stephen E. ( 2001 ) . Nothing Like it in the World : The Men Who Built the Transcontinental Railroad , 1863 – 1869 . New York : Simon & Schuster . ISBN 0 @-@ 684 @-@ 84609 @-@ 8 .
Barnett , Louise ( 2006 ) . Touched by fire : the life , death , and mythic afterlife of George Armstrong . Bison Books . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8032 @-@ 6266 @-@ 9 .
Bunting III , Josiah ( 2001 ) . A. M. Schlesinger Junior , ed . Ulysses S. Grant . Times Books , Henry Holt and Company , LCC . ISBN 0 @-@ 8050 @-@ 6949 @-@ 6 .
Calhoun , Charles William ( 2007 ) . The gilded age : perspectives on the origins of modern America . Rowman & Littlefield . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7425 @-@ 5038 @-@ 4 .
Donovan , James ( 2008 ) . A Terrible Glory . New York , New York : Back Bay Books . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 316 @-@ 15578 @-@ 6 .
The Encyclopedia Americana 8 . New York : J.B. Lyon Company . 1918 .
Garland , Hamlin ( 1898 ) . Ulysses S. Grant His life and character . New York Double Day & McClure Co .
Grossman , Mark ( 2003 ) . Political corruption in America : an encyclopedia of scandals , power , and greed . ABC @-@ Clio . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 57607 @-@ 060 @-@ 4 .
Hatfield , Mark O. ; Ritchie , Donald A. ( 2001 ) . Vice Presidents of the United States , 1789- 1993 ( PDF ) . Washington , D.C. : U.S. Government Printing Office . ISBN 9996439895 .
Hinsdale , Mary Louise ( 1911 ) . A History of the President 's Cabinet . Ann Arbor , MI : G. Wahr .
McFeely , William S. ( 1981 ) . Grant : A Biography . W.W. Norton & Company . ISBN 0 @-@ 393 @-@ 32394 @-@ 3 .
Morris , Charles R. ( 2005 ) . The Tycoons : How Andrew Carnegie , John D. Rockefeller , Jay Gould , and J.P. Morgan Invented the American Supereconomy . New York : H. Holt and Co . ISBN 0 @-@ 8050 @-@ 8134 @-@ 8 .
O 'Brien , Frank Michael ( 1918 ) . The story of the Sun : New York , 1833 – 1918 . New York : Doran .
Pierson , Arthur Tappan ( 1880 ) . Zachariah Chandler : an outline sketch of his life and public services . Detroit : Post and Tribune .
Rhodes , James Ford ( 1912 ) . History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 to the Final Restoration of Home Rule at the South in 1877 . New York : The MacMillan Company .
Salinger , Lawrence M. ( 2005 ) . Encyclopedia of White @-@ collar & Corporate Crime . Thousand Oaks , California : Sage Publications . ISBN 0 @-@ 7619 @-@ 3004 @-@ 3 .
Simon , John Y. ; Grant , Ulysses S. ( 2005 ) . The Papers of Ulysses S. Grant 27 . Southern Illinois University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8093 @-@ 2631 @-@ 0 .
Slap , Andrew L. ( 2006 ) . The doom of Reconstruction : the liberal Republicans in the Civil War era . Fordham University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8232 @-@ 2709 @-@ 9 .
Smith , Jean Edward ( 2001 ) . Grant . Simon and Schuster . ISBN 0 @-@ 684 @-@ 84927 @-@ 5 .
Spenser , Jesse Ames ( 1913 ) . Edwin Wiley , ed . The United States Its Beginnings , Progress and Modern Development 9 . New York , New York : American Educational Alliance .
Stevens , Walter Barlow ; Bixby , William Kenny ( 1916 ) . Grant in Saint Louis . Franklin Club of Saint Louis .
Swann , Leonard Alexander ( 1980 ) . John Roach , maritime entrepreneur . Ayer Co Pub . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 405 @-@ 13078 @-@ 6 .
Twain , Mark ; Warner , Charles Dudley ( 1874 ) . The Gilded Age . Nabu Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 142 @-@ 68887 @-@ 5 .
= = = Newspapers = = =
Staff writer ( September 8 , 1876 ) . " The Safe Burglary Case : Preparing for the trial – Witnesses for the defense summoned " . The New York Times ( New York , NY ) .
Staff writer ( September 23 , 1876 ) . " The Safe Burglary Case : Columbus Alexander and Major Richards of the Washington police examined " . The New York Times ( New York , NY ) .
= = = Online = = =
" 1876 Events " . Harpers Weekly . Retrieved March 12 , 2010 .
Kennedy , Robert C. Kennedy ( 2001 ) . " ' Why We Laugh ' Pro Tem " . Harper 's Weekly . Retrieved March 11 , 2010 .
Kiersey , David ; Choiniere , Ray . " Excerpted from Presidential Temperaments " . keirsey.com. Retrieved March 12 , 2010 .
" Party Divisions of the House of Representatives ( 1879 to Present ) " . U.S. House of Representatives . Retrieved January 18 , 2010 .
" Party Division in the Senate , 1789 – Present " . U.S. Senate . Retrieved January 18 , 2010 .
Pesca , Mike ( November 2 , 2005 ) . " Orville Babcock 's Indictment and the CIA Leak Case " . Day to Day . Retrieved January 2 , 2010 .
Rives , Timothy ( 2000 ) . " Grant , Babcock , and the Whiskey Ring " . archives.gov. Retrieved January 18 , 2010 .
Shenkman , Rick . " The Last High White House Official Indicted While in Office : U.S. Grant 's Orville Babcock " . History News Network . Retrieved February 24 , 2010 .
Woodward , C. Vann ( April 1957 ) . " The Lowest Ebb " . American Heritage . Retrieved February 24 , 2010 .
= Architecture of Scotland in the Prehistoric era =
The architecture of Scotland in the prehistoric era includes all human building within the modern borders of Scotland , before the arrival of the Romans in Britain in the first century BCE . Stone Age settlers began to build in wood in what is now Scotland from at least 8 @,@ 000 years ago . The first permanent houses of stone were constructed around 6 @,@ 000 years ago , as at Knap of Howar , Orkney and settlements like Skara Brae . There are also large numbers of chambered tombs and cairns from this era , particularly in the west and north . In the south and east there are earthen barrows , often linked to timber monuments of which only remnants remain . Related structures include bank barrows , cursus monuments , mortuary enclosures and timber halls . From the Bronze Age there are fewer new buildings , but there is evidence of crannogs , roundhouses built on an artificial islands and of Clava cairns and the first hillforts . From the Iron Age there is evidence of substantial stone Atlantic roundhouses , which include broch towers , smaller duns . There is also evidence of about 1 @,@ 000 hillforts in Scotland , most located below the Clyde @-@ Forth line .
= = Stone Age = =
The oldest house for which there is evidence in Britain is the oval structure of wooden posts found at South Queensferry near the Firth of Forth , dating from the Mesolithic period , about 8240 BCE . The earliest stone structures are probably the three hearths found at Jura , dated to about 6000 BCE . With the development of agriculture , groups of settlers began building stone houses on what is now Scottish soil in the Neolithic era , around 6 @,@ 000 years ago , and the first villages around 500 years later . Neolithic habitation , burial and ritual sites are particularly common and well @-@ preserved in the Northern and Western Isles , where a lack of trees led to most structures being built of local stone . The stone building at Knap of Howar at Papa Westray , Orkney is one of the oldest surviving houses in north @-@ west Europe , making use of locally gathered rubble in a dry @-@ stone construction , it was probably occupied for 900 years , between 3700 and 2800 BCE . Skara Brae on the Mainland of Orkney also dates from this era , occupied from about 3100 to 2500 BCE and is Europe 's most complete Neolithic village .
There are also large numbers of chambered tombs and cairns from this period . Many different types have been identified , but they can be roughly grouped into passage graves , gallery graves and stone cists . Cists are relatively simple box @-@ like graves , usually made up of stone slaps and covered with a large stone or slab . Maes Howe , near Stenness on the mainland of Orkney ( dated 3400 – 3200 BCE ) and Monamore , Isle of Arran ( dated approximately 3500 BCE ) are passage graves , of megalith construction , built with large stones , many of which weigh several tons . Gallery graves are rectangular gallery @-@ like spaces , where the entrance at one end is the width of the gallery . These were sometimes lined or roofed with slabs and then covered with earth . Among the most impressive surviving monuments of the period are the first sets of standing stones in Scotland , such as those at Stenness on the mainland of Orkney , which date from about 3100 BCE , of four stones , the tallest of which is 16 feet ( 5 m ) in height .
In contrast to the Highlands and Islands where stone was extensively used , in the south and east the most visible architectural survivals of the Neolithic are mainly earthen barrows , the earliest probably dating from the beginning of the fourth millennium BCE . Today these monuments consist of massive mounds of earth or stone , most commonly trapezoidal in plan and often orientated to the east . They are widely distributed in the Lowlands , particularly in Aberdeenshire , Angus , Dumfries and Galloway and the Scottish Borders . Related structures include bank barrows , cursus monuments , mortuary enclosures , timber halls , and other forms of enclosure . Bank barrows are parallel @-@ sided mounds , usually flanked by ditches on either side . Originally believed to be Roman in origin , cursus monuments also consist of long parallel lengths of banks of earth with external ditches , but with an open avenue or enclose between . Both forms are usually associated with burial chambers . Examples of bank barrows in Scotland include from Perthshire the long mound at Auchenlaich and the hybrid bank barrow / cursus monument and at Cleaven Dyke , which stretches for over 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 km ) . Mortuary enclosures are usually sub @-@ rectangular banks with external ditches and raised platforms of stone or wood within them , thought by J. G. Scott to be used for the exposure of corpses prior to burial elsewhere , although this interpretation is disputed . Remains of mortuary enclosures of this period are often found under long barrows . Key examples include Pitnacree , Perthshire and two closely related sites at Lochhill and Slewcairn , both in Kirkcudbright . The timber halls are probably unique to Scotland and were massive roofed buildings made of oak , all of which seem to have been subsequently burnt down . There is debate as to the role of these buildings , which have been seen variously as regular farming homesteads of Neolithic families and as related to a series of monumental constructions such as barrows . The hall at Balbridie , Aberdeenshire was 85 feet ( 26 m ) long , 43 feet ( 13 m ) wide and may have had a roof 30 feet ( 9 m ) high , making it large enough to accommodate up to 50 people .
= = Bronze Age = =
As bronze working developed from about 2000 BCE , there was a decline in the building of large new structures , which , with a reduction of the total area under cultivation , suggests a fall in population . From the Early and Middle Bronze Age there is evidence of cellular round houses of stone , as at Jarlshof and Sumburgh on Shetland . At Jarlshof these are oval houses with thick stone walls , which may have been partly subterranean at the earliest period of inhabitation , a technique that provided both structural stability and insulation . There is also evidence of the occupation of crannogs , roundhouses partially or entirely built on an artificial islands , usually in lakes , rivers and estuarine waters . They were often constructed of layers of brushwood and rubble . Sometimes they were revetted around the edges with vertical piles and sometimes surfaced with logs of oak .
The creation of cairns and Megalithic monuments continued into this period . There are approximately fifty Clava cairns in Scotland , named after those at Balnuaran of Clava near Inverness . They take two distinct forms , either a circular rubble enclosure known as " ring cairns " , or passage graves , with a long entrance , usually in complex astronomical alignments . As elsewhere in Europe , hill forts were first introduced in this period , including the occupation of Eildon hill near Melrose in the Scottish Borders , from around 1000 BCE , which accommodated several hundred houses on a fortified hilltop , and Traprain Law in East Lothian , which had a 20 @-@ acre enclosure , sectioned in two places west of the summit , made up of a coursed , stone wall with a rubble core .
= = Iron Age = =
In the early Iron Age , from the seventh century BCE , cellular houses begin to be replaced on the northern isles by simple Atlantic roundhouses , substantial circular buildings with a drystone construction . Important examples are at Quanterness , Bu , Pierowall , and Tofts Ness on Orkney , and at Clickhimin on Shetland . From about 400 BC more complex Atlantic roundhouses began to be built , as at Howe , Orkney and Crosskirk , Caithness .
The most massive constructions that date from this era are the circular broch towers , probably dating from about 200 BCE . They are drystone hollow @-@ walled structures that are unique to Scotland . Most ruins only survive up to a few metres above ground level , although there are five extant examples of towers whose walls still exceed 21 feet ( 6 m ) in height . There are at least 100 broch sites in Scotland , of which the best preserved include those at South Yarrows near Wick , Midhowe Broch on Orkney and the Broch of Clickimin and the Broch of Mousa in Shetland . Despite extensive research , their purpose and the nature of the societies that created them are still a matter of debate .
Archaeologists since the 1960s have distinguished brochs from smaller structures of similar construction , usually called duns . The heaviest evidence of the occupation of crannogs was in this era , but they would continue to be used until the Middle Ages . This period also saw the beginnings of wheelhouses , a roundhouse with a characteristic outer wall , within which was a circle of stone piers ( bearing a resemblance to the spokes of a wheel ) , but these would flourish most in the era of Roman occupation . There is evidence for about 1 @,@ 000 Iron Age hillforts in Scotland , most located below the Clyde @-@ Forth line . The majority are circular , with a single palisade around an enclosure . Most are relatively small , covering one or two acres , but some are much larger as at Castle O 'er , Birrenwark , Cadimuir , Cadroner and White Meldon . They appear to have been largely abandoned in the Roman period , but some seem to have been reoccupied after their departure .
= 1953 – 54 Port Vale F.C. season =
The 1953 – 54 season was Port Vale 's 42nd season of football in the Football League , and their fifth season overall in the Third Division North . Freddie Steele 's side were crowned Third Division North champions with 69 points out of a possible 92 , eleven points ahead of their nearest rivals . They also reached the semi @-@ finals of the FA Cup , and would be denied an appearance in the final due to a controversial goal from a dubious penalty . These achievements were based upon a record @-@ breaking ' Iron Curtain ' defence , and a solid squad of nineteen players , most of whom had taken the club to second in the league the previous season .
Seven still @-@ standing club records were set this season , including three Football League records . One Football League record was for the fewest Football League goals conceded in a 46 match season – 26 , just over one every two games . Just five of these were conceded at home , another Football League record . This was based upon 30 clean sheets , again a Football League record . They also recorded a club record low of three league defeats , and a club record home clean sheet streak of eleven matches , lasting from 7 September 1953 to 13 February 1954 . Another club record was a streak of six away draws , lasting from 20 March to 26 April . They were undefeated at home all season , continuing a 42 match unbeaten run started on 8 November 1952 , that would last until 18 September 1954 .
The key players that formed the first eleven of 1953 – 54 were : Ray King ( goalkeeper ) ; Reg Potts and Stan Turner ( full @-@ backs ) ; Tommy Cheadle , Albert Leake , Roy Sproson ( half @-@ backs ) ; Colin Askey , John Cunliffe , Ken Griffiths , Basil Hayward , and Albert Mullard ( forwards ) ; Derek Tomkinson ( reserve forward ) . Their achievements came as a team , without any outstanding stars , which caused The Sentinel to remark that the whole team were stars .
= = Pre @-@ season = =
The pre @-@ season saw no new signings as the young , mostly local squad that had finished second in the 1952 – 53 campaign was enough for manager Freddie Steele . Steele signed a three @-@ year contract following his success the previous season . He considered signing Stoke City goalkeeper Dennis Herod , and the two parties held talks before he was instead sold to Stockport County for £ 500 . Alf Jones was given his first professional contract , whilst Selwyn Whalley ( who was training to become teacher ) , Harry Oliver and John Poole ( both engineering apprentices ) all were given part @-@ time professional contracts . Don Bould and Ron Fitzgerald returned from national service to become full @-@ time professionals . This gave the club a total of 21 full @-@ time professionals , six part @-@ time players and ten players aged 17 – 21 who could only play and train if they could find time off from their compulsory two @-@ year national service . The strip was a traditional white shirt with black shorts , whilst the change kit of red and white stripes were donated by a friend of one of the club 's directors , who was a Sunderland supporter .
There was only one public pre @-@ season friendly on 13 August , which saw the club 's first team take on the reserves ; it ended with a surprise 4 – 2 victory for the reserves , Roland Lewis scoring a hat @-@ trick . Pre @-@ season training consisted primarily of assistant manager Ken Fish leading a marathon running session from Burslem to Hanley and back to Burslem following a stop at a pub for a half @-@ pint of shandy . After returning to the ground Fish would organise a practise game . The fitness work was actually crucial to the team 's success , as Steele was ahead of his time in that he insisted that wide players should defend when the opposition were on the ball , in order to support the defence . Superstition was of great importance to Steele , who ensured that the team rigidly stuck their pre @-@ match rituals such as the intricacies of kit layout and the order in which players entered the pitch .
= = Third Division North = =
The season began with a 2 – 1 win over Mansfield Town at Field Mill on 19 August ; Chris Marron put Mansfield ahead on 52 minutes , before Roy Sproson scored the equaliser on 69 minutes , Basil Hayward scored the winning goal three minutes later after being the first to react to the rebound that came when Colin Askey 's shot hit the crossbar . The main surprise in the line @-@ up of the opening day was that goalkeeper Ray Hancock had been dropped in favour of Ray King after King impressed in the pre @-@ season friendly , the club 's positive season meant that Hancock was unable to win back his place in the side . Vale were then held to two consecutive goalless draws but remained unbeaten in their first seven league games , conceding just two goals . This run included a 3 – 0 win over Darlington at Feethams , and a 4 – 0 win over Barrow in which Hayward scored a hat @-@ trick . They had risen to the top of the table by the third game of the season and remained in first place until the end of the season . Of the Barrow first eleven that day three of the players were brothers : Jack , Alan and Bert Keen .
Vale lost by a single goal at Redheugh Park against Gateshead on 12 September ; Vale , playing in their change kit , were beaten by a 57th @-@ minute goal from John Ingham . This brought to an end the club 's then @-@ record streak of 16 games unbeaten . Four days later Vale recorded a 2 – 1 win over Bradford Park Avenue at the Horsfall Stadium despite Reg Potts being injured with a swollen ankle early in the match . A 2 – 0 home win over Workington on 19 September began a sequence of five clean sheets , with Jim Elsby standing in for Potts as Steele changed the starting line @-@ up for the first time in eight games – this brought Potts ' run of 73 consecutive appearances to an end . The defensive fivesome of keeper Ray King , Tommy Cheadle , Reg Potts , Stan Turner and Roy Sproson began to be known as ' the Iron Curtain ' or ' the Steele Curtain ' ( a play on the manager 's name ) . A 21 September game against nearby unbeaten Crewe Alexandra was billed as a ' crunch clash ' between first and second , and a Sproson goal on 87 minutes won the match for the Vale . For the return a week later a stadium record 17 @,@ 883 packed into Gresty Road to witness a goalless draw at Crewe . The attendance figures were helped by the management team of the Crewe Works , who allowed their workforce to leave work an hour early in order to make it for the 5 : 10pm kick @-@ off . The draw was achieved despite injuries to Albert Leake , Hayward and John Cunliffe , who were replaced by Derek Tomkinson , Roland Lewis and Mick Hulligan .
On 3 October , Vale secured the biggest ever win at Vale Park when they beat York City 5 – 0 . Seven days later Vale 's clean sheet streak came to an end , though they still secured a 2 – 1 victory over Chesterfield at Saltergate ; Cyril Hatton was the scorer for Chesterfield , though it proved not enough to save his team 's unbeaten home record . Albert Mullard had a penalty kick saved towards the end of the game by goalkeeper Ron Powell , the only one of two penalties the club were awarded throughout the campaign . Vale then beat Tranmere Rovers 2 – 0 after their defence successfully contained the threat posed by the division 's then @-@ top scorer Cyril Done . The following week they won 1 – 0 at Halifax Town in a game where Ken Griffiths hit the woodwork three times .
On 7 November , Vale conceded twice in one game for the first time in the season , as Peel Park saw their Accrington Stanley side achieve a 2 – 2 draw with the Vale . Vale lost a two @-@ goal lead in the match , as Ian Brydon scored after the ball got stuck in the mud and then Les Cocker scored the equalising goal after Ray King failed to hold on to a shot . By this time Vale were building a significant point advantage over the rest of the league . On 28 November , Ken Griffiths scored a hat @-@ trick as Vale ' tore apart ' a poor Rochdale side 6 – 0 , exceeding the record Vale Park win that had been set only two months earlier .
Steele was investigated by a joint FA / Football League inquiry for his time as Mansfield Town manager in regard to suspected illegal payments – found guilty , he was given a £ 250 fine ( equivalent to around £ 6 @,@ 000 in 2014 ) . The good run of results continued though , as they beat fifth @-@ placed Barnsley 1 – 0 at Oakwell through a Hayward goal . On Christmas Day and Boxing Day Vale recorded two 1 – 0 wins over Chester , with Hayward again the only player to find the net . Captain Tommy Cheadle pulled a hamstring against Chester , and lost his place in the team as Steele moved the positions around to accommodate Derek Tomkinson in the team . Roland Lewis was made available on a free transfer in December , and moved to non @-@ league side Witton Albion .
The club were granted a licence to build a stand on the Railway Terrace at a cost of £ 25 @,@ 000 . Vale struggled in the league in early 1954 , losing 2 – 1 to Hartlepools United in a fierce wind at Victoria Park . Cheadle was again absent through injury , as two goals from Tommy McGuigan ended Vale 's record run of 21 games unbeaten . Title rivals Gateshead then left Vale Park with a point after a goalless draw , ending the club 's record run of 12 consecutive home victories .
A shock came on 6 February , when Bill Shankly 's Workington earned a 2 – 0 win at Borough Park – the only time in the season Vale lost by more than one goal . Seven days later Scunthorpe & Lindsey United left Vale Park with a point as the home side came close to finding the net on numerous occasions without success despite one shot from Hayward partially injuring goalkeeper Norman Malan after he struck the ball hard into Malan 's jaw . Following this short run of poor form they next recorded a win against York City , securing a 1 – 0 victory at Bootham Crescent . On 27 February , Chesterfield became the first away side to score at Vale Park since September , as they fought back from a two @-@ goal deficit to win a point . Vale had previously conceded just one goal in 20 home games over an 11 @-@ month period , and had last conceded twice in a home league game on 30 August 1952 .
On 6 March , Tranmere Rovers striker Bill Bainbridge put his side ahead at Prenton Park , but the Vale equalised within two minutes and went on to win the game 3 – 1 . They beat Halifax 2 – 0 the following week , with both goals coming in the last 14 minutes of the game . The trip to face Carlisle United at Brunton Park five days later saw six players sit out with injuries , leaving Hancock , Tomkinson , Len Barber , Elsby , Hulligan and Alan Bennett all to make rare appearances ; Ken Fish also took charge of the team as Freddie Steele was watching FA Cup opponents West Bromwich Albion . The game finished goalless , with both Hancock and " Cumbrians " goalkeeper Jimmy McLaren receiving praise for several excellent saves . Vale ended the month with a 1 – 0 victory over Accrington Stanley despite Barber missing the second and last penalty the club would be awarded in the season .
Despite playing twelve games in thirty days throughout April they remained unbeaten . On 10 April they thrashed Stockport County 7 – 0 in a ground record victory , with Hayward scoring a hat @-@ trick – they were 6 – 0 up after 36 minutes but then proceeded to play at ' a pleasant trot ' . The championship title was secured on 17 April at Spotland with a goalless draw with Rochdale . They conceded just two goals in their final seven league games .
Vale finished top of the table with 69 points , eleven clear of second @-@ placed Barnsley . Their 26 league goals conceded in a 46 games was a record . Just five of these were conceded at home , another Football League record . This was based upon 30 clean sheets , again a Football League record . Ray King kept 29 of these clean sheets , a record only equalled by Gillingham goalkeeper Jim Stannard in 1995 – 96 . Vale 's tally of just three league defeats was a club record . They were undefeated at home all season , continuing a 42 match unbeaten run started on 8 November 1952 , that would last until 18 September 1954 . Their achievements was built on a settled squad of nineteen players , twelve of which played regularly . They were the first team to play 54 competitive games in a single season .
= = = Results = = =
Port Vale 's score comes first
Sourced from Statto .
= = = Final league table = = =
P
= Matches played ; W =
Matches won ; D
= Matches drawn ; L =
Matches lost ; F
= Goals for ; A =
Goals against ; GA
= Goal average ; Pts =
Points
= = FA Cup = =
In the FA Cup , a 3 – 1 win at Feethams took the Vale past league rivals Darlington in the First Round . Les Robson had put the " Quakers " ahead by half @-@ time after Ray King miss @-@ kicked a clearance , but the Vale controlled the game as soon as Albert Leake scored the equaliser .
In the Second Round Vale drew another league rival in Southport , who battled to a 1 – 1 draw at Haig Avenue on 12 December , Harry Whitworth 's header cancelling out Basil Hayward 's opener . The Vale players later admitted they were fortunate to come away with a draw , especially seen as Colin Askey and Albert Leake spent much of the game limping . Two days later Vale recorded a 2 – 0 win in the replay in what was a tough game .
In the Third Round , Queens Park Rangers of the Third Division South were beaten 1 – 0 at Loftus Road . The pitch was muddy and the weather was pouring rain in a game that was inevitably poor in quality , settled in the 50th minute by Albert Leake following a long ball played by John Cunliffe .
The Fourth Round held First Division club Cardiff City in snowy conditions at Ninian Park . Vale won 2 – 0 , and their victory was aided by the fact that Cardiff goalkeeper Ron Howells had to leave the pitch after 20 minutes after being knocked out following a collision with defender Derrick Sullivan , leaving his ten @-@ man team to play 70 minutes with defender Alf Sherwood in goal . Vale attacked through the wings to get in numerous crosses to the box , from which Ken Griffiths and Albert Leake scored their goals . Centre @-@ half Tommy Cheadle restricted centre @-@ forward Trevor Ford to a quiet game , and at full @-@ time the pair were full of bruises but still left the pitch with a handshake and a smile . Cardiff placed a £ 25 @,@ 000 transfer bid for winger Colin Askey , and after their offer was rejected Cardiff stated they were prepared to pay more than £ 25 @,@ 000 , but Port Vale refused any negotiations . Other top clubs also made inquiries , but were all turned away .
In the Fifth Round , the " Valiants " faced holders Blackpool , and 42 @,@ 000 tickets were sold for the clash at Vale Park . The victors of the ' Matthews Final ' brought Stanley Matthews and six other internationals to Vale Park , as well a travelling contingent of 10 @,@ 500 . Albert Leake scored two goals on the waterlogged pitch , as his team put ' a dazzling display in attack and defence ' and their ' hard @-@ fighting , quick @-@ on @-@ the @-@ ball play smothered Blackpool 's intricate approach work ' .
In the Sixth Round they faced Third Division South club Leyton Orient at Brisbane Road , as 8 @,@ 000 Vale fans made up a 31 @,@ 000 crowd . In the days leading up to the game thieves had stolen 1 @,@ 200 matchday tickets and police were vigilant to catch out anyone who tried to enter the stadium with these stolen tickets . The only goal of the game came from Leake – who struck the ball into the net after controlling the ball from a Hayward knock @-@ down from an Askey corner – put Vale into the semi @-@ finals , with the team ' delightedly mobbed ' by supporters after the finish . Ray King made a name for himself in the dying moments of the game after making a save from a George Poulton shot .
The 25 @,@ 000 tickets Vale were allotted for the semi @-@ final clash with West Bromwich Albion at Villa Park sold out on the first day . In all 100 coaches and 14 excursion trains took the supporters to Birmingham for the match on 27 March , at which time high @-@ scoring West Brom were top of the First Division – in all 68 @,@ 221 spectators packed into the stadium . This meant the match secured the club a total of £ 20 @,@ 086 in gate receipts . Ken Griffiths was unable to recover from a knee injury in time for the match and so was replaced by Derek Tomkinson , this was the first and only change to the first eleven throughout the cup run . In the match itself , the ' constructive play ' of Brom was halted by the Vale defence , and a Leake goal on 40 minutes saw Vale 1 – 0 up at half @-@ time . The second half saw the " Throstles " switch to a long ball game , and on 62 minutes Cheadle was bustled off the ball and could only watch the equaliser cross the line . Eight minutes later captain Cheadle was judged to have fouled George Lee just inside the penalty box , though the Port Vale players maintained that the challenge took place well outside of the box , and that Lee also handled the ball . Former " Valiant " star Ronnie Allen converted the resulting penalty . Later in the match Leake had an equalising goal disallowed for offside , and Vale therefore failed to be the first third tier club to reach an FA Cup Final .
" West Brom were top of the First Division at the time , but we were playing out of our skins and we should have gone through . We were devastated after the game . I guess it was just fate , it wasn 't meant to be – but that doesn 't make it any easier to take . They score two dodgy goals and we should have been going to Wembley . Their first goal was a fluke of an own goal which came off the back of Tommy Cheadle 's head . Poor Tommy was as deaf as a door post and I was shouting at him to leave it , but he didn 't hear me and he slipped and put it in the net ... Also , the penalty was never a penalty ; the foul was easily outside the box . Looking at the television replays of the incident , even in grainy black and white , you can see that is obvious . Ronnie Allen , who used to play for Vale , took the penalty . He used to practise them against me in those days , so I knew exactly where was going to hit it , and he knew that I knew . When he stepped up , though , he hammered it right into the corner . I got my fingertips to it , but it was hit too hard and flew into the net – and that was that , we were out . "
= = = Results = = =
= = Finances = =
On the financial side , a new profit of £ 2 @,@ 628 was recorded despite the only transfer activity being a £ 350 credit . Gate receipts had risen by more than £ 11 @,@ 000 to £ 50 @,@ 940 thanks to a then club record average attendance of 16 @,@ 702 . No first team players departed in the summer of 1954 due to the club 's " no buy , no sell " policy . At the end of the season only four players were released : William Cook , F.Viggars , Alf Jones and Lovatt , whilst A.Wharton was made available on a free transfer . None of these five players would play a game in the Football League . In July 1954 the new stand at Vale Park was completed , providing cover for 4 @,@ 500 seated and 12 @,@ 000 standing spectators . The club charged £ 2 @.@ 50 for season tickets to the 42 @,@ 000 ( 1 @,@ 010 seated ) capacity stadium .
On 29 March 1954 , the Vale team played an " All @-@ Star XI " in order to raise money for former Port Vale playing staff who had given long service to the club . The All @-@ Star team was as follows : Frank Swift , Bert Sproston , Andy Beattie , Bill Corkhill , Les McDowall , Joe Mercer , Sammy Crooks , Raich Carter , Freddie Steele , Tim Ward and Peter Doherty ; the All @-@ Stars won 2 – 1 with both goals coming from Steele , making the club 's manager the first player to score two goals against the Vale in one match that season .
= = Player statistics = =
Notes
Players marked with an asterisk ( * ) were on national service for all or part of the season .
Positions are as follows : GK - goalkeeper , FB - full @-@ back , HB - half @-@ back , FW - forward .
= Shoshone National Forest =
Shoshone National Forest ( / ʃoʊˈʃoʊniː / shoh @-@ SHOH @-@ nee ) is the first federally protected National Forest in the United States and covers nearly 2 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ha ) in the state of Wyoming . Originally a part of the Yellowstone Timberland Reserve , the forest is managed by the United States Forest Service and was created by an act of Congress and signed into law by U.S. President Benjamin Harrison in 1891 . Shoshone National Forest is one of the first nationally protected land areas anywhere . Native Americans have lived in the region for at least 10 @,@ 000 years , and when the region was first explored by European adventurers , forestlands were occupied by several different tribes . Never heavily settled or exploited , the forest has retained most of its wildness . Shoshone National Forest is a part of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem , a nearly unbroken expanse of federally protected lands encompassing an estimated 20 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 8 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 ha ) .
The Absaroka and Beartooth Mountains are partly in the northern section of the forest . The Wind River Range is in the southern portion and contains Gannett Peak , the tallest mountain in Wyoming . Yellowstone National Park forms part of the boundary to the west ; south of Yellowstone , the Continental Divide separates the forest from its neighbor Bridger @-@ Teton National Forest to the west . The eastern boundary includes privately owned property , lands managed by the U.S. Bureau of Land Management and the Wind River Indian Reservation , which belongs to the Shoshone and Arapahoe Indians . Custer National Forest along the Montana border is on the northern frontier . The Oregon Trail , the 19th century covered wagon route , passes just south of the forest , where broad and gentle South Pass allowed the migrants to bypass the rugged mountains to the north .
Shoshone National Forest has virtually all the original animal and plant species that were there when white explorers such as John Colter and Jim Bridger first visited the region . The forest is home to the Grizzly bear , cougar , moose , tens of thousands of elk as well as the largest herd of bighorn sheep in the U.S. The streams in the forest are considered to have some of the best game species fishing opportunities in the U.S. including Yellowstone cutthroat trout . More than 1 @,@ 300 miles of hiking trails , 32 campgrounds and adjacent forests and parklands provide numerous recreational opportunities . There are four wilderness areas within the forest , protecting more than half of the managed land area from development . From sagebrush plains through dense spruce and fir forest to craggy mountain peaks , Shoshone National Forest has a rich biodiversity rarely matched in any protected area .
= = Human history = =
Shoshone National Forest is named after the Shoshone Indians , who , along with other Native American groups such as the Lakota , Crow and Northern Cheyenne , were the major tribes encountered by the first white explorers into the region . Archeological evidence suggests that the presence of Indian tribes in the area extends back at least 10 @,@ 000 years . The forest provided an abundance of game meat , wood products , and shelter during the winter months from the more exposed high plains to the east . Portions of the more mountainous regions were frequented by the Shoshone and Sioux for spiritual healing and vision quests . By the early 1840s , Washakie had become the leader of the easternmost branch of the Shoshone Indians . At the Fort Bridger Treaty Council of 1868 Washakie negotiated with the U.S. Government for 44 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 18 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ha ) ) to be preserved as tribal lands . Subsequent amendments to the treaty reduced the actual acreage to approximately 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 810 @,@ 000 ha ) and is known today as the Wind River Indian Reservation .
In 1957 , Mummy Cave was rediscovered by a local resident on the north side of the North Fork Shoshone River , adjacent to U.S. Routes 14 / 16 / 20 , 15 mi ( 24 km ) east of Yellowstone National Park . Subsequent archeological excavations in the 1960s produced evidence that the cave had been occupied for over 9 @,@ 000 years . The oldest deposits in the cave yielded prismatic stone blades and other artifacts created by paleoindians and the surrounding soils were radiocarbon dated to 7 @,@ 300 BC . The evidence indicates the cave was occupied from at least 7280 BC to 1580 AD . Besides projectile points , the cave also produced well preserved feathers , animal hides and other usually perishable materials . Additionally , the mummified remains of an individual buried inside a rock cairn were unearthed , which were dated to 800 AD . Considered one of the finest paleoindian archeological assemblages in the Rocky Mountain region , the site was placed on the National Register of Historic Places list in 1981 .
In the early 19th century , the forest was visited by mountain men and explorers such as John Colter and Jim Bridger . Colter is the first white man known to have visited both the Yellowstone region and the forest , which he did between 1807 and 1808 . Having been an original member of the Lewis and Clark Expedition , Colter requested permission from Meriwether Lewis to leave the expedition after it had finished crossing the Rocky Mountains during their return journey from the Pacific Ocean . Colter teamed up with two unaffiliated explorers the expedition had encountered , but soon thereafter decided to explore regions south of where his new partners wished to venture . Traveling first into the northeastern region of what is today Yellowstone National Park , Colter then explored the Absaroka Mountains , crossing over Togwotee Pass and entering the valley known today as Jackson Hole . Colter survived a grizzly bear attack and a pursuit by a band of Blackfeet Indians who had taken his horse . The explorer later provided William Clark , who had been his commander on the Lewis and Clark Expedition , with previously unknown information on the regions he had explored , which Clark published in 1814 .
Travels by fur trappers and adventurers , such as Manuel Lisa and Jim Bridger from 1807 to 1840 , completed the exploration of the region . With the decline of the fur trade in the late 1840s and much of the prized beaver long since made scarce by over @-@ trapping , few white explorers entered the forest over the next few decades . The first federally financed expedition which passed through portions of Shoshone National Forest was the Raynolds Expedition of 1860 , led by topographical engineer Captain William F. Raynolds . The expedition included geologist and naturalist Ferdinand Vandeveer Hayden and was guided by mountain man Jim Bridger . Though the Raynolds Expedition was focused on exploration of the Yellowstone region , several efforts to enter what later became Yellowstone National Park were impeded by heavy snows across the mountain passes such as Two Ocean Pass . The expedition finally crossed the northern Wind River Range at a pass they named Union Pass and entered Jackson Hole valley to the south of Yellowstone . Hayden led another expedition through the region in 1871 . Hayden was primarily interested in documenting the Yellowstone country west of the forest , but his expedition also established that the forest was a prime resource that merited protection . Travels in the forest in the 1880s by later U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt , who was also a strong advocate of land conservation , as well as by General Philip Sheridan , provided the impetus that subsequently established the Yellowstone Timberland Reserve in 1891 , creating the first national forest in the U.S.
In 1902 , President Roosevelt first greatly expanded the reserve and then divided the reserve into four separate units , with Shoshone being the largest . Upon the creation of the U.S. Forest Service in 1905 , the reserve was designated a National Forest , but the current wording and title were formulated forty years later in 1945 . A remnant of the earliest years of the forest management is the Wapiti Ranger Station which is located west of Cody , Wyoming . The station was built in 1903 and is the oldest surviving ranger station in any national forest , and is now designated a National Historic Landmark .
Prior to the establishment of the Wind River Indian Reservation , the U.S. Cavalry constructed Fort Brown on the reservation lands , which was subsequently renamed Fort Washakie . During the late 19th century , the fort was staffed by African @-@ American members of the U.S. Cavalry , better known as the Buffalo Soldiers , including the second African @-@ American graduated from the United States Military Academy , John Hanks Alexander . Chief Washakie is buried at the fort , which is located immediately east of the forest boundary . Rumor has it that Sacajawea , the Shoshone Indian who provided invaluable assistance to Meriwether Lewis and William Clark during the Lewis and Clark Expedition , is also buried here , but it is now considered that this is unlikely and that her actual burial place was Fort Lisa in North Dakota .
During the last decade of the 19th century , minerals such as gold were mined with limited success . The last mine was abandoned in 1907 , but panning for gold is still allowed in many areas of the forest , and in most circumstances no permit is required . After the end of the mining era , numerous camps were established by the Civilian Conservation Corps to help combat unemployment during the Great Depression of the 1930s . The camps housed
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1797 , between a Royal Navy fleet under Admiral Adam Duncan and a Dutch Navy fleet under Vice @-@ Admiral Jan de Winter . The battle was the most significant action between British and Dutch forces during the French Revolutionary Wars and resulted in a complete victory for the British , who captured eleven Dutch ships without losing any of their own . In 1795 , the Dutch Republic had been overrun by the army of the French Republic and had been reorganised into the Batavian Republic , a French client state . In early 1797 , after the French Atlantic Fleet had suffered heavy losses in a disastrous winter campaign , the Dutch fleet was ordered to reinforce the French at Brest . The rendezvous never occurred ; the continental allies failed to capitalise on the Spithead and Nore mutinies that paralysed the British Channel forces and North Sea fleets during the spring of 1797 .
By September , the Dutch fleet under De Winter were blockaded within their harbour in the Texel by the British North Sea fleet under Duncan . At the start of October , Duncan was forced to return to Yarmouth for supplies and De Winter used the opportunity to conduct a brief raid into the North Sea . When the Dutch fleet returned to the Dutch coast on 11 October , Duncan was waiting , and intercepted De Winter off the coastal village of Camperduin . Attacking the Dutch line of battle in two loose groups , Duncan 's ships broke through at the rear and van and were subsequently engaged by Dutch frigates lined up on the other side . The battle split into two melees , one to south , or leeward , where the more numerous British overwhelmed the Dutch rear , and one to the north , or windward , where a more evenly matched exchange centred on the battling flagships . As the Dutch fleet attempted to reach shallower waters in an effort to escape the British attack , the British leeward division joined the windward combat and eventually forced the surrender of the Dutch flagship Vrijheid and ten other ships .
The loss of their flagship prompted the surviving Dutch ships to disperse and retreat , Duncan recalling the British ships with their prizes for the journey back to Yarmouth . En route , the fleet was struck by a series of gales and two prizes were wrecked and another had to be recaptured before the remainder reached Britain . Casualties in both fleets were heavy , as the Dutch followed the British practice of firing at the hulls of enemy ships rather than their masts and rigging , which caused higher losses among the British crews than they normally experienced against continental navies . The Dutch fleet was broken as an independent fighting force , losing ten ships and more than 1 @,@ 100 men . When British forces confronted the Dutch Navy again two years later in the Vlieter Incident , the Dutch sailors , confronted with superior British fire power as they had been at Camperdown and in the face of pro Orangist insurrection , abandoned their ships and surrendered en masse .
= = Background = =
In the winter of 1794 – 1795 , forces of the French Republic overran the neighbouring Dutch Republic during the French Revolutionary Wars . The French then reorganised the country as a client state named the Batavian Republic , and it joined France against the allies in the War of the First Coalition . One of the most important Dutch assets of which the French gained control was the Dutch Navy , which had been captured in its frozen harbour in the Texel by French cavalry advancing across the ice . The Dutch fleet provided a substantial reinforcement to the French forces in Northern European waters , which were principally based at Brest on the Atlantic Ocean and whose main opponent was the Royal Navy 's Channel Fleet . The location of the main anchorage of the Dutch fleet in the waters off the Texel prompted a reorganisation of the distribution of British warships in Northern European waters , with a new focus on the importance of the North Sea . With the Navy suffering severe shortages in men and equipment and with other theatres of war deemed more important , small , old and poorly maintained ships were activated from reserve and based in harbours in East Anglia , principally the port of Yarmouth , under the command of Admiral Adam Duncan . The 65 @-@ year @-@ old Duncan was a veteran of the wars of the War of the Austrian Succession ( 1740 – 1748 ) , the Seven Years ' War ( 1756 – 1763 ) and the American Revolutionary War ( 1775 – 1783 ) and had fought at numerous engagements with distinction and success . Standing at 6 ' 4 " he was also noted for his physical strength and size : a contemporary described him as " almost gigantic " .
The French Navy had suffered a series of one @-@ sided defeats in the opening years of the war , suffering heavy losses at the Glorious First of June in 1794 and during the Croisière du Grand Hiver the following January . In late 1796 , after prompting from representatives of the United Irishmen ( a society dedicated to ending British rule of the Kingdom of Ireland ) , the French Atlantic Fleet launched a large scale attempt to invade Ireland , known as the Expédition d 'Irlande . This too ended in disaster , with twelve ships lost and thousands of men drowned in fierce winter gales . Their ambitions frustrated , the representatives of the United Irishmen , led by Wolfe Tone , turned to the new Batavian state for support and were promised assistance in the coming year by a united French and Dutch fleet . A plan was formulated to merge the French and Dutch fleets and attack Ireland together in the summer of 1797 . Tone joined the staff of Vice @-@ Admiral Jan de Winter on his flagship Vrijheid in the Texel and 13 @,@ 500 Dutch troops were equipped in preparation for the operation , the fleet waiting only for the best moment to take advantage of easterly winds and sweep past the British blockade and down the English Channel .
= = = Spithead Mutiny = = =
For the Royal Navy , the early years of the war had been successful , but the commitment to a global conflict was creating a severe strain on available equipment , men and financial resources . The navy had expanded from 134 ships at the start of the conflict in 1793 , to 633 by 1797 , and personnel had increased from 45 @,@ 000 men to 120 @,@ 000 , an achievement possible only as a result of the impressment service , which abducted criminals , beggars and unwilling conscripts for compulsory service at sea . Wages had not been increased since 1653 , and were usually months late , rations were terrible , shore leave forbidden and discipline harsh . Tensions in the fleet had been gradually rising since the start of the war , and in February 1797 , anonymous sailors from the Channel Fleet at Spithead sent letters to their former commander , Lord Howe , soliciting his support in improving their conditions . The list was deliberately ignored on the instructions of First Lord of the Admiralty Lord Spencer , and , on 16 April , the sailors responded with the Spithead Mutiny : a largely peaceful strike action led by a delegation of seamen from each ship tasked with negotiating with the authorities and enforcing discipline . For a month the fleet remained at stalemate , until Lord Howe was able to negotiate a series of improvements in conditions that enabled the strikers to return to regular service . The mutiny had achieved almost all of its aims ; increasing pay , removing unpopular officers and improving conditions for the men serving in the Channel Fleet and , ultimately , the whole navy .
While the upheaval continued at Spithead , Duncan had retained order in the North Sea Fleet at Yarmouth by the sheer force of his personality . When men from his flagship , HMS Venerable , clambered up into the rigging and roared three cheers in a prearranged signal for the revolt to begin on 1 May , Duncan initially threatened to run the ringleader through with his sword . Calmed by his subordinates , he instead assembled his officers and the Royal Marines aboard his ship and advanced on the men in the rigging , demanding to know what they were doing . So fierce was his tone that the men fell silent and hesitantly returned to their quarters except for five ringleaders , whom he admonished personally on his quarterdeck before issuing a general pardon and dismissing them to their duty . The following week , he assembled all of the men and demanded to know whether they would follow his orders : in response , the crew nominated a spokesman , who apologised for their actions , saying , " we humbly implore your honour 's pardon with hearts full of gratitude and tears in our eyes for the offense we have given to the worthiest of commanders who has proved a father to us " . A week later , when a similar outbreak of mutiny affected the fourth rate ship , HMS Adamant , under Captain William Hotham , Duncan again acted decisively , coming aboard Adamant as the crew rebelled and demanding to know if there was any man who disputed his authority . When a sailor stepped forward , Duncan seized him by his shirt and dangled him over the side of the ship with one arm crying , " My lads - look at this fellow - he who dares to deprive me of command of the fleet " . The mutiny evaporated almost instantly .
= = = Nore Mutiny = = =
Despite his initial success , Duncan was unable to retain control in the face of a more widespread revolt on 15 May among the ships based at the Nore , which became known as the Nore Mutiny . Led by a sailor named Richard Parker , the Nore mutineers quickly organised and became a significant threat to water traffic in the Thames Estuary . Duncan was informed that his fleet at Yarmouth might be ordered to attack the mutineers and , although reluctant , responded , " I do not shrink from the business if it cannot otherwise be got the better of " . When rumours of the plan reached the fleet at Yarmouth , the crew of Venerable also expressed their distaste with the plan , but reaffirmed their promise of loyalty to their admiral whatever the circumstances . News then arrived that the Dutch fleet under De Winter was preparing to sail , and Duncan 's fleet was ordered by Lord Spencer to blockade the Dutch coast . Duncan issued orders for the fleet to weigh anchor , but the men disobeyed and ship after ship overthrew their officers and joined the mutineers at the Nore . Eventually Duncan was left with only his own Venerable and Hotham 's Adamant to contain the entire Dutch fleet . Duncan later wrote that , " To be deserted by my own fleet in the face of the enemy is a disgrace which I believe never before happened to a British admiral , nor could I have supposed it possible . "
Aware that the escape of the Dutch fleet into the North Sea at such a vulnerable time could be disastrous for Britain , Duncan maintained his position off the Texel for three days , during which the wind was ideal for a Dutch foray , and he disguised his two vessels as different ships on each day and ordered the frigate HMS Circe to make a flurry of nonsensical signals to a fictitious British fleet beyond the horizon . He was subsequently joined by two additional ships , HMS Russell and Sans Pareil , and on the fourth day , with conditions still perfect for the Dutch , he anchored his squadron in the Marsdiep Channel and gave orders for them to fight until their ships sank , thereby blocking the channel . In a speech to his men , he announced that , " The soundings are such that my flag will continue to fly above the water after the ship and her company have disappeared " . The expected attack never came : the Dutch army that was to have joined the fleet was not prepared , and Duncan 's misleading signals had successfully convinced De Winter that a large British fleet waited just beyond the horizon . The winds subsequently changed direction , and , on 10 June , six more ships joined Duncan 's squadron from the Channel Fleet , and , on 13 June , a Russian squadron arrived . While Duncan had been at sea , the Nore Mutiny had acrimoniously fallen apart under blockade by government forces . Cut off from food supplies and with public support decidedly against the mutiny , Parker issued threats that the ships under his control would be handed over to the French government . Fighting subsequently broke out between the radical leaders and the moderate majority of seamen , and the ships gradually deserted Parker and returned to their anchorages , so that by 12 June only two ships still flew the red flag of the mutineers . Eventually , the last rebellious ship , Parker 's own HMS Sandwich , surrendered on 14 June .
= = De Winter 's cruise = =
By the middle of August 1797 , after six weeks of constant easterly winds that kept his ships trapped in their harbour , De Winter decided that an attempt to join the French at Brest as the first stage of an invasion of Ireland was impractical and he abandoned the plan . In part this decision was due to the strength of Duncan 's reconstituted fleet , which had increased to 17 ships of the line with the addition of the vessels returned from the Nore . Duncan 's men were also better trained and more experienced than their Dutch counterparts , having spent considerably longer at sea and having been taught to fire three rounds a minute to the Dutch two . In addition to his concerns about the proficiency of his men , De Winter was also worried about their loyalty : the dominion of France over the Batavian Republic and the country 's enforced participation in distant theatres of warfare were unpopular among the Dutch people . Although De Winter was an avowed republican , who had fought in the French Army against the Netherlands between 1793 and 1795 , support for the House of Orange remained strong among the Dutch population and with the fleet 's sailors . Wolfe Tone wrote in frustration that " The destiny of Europe might have been changed for ever . . . the great occasion is lost , and we must do as well as we can . "
When news of this decision reached the Admiralty , they recalled Duncan 's blockade fleet to Yarmouth for a refit on 1 October , the admiral insisting on sending some of his ships back to the Dutch coast two days later under Captain Henry Trollope in HMS Russell accompanied by HMS Adamant and the small ships HMS Beaulieu , Circe and Martin with the hired armed cutter Black Joke . Their arrival off Texel on 6 October coincided with De Winter 's much delayed expedition . Although some sources , particularly in France , have claimed that De Winter was determined to bring Duncan to battle , in reality he was more concerned that his men were disaffected and inexperienced by their long stay in port , and had reluctantly acceded to orders from the Batavian government to conduct a brief sweep in the Southern North Sea in search of weak British forces that could be overwhelmed by his fleet or drawn into the dangerous shallow waters of the Dutch coastline . He may also have been hoping to resurrect the plan to augment the French at Brest if he was able to pass westwards down the English Channel undetected . His fleet consisted of 16 ships of the line and a number of smaller support craft , and his orders from The Hague included instructions to remember " how frequently Dutch Admirals have maintained the honour of the Dutch flag , even when the enemy 's forces were sometimes superior to theirs . " Preparing the ships for sea took some time , and the Dutch did not manage to leave the Texel until 10 : 00 on 8 October , De Winter turning southwest in the hope of linking with another Dutch ship of the line at the mouth of the River Maas . Within hours , Trollope had discovered and followed De Winter .
The Dutch fleet was watched constantly by the ships Duncan had sent to observe them , and when Dutch preparations to sail were observed a message was sent back to Duncan informing him of the Dutch movements . The despatch vessel flew the signal for an enemy as it entered Yarmouth roads early in the morning on 9 October , so that by the time it had docked the British fleet was already preparing to sail , Duncan sending the final message to the Admiralty : " The wind is now in the NE and [ I ] shall make good course over to them , and if it please God , hope to get at them . The squadron under my command are unmoored and I shall put to sea immediately . " Before midday , Duncan had sailed with the 11 ships that were ready and steered for the mouth of the Texel , intending to intercept De Winter on his return . By evening his fleet was at full strength , three stragglers having rejoined , and on the afternoon of 10 October his ships were anchored off the Dutch port , scouts reporting 22 merchant ships in the harbour but no sign of De Winter 's warships . Since leaving the Texel , De Winter had been unable to escape from Trollope 's ships : on the evening of 10 October , several Dutch vessels were detached to drive his squadron away while the Dutch fleet lay off the Maas , but could not close with the faster British vessels . Having failed to make the rendezvous off the Maas , De Winter then turned to the northwest , cruising off Lowestoft in Suffolk and again unsuccessfully attempting to drive away Trollope 's squadron . There , reports from Dutch fishing vessels of Duncan 's appearance off the Texel reached De Winter and he immediately recalled his ships and ordered the fleet to turn back towards the Dutch coast , aiming for the village of Scheveningen . Meanwhile , further messages from Trollope reporting the Dutch movements had reached Duncan and he turned his fleet west , following the Dutch coastline . At 07 : 00 on the morning of 11 October Trollope 's squadron sighted sails to the northeast and , after confirming that they were Duncan 's fleet , signalled that the Dutch fleet was approximately 3 nautical miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) further to the southwest , becoming visible to the fleet by 08 : 30 . The first clear sighting was reported by Captain Peter Halkett of Circe , who had climbed the mainmast to get a better view . At this point , the Dutch were sailing towards land , approximately 9 nautical miles ( 17 km ) off the coast of Noord @-@ Holland , close to the village of Camperduin . The weather was poor , with heavy seas and strong wind from the southeast broken by frequent rain squalls , but this did not prevent hundreds of Dutch civilians gathering on the dunes to watch the impending combat .
= = = Duncan 's attack = = =
At 09 : 00 , Duncan made the signal to prepare for battle while De Winter organised his ships into a line of battle to meet the British attack in a solid defensive formation , sailing on the port tack in a northeasterly heading . As they manoeuvred into their assigned stations , the Dutch fleet drew closer to the shore . Duncan intended to follow Lord Howe 's manoeuvres at the Glorious First of June three years earlier and bring each ship through the Dutch line between two opponents , but the Dutch formation and proximity to the shore rendered this plan impractical . To compensate , Duncan signalled for his ships to form line and sail southeast on the port tack so that they had the wind directly behind them . Shortly afterwards , concerned that the Dutch might make the shoreline before he could bring them to battle despite his wry insistence that " I am determined to fight the ships on land if I cannot by sea " , Duncan ordered his fleet to turn southwards and advance on the enemy and " bear up and sail large " . He fired signal guns to alert his captains and then ordered them to " engage the enemy as arriving up " and for his van to attack the Dutch rear . At 11 : 00 , Duncan sought to remedy increasing gaps between his vessels by ordering the faster ships to slow down and wait for their compatriots . He then made an effort to re @-@ establish the line on the starboard tack before realising that the Dutch fleet was still in order awaiting the British attack and continually drawing closer to the dangerous coastline . Abandoning his previous signals , Duncan ordered the entire fleet to turn towards the Dutch and attack directly , each ship to " steer for and engage her opponent " . Many of these signals were poorly executed and incorrect , visibility was low and Trollope 's squadron was still using obsolete signal codes , so a number of vessels failed to comprehend Duncan 's intentions , turning the advancing line into a ragged pattern of scattered vessels clustered into two loose groups . The flurry of orders was so quick and contradictory that at least one captain gave up entirely : the Scottish captain , John Inglis , of HMS Belliqueux threw his signal book to the deck in frustration and shouted " Up wi ' the hel 'lem and gang into the middle o 't . "
The combined effect of Duncan 's orders was to split his fleet into two uneven divisions , each sailing in a loose formation towards the unified Dutch line . The northern , or windward , division comprised six third rate ships of the line , two fourth rate ships and the frigate Circe , tasked with repeating signals from the flagship Venerable , which led the division with HMS Triumph and Ardent close behind . This force was aiming for the Dutch flagship , Vrijheid , which lay fifth in the Dutch line . The southern , or leeward , division comprised eight third rate ships of the line and the repeater frigate HMS Beaulieu , and was led by Vice @-@ Admiral Richard Onslow on HMS Monarch . Onslow 's force was aiming for the rear of the Dutch line , to strike the fourth ship from the end . Behind the two divisions lay a line of small craft tasked with repeating Duncan 's signals so that the entire fleet could see his intentions . At 11 : 53 , Duncan raised the signal for each ship to pass through the Dutch line and attack from the far side , but the poor weather prevented the more distant ships from recognising the signal .
De Winter had originally intended to close his line up into a solid defensive platform and retreat to shallower waters while Duncan formed his own line of battle , but the sudden , disorganised British attack had thrown his plans into confusion . As a result , gaps had opened up between his van , centre and rear , leaving the last four ships greatly outnumbered and unsupported . De Winter gave urgent orders for the van and centre to drop back and assist the rear , but there was little time , and his situation looked desperate : although the Dutch and British lines each mustered 16 ships , the British vessels were almost all larger and more strongly built than their Dutch counterparts , and their crews were experienced seamen in the heavy weather conditions , while the Dutch crews , confined to port for the previous year , had little understanding of the skills required in combat at sea . The Dutch line of battle was accompanied by a second line to the east , formed from ten frigates , brigs and smaller craft . These vessels , unlike the smaller ships with the British fleet , were well armed and situated so that their guns covered the gaps between the ships that formed the Dutch line of battle , ready to rake any British vessels that attempted to break through .
= = Battle = =
= = = Collapse of the Dutch rear guard = = =
At 12 : 05 , Duncan raised the signal ordering his ships to engage the enemy closely . At the same time , the Dutch ship Jupiter , under Rear @-@ Admiral Hermanus Reijntjes , fourth from the southern end of the line , opened fire on the rapidly approaching Monarch . The Dutch ships had waited until the British were well within effective range in order to maximise the effect of their shot , and soon Onslow 's flagship was under fire from the entire rearguard of the Dutch line , the ship suffering damage while attempting to break through the Dutch line between Jupiter and Haarlem at 12 : 30 . On Monarch , Captain Edward O 'Bryen remarked to Onslow that he could not see where his ship could pass between the closely formed Dutch ships , to which the Admiral responded that " the Monarch will make a passage . " Striking the small gap between the ships , Onslow fired raking broadsides into both vessels and then turned to lay his ship alongside Reyntjes ' flagship . As he did , the Dutch frigate Monnikkendam and the brig Daphné pulled out of the second line and attempted to fill the gap Monarch had created , firing into the British ship of the line as they did so . In response , Onslow opened fire on the smaller vessels , destroying the frigate 's wheel and damaging the rigging , so that the ship fell back , followed later by the severely damaged brig .
Monarch was almost immediately followed by HMS Powerful under Captain William O 'Bryen Drury , which passed through the same gap , raked Haarlem again and poured a destructive fire into the wallowing Monnikkendam . At the same time , HMS Montagu attacked Alkmaar , the next in line , from the west , while HMS Russell , under Captain Trollope , attacked the last Dutch ship , the 56 @-@ gun Delft . These attacks were accompanied by fire from HMS Monmouth , which passed between Alkmaar and Delft , and raked both ships , and from HMS Director ( under William Bligh of Bounty fame ) , which passed up the Dutch line until it reached the battered Haarlem , engaging the ship at close range . The straggling HMS Veteran joined the northern part of the engagement , cutting across Jupiter and then turning in pursuit of the Dutch centre , while Adamant reached the fight late , joining the attack on the already battered Haarlem . Only HMS Agincourt remained apart from the battle entirely , passing up the Dutch line at extreme range ; one anecdotal account reports that on board Agincourt a stray shot passed high over the deck and an officer was seen to flinch , drawing a scornful call from the crew that " There is no danger yet , sir " . Agincourt 's captain John Williamson was subsequently court @-@ martialled and dismissed .
In the confusion , the tail of the Dutch line disintegrated into a chaotic melee , with eight British ships of the line fighting four Dutch and the frigate Monnikkendam . So close was the action that the British ships found themselves at risk of firing into one another in the high seas , heavy rain and poor visibility . The Dutch centre , consisting of the ships of the line Brutus , Leijden and the fifth rate razee Mars , pulled away from the engagement behind them under Rear @-@ Admiral Johan Bloys van Treslong , coming under only distant fire from the ships of Onslow 's division . Isolated , the Dutch rearguard were rapidly overwhelmed , with Jupiter , Haarlem , Alkmaar and Delft all surrendering to Onslow 's attack before 13 : 45 , while the battered Monnikkendam was seized by the frigate Beaulieu .
= = = Battle of the vanguards = = =
While the Dutch rearguard was overwhelmed by British numbers , a more equal combat was being contested to the north . There the combat was centred around the two flagships , Duncan 's Venerable engaging De Winter 's Vrijheid 18 minutes after Monarch broke the line to the south . Duncan had originally intended to break the line between Vrijheid and the next ship Staaten Generaal under Rear @-@ Admiral Samuel Story , but Story ensured that there was no gap between his vessel and the flagship to break through , and their combined fire was so dangerous to the advancing Venerable that Duncan instead cut through behind Staaten Generaal , raking Story 's ship twice and causing it to drift off in confusion as Duncan engaged Vrijheid from the east .
While Venerable had diverted south , Vrijheid had been attacked from the west by Ardent under Captain Richard Rundle Burges . The smaller British ship had soon suffered more than a hundred casualties , including Burges killed , under the combined fire of De Winter 's flagship and the next ship ahead Admiraal Tjerk Hiddes De Vries . Only the arrival of Venerable alongside Vrijheid allowed Ardent a brief respite . During the fight , Burges ' men " fought like maniacs " , including the wife of one of the gunners who insisted on joining her husband at his gun , until her legs were torn off by cannon fire . Within a short period however both Venerable and Ardent were surrounded , as at least one of the frigates from the second line joined the attack on the two isolated British vessels . At the height of the combat , the colours and signal flags on Venerable were brought down by cannon fire . To ensure that there was no suggestion that the flagship had surrendered , a sailor named Jack Crawford scrambled to the top of the mainmast and replaced them as the battle raged beneath him . To support Duncan , Captain William Essington of HMS Triumph and Captain Sir Thomas Byard of HMS Bedford drove forward into the battle , Triumph coming close alongside the Dutch Wassenaar and opening a heavy fire while Bedford attacked Admiraal Tjerk Hiddes De Vries and Hercules . At the tip of the line , Beschermer was attacked by Belliqueux to starboard , Captain Inglis passing through the gap between Beschermer and Hercules . Ahead of this combat , the lead ships HMS Isis and Gelijkheid fought alongside one another , Isis having failed to break through the Dutch line and instead drawn up to port .
The Dutch central division joined the battle at the head of the line shortly after the engagement of Triumph and Bedford , causing considerable damage to all of the British vessels , particularly Venerable . The British flagship was soon isolated in the midst of the Dutch van , engaging Vrijheid , Staaten General , Admiral Tjerk Hiddes De Vries and Wassenaar simultaneously . Despite the heavy odds Duncan continued to fight hard , the British succeeded in knocking out two opponents by wounding Captain Dooitze Eelkes Hinxt of Beschermer , which drifted eastwards in confusion , while shots from either Bedford or Triumph set a powder barrel on Hercules on fire . The blaze on the latter ship , which soon spread to the sails and rigging , prompted a lull in the battle as the crew of Hercules desperately attempted to extinguish the blaze and other Dutch ships scrambled to escape the burning vessel as it drifted through the melee . Shortly afterwards , the battered Wassenaar surrendered to Triumph , with Captain Holland dead on his quarterdeck . Triumph then moved on towards the battle between Vrijheid and Venerable , at which time the crew of Wassenaar raised their colours again after being fired on by a Dutch brig .
= = = Onslow 's reinforcement = = =
Following Onslow 's victory over the Dutch rearguard , the admiral ordered the least damaged of his ships to sail in support of the outnumbered British ships in the melee at the Dutch van . Powerful and Director were the quickest to respond , joining the attack on Vrijheid at 14 : 00 . Russell , driving northwards to join the attack , encountered the now extinguished Hercules , whose crew had thrown all of their ammunition overboard during the fire to prevent the ship exploding . The ship was thus defenceless , Commander Ruijsoort surrendering immediately . The remainder of the British fleet now arrived in the battle , Captain John Wells of HMS Lancaster firing on the Beschermer near the head of the Dutch line . Aware that their vessel would be unable to resist the attack , Beschermer 's surviving officers turned away towards the shore , rapidly followed by the unengaged portions of the Dutch line . With the arrival of British reinforcements and the retreat of sections of the Dutch fleet , the battle was almost complete ; the battered Wassenaar surrendered for the second time , to Russell , while Admiraal Tjerk Hiddes De Vries and Gelijkheid , both of which were too badly damaged to escape , also struck their colours . Eventually only the Dutch flagship remained in combat .
For an hour De Winter continued his resistance , with Director holding station off the stern of Vrijheid and repeatedly raking it . By 15 : 00 , all three masts had been brought down , obstructing the fire of the starboard battery , while De Winter was the only officer who remained uninjured , standing on his wrecked quarterdeck and still refusing to lower his colours . In an attempt to settle the combat , Captain William Bligh of Director closed to within 20 yards ( 18 m ) of the Dutch flagship and demanded to know if De Winter surrendered . The Dutch admiral replied " What do you think about it ? " , and then attempted to personally raise signals demanding reinforcements from the rest of his fleet , only to find that the halyards had been shot away . De Winter then summoned the ship 's carpenter and ordered him to repair his barge , so that the admiral could transfer command to another ship and continue the battle . When British sailors from Director boarded the drifting flagship , De Winter was discovered assisting the carpenter with repairs to the barge . On being informed that he was a prisoner of war , he replied " This is my destiny not foreseen " and , after checking on a mortally wounded officer who lay on the quarterdeck , he followed the boarding party back to their boat for the trip to Venerable .
= = Aftermath = =
De Winter was immediately taken to see Duncan , the Dutch officer holding out his sword as a token of surrender . Duncan refused the weapon , instead shaking De Winter 's hand and insisting " I would much rather take a brave man 's hand than his sword " . In addition to the losses in the rear , five ships of the Dutch van had been captured as well as the frigate Ambuscade that had attacked from the second line . The remainder of the Dutch ships had fled , making rapid progress towards the coastal shallows . Duncan did not follow them : the Dutch coast between Kamperduin and Egmond was only 5 nautical miles ( 9 @.@ 3 km ) away , his ship lay in just 9 fathoms ( 18 yards ( 16 m ) ) of water and the weather was too fierce and his ships too battered to risk combat in shoal waters . Instead he ordered his ships to ensure control of their prizes and to return to Britain . Many ships were now undermanned due to the terrible casualties they had suffered : surgeon Robert Young of Ardent , the worst hit of the British ships , worked for more than twelve hours without a break and later wrote :
Melancholy cries for assistance were addressed to me from every side by wounded and dying , and piteous moans and bewailing from pain and despair . In the midst of these agonising scenes I was able to preserve myself firm and collected … Many of the worst wounded were stoical beyond belief ; they were determined not to flinch and , when news of the shattering victory was brought down to them , they raised a cheer and declared they regretted not the loss of their limbs .
Casualties in the battle were very heavy on both sides , and historians such as William James have noted that the losses among the British ships were proportionally much higher than when British fleets met French or Spanish opposition . This was attributed to the Dutch tactics , mirrored by the British , of firing at the enemy hulls rather than attempting to disable their masts and rigging as in other continental navies . The worst hit of the British ships were those in the first wave , such as Ardent with 148 casualties , Monarch with 136 and Belliqueux with 103 , while both Adamant and Agincourt escaped without a single man killed or wounded . Among the dead were Captain Burges of Ardent and two lieutenants , while the wounded included Captain Essington of Triumph and twelve lieutenants . In total , British losses were recorded after the battle as 203 killed and 622 wounded , although later assessments based on charitable requirements of those wounded or killed gave the higher figures of 228 killed and 812 wounded , including 16 of the latter who subsequently died . Many of the British ships were badly damaged , taking on large quantities of water through damaged hulls . One of the worst hit was Venerable , which had to be completely dismantled and reconstructed after returning to Britain before the ship was ready for active service again .
Dutch casualty returns , particularly on the captured ships , were vague , and only partially complete . Among the losses were Captain Hinxt of Beschermer and Captain Holland of Wassenaar , both of whom were killed early in the battle . Also lost were Captain Van Rossum of Vrijheid , who was struck in the thigh by a cannonball and died shortly afterwards from the effects of the wound , and Admiral Reijntjes who died while a prisoner in England as a result of the wounds he suffered aboard Jupiter . His remains were subsequently returned to the Netherlands with full military honours . There were also large numbers of wounded among the Dutch fleet , including Rear @-@ Admirals Bloys van Treslong and Story ; one of the few Dutch officers to escape injury or death was De Winter himself , who later commented " It is a matter of marvel that two such gigantic objects as Admiral Duncan and myself should have escaped the general carnage of this day . " In total , Dutch losses were later reported as 540 men killed and 620 wounded , with Vrijheid the worst hit with the loss of almost half of its total complement .
= = = Return journeys = = =
On Venerable , Duncan assembled all of those men fit to attend for a church service to " return thanks to Almighty God for all His mercies showered on them and him . " For the next 24 hours the 66 @-@ year @-@ old Duncan remained on duty without a break , organising the scattered fleet on its journey home . The British admiral did find time however to play a game of whist in his cabin with De Winter after dinner : when the Dutch admiral lost a rubber , he commented that it was hard to be beaten twice in one day by the same man . On 13 October , Duncan completed his official despatch and sent it ahead of his wallowing ships with Captain William George Fairfax on the cutter Rose : he praised all of his men , reserving special mention for Trollope and the late Burges , whom he called a " good and gallant Officer … a sincere Friend " . De Winter was permitted to send despatches to the Batavian government , in which he blamed Story and his centre for not maintaining the combat longer . He also attributed overwhelming British numbers to his defeat and suggested that he may have captured some of the British fleet if he had been better supported . When this letter was later published it provoked a storm of criticism in Britain , one officer describing it as " a garbled account which , for ought I know , might have been collected by people on shore who knew nothing of the action " .
During the afternoon of 12 October , a gale sprang up which inflicted further damage to the battered ships and caused water to gush through the many shot holes in the ships ' hulls . Aboard the Dutch ships , the situation was especially dangerous . Casualties had been significantly higher , particularly on Vrijheid , than on board the British vessels and the small numbers of British sailors placed aboard as prize crews were unable to cope alone , and in the high winds many masts collapsed to the deck and huge quantities of water leaked into the hulls .
Delft , captured in the early stages of the battle , was under the command of the Dutch Lieutenant Heilberg and the British Lieutenant Charles Bullen , with a small prize crew of 69 men . Ninety @-@ three Dutch prisoners had been removed , and among the remaining Dutch sailors were 76 wounded men . As the gale intensified , it rapidly became clear that despite a tow line attached from Veteran the ship would never reach Britain , and a large board was raised on deck with the chalked message " The ship is sinking " . Reacting at once , boats from nearby ships organised an evacuation and began loading the Dutch prisoners for transfer to more seaworthy vessels . Bullen offered a place in the first rescue boat , from Veteran , to Heilberg , but the Dutch officer refused , gesturing to the immobile wounded who had been brought onto the maindeck as the lower decks had flooded and replying " But how can I leave these men ? " . In response , Bullen cried out " God bless you , my brave fellow ! Here is my hand ; I give you my word I will stay her with you ! " . The prize crew left on the second rescue boat sent from Russell , and Bullen and Heilberg waited for a third trip to bring them off with the remaining 30 wounded men and three junior Dutch officers who had also elected to stay . Before further help could arrive , however , Delft suddenly foundered , Bullen and Heilberg throwing themselves clear as the ship sank . Both were seen in the water but only Bullen reached safety , swimming to Monmouth alone .
Two other prizes were lost to the British fleet : Monnikkendam had been supplied with a prize crew of 35 men from Beaulieu , but had become separated during the gales and lost its remaining masts and spars . The crew fitted jury masts , but they too collapsed and the hull flooded to a depth of 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) . On 12 October , aware that the ship would soon founder , the prize master instructed the Dutch boatswain to run the ship onto the Dutch coast at West Kapel . Local boats came out to the stranded vessel and all aboard were saved , the 35 British prisoners taken to a prison hulk at Flushing . The ship itself was wrecked beyond repair and abandoned . The other captured frigate , Ambuscade , was also driven ashore in a sinking state and the prize crew made prisoner , but in that case the ship was salvaged and later returned to Dutch service .
In contrast to the British difficulties , the survivors of the Dutch fleet had few problems returning to the Texel , with the exception of Brutus . Admiral Bloys van Treslong had sailed for the coast off Hinder with two brigs , and there on 13 October the 40 @-@ gun British frigate HMS Endymion under Captain Sir Thomas Williams found him . At 16 : 30 , Endymion closed with the larger , but damaged , Dutch ship and opened fire , Brutus responding with a broadside of its own . Williams successfully raked his opponent twice , but the complicated tides of the Dutch coast dragged his ship out of range at 17 : 30 before he could press his attack any further . Firing rockets in the hope of attracting attention from any of Duncan 's ships , Williams was rewarded at 22 : 30 by the arrival of Beaulieu . On 14 October the frigates hunted for their opponents , and found the Dutch ships off the Goeree channel at 05 : 00 . The frigates closed , and Bloys van Treslong withdrew , passing deeper into Dutch waters and reaching safety at Maese by 07 : 00 . The British frigates , their quarry having escaped , returned to Duncan 's struggling fleet .
= = Effects = =
On 17 October 1797 , Duncan 's limping convoy began to arrive at Yarmouth to be greeted with great celebrations . Several ships were delayed , with three wallowing off Kentish Knock , three more in Hosley Bay and several still at sea due to an adverse northwesterly wind . News of the victory had already spread across Britain , and on 20 October Duncan was created Viscount Duncan of Camperdown and Baron Duncan of Lundie . Admiral Onslow was made a baronet and Captains Henry Trollope and William George Fairfax were knighted.King George III insisted on meeting Duncan personally , and on 30 October set out for Sheerness in the royal yacht HMY Royal Charlotte before strong winds and waves forced him back to port on 1 November . Unable to reach Duncan 's flagship , the King instead rewarded the fleet as a whole by pardoning 180 men condemned for their role in the Nore Mutiny and held aboard the prison hulk HMS Eagle in the River Medway . Similar pardons were awarded by Rear @-@ Admiral Peter Rainier to mutineers in the East Indies Squadron . Gold medals were created and presented to the captains and both Houses of Parliament voted their thanks for their victory . All first lieutenants were promoted to commander and Duncan and Onslow were presented with valuable presentation swords valued at 200 and 100 guineas each respectively . Duncan was also given a pension of £ 2 @,@ 000 a year by the government , made a freeman of numerous towns and cities and was subject to presentations from numerous patriotic societies , particularly in Scotland , where he was awarded valuable plate by both his birth city of Dundee and the county of Forfarshire . A public subscription was taken up for the widows and wounded and raised £ 52 @,@ 609 10s and 10d ( the equivalent of £ 4 @,@ 910 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) , When Duncan travelled to a reception at The Guildhall on 10 November , a mob surrounded his carriage in the street , unhitched the horses and dragged it themselves up Ludgate Hill as a mark of respect . On 23 December , the King lead a thanksgiving procession and ceremony in St Paul 's Cathedral in London at which Duncan carried De Winter 's flag from Vrijheid and Onslow carried Reijntjes ' flag from Jupiter , followed by Fairfax , Essington , Mitchell , Bligh , Walker , Trollope , Drury , O 'Bryen , Gregory and Hotham as well as numerous seamen from the fleet . Five decades later the battle was among the actions recognised by a clasp attached to the Naval General Service Medal , awarded upon application to all British participants still living in 1847 .
Not all of the reactions were positive : several of Duncan 's captains were criticised for their failure to rapidly and decisively engage the enemy , including Captain Wells of Lancaster . The worst criticism fell on Captain John Williamson of Agincourt . Agincourt had been barely engaged in the battle and had suffered not one single casualty . As a result , Williamson was accused of failing to do his duty by Captain Hopper of Agincourt 's Royal Marines and court @-@ martialled on 4 December 1797 , at Sheerness aboard Circe , on the charges of " disobedience to signals and not going into action " and " cowardice and disaffection " . Williamson had a history of indecisiveness : in 1779 , while a junior officer on Captain James Cook 's voyage to the Pacific Ocean , Williamson had prevaricated about bringing boats to evacuate Cook from Kealakekua Bay while under attack by Hawaiians . As a result , Cook was trapped on the beach and stabbed to death . At the conclusion of the trial on 1 January 1798 , Williamson was found guilty of the first charge and not guilty of the latter , resulting in demotion to the bottom of the post captains list and prohibition from further naval service . Williamson was reported to have died in 1799 , shortly after his dismissal from the service , but Edward Pelham Brenton later claimed that he had instead gone into hiding under an assumed name and continued to draw his pension for many years . In the Batavian Republic , there were also recriminations against those officers who were deemed to have failed in their duty : De Winter 's despatch from London after the battle placed much of the blame with six ships that had failed to follow his orders and had withdrawn early from the battle . Several officers were brought up on charges , including Admiral Bloys van Treslong who was convicted at court @-@ martial and dismissed the service although later reinstated , and Commander Souter of Batavier who was convicted and imprisoned . Admiral Story was also criticised , particularly by De Winter , and was only permitted to keep his command once he had satisfied the Batavian government that he had had no option but to retreat .
All of the captured Dutch ships were bought into the Royal Navy , Gleijkheid , Vrijheid , Wassenaar , Haarlem and Alkmaar under their own names ( although in most cases they were anglicised ) and Admiraal Tjerk Hiddes De Vries as the simpler Devries . Two were completely renamed , due to the prior existence of ships with their names in the Royal Navy ; Jupiter became HMS Camperdown and Hercules became HMS Delft . None of these ships was ever in sufficient condition for service in open waters : the damage suffered at Camperdown proved too severe for them to be fully repaired . In addition , ships of Dutch construction had lighter hulls and flatter bottoms than ships of other nations as they were designed to operate off the shallow waters of the Dutch coast , and as a result they were of little use to the ocean @-@ going Royal Navy . All the prizes were immediately relegated to harbour duty , and none were used for front @-@ line service . Although the prize court took several years to determine the prize money that would be awarded for the battle , the initial estimates of £ 60 @,@ 000 ( the equivalent of £ 5 @,@ 604 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) proved pessimistic : Duncan and his men were eventually awarded £ 150 @,@ 000 ( the equivalent of £ 14 @,@ 010 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) , although they were forced to defend a claim from the Russian Navy on behalf of the squadron that had reinforced Duncan in May . Since this force had played no part in the battle and had been considered a liability rather than a benefit by the British commanders , the claim was rejected , but legal fees and other claims reduced the eventual payment . Following the award of the first £ 10 @,@ 000 instalment , Duncan was given the unique honour of permission to buy shares on the London Stock Exchange at ⅞ market price .
= = Legacy = =
Although Camperdown was considered the greatest ever victory for a British fleet over an equal enemy force to that date , historian Noel Mostert has noted that it " was a battle that , with posterity , somehow lost rank and significance against the greater and more romantically glorious events that followed " . Nevertheless , the effects of the action on the wider war were hugely important . The losses suffered by the Dutch Navy in ships , men and morale gave the Royal Navy superiority in the North Sea , a position enhanced by the disruption the battle caused to French negotiations for an alliance with what historian Edward Pelham Brenton describes as the " Northern Powers " of Scandinavia . The destruction of the Dutch fleet at Camperdown was also a serious blow to French ambitions to invade Ireland , and denied their Atlantic fleet of essential reinforcements ; it may even have played a part in Napoleon Bonaparte 's decision to abandon efforts to attack Britain directly early in 1798 . In 1799 , a significant British and Russian expeditionary force landed in the Netherlands supported by a large fleet under Lord Duncan . Assailed from both sea and land , the remainder of the Dutch Navy under Admiral Story capitulated without a fight : in what became known as the Vlieter Incident , the political divisions between the officers and seamen resulted in a mutiny during which the Dutch sailors threw their ammunition overboard . In Britain , the public relief at the restoration of the Navy 's authority in the aftermath of the spring mutinies was enormous and helped steady the wavering British government in their pursuit of the war by restoring confidence in British naval supremacy in home waters . Christopher Lloyd notes that the events of 1797 led to " a new and blatant patriotism . . . [ which ] was centred on the achievements of ' our gallant tars ' . " A popular rhyme of the time reflected public feeling :
" St Vincent drubbed the Dons , Earl Howe he drubbed Monsieur ,
And gallant Duncan now has soundly drubbed Mynheer ;
The Spanish , French and Dutch , tho ' all united by ,
Fear not Britannia cries , My Tars can beat all three .
Monsieurs , Mynheers and Dons , your country 's empty boast ,
Our tars can beat all three , each on his native coast . "
Although Duncan 's initial tactics at the battle were reminiscent of those of Howe at the Glorious First of June , and his eventual attack has been compared to Nelson 's tactics at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 , Duncan credited the tactical work Essay on Naval Tactics by John Clerk of Eldin for inspiring his decisions on the day . Duncan was subsequently indirectly criticised some years after the battle by his colleague Earl St Vincent , who had won the Battle of Cape St Vincent over a Spanish fleet nine months before Camperdown . In a letter complaining of Clerk 's assertion that he had been responsible for all of the major naval victories of the war , St Vincent wrote that Duncan " was a brave officer , little versed in the subtleties of naval tactics , and who would have been quickly embarrassed by them . When he saw the enemy , he rushed upon him without thinking of such and such and order of battle . To conquer he calculated upon the brave example he set his captains , and the event justified his expectation . " This assessment was refuted by Captain Hotham , who publicly responded that " the advanced season of the year and the close proximity of the enemy 's coast all made what , upon another occasion , might have appeared haste imperatively necessary , for it was the prompt decision of the Admiral that occasioned the result " . Some modern historians , such as Peter Padfield , have agreed with Hotham 's assertion , with the added suggestion that Duncan 's tactics during the battle might have had an influence on the newly promoted Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson , who was in England recovering from the loss of his right arm at the Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife at the time of Camperdown . Duncan himself felt that he could have done more , noting that " We were obliged ... to be rather rash in our attack . Had we been ten leagues at sea none would have escaped . " but some of the highest praise came from his erstwhile opponent , De Winter , who wrote that " Your not waiting to form line ruined me : if I had got nearer the shore and you had attacked , I should probably have drawn both fleets on it , and it would have been a victory for me , being on my own coast . " Duncan 's health deteriorated after the battle , forcing his retirement from the Navy in 1799 and contributing to his death at Cornhill @-@ on @-@ Tweed in 1804 .
De Winter 's actions during in the battle have been commended : Edward Pelham Brenton wrote in 1836 that " The Dutch admiral displayed , in his own person , the most undaunted valour ... but was compelled at length to yield to superior skill , it would be untrue to say superior bravery . " while William James noted in 1827 that after the battle " " Batavian prowess " still claimed the respect of an enemy and the applause of the world " . De Winter was released from captivity in 1798 after news reached Britain that his wife had suffered a stroke , and he subsequently became the Batavian ambassador to France , before resuming command of the Dutch fleet at the start of the Napoleonic Wars . He was a trusted subordinate of Louis Bonaparte , King of Holland between 1806 and 1810 , and was honoured by Emperor Napoleon in 1811 before his sudden death in Paris the following year .
The battle became a popular theme for contemporary artists and many paintings depicting it are held in National collections in the United Kingdom , including paintings by Thomas Whitcombe and Philip de Loutherbourg in the Tate Gallery , Whitcombe , Samuel Drummond and Daniel Orme at the National Maritime Museum , and George Chambers , Sr. and John Singleton Copley at the National Gallery of Scotland . In literature , the battle has played a central role in the 1968 novel Sea Road to Camperdown by Showell Styles , and the 1975 novel The Fireship by C. Northcote Parkinson . The battle also inspired composers , such as Daniel Steibelt , whose composition Britannia : An Allegorical Overture was created in honour of the victory and Jan Ladislav Dussek , who created a composition entitled The Naval Battle and Total Defeat of the Dutch by Admiral Duncan in 1797 .
The Royal Navy has commemorated the battle through the four ships that bore the name HMS Camperdown and seven named HMS Duncan , which have maintained close links with Duncan 's hometown of Dundee . In Dundee , the Battle of Camperdown is commemorated at Camperdown House , originally the Dundee seat of the Viscounts Camperdown , which was completed in 1828 and later became a public park and tourist attraction . The bicentennial of the battle was celebrated in Dundee in 1997 with the " Glorious Victory " exhibition at the city 's McManus Galleries in conjunction with Camperdown House and the National Museum of Scotland . The exhibition became a popular tourist attraction and was viewed by more than 50 @,@ 000 visitors . On 11 October a memorial service was held to remember the dead and a new statue of Admiral Duncan unveiled in the town .
= Beta Pictoris =
Beta Pictoris ( β Pic , β Pictoris ) is the second brightest star in the constellation Pictor . It is located 63 @.@ 4 light years from the Solar System , and is 1 @.@ 75 times as massive and 8 @.@ 7 times as luminous as the Sun . The Beta Pictoris system is very young , only 8 – 20 million years old , although it is already in the main sequence stage of its evolution . Beta Pictoris is the title member of the Beta Pictoris moving group , an association of young stars which share the same motion through space and have the same age .
Beta Pictoris shows an excess of infrared emission compared to normal stars of its type , which is caused by large quantities of dust and gas ( including carbon monoxide ) near the star . Detailed observations reveal a large disk of dust and gas orbiting the star , which was the first debris disk to be imaged around another star . In addition to the presence of several planetesimal belts and cometary activity , there are indications that planets have formed within this disk and that the processes of planet formation may still be ongoing . Material from the Beta Pictoris debris disk is thought to be the dominant source of interstellar meteoroids in the Solar System .
The European Southern Observatory ( ESO ) has confirmed the presence of a planet , Beta Pictoris b , matching previous predictions , through the use of direct imagery , orbiting in the plane of the debris disk surrounding the star . This planet is currently the closest extrasolar planet to its star ever photographed : the observed separation is roughly the same as the distance between Saturn and the Sun .
= = Location and visibility = =
Beta Pictoris is a star in the southern constellation of Pictor , the Easel , and is located to the west of the bright star Canopus . It traditionally marked the sounding line of the ship Argo Navis , before the constellation was split . The star has an apparent visual magnitude of 3 @.@ 861 , so is visible to the naked eye under good conditions , though light pollution may result in stars dimmer than magnitude 3 being too dim to see . It is the second brightest in its constellation , exceeded only by Alpha Pictoris , which has an apparent magnitude of 3 @.@ 30 .
The distance to Beta Pictoris and many other stars was measured by the Hipparcos satellite . This was done by measuring its trigonometric parallax : the slight displacement in its position observed as the Earth moves around the Sun . Beta Pictoris was found to exhibit a parallax of 51 @.@ 87 milliarcseconds , a value which was later revised to 51 @.@ 44 milliarcseconds when the data was reanalyzed taking systematic errors more carefully into account . The distance to Beta Pictoris is therefore 63 @.@ 4 light years , with an uncertainty of 0 @.@ 1 light years .
The Hipparcos satellite also measured the proper motion of Beta Pictoris : it is traveling eastwards at a rate of 4 @.@ 65 milliarcseconds per year , and northwards at a rate of 83 @.@ 10 milliarcseconds per year . Measurements of the Doppler shift of the star 's spectrum reveals it is moving away from us at a rate of 20 km / s . Several other stars share the same motion through space as Beta Pictoris and likely formed from the same gas cloud at roughly the same time : these comprise the Beta Pictoris moving group .
= = Physical properties = =
= = = Spectrum , luminosity and variability = = =
According to measurements made as part of the Nearby Stars Project , Beta Pictoris has a spectral type of A6V and has an effective temperature of 8 @,@ 052 K ( 7 @,@ 779 ° C ; 14 @,@ 034 ° F ) , which is hotter than our Sun 's 5 @,@ 778 K ( 5 @,@ 505 ° C ; 9 @,@ 941 ° F ) . Analysis of the spectrum reveals that the star contains a slightly higher ratio of heavy elements , which are termed metals in astronomy , to hydrogen than our Sun . This value is expressed as the quantity [ M / H ] , the base @-@ 10 logarithm of the ratio of the star 's metal fraction to that of the Sun . In the case of Beta Pictoris , the value of [ M / H ] is 0 @.@ 05 , which means that the star 's metal fraction is 12 % greater than that of our Sun .
Analysis of the spectrum can also reveal the surface gravity of the star . This is usually expressed as log g , the base @-@ 10 logarithm of the gravitational acceleration given in CGS units , in this case , cm / s ² . Beta Pictoris has log g = 4 @.@ 15 , implying a surface gravity of 140 m / s ² , which is about half of the gravitational acceleration at the surface of our Sun ( 274 m / s ² ) .
As an A @-@ type main sequence star , Beta Pictoris is more luminous than our Sun : combining the apparent magnitude of 3 @.@ 861 with the distance of 19 @.@ 44 parsecs gives an absolute magnitude of 2 @.@ 42 , as compared to our Sun which has an absolute magnitude of 4 @.@ 83 . This corresponds to a visual luminosity 9 @.@ 2 times greater than that of the Sun . When the entire spectrum of radiation from Beta Pictoris and the Sun is taken into account , Beta Pictoris is found to be 8 @.@ 7 times more luminous than the Sun .
Many main sequence stars of spectral type A fall into a region of the Hertzsprung – Russell diagram called the instability strip , which is occupied by pulsating variable stars . In 2003 , photometric monitoring of the star revealed variations in brightness of around 1 – 2 millimagnitudes on frequencies between about 30 and 40 minutes . Radial velocity studies of Beta Pictoris also reveal variability : there are pulsations at two frequencies , one at 30 @.@ 4 minutes and one at 36 @.@ 9 minutes . As a result , the star is classified as a Delta Scuti variable .
= = = Mass , radius and rotation = = =
The mass of Beta Pictoris has been determined by using models of stellar evolution and fitting them to the star 's observed properties . This method yields a stellar mass between 1 @.@ 7 and 1 @.@ 8 solar masses . The star 's angular diameter has been measured using interferometry with the Very Large Telescope and was found to be 0 @.@ 84 milliarcseconds . Combining this value with the distance of 63 @.@ 4 light years gives a radius 1 @.@ 8 times that of our Sun .
The rotational velocity of Beta Pictoris has been measured to be at least 130 km / s . Since this value is derived by measuring radial velocities , this is a lower limit on the true rotational velocity : the quantity measured is actually v sin ( i ) , where i represents the inclination of the star 's axis of rotation to the line @-@ of @-@ sight . If it is assumed that Beta Pictoris is viewed from Earth in its equatorial plane , a reasonable assumption since the circumstellar disk is seen edge @-@ on , the rotation period can be calculated as approximately 16 hours , which is significantly shorter than that of our Sun ( 609 @.@ 12 hours ) .
= = = Age and formation = = =
The presence of significant amounts of dust around the star implies a young age of the system and led to debate about whether it had joined the main sequence or was still a pre – main sequence star However , when the star 's distance was measured by Hipparcos it was revealed that Beta Pictoris was located further away than previously thought and hence was more luminous than originally believed . Once the Hipparcos results were taken into account , it was found that Beta Pictoris was located close to the zero age main sequence and was not a pre – main sequence star after all . Analysis of Beta Pictoris and other stars within the Beta Pictoris moving group suggests that they are around 12 million years old . Allowing for uncertainties , the age may range between 8 and 20 million years .
Beta Pictoris may have been formed near the Scorpius @-@ Centaurus Association . The collapse of the gas cloud which resulted in the formation of Beta Pictoris may have been triggered by the shock wave from a supernova explosion : the star which went supernova may have been a former companion of HIP 46950 , which is now a runaway star . Tracing the path of HIP 46950 backwards suggests that it would have been in the vicinity of the Scorpius @-@ Centaurus Association about 13 million years ago .
= = Circumstellar environment = =
= = = Debris disks = = =
Excess infrared radiation from Beta Pictoris was detected by the IRAS spacecraft in 1983 . Along with Vega , Fomalhaut and Epsilon Eridani , it was one of the first four stars from which such
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, trichomoniasis , and bacterial vaginosis , are associated with somewhat smaller increases in risk of transmission .
The viral load of an infected person is an important risk factor in both sexual and mother @-@ to @-@ child transmission . During the first 2 @.@ 5 months of an HIV infection a person 's infectiousness is twelve times higher due to this high viral load . If the person is in the late stages of infection , rates of transmission are approximately eightfold greater .
Commercial sex workers ( including those in pornography ) have an increased rate of HIV . Rough sex can be a factor associated with an increased risk of transmission . Sexual assault is also believed to carry an increased risk of HIV transmission as condoms are rarely worn , physical trauma to the vagina or rectum is likely , and there may be a greater risk of concurrent sexually transmitted infections .
= = = Body fluids = = =
The second most frequent mode of HIV transmission is via blood and blood products . Blood @-@ borne transmission can be through needle @-@ sharing during intravenous drug use , needle stick injury , transfusion of contaminated blood or blood product , or medical injections with unsterilised equipment . The risk from sharing a needle during drug injection is between 0 @.@ 63 and 2 @.@ 4 % per act , with an average of 0 @.@ 8 % . The risk of acquiring HIV from a needle stick from an HIV @-@ infected person is estimated as 0 @.@ 3 % ( about 1 in 333 ) per act and the risk following mucous membrane exposure to infected blood as 0 @.@ 09 % ( about 1 in 1000 ) per act . In the United States intravenous drug users made up 12 % of all new cases of HIV in 2009 , and in some areas more than 80 % of people who inject drugs are HIV positive .
HIV is transmitted in about 93 % of blood transfusions using infected blood . In developed countries the risk of acquiring HIV from a blood transfusion is extremely low ( less than one in half a million ) where improved donor selection and HIV screening is performed ; for example , in the UK the risk is reported at one in five million and in the United States it was one in 1 @.@ 5 million in 2008 . In low income countries , only half of transfusions may be appropriately screened ( as of 2008 ) , and it is estimated that up to 15 % of HIV infections in these areas come from transfusion of infected blood and blood products , representing between 5 % and 10 % of global infections . Although rare because of screening , it is possible to acquire HIV from organ and tissue transplantation .
Unsafe medical injections play a significant role in HIV spread in sub @-@ Saharan Africa . In 2007 , between 12 and 17 % of infections in this region were attributed to medical syringe use . The World Health Organization estimates the risk of transmission as a result of a medical injection in Africa at 1 @.@ 2 % . Significant risks are also associated with invasive procedures , assisted delivery , and dental care in this area of the world .
People giving or receiving tattoos , piercings , and scarification are theoretically at risk of infection but no confirmed cases have been documented . It is not possible for mosquitoes or other insects to transmit HIV .
= = = Mother @-@ to @-@ child = = =
HIV can be transmitted from mother to child during pregnancy , during delivery , or through breast milk resulting in infection in the baby . This is the third most common way in which HIV is transmitted globally . In the absence of treatment , the risk of transmission before or during birth is around 20 % and in those who also breastfeed 35 % . As of 2008 , vertical transmission accounted for about 90 % of cases of HIV in children . With appropriate treatment the risk of mother @-@ to @-@ child infection can be reduced to about 1 % . Preventive treatment involves the mother taking antiretrovirals during pregnancy and delivery , an elective caesarean section , avoiding breastfeeding , and administering antiretroviral drugs to the newborn . Antiretrovirals when taken by either the mother or the infant decrease the risk of transmission in those who do breastfeed . Many of these measures are however not available in the developing world . If blood contaminates food during pre @-@ chewing it may pose a risk of transmission .
= = Virology = =
HIV is the cause of the spectrum of disease known as HIV / AIDS . HIV is a retrovirus that primarily infects components of the human immune system such as CD4 + T cells , macrophages and dendritic cells . It directly and indirectly destroys CD4 + T cells .
HIV is a member of the genus Lentivirus , part of the family Retroviridae . Lentiviruses share many morphological and biological characteristics . Many species of mammals are infected by lentiviruses , which are characteristically responsible for long @-@ duration illnesses with a long incubation period . Lentiviruses are transmitted as single @-@ stranded , positive @-@ sense , enveloped RNA viruses . Upon entry into the target cell , the viral RNA genome is converted ( reverse transcribed ) into double @-@ stranded DNA by a virally encoded reverse transcriptase that is transported along with the viral genome in the virus particle . The resulting viral DNA is then imported into the cell nucleus and integrated into the cellular DNA by a virally encoded integrase and host co @-@ factors . Once integrated , the virus may become latent , allowing the virus and its host cell to avoid detection by the immune system . Alternatively , the virus may be transcribed , producing new RNA genomes and viral proteins that are packaged and released from the cell as new virus particles that begin the replication cycle anew .
HIV is now known to spread between CD4 + T cells by two parallel routes : cell @-@ free spread and cell @-@ to @-@ cell spread , i.e. it employs hybrid spreading mechanisms . In the cell @-@ free spread , virus particles bud from an infected T cell , enter the blood / extracellular fluid and then infect another T cell following a chance encounter . HIV can also disseminate by direct transmission from one cell to another by a process of cell @-@ to @-@ cell spread . The hybrid spreading mechanisms of HIV contribute to the virus 's ongoing replication against antiretroviral therapies .
Two types of HIV have been characterized : HIV @-@ 1 and HIV @-@ 2 . HIV @-@ 1 is the virus that was originally discovered ( and initially referred to also as LAV or HTLV @-@ III ) . It is more virulent , more infective , and is the cause of the majority of HIV infections globally . The lower infectivity of HIV @-@ 2 as compared with HIV @-@ 1 implies that fewer people exposed to HIV @-@ 2 will be infected per exposure . Because of its relatively poor capacity for transmission , HIV @-@ 2 is largely confined to West Africa .
= = Pathophysiology = =
After the virus enters the body there is a period of rapid viral replication , leading to an abundance of virus in the peripheral blood . During primary infection , the level of HIV may reach several million virus particles per milliliter of blood . This response is accompanied by a marked drop in the number of circulating CD4 + T cells . The acute viremia is almost invariably associated with activation of CD8 + T cells , which kill HIV @-@ infected cells , and subsequently with antibody production , or seroconversion . The CD8 + T cell response is thought to be important in controlling virus levels , which peak and then decline , as the CD4 + T cell counts recover . A good CD8 + T cell response has been linked to slower disease progression and a better prognosis , though it does not eliminate the virus .
Ultimately , HIV causes AIDS by depleting CD4 + T cells . This weakens the immune system and allows opportunistic infections . T cells are essential to the immune response and without them , the body cannot fight infections or kill cancerous cells . The mechanism of CD4 + T cell depletion differs in the acute and chronic phases . During the acute phase , HIV @-@ induced cell lysis and killing of infected cells by cytotoxic T cells accounts for CD4 + T cell depletion , although apoptosis may also be a factor . During the chronic phase , the consequences of generalized immune activation coupled with the gradual loss of the ability of the immune system to generate new T cells appear to account for the slow decline in CD4 + T cell numbers .
Although the symptoms of immune deficiency characteristic of AIDS do not appear for years after a person is infected , the bulk of CD4 + T cell loss occurs during the first weeks of infection , especially in the intestinal mucosa , which harbors the majority of the lymphocytes found in the body . The reason for the preferential loss of mucosal CD4 + T cells is that the majority of mucosal CD4 + T cells express the CCR5 protein which HIV uses as a co @-@ receptor to gain access to the cells , whereas only a small fraction of CD4 + T cells in the bloodstream do so . A specific genetic change that alters the CCR5 protein when present in both chromosomes very effectively prevents HIV @-@ 1 infection .
HIV seeks out and destroys CCR5 expressing CD4 + T cells during acute infection . A vigorous immune response eventually controls the infection and initiates the clinically latent phase . CD4 + T cells in mucosal tissues remain particularly affected . Continuous HIV replication causes a state of generalized immune activation persisting throughout the chronic phase . Immune activation , which is reflected by the increased activation state of immune cells and release of pro @-@ inflammatory cytokines , results from the activity of several HIV gene products and the immune response to ongoing HIV replication . It is also linked to the breakdown of the immune surveillance system of the gastrointestinal mucosal barrier caused by the depletion of mucosal CD4 + T cells during the acute phase of disease .
= = Diagnosis = =
HIV / AIDS is diagnosed via laboratory testing and then staged based on the presence of certain signs or symptoms . HIV screening is recommended by the United States Preventive Services Task Force for all people 15 years to 65 years of age including all pregnant women . Additionally , testing is recommended for those at high risk , which includes anyone diagnosed with a sexually transmitted illness . In many areas of the world , a third of HIV carriers only discover they are infected at an advanced stage of the disease when AIDS or severe immunodeficiency has become apparent .
= = = HIV testing = = =
Most people infected with HIV develop specific antibodies ( i.e. seroconvert ) within three to twelve weeks of the initial infection . Diagnosis of primary HIV before seroconversion is done by measuring HIV @-@ RNA or p24 antigen . Positive results obtained by antibody or PCR testing are confirmed either by a different antibody or by PCR .
Antibody tests in children younger than 18 months are typically inaccurate due to the continued presence of maternal antibodies . Thus HIV infection can only be diagnosed by PCR testing for HIV RNA or DNA , or via testing for the p24 antigen . Much of the world lacks access to reliable PCR testing and many places simply wait until either symptoms develop or the child is old enough for accurate antibody testing . In sub @-@ Saharan Africa as of 2007 – 2009 between 30 and 70 % of the population were aware of their HIV status . In 2009 , between 3 @.@ 6 and 42 % of men and women in Sub @-@ Saharan countries were tested which represented a significant increase compared to previous years .
= = = Classifications = = =
Two main clinical staging systems are used to classify HIV and HIV @-@ related disease for surveillance purposes : the WHO disease staging system for HIV infection and disease , and the CDC classification system for HIV infection . The CDC 's classification system is more frequently adopted in developed countries . Since the WHO 's staging system does not require laboratory tests , it is suited to the resource @-@ restricted conditions encountered in developing countries , where it can also be used to help guide clinical management . Despite their differences , the two systems allow comparison for statistical purposes .
The World Health Organization first proposed a definition for AIDS in 1986 . Since then , the WHO classification has been updated and expanded several times , with the most recent version being published in 2007 . The WHO system uses the following categories :
Primary HIV infection : May be either asymptomatic or associated with acute retroviral syndrome .
Stage I : HIV infection is asymptomatic with a CD4 + T cell count ( also known as CD4 count ) greater than 500 per microlitre ( µl or cubic mm ) of blood . May include generalized lymph node enlargement .
Stage II : Mild symptoms which may include minor mucocutaneous manifestations and recurrent upper respiratory tract infections . A CD4 count of less than 500 / µl .
Stage III : Advanced symptoms which may include unexplained chronic diarrhea for longer than a month , severe bacterial infections including tuberculosis of the lung , and a CD4 count of less than 350 / µl .
Stage IV or AIDS : severe symptoms which include toxoplasmosis of the brain , candidiasis of the esophagus , trachea , bronchi or lungs and Kaposi 's sarcoma . A CD4 count of less than 200 / µl .
The United States Center for Disease Control and Prevention also created a classification system for HIV , and updated it in 2008 and 2014 . This system classifies HIV infections based on CD4 count and clinical symptoms , and describes the infection in five groups . In those greater than six years of age it is :
Stage 0 : the time between a negative or indeterminate HIV test followed less than 180 days by a positive test
Stage 1 : CD4 count ≥ 500 cells / µl and no AIDS defining conditions
Stage 2 : CD4 count 200 to 500 cells / µl and no AIDS defining conditions
Stage 3 : CD4 count ≤ 200 cells / µl or AIDS defining conditions
Unknown : if insufficient information is available to make any of the above classifications
For surveillance purposes , the AIDS diagnosis still stands even if , after treatment , the CD4 + T cell count rises to above 200 per µL of blood or other AIDS @-@ defining illnesses are cured .
= = Prevention = =
= = = Sexual contact = = =
Consistent condom use reduces the risk of HIV transmission by approximately 80 % over the long term . When condoms are used consistently by a couple in which one person is infected , the rate of HIV infection is less than 1 % per year . There is some evidence to suggest that female condoms may provide an equivalent level of protection . Application of a vaginal gel containing tenofovir ( a reverse transcriptase inhibitor ) immediately before sex seems to reduce infection rates by approximately 40 % among African women . By contrast , use of the spermicide nonoxynol @-@ 9 may increase the risk of transmission due to its tendency to cause vaginal and rectal irritation .
Circumcision in Sub @-@ Saharan Africa " reduces the acquisition of HIV by heterosexual men by between 38 % and 66 % over 24 months " . Due to these studies , both the World Health Organization and UNAIDS recommended male circumcision as a method of preventing female @-@ to @-@ male HIV transmission in 2007 in areas with a high rates of HIV . However , whether it protects against male @-@ to @-@ female transmission is disputed , and whether it is of benefit in developed countries and among men who have sex with men is undetermined . The International Antiviral Society , however , does recommend for all sexually active heterosexual males and that it be discussed as an option with men who have sex with men . Some experts fear that a lower perception of vulnerability among circumcised men may cause more sexual risk @-@ taking behavior , thus negating its preventive effects .
Programs encouraging sexual abstinence do not appear to affect subsequent HIV risk . Evidence of any benefit from peer education is equally poor . Comprehensive sexual education provided at school may decrease high risk behavior . A substantial minority of young people continues to engage in high @-@ risk practices despite knowing about HIV / AIDS , underestimating their own risk of becoming infected with HIV . Voluntary counseling and testing people for HIV does not affect risky behavior in those who test negative but does increase condom use in those who test positive . It is not known whether treating other sexually transmitted infections is effective in preventing HIV .
= = = Pre @-@ exposure = = =
Antiretroviral treatment among people with HIV whose CD4 count ≤ 550 cells / µL is a very effective way to prevent HIV infection of their partner ( a strategy known as treatment as prevention , or TASP ) . TASP is associated with a 10 to 20 fold reduction in transmission risk . Pre @-@ exposure prophylaxis ( PrEP ) with a daily dose of the medications tenofovir , with or without emtricitabine , is effective in a number of groups including men who have sex with men , couples where one is HIV positive , and young heterosexuals in Africa . It may also be effective in intravenous drug users with a study finding a decrease in risk of 0 @.@ 7 to 0 @.@ 4 per 100 person years .
Universal precautions within the health care environment are believed to be effective in decreasing the risk of HIV . Intravenous drug use is an important risk factor and harm reduction strategies such as needle @-@ exchange programs and opioid substitution therapy appear effective in decreasing this risk .
= = = Post @-@ exposure = = =
A course of antiretrovirals administered within 48 to 72 hours after exposure to HIV @-@ positive blood or genital secretions is referred to as post @-@ exposure prophylaxis ( PEP ) . The use of the single agent zidovudine reduces the risk of a HIV infection five @-@ fold following a needle @-@ stick injury . As of 2013 , the prevention regimen recommended in the United States consists of three medications — tenofovir , emtricitabine and raltegravir — as this may reduce the risk further .
PEP treatment is recommended after a sexual assault when the perpetrator is known to be HIV positive , but is controversial when their HIV status is unknown . The duration of treatment is usually four weeks and is frequently associated with adverse effects — where zidovudine is used , about 70 % of cases result in adverse effects such as nausea ( 24 % ) , fatigue ( 22 % ) , emotional distress ( 13 % ) and headaches ( 9 % ) .
= = = Mother @-@ to @-@ child = = =
Programs to prevent the vertical transmission of HIV ( from mothers to children ) can reduce rates of transmission by 92 – 99 % . This primarily involves the use of a combination of antiviral medications during pregnancy and after birth in the infant and potentially includes bottle feeding rather than breastfeeding . If replacement feeding is acceptable , feasible , affordable , sustainable , and safe , mothers should avoid breastfeeding their infants ; however exclusive breastfeeding is recommended during the first months of life if this is not the case . If exclusive breastfeeding is carried out , the provision of extended antiretroviral prophylaxis to the infant decreases the risk of transmission . In 2015 , Cuba became the first country in the world to eradicate mother @-@ to @-@ child transmission of HIV .
= = = Vaccination = = =
Currently , there is no licensed vaccine for HIV or AIDS . The most effective vaccine trial to date , RV 144 , was published in 2009 and found a partial reduction in the risk of transmission of roughly 30 % , stimulating some hope in the research community of developing a truly effective vaccine . Further trials of the RV 144 vaccine are ongoing .
= = Treatment = =
There is currently no cure or effective HIV vaccine . Treatment consists of highly active antiretroviral therapy ( HAART ) which slows progression of the disease . As of 2010 more than 6 @.@ 6 million people were taking them in low and middle income countries . Treatment also includes preventive and active treatment of opportunistic infections .
= = = Antiviral therapy = = =
Current HAART options are combinations ( or " cocktails " ) consisting of at least three medications belonging to at least two types , or " classes , " of antiretroviral agents . Initially treatment is typically a non @-@ nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor ( NNRTI ) plus two nucleoside analogue reverse transcriptase inhibitors ( NRTIs ) . Typical NRTIs include : zidovudine ( AZT ) or tenofovir ( TDF ) and lamivudine ( 3TC ) or emtricitabine ( FTC ) . Combinations of agents which include protease inhibitors ( PI ) are used if the above regimen loses effectiveness .
The World Health Organization and United States recommends antiretrovirals in people of all ages including pregnant women as soon as the diagnosis is made regardless of CD4 count . Once treatment is begun it is recommended that it is continued without breaks or " holidays " . Many people are diagnosed only after treatment ideally should have begun . The desired outcome of treatment is a long term plasma HIV @-@ RNA count below 50 copies / mL . Levels to determine if treatment is effective are initially recommended after four weeks and once levels fall below 50 copies / mL checks every three to six months are typically adequate . Inadequate control is deemed to be greater than 400 copies / mL . Based on these criteria treatment is effective in more than 95 % of people during the first year .
Benefits of treatment include a decreased risk of progression to AIDS and a decreased risk of death . In the developing world treatment also improves physical and mental health . With treatment there is a 70 % reduced risk of acquiring tuberculosis . Additional benefits include a decreased risk of transmission of the disease to sexual partners and a decrease in mother @-@ to @-@ child transmission . The effectiveness of treatment depends to a large part on compliance . Reasons for non @-@ adherence include poor access to medical care , inadequate social supports , mental illness and drug abuse . The complexity of treatment regimens ( due to pill numbers and dosing frequency ) and adverse effects may reduce adherence . Even though cost is an important issue with some medications , 47 % of those who needed them were taking them in low and middle income countries as of 2010 and the rate of adherence is similar in low @-@ income and high @-@ income countries .
Specific adverse events are related to the antiretroviral agent taken . Some relatively common adverse events include : lipodystrophy syndrome , dyslipidemia , and diabetes mellitus , especially with protease inhibitors . Other common symptoms include diarrhea , and an increased risk of cardiovascular disease . Newer recommended treatments are associated with fewer adverse effects . Certain medications may be associated with birth defects and therefore may be unsuitable for women hoping to have children .
Treatment recommendations for children are somewhat different from those for adults . The World Health Organisation recommends treating all children less than 5 years of age ; children above 5 are treated like adults . The United States guidelines recommend treating all children less than 12 months of age and all those with HIV RNA counts greater than 100 @,@ 000 copies / mL between one year and five years of age .
= = = Opportunistic infections = = =
Measures to prevent opportunistic infections are effective in many people with HIV / AIDS . In addition to improving current disease , treatment with antiretrovirals reduces the risk of developing additional opportunistic infections . Adults and adolescents who are living with HIV ( even on anti @-@ retroviral therapy ) with no evidence of active tuberculosis in settings with high tuberculosis burden should receive isoniazid preventive therapy ( IPT ) , the tuberculin skin test can be used to help decide if IPT is needed . Vaccination against hepatitis A and B is advised for all people at risk of HIV before they become infected ; however it may also be given after infection . Trimethoprim / sulfamethoxazole prophylaxis between four and six weeks of age and ceasing breastfeeding in infants born to HIV positive mothers is recommended in resource limited settings . It is also recommended to prevent PCP when a person 's CD4 count is below 200 cells / uL and in those who have or have previously had PCP . People with substantial immunosuppression are also advised to receive prophylactic therapy for toxoplasmosis and Cryptococcus meningitis . Appropriate preventive measures have reduced the rate of these infections by 50 % between 1992 and 1997 .
= = = Diet = = =
The World Health Organization ( WHO ) has issued recommendations regarding nutrient requirements in HIV / AIDS . A generally healthy diet is promoted . Some evidence has shown a benefit from micronutrient supplements . Evidence for supplementation with selenium is mixed with some tentative evidence of benefit . There is some evidence that vitamin A supplementation in children reduces mortality and improves growth . In Africa in nutritionally compromised pregnant and lactating women a multivitamin supplementation has improved outcomes for both mothers and children . Dietary intake of micronutrients at RDA levels by HIV @-@ infected adults is recommended by the WHO ; higher intake of vitamin A , zinc , and iron can produce adverse effects in HIV positive adults , and is not recommended unless there is documented deficiency .
= = = Alternative medicine = = =
In the US , approximately 60 % of people with HIV use various forms of complementary or alternative medicine , even though the effectiveness of most of these therapies has not been established . There is not enough evidence to support the use of herbal medicines . There is insufficient evidence to recommend or support the use of medical cannabis to try to increase appetite or weight gain .
= = Prognosis = =
HIV / AIDS has become a chronic rather than an acutely fatal disease in many areas of the world . Prognosis varies between people , and both the CD4 count and viral load are useful for predicted outcomes . Without treatment , average survival time after infection with HIV is estimated to be 9 to 11 years , depending on the HIV subtype . After the diagnosis of AIDS , if treatment is not available , survival ranges between 6 and 19 months . HAART and appropriate prevention of opportunistic infections reduces the death rate by 80 % , and raises the life expectancy for a newly diagnosed young adult to 20 – 50 years . This is between two thirds and nearly that of the general population . If treatment is started late in the infection , prognosis is not as good : for example , if treatment is begun following the diagnosis of AIDS , life expectancy is ~ 10 – 40 years . Half of infants born with HIV die before two years of age without treatment .
The primary causes of death from HIV / AIDS are opportunistic infections and cancer , both of which are frequently the result of the progressive failure of the immune system . Risk of cancer appears to increase once the CD4 count is below 500 / μL . The rate of clinical disease progression varies widely between individuals and has been shown to be affected by a number of factors such as a person 's susceptibility and immune function ; their access to health care , the presence of co @-@ infections ; and the particular strain ( or strains ) of the virus involved .
Tuberculosis co @-@ infection is one of the leading causes of sickness and death in those with HIV / AIDS being present in a third of all HIV @-@ infected people and causing 25 % of HIV @-@ related deaths . HIV is also one of the most important risk factors for tuberculosis . Hepatitis C is another very common co @-@ infection where each disease increases the progression of the other . The two most common cancers associated with HIV / AIDS are Kaposi 's sarcoma and AIDS @-@ related non @-@ Hodgkin 's lymphoma .
Even with anti @-@ retroviral treatment , over the long term HIV @-@ infected people may experience neurocognitive disorders , osteoporosis , neuropathy , cancers , nephropathy , and cardiovascular disease . Some conditions like lipodystrophy may be caused both by HIV and its treatment .
= = Epidemiology = =
HIV / AIDS is a global pandemic . As of 2014 , approximately 37 million people have HIV worldwide with the number of new infections that year being about 2 million . This is down from 3 @.@ 1 million new infections in 2001 . Of these 37 million more than half are women and 2 @.@ 6 million are less than 15 years old . It resulted in about 1 @.@ 2 million deaths in 2014 , down from a peak of 2 @.@ 2 million in 2005 .
Sub @-@ Saharan Africa is the region most affected . In 2010 , an estimated 68 % ( 22 @.@ 9 million ) of all HIV cases and 66 % of all deaths ( 1 @.@ 2 million ) occurred in this region . This means that about 5 % of the adult population is infected and it is believed to be the cause of 10 % of all deaths in children . Here in contrast to other regions women compose nearly 60 % of cases . South Africa has the largest population of people with HIV of any country in the world at 5 @.@ 9 million . Life expectancy has fallen in the worst @-@ affected countries due to HIV / AIDS ; for example , in 2006 it was estimated that it had dropped from 65 to 35 years in Botswana . Mother @-@ to @-@ child transmission , as of 2013 , in Botswana and South Africa has decreased to less than 5 % with improvement in many other African nations due to improved access to antiretroviral therapy .
South & South East Asia is the second most affected ; in 2010 this region contained an estimated 4 million cases or 12 % of all people living with HIV resulting in approximately 250 @,@ 000 deaths . Approximately 2 @.@ 4 million of these cases are in India .
In 2008 in the United States approximately 1 @.@ 2 million people were living with HIV , resulting in about 17 @,@ 500 deaths . The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimated that in 2008 20 % of infected Americans were unaware of their infection . In the United Kingdom as of 2009 there were approximately 86 @,@ 500 cases which resulted in 516 deaths . In Canada as of 2008 there were about 65 @,@ 000 cases causing 53 deaths . Between the first recognition of AIDS in 1981 and 2009 it has led to nearly 30 million deaths . Prevalence is lowest in Middle East and North Africa at 0 @.@ 1 % or less , East Asia at 0 @.@ 1 % and Western and Central Europe at 0 @.@ 2 % . The worst affected European countries , in 2009 and 2012 estimates , are Russia , Ukraine , Latvia , Moldova , Portugal and Belarus , in decreasing order of prevalence .
= = History = =
= = = Discovery = = =
AIDS was first clinically observed in 1981 in the United States . The initial cases were a cluster of injecting drug users and homosexual men with no known cause of impaired immunity who showed symptoms of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia ( PCP ) , a rare opportunistic infection that was known to occur in people with very compromised immune systems . Soon thereafter , an unexpected number of homosexual men developed a previously rare skin cancer called Kaposi 's sarcoma ( KS ) . Many more cases of PCP and KS emerged , alerting U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ( CDC ) and a CDC task force was formed to monitor the outbreak .
In the early days , the CDC did not have an official name for the disease , often referring to it by way of the diseases that were associated with it , for example , lymphadenopathy , the disease after which the discoverers of HIV originally named the virus . They also used Kaposi 's sarcoma and opportunistic infections , the name by which a task force had been set up in 1981 . At one point , the CDC coined the phrase " the 4H disease " , since the syndrome seemed to affect heroin users , homosexuals , hemophiliacs , and Haitians . In the general press , the term " GRID " , which stood for gay @-@ related immune deficiency , had been coined . However , after determining that AIDS was not isolated to the gay community , it was realized that the term GRID was misleading and the term AIDS was introduced at a meeting in July 1982 . By September 1982 the CDC started referring to the disease as AIDS .
In 1983 , two separate research groups led by Robert Gallo and Luc Montagnier declared that a novel retrovirus may have been infecting people with AIDS , and published their findings in the same issue of the journal Science . Gallo claimed that a virus his group had isolated from a person with AIDS was strikingly similar in shape to other human T @-@ lymphotropic viruses ( HTLVs ) his group had been the first to isolate . Gallo 's group called their newly isolated virus HTLV @-@ III . At the same time , Montagnier 's group isolated a virus from a person presenting with swelling of the lymph nodes of the neck and physical weakness , two characteristic symptoms of AIDS . Contradicting the report from Gallo 's group , Montagnier and his colleagues showed that core proteins of this virus were immunologically different from those of HTLV @-@ I. Montagnier 's group named their isolated virus lymphadenopathy @-@ associated virus ( LAV ) . As these two viruses turned out to be the same , in 1986 , LAV and HTLV @-@ III were renamed HIV .
= = = Origins = = =
Both HIV @-@ 1 and HIV @-@ 2 are believed to have originated in non @-@ human primates in West @-@ central Africa and were transferred to humans in the early 20th century . HIV @-@ 1 appears to have originated in southern Cameroon through the evolution of SIV ( cpz ) , a simian immunodeficiency virus ( SIV ) that infects wild chimpanzees ( HIV @-@ 1 descends from the SIVcpz endemic in the chimpanzee subspecies Pan troglodytes troglodytes ) . The closest relative of HIV @-@ 2 is SIV ( smm ) , a virus of the sooty mangabey ( Cercocebus atys atys ) , an Old World monkey living in coastal West Africa ( from southern Senegal to western Côte d 'Ivoire ) . New World monkeys such as the owl monkey are resistant to HIV @-@ 1 infection , possibly because of a genomic fusion of two viral resistance genes . HIV @-@ 1 is thought to have jumped the species barrier on at least three separate occasions , giving rise to the three groups of the virus , M , N , and O.
There is evidence that humans who participate in bushmeat activities , either as hunters or as bushmeat vendors , commonly acquire SIV . However , SIV is a weak virus which is typically suppressed by the human immune system within weeks of infection . It is thought that several transmissions of the virus from individual to individual in quick succession are necessary to allow it enough time to mutate into HIV . Furthermore , due to its relatively low person @-@ to @-@ person transmission rate , SIV can only spread throughout the population in the presence of one or more high @-@ risk transmission channels , which are thought to have been absent in Africa before the 20th century .
Specific proposed high @-@ risk transmission channels , allowing the virus to adapt to humans and spread throughout the society , depend on the proposed timing of the animal @-@ to @-@ human crossing . Genetic studies of the virus suggest that the most recent common ancestor of the HIV @-@ 1 M group dates back to circa 1910 . Proponents of this dating link the HIV epidemic with the emergence of colonialism and growth of large colonial African cities , leading to social changes , including a higher degree of sexual promiscuity , the spread of prostitution , and the accompanying high frequency of genital ulcer diseases ( such as syphilis ) in nascent colonial cities . While transmission rates of HIV during vaginal intercourse are low under regular circumstances , they are increased many fold if one of the partners suffers from a sexually transmitted infection causing genital ulcers . Early 1900s colonial cities were notable due to their high prevalence of prostitution and genital ulcers , to the degree that , as of 1928 , as many as 45 % of female residents of eastern Kinshasa were thought to have been prostitutes , and , as of 1933 , around 15 % of all residents of the same city had syphilis .
An alternative view holds that unsafe medical practices in Africa after World War II , such as unsterile reuse of single use syringes during mass vaccination , antibiotic and anti @-@ malaria treatment campaigns , were the initial vector that allowed the virus to adapt to humans and spread .
The earliest well @-@ documented case of HIV in a human dates back to 1959 in the Congo . The earliest retrospectively described case of AIDS is believed to have been in Norway beginning in 1966 . In July 1960 , in the wake its independence , the United Nations recruited Francophone experts and technicians from all over the world to assist in filling administrative gaps left by Belgium , who did not leave behind an African elite to run the country . By 1962 , Haitians made up the second largest group of well @-@ educated experts ( out of the 48 national groups recruited ) , that totaled around 4500 in the country . Dr. Jacques Pépin , a Quebecer author of The Origins of AIDS , stipulates that Haiti was one of HIV 's entry points to the United States and that one of them may have carried HIV back across the Atlantic in the 1960s . Although , the virus may have been present in the United States as early as 1966 , the vast majority of infections occurring outside sub @-@ Saharan Africa ( including the U.S. ) can be traced back to a single unknown individual who became infected with HIV in Haiti and then brought the infection to the United States some time around 1969 . The epidemic then rapidly spread among high @-@ risk groups ( initially , sexually promiscuous men who have sex with men ) . By 1978 , the prevalence of HIV @-@ 1 among homosexual male residents of New York and San Francisco was estimated at 5 % , suggesting that several thousand individuals in the country had been infected .
= = Society and culture = =
= = = Stigma = = =
AIDS stigma exists around the world in a variety of ways , including ostracism , rejection , discrimination and avoidance of HIV infected people ; compulsory HIV testing without prior consent or protection of confidentiality ; violence against HIV infected individuals or people who are perceived to be infected with HIV ; and the quarantine of HIV infected individuals . Stigma @-@ related violence or the fear of violence prevents many people from seeking HIV testing , returning for their results , or securing treatment , possibly turning what could be a manageable chronic illness into a death sentence and perpetuating the spread of HIV .
AIDS stigma has been further divided into the following three categories :
Instrumental AIDS stigma — a reflection of the fear and apprehension that are likely to be associated with any deadly and transmissible illness .
Symbolic AIDS stigma — the use of HIV / AIDS to express attitudes toward the social groups or lifestyles perceived to be associated with the disease .
Courtesy AIDS stigma — stigmatization of people connected to the issue of HIV / AIDS or HIV @-@ positive people .
Often , AIDS stigma is expressed in conjunction with one or more other stigmas , particularly those associated with homosexuality , bisexuality , promiscuity , prostitution , and intravenous drug use .
In many developed countries , there is an association between AIDS and homosexuality or bisexuality , and this association is correlated with higher levels of sexual prejudice , such as anti @-@ homosexual / bisexual attitudes . There is also a perceived association between AIDS and all male @-@ male sexual behavior , including sex between uninfected men . However , the dominant mode of spread worldwide for HIV remains heterosexual transmission .
In 2003 , as part of an overall reform of marriage and population legislation , it became legal for people with AIDS to marry in China .
= = = Economic impact = = =
HIV / AIDS affects the economics of both individuals and countries . The gross domestic product of the most affected countries has decreased due to the lack of human capital . Without proper nutrition , health care and medicine , large numbers of people die from AIDS @-@ related complications . They will not only be unable to work , but will also require significant medical care . It is estimated that as of 2007 there were 12 million AIDS orphans . Many are cared for by elderly grandparents .
Returning to work after beginning treatment for HIV / AIDS is difficult , and affected people often work less than the average worker . Unemployment in people with HIV / AIDS also is associated with suicidal ideation , memory problems , and social isolation ; employment increases self @-@ esteem , sense of dignity , confidence , and quality of life . A 2015 Cochrane review found low @-@ quality evidence that antiretroviral treatment helps people with HIV / AIDS work more , and increases the chance that a person with HIV / AIDS will be employed .
By affecting mainly young adults , AIDS reduces the taxable population , in turn reducing the resources available for public expenditures such as education and health services not related to AIDS resulting in increasing pressure for the state 's finances and slower growth of the economy . This causes a slower growth of the tax base , an effect that is reinforced if there are growing expenditures on treating the sick , training ( to replace sick workers ) , sick pay and caring for AIDS orphans . This is especially true if the sharp increase in adult mortality shifts the responsibility and blame from the family to the government in caring for these orphans .
At the household level , AIDS causes both loss of income and increased spending on healthcare . A study in Côte d 'Ivoire showed that households having a person with HIV / AIDS spent twice as much on medical expenses as other households . This additional expenditure also leaves less income to spend on education and other personal or family investment .
= = = Religion and AIDS = = =
The topic of religion and AIDS has become highly controversial in the past twenty years , primarily because some religious authorities have publicly declared their opposition to the use of condoms . The religious approach to prevent the spread of AIDS according to a report by American health expert Matthew Hanley titled The Catholic Church and the Global AIDS Crisis argues that cultural changes are needed including a re @-@ emphasis on fidelity within marriage and sexual abstinence outside of it .
Some religious organisations have claimed that prayer can cure HIV / AIDS . In 2011 , the BBC reported that some churches in London were claiming that prayer would cure AIDS , and the Hackney @-@ based Centre for the Study of Sexual Health and HIV reported that several people stopped taking their medication , sometimes on the direct advice of their pastor , leading to a number of deaths . The Synagogue Church Of All Nations advertise an " anointing water " to promote God 's healing , although the group deny advising people to stop taking medication .
= = = Media portrayal = = =
One of the first high @-@ profile cases of AIDS was the American Rock Hudson , a gay actor who had been married and divorced earlier in life , who died on October 2 , 1985 having announced that he was suffering from the virus on July 25 that year . He had been diagnosed during 1984 . A notable British casualty of AIDS that year was Nicholas Eden , a gay politician and son of the late prime minister Anthony Eden . On November 24 , 1991 , the virus claimed the life of British rock star Freddie Mercury , lead singer of the band Queen , who died from an AIDS @-@ related illness having only revealed the diagnosis on the previous day . However , he had been diagnosed as HIV positive in 1987 . One of the first high @-@ profile heterosexual cases of the virus was Arthur Ashe , the American tennis player . He was diagnosed as HIV positive on August 31 , 1988 , having contracted the virus from blood transfusions during heart surgery earlier in the 1980s . Further tests within 24 hours of the initial diagnosis revealed that Ashe had AIDS , but he did not tell the public about his diagnosis until April 1992 . He died as a result on February 6 , 1993 at age 49 .
Therese Frare 's photograph of gay activist David Kirby , as he lay dying from AIDS while surrounded by family , was taken in April 1990 . LIFE magazine said the photo became the one image " most powerfully identified with the HIV / AIDS epidemic . " The photo was displayed in LIFE magazine , was the winner of the World Press Photo , and acquired worldwide notoriety after being used in a United Colors of Benetton advertising campaign in 1992 . In 1996 , Johnson Aziga , a Ugandan @-@ born Canadian was diagnosed with HIV , but subsequently had unprotected sex with 11 women without disclosing his diagnosis . By 2003 seven had contracted HIV , and two died from complications related to AIDS . Aziga was convicted of first @-@ degree murder and is liable to a life sentence .
= = = Criminal transmission = = =
Criminal transmission of HIV is the intentional or reckless infection of a person with the human immunodeficiency virus ( HIV ) . Some countries or jurisdictions , including some areas of the United States , have laws that criminalize HIV transmission or exposure . Others may charge the accused under laws enacted before the HIV pandemic .
= = = Misconceptions = = =
There are many misconceptions about HIV and AIDS . Three of the most common are that AIDS can spread through casual contact , that sexual intercourse with a virgin will cure AIDS , and that HIV can infect only gay men and drug users . In 2014 , some among the British public wrongly thought you could get HIV from kissing ( 16 % ) , sharing a glass ( 5 % ) , spitting ( 16 % ) , a public toilet seat ( 4 % ) , and coughing or sneezing ( 5 % ) . Other misconceptions are that any act of anal intercourse between two uninfected gay men can lead to HIV infection , and that open discussion of HIV and homosexuality in schools will lead to increased rates of AIDS .
A small group of individuals continue to dispute the connection between HIV and AIDS , the existence of HIV itself , or the validity of HIV testing and treatment methods . These claims , known as AIDS denialism , have been examined and rejected by the scientific community . However , they have had a significant political impact , particularly in South Africa , where the government 's official embrace of AIDS denialism ( 1999 – 2005 ) was responsible for its ineffective response to that country 's AIDS epidemic , and has been blamed for hundreds of thousands of avoidable deaths and HIV infections .
Several discredited conspiracy theories have held that HIV was created by scientists , either inadvertently or deliberately . Operation INFEKTION was a worldwide Soviet active measures operation to spread the claim that the United States had created HIV / AIDS . Surveys show that a significant number of people believed – and continue to believe – in such claims .
= = Research = =
HIV / AIDS research includes all medical research which attempts to prevent , treat , or cure HIV / AIDS along with fundamental research about the nature of HIV as an infectious agent and AIDS as the disease caused by HIV .
Many governments and research institutions participate in HIV / AIDS research . This research includes behavioral health interventions such as sex education , and drug development , such as research into microbicides for sexually transmitted diseases , HIV vaccines , and antiretroviral drugs . Other medical research areas include the topics of pre @-@ exposure prophylaxis , post @-@ exposure prophylaxis , and circumcision and HIV .
= Encyclopedia of Chicago =
The Encyclopedia of Chicago is an historical reference work covering Chicago and the entire Chicago metropolitan area published by the University of Chicago Press . Released in October 2004 , the work is the result of a ten @-@ year collaboration between the Newberry Library and the Chicago Historical Society . It exists in both a hardcover print edition and an online format , known as the Electronic Encyclopedia of Chicago . The print edition is 1117 pages and includes 1400 entries , 2000 biographical sketches , 250 significant business enterprise descriptions , and hundreds of maps . Initially , the internet edition included 1766 entries , 1000 more images and sources .
The concept was fueled by other regional encyclopedias that had met with commercial success in 1980s and 1990s . Eventually , the vision to create the book found initial financing from the National Endowment for the Humanities . The book was well received and became a bestseller during the 2004 Christmas season following its October 2004 release . The following May the Electronic Encyclopedia of Chicago was released . Northwestern University joined the Newberry Library / Chicago Historical Society collaboration to publish the internet edition . The internet edition was the second of its kind for a U.S. city .
= = Details = =
Individual entries were compiled by historians , graduate assistants and authors . Most contributors were professors . About 600 people contributed entries at a rate of $ .10 / per word . The contributors consulted reliable secondary sources , such as newspapers , to compile historical accounts . The book was edited by James R. Grossman , Ann Durkin Keating , and Janice L. Reiff . At the time , Grossman was the vice president for research and education at the Newberry Library and visiting professor of history at the University of Chicago . Keating was a professor of history at North Central College . Reiff was an associate professor of history at the University of California , Los Angeles .
Unlike resource compilation efforts for the cities that inspired this encyclopedia , the work was not bounded by the city limits . Instead , every suburb was provided an entry , as were each of Chicago 's 77 official community areas . Entries ranged from 50 to 4000 words long . Eventually , the coverage of the subject matter expanded to include Southwest Michigan and Northwest Indiana . Newberry Library describes the work as " one of the most significant historical projects undertaken in the last twenty years " .
= = History = =
Inspired by encyclopedia compilation efforts of cities such as New York City , Indianapolis and Cleveland , Keating approached the Newberry Library in 1991 to strategize on how to best to study and teach Chicago history . Eventually she and Grossman agreed to prepare a funding request from the National Endowment for the Humanities ( NEH ) . Their initial proposal was declined , but after working with Grossman to refine the specifics of their proposal , the NEH accepted their idea . The book venture was originally announced in 1994 as a project funded by a NEH US $ 20
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suspended for two games from the 2014 Northwestern Wildcats football team for " violation of team policy " . He decided to pursue his fifth year redshirt season with the Division II 2014 West Texas A & M Buffaloes where he could be close to his mother and grandmother .
= = Professional career = =
On December 8 , 2015 , Mark signed with the Ottawa Roughriders . He was released on April 27 , 2016 .
= = = Cedar Rapids Titans = = =
On June 2 , 2016 , Mark signed with the Cedar Rapids Titans .
= = Personal = =
The summer before his freshman year in college , he lost his brother , cousin and best friend to fatal shooting deaths . Mark 's father has not been involved in his life since his preteen years ; he was raised by his mother , Sheila Mark . Sheila attended Texas Tech University . Mark 's name came from having a Nigerian @-@ born father . His parents met while at boarding school in London . His brothers are named Victor and Vincent and his sister is named Special . In high school , he often stayed with his godmother , Jamie Garza , who lived nearer to the school .
= Katie Chapman =
Katie Sarah Chapman ( born 15 June 1982 ) is an English footballer who plays for English FA WSL club Chelsea Ladies and is a member of the England women 's national team . She primarily plays as a central midfielder , although she has also been deployed in central defence while playing for England . Chapman is known for her strength , fierce tackling and heading ability . A mother of three , Chapman is described as " a physical player who handles a brunt of the dirty work in the middle of the pitch . She also can produce on the offensive end in a big game . " Her playing ability , profile and influence have drawn comparisons to former England captain and fellow Londoner David Beckham .
Chapman began her football career playing at primary school in her hometown of Bermondsey . At the age of ten , she joined leading women 's club Millwall Lionesses . In the 1996 – 97 season , Chapman made her senior team debut at the age of 14 . She became a regular starter in the team and also participated in the 1997 FA Women 's Premier League Cup and FA Women 's Cup final wins . In the 1998 – 99 campaign , Chapman won FA Young Player of the Year award . Already a full England international , she left Millwall in 2000 to sign a professional contract with Fulham . She played on the teams that won back @-@ to @-@ back promotions , as well as the 2001 – 02 Premier League Cup and FA Women 's Cup . In June 2001 Chapman was again named FA Young Player of the Year . After two years with Charlton Athletic from 2004 , Chapman joined Arsenal Ladies and reached prominence with the team in her first season , winning a domestic treble as well as the UEFA Women 's Cup . She had missed significant sections of the 2002 – 03 and 2007 – 08 seasons through pregnancy , and spent a single season with WPS team Chicago Red Stars in 2010 , before returning to Arsenal Ladies . After another pregnancy truncated her 2013 season , Chapman moved across London to sign for Chelsea Ladies in January 2014 .
Chapman is a former England U – 18 captain . She made her senior international debut aged 17 in May 2000 in a 2001 UEFA Women 's Championship qualification match against Switzerland . The following month , she made her first start against Norway . In March 2002 she netted her first senior international goal in a 4 – 1 2003 FIFA Women 's World Cup qualification win in the Netherlands . In her first spell with the national team , Chapman represented England at four major international tournaments ; UEFA Euro 2001 , UEFA Euro 2005 , 2007 FIFA World Cup and UEFA Euro 2009 . A two @-@ time winner of the FA International Player of the Year in 2002 and 2010 , Chapman took a break from the national team in March 2011 with a total of 82 caps and eight goals . She was recalled to the England squad in February 2014 by new manager Mark Sampson and helped them finish third at the 2015 FIFA World Cup .
= = Club career = =
= = = Millwall = = =
Chapman joined Millwall Lionesses as a ten @-@ year @-@ old , and made her first team debut at 14 in 1996 – 97 . That season she helped the Lionesses win an FA Women 's Cup and Premier League Cup double . Lou Waller , who scored Millwall 's winning goal in the FA Women 's Cup final victory over Wembley , had been Chapman 's coach in the club 's youth teams . In 1998 – 99 Chapman was named Young Player of the Year in the first ever FA Women 's Football Awards .
= = = Fulham = = =
In June 2000 Chapman signed a contract with newly professional Fulham to become one of the first full @-@ time professional female players in England . It was reported that Chapman was one of the most highly paid players in the team , on an annual salary of about £ 20 @,@ 000 . In her first season with The Cottagers Chapman won the South West Combination Women 's Football League , the third level of women 's football , and was again named FA Young Player of the Year . She also played in Fulham 's 1 – 0 FA Women 's Cup final defeat to Arsenal .
In 2001 – 02 Chapman helped Fulham win the FA Women 's Premier League Southern Division and promotion to the top flight . She also scored two goals in the 7 – 1 Premier League Cup final win over Birmingham City , after which Fulham 's manager Gaute Haugenes claimed Chapman was good enough to play in any national side in the world . Chapman then scored the winning goal in the 2 – 1 FA Women 's Cup final victory over Doncaster Belles , a volley from 20 yards . In Conclusion to the 2001 @-@ 02 season , Chapman went on to be awarded the Ladies Player of the Season , as well as , winning the Nationwide International Player of the Year award .
Chapman sat out most of the following season due to pregnancy , as Fulham won a treble of FA Women 's Premier League National Division , FA Women 's Cup and Premier League Cup . She made the announcement during half @-@ time of a match against Tranmere Rovers , and was promptly substituted by Haugenes – who quipped that he was not permitted to have 12 players on the pitch at once . When Chapman returned to action , in the FA Women 's Community Shield in August 2003 , Fulham were no longer a professional outfit . She represented Fulham in that season 's Uefa Women 's Cup campaign . In March 2004 Chapman played in Fulham 's Premier League Cup final defeat to Charlton Athletic .
= = = Charlton Athletic = = =
July 2004 saw Chapman depart Fulham to sign for Charlton , making her debut in a 1 – 0 Community Shield win over Arsenal at Broadhall Way . She played in The Addicks ' 3 – 0 defeat to Arsenal in the Premier League Cup final in March 2005 . She then missed the conclusion of the 2004 – 05 season , including Charlton 's FA Women 's Cup win , with a broken hand sustained on international duty . In March 2006 Chapman played in her third successive Premier League Cup final , as Charlton beat Arsenal 2 – 1 .
= = = Arsenal = = =
Chapman signed for league champions Arsenal in July 2006 . She marked her Gunners debut with the opening goal in a 3 – 0 Community Shield win over Everton at Gresty Road . In Chapman 's first season at the club , Arsenal claimed an unprecedented quadruple , winning the FA Premier League Cup , FA Women 's Cup , FA Women 's Premier League and the UEFA Women 's Cup . Arsenal 's assistant coach Emma Hayes described Chapman as " a rock that makes everything around her better . She was the engine and heartbeat of the successful quadruple @-@ winning team . " Midway through the 2007 – 08 season , Chapman 's second pregnancy ruled her out of the rest of the campaign .
During 2008 – 09 Chapman returned to help Arsenal retain the league title ; she also scored the opening goal in the 2009 FA Women 's Cup final at Pride Park against Sunderland Ladies , in a game which ended 2 – 1 to Arsenal . She had also featured in Arsenal 's 5 – 0 Premier League Cup final win over Doncaster Rovers Belles .
= = = Chicago Red Stars = = =
In December 2009 WPS club Chicago Red Stars signed Chapman , who cited the need for a new challenge . The Red Stars announced that Chapman would join the club in time for the 2010 WPS season , joining up with former Arsenal coach Emma Hayes and England team @-@ mate Karen Carney . After making 21 appearances during the campaign , Chapman negotiated a mutual release from her contract and returned to Arsenal . It was reported that Chapman 's husband had difficulty finding employment in America , so she returned home for the sake of her family .
= = = Back to Arsenal = = =
Chapman rejoined Arsenal in October 2010 , with the club on domestic hiatus before the launch of the FA WSL . She was praised by manager Laura Harvey after scoring late , decisive goals against Rayo Vallecano Femenino and Linköpings FC which helped to take Arsenal through to a UEFA Women 's Champions League semi @-@ final against eventual winners Lyon . In May 2011 , following injuries to Faye White and Jayne Ludlow , Chapman captained the Arsenal team which beat Bristol Academy 2 – 0 at the Ricoh Arena to reclaim the FA Women 's Cup .
Arsenal and Chapman won the first two editions of the FA WSL in 2011 and 2012 . In March 2013 Arsenal announced that Chapman was seven months pregnant and would miss the first half of the 2013 campaign . She returned to the team in a friendly win over Coventry City in July 2013 , following the birth of her third son .
On 3 August 2013 , Chapman made a substitute appearance in Arsenal 's 3 – 0 FA WSL win over Liverpool . The FA decreed she had not been properly registered and Arsenal were deducted three points . The blunder meant that Arsenal – champions for the last nine consecutive seasons – could not finish higher than third and would not qualify for the 2014 – 15 UEFA Women 's Champions League , unless they won the 2013 – 14 competition .
= = = Chelsea = = =
In January 2014 , Chelsea announced the double transfer of Chapman and Gilly Flaherty from Arsenal . The move reunited Chapman with Emma Hayes , her coach from Arsenal and Chicago . She hoped that training more regularly with Chelsea would kick start her international career . In August 2015 Chapman captained Chelsea in their FA Women 's Cup final against Notts County , the first time the event had been staged at Wembley Stadium . She described the experience as " overwhelming " . Chelsea 's 1 – 0 win before a Cup final record 30 @,@ 710 crowd secured the club 's first major trophy . It was the ninth FA Women 's Cup winner 's medal of Chapman 's career . In October 2015 she played in Chelsea 's 4 – 0 win over Sunderland which secured the club 's first FA WSL title and a League and Cup " double " .
= = International career = =
As a 16 @-@ year @-@ old , Chapman was called into the England U – 18 team , and captained her country at that level . Chapman made her senior debut for England at 17 , during the 2001 UEFA Women 's Championship qualification tournament , replacing Samantha Britton after 73 minutes of a 1 – 0 win over Switzerland in Bristol on 6 May 2000 . Chapman 's first senior start came in an 8 – 0 reverse to Norway in June 2000 . Despite the heavy defeat she was praised for her performance by national coach Hope Powell . England qualified for the final tournament with Chapman named Player of the Match in the away leg of the play @-@ off win over Ukraine .
At the 2001 UEFA Women 's Championship finals , Chapman played in all three of England 's games and was praised for her performances by UEFA and the victorious German coach Tina Theune @-@ Meyer .
In March 2002 Chapman headed her first goal for England in a 4 – 1 2003 FIFA Women 's World Cup qualification win in the Netherlands . She was named FA International Player of the Year for 2002 . Without Chapman – pregnant with her first child – England eventually failed to reach the 2003 FIFA Women 's World Cup after a play @-@ off defeat to France .
Despite a hand injury , Chapman also played every minute of all three games for England at the 2005 UEFA Women 's Championship , now featuring in midfield as she did at club level . Her initial appearances for the national team had come in central defence . At the 2007 FIFA Women 's World Cup Chapman started three matches , missing the group game against Argentina after picking up her second booking of the tournament during an impressive performance against Germany .
On Chapman 's return to the team she scored two goals in a Cyprus Cup win over South Africa in March 2009 . It was her first appearance for England since October 2007 , due to the birth of her second child . In May 2009 , Chapman was one of the first 17 female players to be given central contracts by The Football Association . She was an ever @-@ present in midfield during England 's run to the 2009 UEFA Women 's Championship final . In 2010 Chapman was named FA International Player of the Year for the second time .
Ahead of a March 2011 friendly against United States , Chapman unexpectedly withdrew from the England squad and quit international football . The decision , related to Chapman 's family commitments , was reported to have left England 's World Cup preparations in disarray . Hope Powell praised Chapman as " a wonderful servant to England over the years " . Chapman later confirmed she had been unhappy about a perceived lack of support with childcare costs and arrangements while on international duty . At the 2011 World Cup , Powell stressed that the FA had tried hard to accommodate Chapman 's requirements : " Katie was away with us in 2009 when we paid for her family to come along but at the end of the day there is not a bottomless pit of money in the women 's game . "
In September 2013 , after Powell had been sacked , Chapman gave an interview to BBC Radio 5 Live in which she lamented her treatment . Chapman recalled that she asked for time off to look after her children in a brief conversation with Powell , only to receive an e @-@ mail cancelling her central contract three hours later . She clarified that she had never retired from international football and that she still wanted to return and win 100 caps .
Powell 's successor Mark Sampson eventually recalled Champman to the national team squad in February 2015 , for a friendly against the United States in Milton Keynes . In May 2015 Sampson confirmed Chapman in his final squad for the 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup , to be hosted in Canada . During the tournament Chapman celebrated her 33rd birthday and her husband and three sons flew out for a surprise visit . England eventually finished in third place after Chapman , starting her fifth match of the tournament , helped them beat Germany 1 – 0 in the bronze medal play @-@ off .
= = = International goals = = =
Scores and results list England 's goal tally first .
= = = Great Britain Olympic = = =
In June 2012 Chapman was not included in the final 18 – player Great Britain squad for the 2012 London Olympics . She had made the 35 – player longlist but was hurt and disappointed to be overlooked for the event in her home city . Chapman felt that her decision to withdraw from the England squad had caused Hope Powell – who managed Great Britain as well as England – to leave her out .
= = Personal life = =
Chapman has three sons with husband Mark . During the pregnancies Chapman trained until two weeks before the birth , then resumed training six weeks afterwards . In 2002 – 03 Chapman sat out Fulham 's treble winning season while pregnant with Harvey , but returned in August 2003 and played in the FA Women 's Community Shield win over Doncaster Belles .
As of January 2008 , Chapman announced she was pregnant with Riley , and as a result played no further part in Arsenal 's 2007 – 08 season . Riley was born on 8 July . Chapman returned to Arsenal for the 2008 – 09 season and assisted in their 5 – 1 victory over Nottingham Forest Ladies , in Carlton , on 18 September .
Chapman is a lifelong supporter of Millwall , and has trained as a beautician . Katie has a twin , Sophie , who she played alongside at Millwall Lionesses .
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Millwall Lionesses
FA Women 's Cup : 1996 – 97
FA Women 's Premier League Cup : 1996 – 97
Fulham
FA Women 's Premier League National Division : 2002 – 03
FA Women 's Premier League Southern Division : 2001 – 02
South East Combination Women 's Football League : 2000 – 01
FA Women 's Cup : 2001 – 02 , 2002 – 03
FA Women 's Premier League Cup : 2001 – 02 , 2002 – 03
Charlton
FA Women 's Cup : 2004 – 05
FA Women 's Premier League Cup : 2005 – 06
Arsenal
FA WSL : 2011 , 2012
FA Women 's Premier League National Division : 2006 – 07 , 2007 – 08 , 2008 – 09
UEFA Women 's Cup : 2006 – 07
FA Women 's Cup : 2006 – 07 , 2007 – 08 , 2008 – 09 , 2010 – 11
FA Women 's Premier League Cup : 2006 – 07 , 2008 – 09
FA WSL Continental Cup : 2011
FA Women 's Community Shield : 2006
Chelsea
FA WSL : 2015
FA Women 's Cup : 2014 – 15
= = = International = = =
England
Cyprus Cup : 2009 , 2015
= = = Individual = = =
FA Women 's Young Player of the Year : 1998 – 99 , 2000 – 01
FA Women 's International Player of the Year : 2001 – 02 , 2009 – 10
= St Mawes Castle =
St Mawes Castle ( Cornish : Kastel Lannvowsedh ) is an artillery fort constructed by Henry VIII near Falmouth , Cornwall , between 1540 and 1542 . It formed part of the King 's Device programme to protect against invasion from France and the Holy Roman Empire , and defended the Carrick Roads waterway at the mouth of the River Fal . The castle was built under the direction of Thomas Treffry to a clover leaf design , with a four @-@ storey central tower and three protruding , round bastions that formed gun platforms . It was initially armed with 19 artillery pieces , intended for use against enemy shipping , operating in partnership with its sister castle of Pendennis on the other side of the estuary . During the English Civil War , St Mawes was held by Royalist supporters of King Charles I , but surrendered to a Parliamentary army in 1646 in the final phase of the conflict .
The castle continued in use as a fort through the 18th and 19th centuries . In the early 1850s , fears of a fresh conflict with France , combined with changes in military technology , led to the redevelopment of the fortification . The out @-@ dated Henrician castle was turned into a barracks and substantial gun batteries were constructed beneath it , equipped with the latest naval artillery . In the 1880s and 1890s an electronically @-@ operated minefield was laid across the River Fal , operated from St Mawes and Pendennis , and new , quick @-@ firing guns were installed at St Mawes to support these defences . After 1905 , however , St Mawes ' guns were removed , and between 1920 and 1939 it was run by the state as a tourist attraction .
Brought back into service in the Second World War , naval artillery and an anti @-@ aircraft gun were installed at the castle to defend against the risk of German attack . With the end of the war , St Mawes again returned to use as a tourist attraction . In the 21st century , the castle is operated by English Heritage . The castle has elaborate , carved 16th @-@ century decorations including sea monsters and gargoyles , and the historian Paul Pattison has described the site as " arguably the most perfect survivor of all Henry 's forts " .
= = History = =
= = = 16th – 17th centuries = = =
= = = = Construction = = = =
St Mawes Castle was built as a consequence of international tensions between England , France and the Holy Roman Empire in the final years of the reign of King Henry VIII . Traditionally the Crown had left coastal defences to the local lords and communities , only taking a modest role in building and maintaining fortifications , and while France and the Empire remained in conflict with one another , maritime raids were common but an actual invasion of England seemed unlikely . Basic defences , based around simple blockhouses and towers , existed in the south @-@ west and along the Sussex coast , with a few more impressive works in the north of England , but in general the fortifications were very limited in scale .
In 1533 , Henry broke with Pope Paul III in order to annul the long @-@ standing marriage to his wife , Catherine of Aragon and remarry . Catherine was the aunt of Charles V , the Holy Roman Emperor , and he took the annulment as a personal insult . This resulted in France and the Empire declaring an alliance against Henry in 1538 , and the Pope encouraging the two countries to attack England . An invasion of England appeared certain . In response , Henry issued an order , called a " device " , in 1539 , giving instructions for the " defence of the realm in time of invasion " and the construction of forts along the English coastline .
The stretch of water known as Carrick Roads at the mouth of the River Fal was an important anchorage serving shipping arriving from the Atlantic and the Mediterranean , and plans were made to protect it with five castles . In the event , only two of these were constructed , St Mawes and Pendennis , positioned on each side of Carrick Roads . The two castles ' guns could provide overlapping fire across the water , while St Mawes also overlooked a separate anchorage on the eastern side of the estuary . The construction work began in 1540 , under the direction of Sir Thomas Treffy , a prominent member of the local gentry appointed to act as the project 's Clerk of Works by Lord Admiral Russell . By later that year , the castle was described as being " half @-@ made " , with most of the build having been finished by 1542 . The total cost of the project was £ 5 @,@ 018 .
The clover leaf shaped castle , with an additional small blockhouse at the water 's edge below , was armed with 19 artillery pieces - a demi @-@ cannon , a demi @-@ culverin , a demi @-@ sling , five slings , four portpieces and seven bases - along with 12 large hagbusshes , a form of arquebus . The artillery was originally mounted in the castle 's stone bastions and was intended as " ship @-@ sinking " weapons for use against enemy vessels . A smaller blockhouse was constructed beneath the main castle , at sea level ; this may have been constructed ahead of the main castle build as a form of early protection . Normally the castle would have held a small garrison , which would have been supplemented by the local militia in the event of a crisis ; St Mawes had 18 billhooks and 30 bows in its stores , probably for the use of the militia in such a situation .
= = = = Initial operation = = = =
Michael Vvyan , a member of the local gentry , was appointed as the first captain of St Mawes and the surrounding land in 1544 , and was followed by Hannibal Vyvyan in 1561 . On Vyvyan 's death in 1603 , his son , Sir Francis Vyvyan , became captain . The captains of St Mawes frequently argued with those of Pendennis Castle and in 1630 a legal dispute broke out about the rights to search and detain incoming shipping : both castles argued that they had a traditional right to do so . The Admiralty issued a compromise , proposing that the castles share the incoming traffic . Sir Francis was dismissed from office in 1632 , accused of " practising a variety of deceptions " at St Mawes , including falsely claiming wages for non @-@ existent members of the garrison , and was replaced by first Sir Robert Le Grys and then Thomas Howard , the Earl of Arundel and Surrey .
Meanwhile , the invasion threat from France passed and a lasting peace was made in 1558 , but the Spanish threat to the south @-@ west of England grew in importance to the government . War broke out in 1569 , with the threat of invasion and the garrison at St Mawes was strengthened : in 1578 it comprised 100 soldiers . An additional battery of guns was built to allow the fort to fire further upriver . Fears of a Spanish attack continued especially after the failed Armada of 1597 ; two earth and timber bastions were built out from the original stone castle to hold guns , eventually becoming the main batteries for the castle . By 1623 the castle held two brass culverins , six iron culverins , one demi @-@ culverin and one saker , with a small garrison of 14 men , overseen by a captain and a lieutenant . A survey in 1634 indicated structural problems , and suggested that £ 534 was needed for repairs .
= = = = English Civil War and Restoration = = = =
When civil war broke out in 1642 between King Charles I and Parliament , St Mawes and the south @-@ west of England was held by the Royalists . The growing town of Falmouth was a strategically important part of their supply routes to the Continent , while Carrick Roads formed a base for Royalist piracy in the English Channel . The war turned in favour of the Parliamentarians and , by March 1646 , Thomas Fairfax had entered Cornwall with a substantial army .
The captain of the castle , Major Hannibal Bonithon , was invited by Colonel John Arundell to retreat to the stronger fortress of Pendennis , but Bonithon and his men surrendered immediately without putting up resistance . This decision has been put down to a result of war @-@ weariness , the large numbers of Parliamentary troops facing them and the generous surrender terms on offer , although the 19th @-@ century historian Samuel Oliver also suspected that Bonithon might have had Parliamentarian sympathies . 160 small arms and 13 artillery pieces were captured : the castle 's guns were removed and redeployed in the siege of Pendennis , which fell that August .
The castle was placed on a " care and maintenance " footing , with a skeleton garrison . Parliament appointed George Kekewich as the new captain and he probably remained in post until the restoration of Charles II to the throne in 1660 , when Sir Richard Vyvyan , Sir Francis 's son , took over command . Richard inherited a garrison of 13 men , which he considered insufficient . Richard 's son , Sir Vyel Vyvyan , became captain in turn on his father 's death , but he had no heirs and separated the castle 's lands from the captaincy , selling them to John Granville , the Earl of Bath .
= = = 18th – 19th centuries = = =
The castle continued in use as a fort through the 18th and 19th centuries under the command of successive captains , still operating in conjunction with Pendennis . A review by Colonel Christian Lilly in 1714 reported that the fortification was in a satisfactory condition , and in the 1730s , St Mawes was equipped with 17 artillery pieces , including six 24 @-@ pounder ( 11 kg ) cannons , mostly positioned in the batteries beneath the Henrician castle . Britain 's wars with France in the late @-@ 18th century made the defence of Falmouth critical and from 1775 until 1780 the local militia was called up to defend St Mawes . By the 1780s , the castle was equipped with over 30 pieces of heavy artillery . There were repeated concerns emerged about its ordnance , however , and an inspection in 1797 during the French Revolutionary Wars found that only one 24 @-@ pounder gun was serviceable .
In 1796 , a new gun battery was created at St Anthony Head , just along the coast from St Mawes . For a period this battery became the primary defensive position on the east side of the estuary , although in 1805 St Mawes was still armed with ten 24 @-@ pounder guns . The poet Lord Byron , visiting in 1809 , complained that St Mawes was " extremely well calculated for annoying every body except an enemy " , and commented that the fort was garrisoned by only one , elderly man . At the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 , the St Anthony 's battery was closed but St Mawes remained in use , albeit being operated once again on a " care and maintenance " basis in the post @-@ war years .
Falmouth Harbour became one of the most important ports in England during the 19th century , attracting much of the transatlantic shipping trade . The Tudor office of the captaincy was abolished in 1849 , with the death of the final incumbent , Sir George Nugent , and the command of the garrison became a regular military appointment . In the early 1850s , fears of a conflict with France led to a review of the state of the harbour 's defences . The development of ironclad warships equipped with rifled guns meant that St Mawes required a comprehensive overhaul . A new Grand Sea Battery and magazine was built beneath the Henrician castle , linked with deep passages , and equipped with eight 56 @-@ pound ( 25 kg ) and four 64 @-@ pounder ( 29 kg ) rifled muzzle loader guns . The old castle was used as a barracks but , since it could only hold 30 men , St Mawes was typically used as a training base and manned by militia and volunteer units .
Fresh concerns about France rose in the 1880s and an electronically @-@ operated minefield was laid across Carrick Roads in 1885 , jointly controlled from St Mawes and Pendennis . Additional contact mines were added , forcing incoming vessels to sail into a channel alongside St Mawes , illuminated with electric search lights . As part of this transformation , the castle 's 64 @-@ pounder guns were partially replaced with light , quick @-@ firing guns in the 1890s , able to engage any torpedo boats or mine sweepers attempting to break through the defences . The batteries for these were found to be poorly sited , and an additional battery was therefore built above the Henrician castle between 1900 and 1901 , again for housing quick @-@ firing guns .
= = = 20th – 21st centuries = = =
A 1905 review of the Falmouth defences concluded that the naval artillery at St Mawes had become superfluous , as the necessary guns could be mounted at combination of Pendennis and the recently re @-@ established battery at St Anthony 's instead . Disarmed , St Mawes was then used as a barracks in the First World War . In 1920 the castle was transferred to the control of the government 's Office of Works , and was opened to visitors , being promoted as a tourist destination by the Great Western Railway company who hoped to profit by increased numbers of visitors to Falmouth .
With the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939 , St Mawes was reoccupied by the British Army . In late 1941 , the No 173 Coast Battery took over running a new , twin 6 @-@ pounder ( 2 @.@ 7 kg ) battery positioned just north @-@ west of the castle , combined with a 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) Bofors gun closer to the castle for anti @-@ aircraft protection , and searchlights along the base of the Grand Sea Magazine . Some of the 115 @-@ strong garrison lived in a local Nissen hut , with the remainder housed in St Mawes itself .
The castle was removed from active service in January 1945 and reopened to the public the following year . The Second World War gun battery was finally closed in 1956 after several years of use as a training site . Between 1945 and 1970 , much of the Victorian earthwork and concrete defences were cleared from the Grand Sea Battery , and the 1941 battery was completely destroyed .
In the 21st century , St Mawes Castle is operated by English Heritage as a tourist attraction , receiving 21 @,@ 104 visitors in 2010 . It is protected under UK law as a Scheduled Monument .
= = Architecture = =
St Mawes Castle is situated on a headland over the Carrock Roads , overlooked by higher land to the rear . At the top of the site is the entrance to the castle , the high @-@ level gun batteries and the 16th @-@ century Henrician Castle ; the terraced site slopes down to the water , where gun batteries and the 16th @-@ century blockhouse look out across the water .
= = = Henrician castle = = =
The central castle is built from slatestone rubble , with granite features and detailing ; it has a clover leaf design with a central , four @-@ storey circular tower , or keep , at its core , and three circular bastions emerging from it . The design allowed for multiple levels of artillery , and may have been influenced by the contemporary work of the Moravian engineer , Stefan von Haschenperg , on some of the other Device Forts constructed during this period . It had little protection to the landward side , and would have depended upon the local militia providing protection against such an attack . The castle has been little altered since its original construction , and the historian Paul Pattison considers it to be " arguably the most perfect survivor of all Henry 's forts " .
The castle is extensively decorated with carvings and inscriptions in stone and wood , praising Henry VIII and his lineage , leading the historian A. L. Rowse to describe the castle as the most decorative of all of Henry 's building works . These include Latin verses , such as " Henry , thy honour and praises will remain forever " , written by the antiquarian John Leland , and " Let fortunate Cornwall rejoice that Edward is now her Duke " , referring to Henry 's eldest son and heir . Carved sea monsters and gargoyles also feature around the fortification , along with heraldic shields which would originally have been painted and visible from the river .
The castle is entered through the gatehouse , a polygonal , stone building approximately 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) across . The gatehouse has gunloops , murder holes and slots for a drawbridge , although it is uncertain if one was ever fitted ; it would originally have formed a sort of protective barbican . The yard behind it is approximately 20 by 59 feet ( 6 by 18 m ) and dates from before 1735 , originally being used a stable . This leads to a stone bridge that crosses a 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 5 m ) wide moat , cut out of the rock , to the main castle .
The central tower is 47 feet ( 14 m ) across and 44 feet ( 13 m ) high , with 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) thick walls . The basement was originally a kitchen and storerooms , with the first floor was subdivided and used by the garrison , before being later converted for storing gunpowder . The bridge across the moat leads into to the second storey , which originally had four chambers with fireplaces and windows , linked by a central corridor ; this area may have been used by the castle 's officers , and to house an enlarged garrison in an emergency . The third floor forms a single , large room with gun embrasures , and was probably used by the garrison as living accommodation . Above it , the parapetted gun platform on the fourth floor could support up to seven guns and incorporates a lookout turret , topped by a 17th @-@ century cupola , designed as a daymark to guide passing ships .
The central tower is linked to the forward bastion , 59 feet ( 18 m ) in diameter , which in turn has steps leading to the side bastions , each 54 @-@ foot ( 16 @.@ 4 m ) across . Each of the bastions forms a gun platform , with embrasures for larger artillery pieces - five in the forward bastion , three on each of the sides - as well as swivel mounts for lighter guns , and parapets for protection . The forward bastion 's roof is modern and was added after an archaeological debate in the 1960s as to whether the bastions would originally have been covered . The bastions have various 18th- and 19th @-@ century artillery pieces on display , as well as a bronze saker dating from 1560 called the Albergheti gun , recovered from a shipwreck off the coast of Devon .
= = = Batteries and auxiliary buildings = = =
Gun batteries and other auxiliary buildings stretch across the St Mawes Castle site . Above the Henrician castle is the 12 @-@ pounder quick @-@ firing high @-@ level battery , dating from the start of the 20th century . Its four concrete platforms and earth parapets have survived , along with an underground magazine just behind the site . A small bungalow from this period at the entrance to the battery is still in use , serving as the English Heritage custodian 's house . Alongside the Henrician castle is the Engine House , approximately 41 feet ( 12 m ) square and dating from around 1902 . It originally contained an internal combustion engine , generating power for the castle 's searchlights , but was later converted into a storeroom .
Beneath the Henrician castle is a complex of artillery positions , cut out of the rock from around 1854 onwards , and collectively known as the Grand Sea Battery . The Grand Sea Battery was served by a 19th @-@ century magazine for holding gunpowder , approximately 35 by 18 feet ( 10 @.@ 7 by 5 @.@ 5 m ) with stone walls and bomb @-@ proof brick roof , topped with turf to help to protect against incoming shells . For many years the magazine was protected by an additional concrete fortification , but this was removed in 1970 . There are two gun platforms along the west and east sides of the complex , 110 feet ( 34 m ) and 80 feet ( 24 m ) across respectively and known as the Lower Gun Battery . The current design of the western platform dates from the 1890s , with two raised concrete platforms for rotating guns and a brick @-@ vaulted magazine just behind the battery . The eastern platform has pivots and racers for mounting four traversing gun carriages , one of which now houses a 12 @-@ pound smooth @-@ bore artillery piece dating from 1815 , mounted on a replica carriage .
Just below the Grand Sea Battery is the 16th @-@ century blockhouse , positioned by the water 's edge , 160 feet ( 49 m ) from the Henrician castle . The blockhouse is semi @-@ circular in shape , with 56 feet ( 17 m ) wide with 9 @.@ 8 @-@ foot ( 3 m ) thick stone walls facing the sea , but much thinner walls to the rear . It originally had four gunports , one of which has since been blocked up , along with an upper gun platform and battlements . The upper storey was later destroyed to turn it into a solid gun platform , although this has since been re @-@ excavated . Beside the blockhouse are the foundations of four searchlight emplacements dating from the Second World War .
To the west of the Grand Sea Battery are landscaped gardens , built on top of earlier gun positions along the site . Five 19th @-@ century smooth @-@ bore guns from the Napoleonic period are on display , forming a saluting battery . Beyond the gardens is the site of the Second World War 6 pounder battery , but little now remains of this position .
= Australian ringneck =
The Australian ringneck ( Barnardius zonarius ) is a parrot native to Australia . Except for extreme tropical and highland areas , the species has adapted to all conditions . Traditionally , two species were recognised in the genus Barnardius , the Port Lincoln parrot ( Barnardius zonarius ) and the mallee ringneck ( Barnardius barnardi ) , but the two species readily interbred at the contact zone and are now considered one species . Currently , four subspecies are recognised , each with a distinct range .
In Western Australia , the ringneck competes for nesting space with the rainbow lorikeet , an introduced species . To protect the ringneck , culls of the lorikeet are sanctioned by authorities in this region . Overall , though , the ringneck is not a threatened species .
= = Description = =
The subspecies of the Australian ringneck differ considerably in colouration . It is a medium size species around 33 cm ( 11 in ) long . The basic colour is green , and all four subspecies have the characteristic yellow ring around the hindneck ; wings and tail are a mixture of green and blue .
The B. z. zonarius and B. z. semitorquatus subspecies have a dull black head ; back , rump and wings are brilliant green ; throat and breast bluish @-@ green . The difference between these two subspecies is that B. z. zonarius has a yellow abdomen while B. z. semitorquatus has a green abdomen ; the latter has also a prominent crimson frontal band that the former lacks ( the intermediate shown in the box has characteristics of both subspecies ) . The two other subspecies differ from these subspecies by the bright green crown and nape and blush cheek @-@ patches . The underparts of B. z. barnardi are turquoise @-@ green with an irregular orange @-@ yellow band across the abdomen ; the back and mantle are deep blackish @-@ blue and this subspecies has a prominent red frontal band . The B. z. macgillivrayi is generally pale green , with no red frontal band , and a wide uniform pale yellow band across the abdomen .
The calls of the mallee ringneck and Cloncurry parrot have been described as " ringing " , and the calls of the Port Lincoln ringneck and twenty @-@ eight have been described as " strident " . The name of the twenty @-@ eight parrot is an onomatopoeic derived from its distinctive ' twentee @-@ eight ' call ( or ' vingt @-@ huit ' , from an early French description ) .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
The Australian ringneck was first described by the English naturalist George Shaw in 1805 . It is a broad @-@ tailed parrot and related to the rosellas of the genus Platycercus ; it has been placed in that genus by some authorities , including Ferdinand Bauer .
Currently , four subspecies of ringneck are recognised , all of which have been described as distinct species in the past : ( As of 1993 , the twenty @-@ eight and Cloncurry parrot were treated as subspecies of the Port Lincoln parrot and the mallee ringneck , respectively ) .
Several other subspecies have been described , but are considered synonyms with one of the above subspecies . B. z. occidentalis has been synonymised with B. z. zonarius . Intermediates exist between all subspecies except for between B. z. zonarius and B. z. macgillivrayi . Intermediates have been associated with land clearing for agriculture in southern Western Australia .
The classification of this species is still debated , and molecular research by Joseph and Wilke in 2006 found that the complex split genetically into two clades — one roughly correlating with B. z. barnardi and the other with the other three forms ; B. z. macgillivrayi was more closely related to B. z. zonarius than to the neighbouring B. z. barnardi . The researchers felt it was premature to reorganise the classification of the complex until more study was undertaken .
= = = Subspecies = = =
= = Behaviour = =
The Australian ringneck is active during the day and can be found in eucalypt woodlands and eucalypt @-@ lined watercourses . The species is gregarious and depending on the conditions can be resident or nomadic . In trials of growing hybrid eucalypt trees in dry environments parrots , especially the Port Lincoln parrot , caused severe damage to the crowns of the younger trees during the research period between 2000 – 3 .
= = = Feeding = = =
This species eats a wide range of foods that include nectar , insects , seeds , fruit , and native and introduced bulbs . It will eat orchard @-@ grown fruit and is sometimes seen as a pest by farmers .
= = = Breeding = = =
Breeding season for the northern populations starts in June or July , while the central and southern populations breed from August to February , but this can be delayed when climatic conditions are unfavourable . The nesting site is a hollow in a tree trunk . Generally four or five white oval eggs are laid measuring 29 mm x 23 mm , although a clutch may be as few as three and as many as six . Fledgling survival rates have been measured at 75 % .
= = Conservation = =
Although the species is endemic , the species is considered not threatened , but in Western Australia , the twenty @-@ eight subspecies ( B. z. semitorquatus ) gets locally displaced by the introduced rainbow lorikeets that aggressively compete for nesting places . The rainbow lorikeet is considered a pest species in Western Australia and is subject to eradication in the wild .
In Western Australia , a licence is required to keep or dispose of more than four Port Lincoln ringnecks . All four subspecies are sold in the Canary Islands and in Australia , and they are traded via the CITES convention . The sale of the Cloncurry parrot is restricted in Queensland . The Australian ringneck can suffer from psittacine beak and feather disease , which causes a high nestling mortality rate in captivity .
= Washington State Route 285 =
State Route 285 ( SR 285 ) is a 5 @.@ 04 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 11 km ) state highway serving Douglas and Chelan counties , located in the U.S. state of Washington . The highway serves Wenatchee and begins at an interchange with State Route 28 ( SR 28 ) in East Wenatchee , crosses the Columbia River on the Senator George Sellar Bridge into Downtown Wenatchee and continues north to end at an interchange with U.S. Route 2 ( US 2 ) and US 97 north of the Wenatchee River in Sunnyslope .
The highway originally crossed the Columbia River on an earlier bridge built in 1908 . The bridge was signed as part of State Road 7 in 1909 and later State Road 2 ( the Sunset Highway ) in 1923 . The roadway was used by US 10 from 1926 until 1940 , when it was re @-@ routed and replaced by an alternate route . US 2 was extended from Idaho into Washington in 1946 and used the bridge until the newer Senator George Sellar Bridge was built to the south in 1950 . SR 285 was designated in 1977 after US 2 was routed onto the Richard Odabashian Bridge north of Wenatchee and East Wenatchee . The area around the Senator George Sellar Bridge is being improved by the Washington State Department of Transportation to handle increased traffic .
= = Route description = =
SR 285 begins its 5 @.@ 04 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 8 @.@ 11 km ) long route at a partial cloverleaf interchange with SR 28 west of the Wenatchee Valley Mall in East Wenatchee . The freeway crosses the Columbia River from Douglas County into Wenatchee and Chelan County on the Senator George Sellar Bridge , listed as a part of the National Register of Historic Places . The highway becomes Stevens Street and has a small interchange with Wenatchee Avenue before turning north onto Mission Street .
SR 285 serves Downtown Wenatchee and splits into a one @-@ way pair with southbound lanes on Chelan Avenue and northbound lanes staying on Mission Street , passing the Wenatchee branch of the North Central Regional Library at Memorial Park and the Wenatchee Valley Hospital . The one @-@ way pair rejoins the main route , turning north as Miller Street and then northwest as Wenatchee Avenue into West Wenatchee near Wenatchee Confluence State Park . Wenatchee Avenue crosses the Wenatchee River into Sunnyslope and becomes a freeway , intersecting Penny Road and Easy Street in an incomplete diamond interchange before ending at an interchange with US 2 and US 97 .
The Senator George Sellar Bridge is the busiest section of SR 285 , being used by a daily average of 52 @,@ 000 vehicles in 2011 . The southern end of the one @-@ way pair , at the intersection of Chelan Avenue and Mission Street , had a daily average of 22 @,@ 000 vehicles in 2011 .
= = History = =
The cantilever truss Columbia River Bridge was built in 1908 by the Washington Bridge Company and purchased by the Washington State Highway Commission the following year to serve Wenatchee and East Wenatchee , divided by the Columbia River . The bridge and the streets were signed as State Road 7 in 1909 as part of the highway from Renton to Idaho , later named the Sunset Highway in 1913 . The Sunset Highway became State Road 2 in a 1923 renumbering before the creation of US 10 in 1926 .
State Road 2 became Primary State Highway 2 ( PSH 2 ) in 1937 during the creation of the primary and secondary state highway system . US 10 was re @-@ routed south to cross the Columbia River at Vantage in the 1940s and was designated as US 10 Alternate , until US 2 was extended from Bonners Ferry , Idaho to Everett in 1946 . The Columbia River Bridge was replaced by the newly built Senator George Sellar Bridge in 1950 and US 2 was re @-@ routed south onto the bridge . PSH 2 was decommissioned during the 1964 renumbering and US 2 remained . US 2 was re @-@ routed , along with US 97 , onto the Richard Odabashian Bridge in Sunnyslope , bypassing Wenatchee in 1975 . SR 285 was established in 1977 to maintain the Senator George Sellar Bridge and only included the short route until 1991 , when it was extended to Sunnyslope .
Since 1991 , no major revisions to the highway have occurred , however the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) has been improving the roadway around the Senator George Sellar Bridge . Between May 2009 and July 2011 , WSDOT added an additional eastbound lane by moving the sidewalks to a new structure on the outside of the bridge , opening on July 29 , 2011 . A southbound bypass lane for SR 28 is currently being constructed under the east end of the bridge , expected to be completed in spring 2013 . At the west end of the bridge , in Downtown Wenatchee , a new off @-@ ramp to Crescent Street and signal improvements at Mission Street are being constructed and are scheduled to be finished by fall 2013 .
= = Major intersections = =
= David Booth ( ice hockey ) =
David Jonathan Booth ( born November 24 , 1984 ) is an American professional ice hockey player who is currently playing for Admiral Vladivostok of the Kontinental Hockey League , having last played full @-@ time for the Toronto Maple Leafs of the National Hockey League . Following his second year with the Michigan State Spartans , he was selected 53rd overall by the Florida Panthers in the 2004 NHL Entry Draft . He spent four years playing college hockey before turning professional with the Panthers organization in 2006 – 07 . After recording career @-@ highs in goals , assists and points , as well as being voted the Panthers ' most valuable player by the team 's fans in 2008 – 09 , he suffered two concussions the following season . Midway through his sixth year in the league , Booth was traded to the Vancouver Canucks in a four @-@ player deal .
Known as an offensive forward and a fast skater , Booth has reached the 30 @-@ goal plateau once in his NHL career . Representing the United States in international competition , he has won gold medals at the 2002 IIHF World U18 and 2004 IIHF World U20 Championships . He has also competed in the 2008 IIHF World Championship .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Amateur career = = =
After playing minor hockey with the Fraser Falcons , then the Detroit Honeybaked of the Midwest Elite Hockey League , Booth moved on to the Junior A level with the Detroit Compuware Ambassadors of the North American Hockey League ( NAHL ) . He recorded 30 points ( 17 goals and 13 assists ) over 42 games in 2000 – 01 , earning him NAHL All @-@ Rookie Team and Rookie of the Year honours
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was sometimes referred to as the " Bouvet sector " , drawing from the previously annexed Bouvet Island . During 1946 and 1947 , vast areas of Queen Maud Land were photographed during the Richard Evelyn Byrd expedition . In 1948 , Norway and the United Kingdom agreed to limit Queen Maud Land to longitudes from 20 ° W to 45 ° E , and that the Bruce Coast and Coats Land were to be incorporated into Norwegian territory .
= = = Later developments = = =
The Norwegian – British – Swedish Antarctic Expedition of 1949 – 52 was the first international scientific expedition in Antarctica . The expedition established its winter quarters at a base called Maudheim at 71 ° S , 11 ° W , and mapped much of western Queen Maud Land . During the International Geophysical Year ( 1957 – 1958 ) , year @-@ round stations were established in Queen Maud Land by Norway , the Soviet Union , Belgium and Japan . The Norwegian expedition continued with topographical mapping , while the others started geophysical and geological research . Norway 's Norway Station was lent to South Africa following the withdrawal of the Norwegian expedition in 1960 . South Africa later built the SANAE station , near the now @-@ defunct Norway Station . The Soviet Union , and later Russia , has maintained continual operations , although it moved from Lazarev Station to Novolazarevskaya Station . Japan has been based at its Showa Station since 1957 , except for a hiatus of a few years . Belgium closed its Roi Baudouin station in 1961 , though it mounted limited operations in cooperation with the Netherlands in 1964 – 66 . The United States established the temporary Plateau Station in 1966 .
In 1948 , the newly created Norwegian Polar Institute was assigned the administration of Norwegian territories in the Arctic and Antarctic , including Queen Maud Land . Norway sent two major expeditions to the territory in the 1940s and 1950s , but its efforts declined after that . On 21 June 1957 , Queen Maud Land became subject to Norwegian sovereignty as a dependency ( biland ) , and the Antarctic Treaty officially came into force on 23 June 1961 . Norwegian activity during the 1960s was limited to some minor co @-@ expeditions with the United States , until it gradually picked up again following a larger expedition to western Queen Maud Land and the eastern Weddell Sea by the Norwegian Polar Institute in 1976 – 77 .
Founded in 1978 , the Polar Affairs Department of the Norwegian Ministry of Justice and the Police , headquartered in Oslo , has been assigned the administration of the Norwegian polar areas including Queen Maud Land . Since 1979 , the Norwegian Polar Institute has been a directorate under the Ministry of the Environment .
In 1992 , an expedition by Ivar Tollefsen made the first ascents of several mountains , including the tallest , Jøkulkyrkja . Norway established the summer station Troll in 1989 – 90 . In 2003 , Minister of the Environment Børge Brende was the first Norwegian minister to visit Queen Maud Land , and he soon allocated funds to expand the Troll station . Troll was upgraded to a year @-@ round station in 2005 as part of the centenary of Norway 's independence . Among the guests were Minister of Foreign Affairs Jan Petersen and Minister of the Environment Knut Arild Hareide , and Troll was officially opened by Queen Sonja of Norway , the first queen to ever visit Antarctica . In 2008 , Prime Minister Jens Stoltenberg , accompanied by forty officials , scientists and reporters , became the first Norwegian prime minister to visit Queen Maud Land . He personally named three mountains around the Troll station where he was based , although he chose to sleep outdoors in a tent , rather than in a bed inside . He said the purposes of the visit were to claim Norway 's possessions in Antarctica , as well as to learn more about the climate research at Troll , which he said was key to better understanding of global climate change .
In 2015 , King Harald V became the world 's first reigning monarch to visit Antarctica when he went to Queen Maud Land .
= = Legal status = =
Like all other territorial claims in Antarctica , the Norwegian claim of Queen Maud Land ( along with its claim of Peter I Island ) is subject to the Antarctic Treaty System . The treaty makes clear that Antarctica can only be used for peaceful purposes and assures the freedom of scientific activity . It promotes international scientific cooperation and bans any nuclear @-@ related activities . Although territorial claims are not invalidated by the treaty , all claims are effectively suspended as long as the treaty is in force . Norway , Australia , France , New Zealand and the United Kingdom have all mutually recognised each other 's claims in Antarctica .
Norwegian administration of Queen Maud Land is controlled by the Polar Affairs Department of the Ministry of Justice and the Police , located in Oslo . The annexation of the territory is regulated by the Dependency Act of 24 March 1933 ; Queen Maud Land was added on 21 June 1957 . It establishes that Norwegian criminal law , private law and procedural law applies to the territory , in addition to other laws that explicitly state they are valid in the territory . Furthermore , it establishes that all the land belongs to the state , and prohibits both nuclear detonations and the storage of nuclear waste .
Since 5 May 1995 , Norwegian law has required all Norwegian activity in Antarctica to follow international environmental law for Antarctica . Norwegian citizens who plan activities in Queen Maud Land must therefore report to the Norwegian Polar Institute , which may prohibit any non @-@ compliant activity . Those who visit Queen Maud Land must follow laws regarding protection of nature , treatment of waste , pollution and insurance for search and rescue operations .
= = Fauna and flora = =
There are three types of birds around Troll : the Antarctic petrel , the snow petrel and the only raptor in Queen Maud Land , the south polar skua . The Antarctic petrel lives on the sea ice for most of the year , with the exception of its breeding season ( in Antarctica , from November to February ) , when it moves to the inland mountains and nunataks . The 3 @.@ 9 @-@ square @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 5 sq mi ) area of ice @-@ free cliffs in Princess Astrid Coast called Svarthamaren Mountain hosts Antarctica 's largest known inland colony of breeding seabirds , almost 1 million ( 250 @,@ 000 pairs ) Antarctic petrels . Many snow petrels and south polar skuas also breed in this area . Snow petrels are generally spread out in smaller colonies throughout the mountainous areas of Queen Maud Land . During the breeding season , the south polar skua feeds exclusively upon the eggs , as well as both young and adult birds , of both petrel species .
The emperor penguin has some of its breeding places concentrated in Queen Maud Land . All four of the true Antarctic seals , namely the Weddell seal , leopard seal , crabeater seal and Ross seal , can be found in the King Haakon VII Sea off Queen Maud Land . The Ross seal is notably found in its greatest numbers in the King Haakon VII Sea .
The nunatak areas have a scarcity of flora , limited to lichen , bryophyte and algae . Flowering plants are not found there . The Norwegian Polar Institute has not registered the occurrence of any threatened or rare plants or animals in Queen Maud Land , the known ones thus existing in healthy populations .
= = Research stations = =
Queen Maud Land is currently home to 12 research stations , the Norwegian Troll and Tor stations ; Russia 's Novolazarevskaya Station ; South Africa 's SANAE IV ; the Swedish Wasa ; the Finnish Aboa ; The German Neumayer @-@ Station III and Kohnen ; Indias Maitri station ; the Japanese Showa Station and Dome Fuji Station ; and Belgium 's Princess Elisabeth Base .
These stations are connected by the Dronning Maud Land Air Network Project ( DROMLAN ) , which is a cooperative agreement for transportation between eleven nations with research stations in East Antarctica . Long @-@ range aircraft fly between Cape Town , South Africa and either the Troll Airfield , located at the Troll research station , or the runway at the Novolazarevskaya Station . From these two main airfields , smaller aircraft may fly further to other Antarctic destinations .
Norway 's Troll station serves as a major hub of the DROMLAN network through the Troll Airfield . Research at Troll include air and atmospheric measurements , monitoring of greenhouse gases and bird colonies , as well as meteorological and climate research . The other Norwegian station , Tor , was established for researching birds at the breeding colony in Svarthamaren Mountain .
Activities conducted by Russia 's Novolazarevskaya Station include environmental monitoring , geodesy / mapping , geomagnetic and meteorological observations , glaciology , biology , ionospheric / auroral observations , limnology , geology , geophysics and seismology .
South Africa 's SANAE IV station , the successor to three former stations , was completed in 1997 . Research at SANAE IV include invasion biology / ecology , geology , geomorphology and atmospheric sciences . Its facilities include a small hospital and a two @-@ helicopter hangar .
The Swedish Wasa station and the Finnish Aboa station together make up the Nordenskiöld Base , and cooperate in research and logistics . Research carried out includes geodesy / mapping , glaciology , human biology , meteorological observations , geology and geophysics .
The German Neumayer @-@ Station III , finished in 2009 , succeeded two former stations that were buried by snow and ice . It conducts geophysical , meteorological and seismological research , as well as air chemistry measurements and atmospheric ozone monitoring . Germany 's other station , Kohnen , was opened as part of a major ice @-@ drilling project .
The Maitri station succeeded the Dakshin Gangotri station in 1989 , India 's first Antarctic base . Maitri 's research focus on geology , and the study of the supercontinent Gondwana , when India and Antarctica belonged to the same landmass . It also includes low @-@ temperature engineering research that is relevant to conditions in the Himalayas .
The Showa Station is Japan 's main research station in Antarctica . A vast array of research is conducted there , including upper atmosphere physics , meteorology , seismology , gravimetry , geodesy / mapping , oceanography , glaciology , geology , marine and terrestrial biology , and medical research . Japan 's other station , Dome Fuji Station was opened as part of a major ice @-@ coring project . It mainly studies climate change and conducts deep drilling and atmospheric observations .
Belgium 's Princess Elisabeth Base was established as a project to promote polar sciences , as well as to demonstrate the possibility of building a Zero emission station . Research is conducted by an international team of scientists , studying climatology , glaciology and microbiology .
= Ohio State Route 161 =
State Route 161 ( SR 161 ) is an east – west state highway in central Ohio . Its western terminus is in Mutual at State Route 29 and its eastern terminus is near Alexandria at State Route 37 . It is 57 @.@ 46 miles ( 92 @.@ 47 km ) long . State Route 161 passes through Columbus , Ohio 's capital , and a variety of towns including Plain City , Dublin , and New Albany .
The route was established in 1924 to connect Plain City and Dublin . It was later expanded to cover Mutual and Granville . Parts of SR 161 in Dublin and New Albany were upgraded to a freeway in 1969 and 1997 .
= = Route description = =
SR 161 starts off in Mutual as Milford Road , at a T @-@ intersection at SR 29 . The road turns northeast and later meets SR 559 and Bullard Rutan Road in a 5 @-@ point intersection . Two miles later , a concurrency begins with SR 4 . One mile later , the concurrency ends with SR 4 continuing to move north . About five miles later , SR 38 starts a very short concurrency at Chuckery . After Chuckery , SR 38 splits off . There would be no more major intersections until SR 161 has reached Plain City , as it meets U.S. Route 42 ( US 42 ) . SR 161 goes through Madison and a small section of Franklin County without major intersections . In Union County , it meets US 33 and Post Road in an interchange . SR 161 goes on the freeway and starts a concurrency . The concurrency goes back to Franklin County and into Dublin . In Dublin , the freeway has interchanges with Avery – Muirfield Drive and Interstate 270 ( I @-@ 270 ) . The freeway becomes an at @-@ grade highway as it meets Post Road again .
The road goes into Dublin downtown and has intersections with SR 745 and SR 257 . At SR 257 , US 33 splits off and the concurrency ends . After that , there are no more major intersections until SR 161 reaches Worthington , as it meets SR 315 in a diamond interchange , and US 23 at an at @-@ grade intersection . After the intersection at US 23 , SR 161 enters Columbus . There is an intersection with SR 710 and an interchange with I @-@ 71 . Three miles later , in Minerva Park , SR 161 becomes a limited access freeway . The first exit is SR 3 , a partial cloverleaf interchange with service roads . A mile later , SR 161 re @-@ enters Columbus and meets I @-@ 270 again in a modified cloverleaf interchange . There is a SPUI @-@ parclo hybrid interchange at Sunbury Road , and an incomplete interchange for Little Turtle Way , a half of a diamond interchange . The next two interchanges , Hamilton Road and New Albany Road , uses diamond interchanges . SR 161 enters New Albany , and has two interchanges with US 62 , in Franklin County , and Beech Road , in Licking County . Then it exits New Albany and enters St. Albans Township . In the township , SR 161 has two diamond interchanges with SR 310 and SR 37 . SR 161 ends at SR 37 . SR 161 is part of the Big Darby Plains scenic byway . The parts of the route that are included in the byway are from Homer Road to Rosedale Road and from Kramer Road to US 33 .
= = History = =
SR 161 was designated in 1924 , as a connection from Plain City to Dublin . Its east end was a junction with SR 21 , five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) west of Dublin . It was later expanded to include an unnumbered section between Mutual and Plain City , and Dublin and Granville . In 1938 , a concurrency from five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) west of Dublin to the city itself was changed from SR 31 to US 33 . Much later , in 1969 , the five @-@ mile section in Dublin was upgrade to a freeway . Seven years later , the section between I @-@ 71 and Sunbury Road was upgraded to a divided highway . In 1997 , a bypass was created around New Albany , from I @-@ 270 to a point two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) east of it . SR 161 's route was changed to use the bypass , no longer intersecting New Albany 's downtown area . The project completed in 2000 . On June 14 , 2004 , Ohio Department of Transportation began the Northwest Expressway Transformation , replacing 17 bridges , 18 ramps , and 5 miles of highway . The project finished in 2008 . The freeway in New Albany was extended to SR 37 , SR 161 's eastern terminus . Currently , new interchanges and solutions are being designed for interchanges of I @-@ 270 and Avery @-@ Muirfield Drive . Study started for the interchanges in 2011 , and phase one of the project will start in 2014 .
= = Junction list = =
= = State Route 161J = =
An unsigned state route named SR 161J exists in Licking County . The actual name of the road is Jersey Mills Road . It starts as a dead end and ends at Jug Street Road . It intersects SR 310 , but never meets SR 161 . The route suffix " J " means " awaiting abandonment . "
= Country Bill 's =
Country Bill 's Restaurant was a family @-@ owned American @-@ style steakhouse and seafood restaurant in the Woodstock neighborhood of southeast Portland , Oregon , in the United States . Adjacent to the restaurant was a bar called CB 's Lounge . The restaurant opened in 1964 when ownership transferred from Bill Blake to Ron Thomas ' family . Though Thomas was not particularly fond of the name of the business Blake had established in 1960 , he was unable to afford new signage and kept the lounge 's title . Over time the restaurant grew from a hamburger stand into a family dining restaurant , expanding from one space to four . In 1978 , the family purchased the building and property following the landlord 's death .
Eventually , Thomas transferred the business to one of his two sons , Craig . Craig and his wife decided to retire in 2011 and none of their children wanted to continue operating the restaurant . The business and the 5 @,@ 300 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 490 m2 ) building were listed for sale in February 2011 . Country Bill 's closed in September 2012 after 48 years of operation . The restaurant had low staff turnover and dedicated patrons , hundreds of whom visited during its final days . Country Bill 's was also known for its Brat Pack era decor , including red clamshell booths , mood lighting supplied by electric candles , metallic wallpaper and wood paneling . Following closure , the building underwent interior and exterior renovation to make spaces available for new tenants .
= = History = =
Country Bill 's Restaurant opened in 1964 after Ron Thomas ' family purchased the business from Bill Blake for $ 600 . Blake had named his lounge Country Bill 's in 1960 but the business was unsuccessful . Thomas had been in the food service industry in Utah previously and ended up living in Portland after a series of relocations with his family . Though he was not fond of the lounge 's name , Thomas was unable to afford new signage and kept the title . Over time the restaurant grew from a hamburger stand into a family dining restaurant , expanding east from one space to four . In 1978 , the family purchased the building and property following the death of their landlord .
Ownership stayed within the family , eventually transferring to Craig Thomas , one of Ron 's two sons , both of whom worked in the restaurant for numerous years . Craig Thomas and his wife decided to retire in 2011 and none of their children wanted to continue operating the restaurant . In February 2011 , Country Bill 's and the 5 @,@ 300 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 490 m2 ) building were listed for sale for $ 975 @,@ 000 . The restaurant closed on September 15 , 2012 , after 48 years of operation . Hundreds of customers , some from as far away as Europe , visited the restaurant during its final days .
Following the restaurant 's closing in 2012 , the building underwent interior and exterior renovation , resulting in two spaces for future tenants , one of which has been confirmed as a dental office .
= = Description and reception = =
Country Bill 's served American food , originally operating as a hamburger stand , before becoming a steakhouse and seafood restaurant . The menu included prime rib , razor clams and steelhead ; meals were accompanied by soup or salad and a potato as sides . Slot machines were available on site but the business made 70 percent of its income from food . Adjacent to the restaurant was a bar reminiscent of the Brat Pack era called CB 's Lounge .
In his review for Willamette Week , Ben Waterhouse asserted that the restaurant had changed little since its establishment . Waterhouse stated " time travel " was Country Bill 's form of entertainment , noting its red vinyl booths , wood paneling and " white @-@ haired " clientele . He recommended ordering beer or spirits ( specifically Anchor Steam ) as opposed to cocktails , which he found contained too much sugar . Mix magazine reviewed Country Bill 's as one of " five vintage restaurants that have stood the test of time " . In his review , Michael Russell described CB 's Lounge 's red clamshell booths , electric candles and the servers " who alternate between alarmingly fresh @-@ faced and downright sassy " . Russell recommended the hand @-@ cut garlic French fries and deep fried cheesecake , which he described as " country @-@ fair gluttony incarnate " . The Portland Mercury also described the restaurant 's retro features such as the plush red booths , mood lighting and metallic wallpaper . The publication also noted the older waiting staff .
Country Bill 's was known for its low staff turnover and dedicated patrons . According to Craig Thomas , the family 's formula for success included a hard work ethic , loyal staff and a " common @-@ sense approach " to business . The cook worked for the restaurant for 43 years , starting at age 16 . Longtime customers and employees reportedly felt its closing was " almost like losing a family member " . The Oregonian wrote about Country Bill 's last days in articles about local restaurant and economic news , noting the business 's longevity .
= Tungsten =
Tungsten , also known as wolfram , is a chemical element with symbol W and atomic number 74 . The word tungsten comes from the Swedish language tung sten , which directly translates to heavy stone . Its name in Swedish is volfram , however , in order to distinguish it from scheelite , which in Swedish is alternatively named tungsten .
A hard , rare metal under standard conditions when uncombined , tungsten is found naturally on Earth almost exclusively in chemical compounds . It was identified as a new element in 1781 , and first isolated as a metal in 1783 . Its important ores include wolframite and scheelite . The free element is remarkable for its robustness , especially the fact that it has the highest melting point of all the elements . Its high density is 19 @.@ 3 times that of water , comparable to that of uranium and gold , and much higher ( about 1 @.@ 7 times ) than that of lead . Polycrystalline tungsten is an intrinsically brittle and hard material , making it difficult to work . However , pure single @-@ crystalline tungsten is more ductile , and can be cut with a hard @-@ steel hacksaw .
Tungsten 's many alloys have numerous applications , including incandescent light bulb filaments , X @-@ ray tubes ( as both the filament and target ) , electrodes in TIG welding , superalloys , and radiation shielding . Tungsten 's hardness and high density give it military applications in penetrating projectiles . Tungsten compounds are also often used as industrial catalysts .
Tungsten is the only metal from the third transition series that is known to occur in biomolecules , where it is used in a few species of bacteria and archaea . It is the heaviest element known to be essential to any living organism . Tungsten interferes with molybdenum and copper metabolism and is somewhat toxic to animal life .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Physical properties = = =
In its raw form , tungsten is a hard steel @-@ grey metal that is often brittle and hard to work . If made very pure , tungsten retains its hardness ( which exceeds that of many steels ) , and becomes malleable enough that it can be worked easily . It is worked by forging , drawing , or extruding . Tungsten objects are also commonly formed by sintering .
Of all metals in pure form , tungsten has the highest melting point ( 3422 ° C , 6192 ° F ) , lowest vapor pressure ( at temperatures above 1650 ° C , 3000 ° F ) and the highest tensile strength . Although carbon remains solid at higher temperatures than tungsten , carbon sublimes , rather than melts , so tungsten is considered to have a higher melting point . Tungsten has the lowest coefficient of thermal expansion of any pure metal . The low thermal expansion and high melting point and tensile strength of tungsten originate from strong covalent bonds formed between tungsten atoms by the 5d electrons . Alloying small quantities of tungsten with steel greatly increases its toughness .
Tungsten exists in two major crystalline forms : α and β . The former has a body @-@ centered cubic structure and is the more stable form . The structure of the β phase is called A15 cubic ; it is metastable , but can coexist with the α phase at ambient conditions owing to non @-@ equilibrium synthesis or stabilization by impurities . Contrary to the α phase which crystallizes in isometric grains , the β form exhibits a columnar habit . The α phase has one third of the electrical resistivity and a much lower superconducting transition temperature TC relative to the β phase : ca . 0 @.@ 015 K vs. 1 – 4 K ; mixing the two phases allows obtaining intermediate TC values . The TC value can also be raised by alloying tungsten with another metal ( e.g. 7 @.@ 9 K for W @-@ Tc ) . Such tungsten alloys are sometimes used in low @-@ temperature superconducting circuits .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Naturally occurring tungsten consists of five isotopes whose half @-@ lives are so long that they can be considered stable . Theoretically , all five can decay into isotopes of element 72 ( hafnium ) by alpha emission , but only 180W has been observed to do so with a half @-@ life of ( 1 @.@ 8 ± 0 @.@ 2 ) × 1018 years ; on average , this yields about two alpha decays of 180W in one gram of natural tungsten per year . The other naturally occurring isotopes have not been observed to decay , constraining their half @-@ lives to be :
182W , t1 / 2 > 7 @.@ 7 × 1021 years
183W , t1 / 2 > 4 @.@ 1 × 1021 years
184W , t1 / 2 > 8 @.@ 9 × 1021 years
186W , t1 / 2 > 8 @.@ 2 × 1021 years
Another 30 artificial radioisotopes of tungsten have been characterized , the most stable of which are 181W with a half @-@ life of 121 @.@ 2 days , 185W with a half @-@ life of 75 @.@ 1 days , 188W with a half @-@ life of 69 @.@ 4 days , 178W with a half @-@ life of 21 @.@ 6 days , and 187W with a half @-@ life of 23 @.@ 72 h . All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half @-@ lives of less than 3 hours , and most of these have half @-@ lives below 8 minutes . Tungsten also has 4 meta states , the most stable being 179mW ( t1 / 2 6 @.@ 4 minutes ) .
= = = Chemical properties = = =
Elemental tungsten resists attack by oxygen , acids , and alkalis .
The most common formal oxidation state of tungsten is + 6 , but it exhibits all oxidation states from − 2 to + 6 . Tungsten typically combines with oxygen to form the yellow tungstic oxide , WO3 , which dissolves in aqueous alkaline solutions to form tungstate ions , WO2 −
4 .
Tungsten carbides ( W2C and WC ) are produced by heating powdered tungsten with carbon . W2C is resistant to chemical attack , although it reacts strongly with chlorine to form tungsten hexachloride ( WCl6 ) .
In aqueous solution , tungstate gives the heteropoly acids and polyoxometalate anions under neutral and acidic conditions . As tungstate is progressively treated with acid , it first yields the soluble , metastable " paratungstate A " anion , W
7O6 –
24 , which over time converts to the less soluble " paratungstate B " anion , H
2W
12O10 –
42 . Further acidification produces the very soluble metatungstate anion , H
2W
12O6 –
40 , after which equilibrium is reached . The metatungstate ion exists as a symmetric cluster of twelve tungsten @-@ oxygen octahedra known as the Keggin anion . Many other polyoxometalate anions exist as metastable species . The inclusion of a different atom such as phosphorus in place of the two central hydrogens in metatungstate produces a wide variety of heteropoly acids , such as phosphotungstic acid H3PW12O40 .
Tungsten trioxide can form intercalation compounds with alkali metals . These are known as bronzes ; an example is sodium tungsten bronze .
= = History = =
In 1781 , Carl Wilhelm Scheele discovered that a new acid , tungstic acid , could be made from scheelite ( at the time named tungsten ) . Scheele and Torbern Bergman suggested that it might be possible to obtain a new metal by reducing this acid . In 1783 , José and Fausto Elhuyar found an acid made from wolframite that was identical to tungstic acid . Later that year , at the Royal Basque Society in the town of Bergara , Spain , the brothers succeeded in isolating tungsten by reduction of this acid with charcoal , and they are credited with the discovery of the element .
In World War II , tungsten played a significant role in background political dealings . Portugal , as the main European source of the element , was put under pressure from both sides , because of its deposits of wolframite ore at Panasqueira . Tungsten 's desirable properties such as resistance to high temperatures , its hardness and density , and its strengthening of alloys made it an important raw material for the arms industry , both as a constituent of weapons and equipment and employed in production itself , e.g. , in tungsten carbide cutting tools for machining steel .
= = = Etymology = = =
The name " tungsten " ( from the Swedish tung sten , " heavy stone " ) is used in English , French , and many other languages as the name of the element , but not in the Nordic countries . Tungsten was the old Swedish name for the mineral scheelite . The other name " wolfram " ( or " volfram " ) is used in most European ( especially Germanic and Slavic ) languages , and is derived from the mineral wolframite , which is the origin of its chemical symbol , W. The name " wolframite " is derived from German " wolf rahm " ( " wolf soot " or " wolf cream " ) , the name given to tungsten by Johan Gottschalk Wallerius in 1747 . This , in turn , derives from " lupi spuma " , the name Georg Agricola used for the element in 1546 , which translates into English as " wolf 's froth " , and is a reference to the large amounts of tin consumed by the mineral during its extraction .
= = Occurrence = =
Tungsten is found in wolframite ( iron – manganese tungstate ( Fe , Mn ) WO4 being a solid solution of the minerals ferberite FeWO4 and hübnerite MnWO4 ) and scheelite ( calcium tungstate ( CaWO4 ) . Other tungsten minerals are moderately to very rare and have no economical value . They include the recently approved native tungsten .
= = Production = =
About 61 @,@ 300 tonnes of tungsten concentrates were produced in the year 2009 , and in 2010 , world production of tungsten was about 68 @,@ 000 tonnes . The main producers were as follows ( data in tonnes ) :
There is additional production in the U.S. , but the amount is proprietary company information . U.S. reserves are 140 @,@ 000 tonnes .
Tungsten is considered to be a conflict mineral due to the unethical mining practices observed in the Democratic Republic of the Congo .
There is a large deposit of tungsten ore on the edge of Dartmoor in the United Kingdom , which was exploited during World War I and World War II as the Hemerdon Mine . With recent increases in tungsten prices , as of 2014 this mine has been reactivated .
Tungsten is extracted from its ores in several stages . The ore is eventually converted to tungsten ( VI ) oxide ( WO3 ) , which is heated with hydrogen or carbon to produce powdered tungsten . Because of tungsten 's high melting point , it is not commercially feasible to cast tungsten ingots . Instead , powdered tungsten is mixed with small amounts of powdered nickel or other metals , and sintered . During the sintering process , the nickel diffuses into the tungsten , producing an alloy .
Tungsten can also be extracted by hydrogen reduction of WF6 :
WF6 + 3 H2 → W + 6 HF
or pyrolytic decomposition :
WF6 → W + 3 F2 ( ΔHr = + )
Tungsten is not traded as a futures contract and cannot be tracked on exchanges like the London Metal Exchange . The prices are usually quoted for tungsten concentrate or WO3 . If converted to the metal equivalent , they were about US $ 19 per kilogram in 2009 .
= = Applications = =
Approximately half of the tungsten is consumed for the production of hard materials – namely tungsten carbide – with the remaining major use being in alloys and steels . Less than 10 % is used in other chemical compounds .
= = = Hard materials = = =
Tungsten is mainly used in the production of hard materials based on tungsten carbide , one of the hardest carbides , with a melting point of 2770 ° C. WC is an efficient electrical conductor , but W2C is less so . WC is used to make wear @-@ resistant abrasives , and " carbide " cutting tools such as knives , drills , circular saws , milling and turning tools used by the metalworking , woodworking , mining , petroleum and construction industries . Carbide tooling is actually a ceramic / metal composite , where metallic cobalt acts as a binding ( matrix ) material to hold the WC particles in place . This type of industrial use accounts for about 60 % of current tungsten consumption .
The jewelry industry makes rings of sintered tungsten carbide , tungsten carbide / metal composites , and also metallic tungsten . WC / metal composite rings use nickel as the metal matrix in place of cobalt because it takes a higher luster when polished . Sometimes manufacturers or retailers refer to tungsten carbide as a metal , but it is a ceramic . Because of tungsten carbide 's hardness , rings made of this material are extremely abrasion resistant , and will hold a burnished finish longer than rings made of metallic tungsten . Tungsten carbide rings are brittle , however , and may crack under a sharp blow .
= = = Alloys = = =
The hardness and density of tungsten are applied in obtaining heavy metal alloys . A good example is high speed steel , which can contain as much as 18 % tungsten . Tungsten 's high melting point makes tungsten a good material for applications like rocket nozzles , for example in the UGM @-@ 27 Polaris submarine @-@ launched ballistic missile . Tungsten alloys are used in a wide range of different applications , including the aerospace and automotive industries and radiation shielding . Superalloys containing tungsten , such as Hastelloy and Stellite , are used in turbine blades and wear @-@ resistant parts and coatings .
= = = Armaments = = =
Tungsten , usually alloyed with nickel and iron or cobalt to form heavy alloys , is used in kinetic energy penetrators as an alternative to depleted uranium , in applications where uranium 's radioactivity is problematic even in depleted form , or where uranium 's additional pyrophoric properties are not required ( for example , in ordinary small arms bullets designed to penetrate body armor ) . Similarly , tungsten alloys have also been used in cannon shells , grenades and missiles , to create supersonic shrapnel . Tungsten has also been used in Dense Inert Metal Explosives , which use it as dense powder to reduce collateral damage while increasing the lethality of explosives within a small radius .
= = = Chemical applications = = =
Tungsten ( IV ) sulfide is a high temperature lubricant and is a component of catalysts for hydrodesulfurization . MoS2 is more commonly used for such applications .
Tungsten oxides are used in ceramic glazes and calcium / magnesium tungstates are used widely in fluorescent lighting . Crystal tungstates are used as scintillation detectors in nuclear physics and nuclear medicine . Other salts that contain tungsten are used in the chemical and tanning industries .
Tungsten oxide ( WO3 ) is incorporated into selective catalytic reduction ( SCR ) catalysts found in coal @-@ fired power plants . These catalysts convert nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) to nitrogen ( N2 ) and water ( H2O ) using ammonia ( NH3 ) . The tungsten oxide helps with the physical strength of the catalyst and extends catalyst life .
= = = Niche uses = = =
Applications requiring its high density include weights , counterweights , ballast keels for yachts , tail ballast for commercial aircraft , and as ballast in race cars for NASCAR and Formula One ; depleted uranium is also used for these purposes , due to similarly high density . 75 @-@ kg blocks of tungsten were used as " cruise balance mass devices " on the entry vehicle portion of the 2012 Mars Science Laboratory spacecraft . It is an ideal material to use as a dolly for riveting , where the mass necessary for good results can be achieved in a compact bar . High @-@ density alloys of tungsten with nickel , copper or iron are used in high @-@ quality darts ( to allow for a smaller diameter and thus tighter groupings ) or for fishing lures ( tungsten beads allow the fly to sink rapidly ) . Some cello C strings are wound with tungsten . The extra density gives this sting more projection and often cellists will buy just this string and use it with 3 strings from a different set .
Sodium tungstate is used in Folin @-@ Ciocalteu 's reagent , a mixture of different chemicals used in the " Lowry Assay " for protein content analysis .
= = = Gold substitution = = =
Its density , similar to that of gold , allows tungsten to be used in jewelry as an alternative to gold or platinum . Metallic tungsten is hypoallergenic , and is harder than gold alloys ( though not as hard as tungsten carbide ) , making it useful for rings that will resist scratching , especially in designs with a brushed finish .
Because the density is so similar to that of gold ( tungsten is only 0 @.@ 36 % less dense ) , tungsten can also be used in counterfeiting of gold bars , such as by plating a tungsten bar with gold , which has been observed since the 1980s , or taking an existing gold bar , drilling holes , and replacing the removed gold with tungsten rods . The densities are not exactly the same , and other properties of gold and tungsten differ , but gold @-@ plated tungsten will pass superficial tests .
Gold @-@ plated tungsten is available commercially from China ( the main source of tungsten ) , both in jewelry and as bars .
= = = Electronics = = =
Because it retains its strength at high temperatures and has a high melting point , elemental tungsten is used in many high @-@ temperature applications , such as light bulb , cathode @-@ ray tube , and vacuum tube filaments , heating elements , and rocket engine nozzles . Its high melting point also makes tungsten suitable for aerospace and high @-@ temperature uses such as electrical , heating , and welding applications , notably in the gas tungsten arc welding process ( also called tungsten inert gas ( TIG ) welding ) .
Because of its conductive properties and relative chemical inertness , tungsten is also used in electrodes , and in the emitter tips in electron @-@ beam instruments that use field emission guns , such as electron microscopes . In electronics , tungsten is used as an interconnect material in integrated circuits , between the silicon dioxide dielectric material and the transistors . It is used in metallic films , which replace the wiring used in conventional electronics with a coat of tungsten ( or molybdenum ) on silicon .
The electronic structure of tungsten makes it one of the main sources for X @-@ ray targets , and also for shielding from high @-@ energy radiations ( such as in the radiopharmaceutical industry for shielding radioactive samples of FDG ) . It is also used in gamma imaging as a material from which coded apertures are made , due to its excellent shielding properties . Tungsten powder is used as a filler material in plastic composites , which are used as a nontoxic substitute for lead in bullets , shot , and radiation shields . Since this element 's thermal expansion is similar to borosilicate glass , it is used for making glass @-@ to @-@ metal seals .
= = Biological role = =
Tungsten , at atomic number 74 , is the heaviest element known to be biologically functional , with the next heaviest being iodine ( Z = 53 ) . It is used by some bacteria , but not in eukaryotes . For example , enzymes called oxidoreductases use tungsten similarly to molybdenum by using it in a tungsten @-@ pterin complex with molybdopterin ( molybdopterin , despite its name , does not contain molybdenum , but may complex with either molybdenum or tungsten in use by living organisms ) . Tungsten @-@ using enzymes typically reduce carboxylic acids to aldehydes . The tungsten oxidoreductases may also catalyse oxidations . The first tungsten @-@ requiring enzyme to be discovered also requires selenium , and in this case the tungsten @-@ selenium pair may function analogously to the molybdenum @-@ sulfur pairing of some molybdenum cofactor @-@ requiring enzymes . One of the enzymes in the oxidoreductase family which sometimes employ tungsten ( bacterial formate dehydrogenase H ) is known to use a selenium @-@ molybdenum version of molybdopterin . Acetylene hydratase is an unusual metalloenzyme in that it catalyzes a hydration reaction . Two reaction mechanisms have been proposed , in one of which there is a direct interaction between the tungsten atom and the C ≡ C triple bond . Although a tungsten @-@ containing xanthine dehydrogenase from bacteria has been found to contain tungsten @-@ molydopterin and also non @-@ protein bound selenium , a tungsten @-@ selenium molybdopterin complex has not been definitively described .
In soil , tungsten metal oxidizes to the tungstate anion . It can be selectively or non @-@ selectively imported by some prokaryotic organisms and may substitute for molybdate in certain enzymes . Its effect on the action of these enzymes is in some cases inhibitory and in others positive . The soil 's chemistry determines how the tungsten polymerizes ; alkaline soils cause monomeric tungstates ; acidic soils cause polymeric tungstates .
Sodium tungstate and lead have been studied for their effect on earthworms . Lead was found to be lethal at low levels and sodium tungstate was much less toxic , but the tungstate completely inhibited their reproductive ability .
Tungsten has been studied as a biological copper metabolic antagonist , in a role similar to the action of molybdenum . It has been found that tetrathiotungstates may be used as biological copper chelation chemicals , similar to the tetrathiomolybdates .
= = Precautions = =
Because tungsten is rare and its compounds are generally inert , the effects of tungsten on the environment are limited . The median lethal dose LD50 depends strongly on the animal and the method of administration and varies between 59 mg / kg ( intravenous , rabbits ) and 5000 mg / kg ( tungsten metal powder , intraperitoneal , rats ) .
People can be exposed to tungsten in the workplace by breathing it in , swallowing it , skin contact , and eye contact . The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health ( NIOSH ) has set a recommended exposure limit ( REL ) of 5 mg / m3 over an 8 @-@ hour workday and a short term limit of 10 mg / m3 .
= = Patent claim = =
Tungsten is unique amongst the elements in that it has been the subject of patent proceedings . In 1928 , a US court rejected General Electric 's attempt to patent it , overturning U.S. Patent 1 @,@ 082 @,@ 933 granted in 1913 to William D. Coolidge .
= Senior Prom =
Senior Prom was a classified black program conducted by the United States Air Force in conjunction with the Lockheed Corporation 's Skunk Works for the development and testing of a cruise missile utilising stealth technology . Based on the company 's Have Blue demonstrator , the six Senior Prom vehicles proved successful in testing conducted at Area 51 in the late 1970s ; despite this , the aircraft was not selected to enter production , and the program was terminated in the early 1980s .
= = Design and development = =
Following the success of the test programme for the Lockheed Have Blue stealth technology demonstrator aircraft , the United States Air Force awarded a contract to the Lockheed Advanced Development Projects division — the " Skunk Works " — for the development of an unmanned aerial vehicle , intended to act as the prototype of a cruise missile , that would apply the Have Blue 's faceted design in order to reduce the radar cross section of the missile by deflecting electromagnetic waves from radar transmitters away from their source , instead of directly back at the radar set 's antenna .
The program begin in 1977 , with a reported budget of USD $ 24 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ; the design of the aircraft was closely based on that of Have Blue , except scaled down . Intended for launch from Lockheed DC @-@ 130 Hercules drone launcher aircraft , the original configuration of the Senior Prom vehicle included winglets and a ventral fin ; the aircraft was later modified to include a V @-@ tail and more slender wings , closer in configuration to the F @-@ 117 Nighthawk stealth fighter . Radar @-@ absorbent material was applied to the airframe as part of its stealth configuration ; in addition to the faceting of the design , similar to that of Have Blue and the F @-@ 117 , the " sawtooth " wing profile bore similarities to the B @-@ 2 stealth bomber 's planform .
The Senior Prom vehicle was intended to be expendable ; however , it was modified to be reusable before testing commenced , with a ballistic parachute and inflatable landing bag located under the fuselage . The aircraft is believed to have been fitted with folding wings to facilicate carriage by the launching aircraft , and was powered by a single turbofan engine , with the air intake and exhaust being configured in such a manner that the airframe would shield them from the ground , reducing the aircraft 's radar and infrared signatures .
= = Testing and cancellation = =
Flight testing of the Senior Prom vehicles began in October 1978 ; a total of six aircraft were built , which completed a total of fourteen flights over the duration of the testing programme . The craft were reportedly capable of flying within 500 feet ( 150 m ) of a SPS @-@ 13 radar without generating a discernible return . Most testing took place at Groom Lake ( " Area 51 " ) in Nevada , with a DC @-@ 130 Hercules acting as the launch aircraft ; there are also reports that some testing was conducted at Edwards Air Force Base in California , with a B @-@ 52 Stratofortress being used as the launch platform , while " Hangar 18 " at the Groom Lake test complex was reportedly constructed to house the B @-@ 52 and Senior Prom combination .
Despite the success of the test programme , Senior Prom was cancelled in 1982 ; reportedly one reason for the cancellation of the project was that the size and configuration of the Senior Prom aircraft rendered it incapable of being carried in internal weapons bays such as that on the B @-@ 1 bomber ; the AGM @-@ 129 ACM , a competing design to Senior Prom for the cruise missile requirement , had a more slender airframe with retractable wings , which rendered it capable of internal carriage ; it began flight testing shortly after the end of the Senior Prom programme .
Despite the cancellation of the programme in 1982 , the Senior Prom remained highly classified into the 21st century . There are rumours that a small number of Senior Prom aircraft , configured for aerial reconnaissance , were acquired by the United States Air Force , and were utilised in secret missions over Eastern Europe late in the Cold War , over Iraq during Operation Desert Storm , and over North Korea ; there is no official confirmation of this being the case .
= Seahorse Seashell Party =
" Seahorse Seashell Party " is the second episode of the tenth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy , an episode produced for season 9 . It originally aired on October 2 , 2011 in the United States on Fox . The episode mainly centers around the Griffin family , who are riding out an oncoming hurricane . In their attempt to pass the time , they participate in numerous activities and games . After being condemned by her peers , Meg lashes out and confronts her family . Meanwhile , Brian consumes magic mushrooms which cause him to hallucinate .
" Seahorse Seashell Party " is the second part of the Night of the Hurricane block with The Cleveland Show and American Dad ! . The episode was first announced by Seth MacFarlane at the 2010 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International . It was written by Wellesley Wild and directed by Brian Iles . Originally scheduled to air on May 1 , 2011 as the sixteenth episode of the ninth season of Family Guy , the episode was postponed due to the April 25 – 28 , 2011 tornado outbreak subsequently coinciding with the timing of the scheduled episodes .
Critical responses to the episode were negative , particularly for its humor and main plot . An estimated 6 @.@ 91 million viewers tuned into the episode upon its initial airing , while also garnering a 3 @.@ 5 / 8 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic according to the Nielsen ratings . The episode featured guest performances by Ioan Gruffudd , Dee Bradley Baker , Debra Wilson , Kat Purgal , and Colin Ford along with several other recurring guest voice actors for the series .
= = Plot = =
As the Griffins prepare for an approaching hurricane which had already hit Stoolbend , Brian decides to use magic mushrooms , to the curiosity of Stewie . As the mushrooms take effect on Brian , he has hallucinations and cuts his ear off , believing it would stop World War II . Stewie tries to take care of Brian , whose hallucinations become more overwhelmingly disturbing , to the point where he sees Stewie transforming into a hideous demon towering over him before he perceives himself in a grotesque , hellish world . During his nightmare sequence , Brian is continually attacked by various monsters resembling the Griffin family and Quagmire . He recovers when Stewie helps him downstairs to drink some water .
The rest of the family passes the time by playing charades and other games . Peter , Lois and Chris play a game of " finger @-@ bang , " until Meg joins in . They shun her , using the sexual connotation to insult and demean her and again later gang up on her when she disturbs Peter 's humming by opening a soda can . At her limit after years of their abuse , Meg finally gets the nerve to turn on them .
She starts with Chris by calling him " a bastard " for being a terrible brother to her , berating him for all the ill treatment he has given her over the years , and how he never takes her side when their parents abuse her . Lois condescendingly tells Meg that she is simply taking her own problems out on everyone else invoking Meg to bring up her mother 's delinquent past . Meg tells her that she is far from the perfect parent , harshly berates her for constantly and ruthlessly pointing out Meg 's shortcomings . Lois tries to justify that she 's a better person because of her past and she is open that she isn 't the perfect parent , but Meg tells her that she 's the farthest thing from and states how she has neglected to protect her from harm and guide her through life . Meg also informs Lois that when she turns 18 , she may never want to see her again . This breaks Lois ' heart and she finally admits that she 's been a terrible mother to Meg . Finally , Meg turns on Peter who , unable to comprehend her insults , thinks that his daughter 's argument is amusing , even when she points out Peter 's destructive tendencies and that he would go to jail if someone could witness his negative treatment towards her . It dawns on Peter that he is being insulted when Meg calls him a " waste of a man . "
A shocked Peter asks Lois to tell Meg to " knock it off , " but Lois refuses because he didn 't stick up for her . Within moments , Peter , Lois and Chris turn their abusive criticisms and insults on each other . Peter finally runs to his room crying , leaving Meg and Brian , who is now full recovered from his trip , to discuss what just happened . Despite Brian complimenting her for standing up for herself , Meg comes to the conclusion that her family cannot survive without a " lightning rod " to absorb the dysfunction , and the only way they can get along is if she continues to take their abuse . Brian tells her that she is more mature than her family . She then lies to them , saying that she was only taking her own problems out on everyone , restoring their egos and original opinions although she only did this to prevent further fighting and will return being abused by the family , as the hurricane heads for Langley Falls .
Before the episode ends , Stewie then breaks the fourth wall by telling the viewer about the dangers of drugs : " Tonight 's Family Guy was a very special episode about drug use , but the simple fact is , it 's no laughing matter . To learn more about drugs , visit your local library . There 's probably a guy behind there who sells drugs . "
= = Production and development = =
The episode was first announced in July 2010 by series creator Seth MacFarlane at the Comic @-@ Con International in San Diego , California . Kevin Reilly , the entertainment president of the Fox Broadcasting Company , originally pitched the idea for the crossover , which was inspired by theme nights of comedy shows from the 1980s . MacFarlane described the crossover event to be an " enormous challenge " and a " substantial undertaking " ; he chose to do one central story line so that each writing staff would not have to write stories for unfamiliar characters . MacFarlane was also willing to do another crossover event if this one receives successful ratings .
In April 2011 , executives of the Fox Broadcasting Company officially announced that " Seahorse Seashell Party " would air on May 1 . However , on April 29 , it was announced that the crossover event would be removed from the schedule , in response to a series of tornadoes that killed nearly 300 people in the Southern United States . The episodes were subsequently replaced by repeats of " I Am the Walrus " from American Dad ! , " Brian Writes a Bestseller " from Family Guy , and " Ain 't Nothin ' But Mutton Bustin ' " from The Cleveland Show . MacFarlane agreed with the decisions after consulting with the executives of Fox , and a spokeswoman for the company later announced that the episodes would air the following season .
" Seahorse Seashell Party " was written by Wellesley Wild and directed by Brian Iles . It features guest appearances from Ioan Gruffudd , Dee Bradley Baker , Colin Ford , and Debra Wilson . This episode marked Gruffudd 's first guest appearance since the season eight episode " The Splendid Source " and Wilson 's first guest appearance since the season three episode " And the Wiener Is ... " .
= = Cultural references = =
" Seahorse Seashell Party " features several references to media , music , film , and other pop culture phenomena . The episode 's title references dialogue from the viral video " Drinking out of Cups " by electronic musician and composer Dan Deacon .
Peter mentions wanting to watch ' G.I. Jose ' , which leads to a cutaway parodying the G.I. Joe : A Real American Hero public service announcements . Peter mentions the film Fletch while playing charades . One of the many passing @-@ time gags involves Peter performing a sing @-@ a @-@ long to the opening chase music from Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade . As Brian 's hallucinations begin to worsen , Stewie attempts to calm him , reminding him that seeing Lady Gaga nude was a worst @-@ case scenario . Towards the end of the episode , a cutaway gag involving a confrontation between an African American woman and an Italian American man parodies the National Geographic 's documentaries . A reference to the social networking site Twitter was also made by Stewie .
= = Reception = =
" Seahorse Seashell Party " first aired in the United States on October 2 , 2011 as part of the animation television night on Fox . It was preceded by episodes of The Simpsons and The Cleveland Show , while being succeeded by an episode of American Dad ! . It was viewed by 6 @.@ 91 million viewers upon its initial airing , despite simultaneously airing with Desperate Housewives on ABC , Amazing Race on CBS , and a game between the Baltimore Ravens and the New York Jets on NBC . Total viewership for the episode was the highest out of its respective line @-@ up . " Seahorse Seashell Party " garnered a 3 @.@ 5 / 8 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to the Nielsen ratings , also becoming the highest rating of the animation television night on Fox . Total viewership and ratings were significantly down from the previous episode , " Lottery Fever " , which was watched by 7 @.@ 69 million viewers and garnered a 4 @.@ 1 / 9 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic .
The main plot of " Seahorse Seashell Party " received negative reviews . Kevin McFarland of The A.V. Club wrote of the episode , " This far into the show ’ s run , shifting to a much more dramatic bottle episode and reaching for emotional payoffs felt far too little too late . " He resumed : " Nobody cares about any member of the Griffin family the way we care about every last Simpson . I feel bad about Meg becoming the scapegoat . Not because she ’ s a good character , but because instead of tweaking and working to make her appreciated or comically valuable , Family Guy spent years going down the path of least resistance and simply joined the fan chorus of hatred . One episode of pointed , forced justification for that shift doesn ’ t change a thing . " McFarland concluded his review by giving the episode a grade of D + . Similarly , Terron Moore of Ology felt that much of the episode was wasted . In his review , Moore stated that " Seahorse Seashell Party " was " an episode that spends a lot of time addressing something that didn ’ t need to be addressed . " He gave the episode a 4 @.@ 5 out of ten points . TV Fanatic 's Kate Moon was less negative of the episode , stating that even though Meg confronting her family in regards to her treatment was long overdue , she concluded that it felt contrived and uninteresting .
Critics were polarized with the episode subplot . While McFarland expressed enjoyment of some of the animation of the episode , he asserted that it " fell flat . " Moon exclaimed that the subplot would have been more interesting had Stewie ingested the mushroom alongside Brian .
The episode debuted in the United Kingdom on May 20 , 2012 , and achieved 1 @.@ 6 million viewers . Although US reception was negative , UK critics praised the episode for its subplot animation and bold storyline .
= Marouane Chamakh =
Marouane Chamakh ( French pronunciation : [ ma.ʁwan ʃa.mak ] ; Arabic : مروان الشماخ ; born 10 January 1984 ) is a Moroccan professional footballer who plays as a foward for the Morocco national team . His most recent club side was English Premier League team Crystal Palace . He is described as a prototypical target man and is noted for his " link @-@ up play " , " tall stature " and " excellent heading ability " . He is the first and only player in UEFA Champions League history to score in six consecutive matches .
Chamakh started his career training throughout various clubs in the Aquitaine region . In 2000 , he signed with Bordeaux . Chamakh made his professional debut for the club in the 2002 – 03 season . He spent nine years at the club and helped Bordeaux win the Coupe de la Ligue in 2007 . In the 2008 – 09 season , Chamakh won his first league title as Bordeaux were crowned champions for the first time since the 1998 – 99 season . The club also won the Coupe de la Ligue completing the league and league cup double . In May 2010 , Chamakh joined Arsenal of the Premier League on a free transfer after agreeing to a four @-@ year contract with the club .
Although born and raised in France , Chamakh chose to play international football for Morocco , because he had Moroccan parents . He made his national team debut in July 2003 and has played at three Africa Cup of Nations tournaments , including the 2004 tournament in which Morocco finished runner @-@ up . In August 2010 , he captained the national team for the first time .
= = Personal life = =
Chamakh was born in Tonneins , a small town near the Garonne River , to Moroccan parents , and was raised in the nearby commune of Aiguillon . His father , El Mostafa Chamakh , was a former footballer in Morocco and played for Difaâ Aïn Sbaâ in Casablanca . In 1979 , he left Morocco to locate more favorable living conditions and to find a better job . After settling in France and finding work as a stonemason , the elder Chamakh brought his family over soon after . Chamakh 's younger brother Yassin owns a café . Chamakh has stated that when he goes back home , he often waits tables to help out his brother .
While pursuing his career as a professional footballer , Chamakh was equally adept off the field earning good grades in school . During his early years at Bordeaux , he began attending high school . He hoped to earn a Baccalauréat in accounting , which he later accomplished . In addition to having a Baccalauréat , Chamakh is also very interested in politics and , in February 2010 , voiced his support for the Democratic Movement ( MoDem ) political party ahead of the upcoming regional elections . In the 2010 regional elections , Chamakh was , surprisingly , listed as a candidate by the MoDem for the Gironde department in the Aquitaine region . The lead deputy of the party , Jean Lassalle , stated on the decision to name Chamakh to the ballot : " I want to gather all the forces of Aquitaine to sustain our region , and Marouane is one of those forces who Aquitaine needs . " Chamakh was listed as a non @-@ eligible candidate on the ballot and Lasalle was accused of using Chamakh in order to garner votes from football supporters in the region .
Chamakh is a practising Muslim and has stated that " I have no problem fasting during Ramadan , it becomes normal . The day before a game and on match days I do not fast , but I 'll make up the lost days later . "
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Chamakh began his football career at the age of four playing for local club Nérac FC in the nearby commune of Nérac . While at Nérac , youth coaches at the club nicknamed him " Mr. George " after the former FIFA World Player of the Year George Weah because Chamakh " used to score four or five goals in every tolka rovers game " . After six years at Nérac , Chamakh joined FC Marmandais . While in Marmande , he developed his physical skills and traits , growing as tall as 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 83 m ) and also earning his first regional selection to play for the Aquitaine regional team in the Coupe Nationale .
= = = Bordeaux = = =
In 2000 , Chamakh was pursued by several professional clubs that wanted to obtain his services . He drew interest from Lens , Toulouse , Lorient , and Bordeaux . Chamakh eventually decided to sign with Bordeaux due to the club 's infrastructure and training facilities and also because of the close proximity to his family . Upon his arrival , Chamakh was placed into the club 's youth academy . For the 2001 – 02 season , he was promoted to the club 's Championnat de France amateur 2 team in the fifth division . Chamakh was involved heavily in the campaign of the team , coached by Jean @-@ Louis Garcia . He appeared in 17 matches and scored six goals as the team finished first in their group , thus earning promotion to the Championnat de France amateur .
Following the season , Chamakh turned professional and signed a three @-@ year contract with Bordeaux . He spent the first half of the 2002 – 03 campaign playing in the fourth division , but following the winter break , was called up to the senior team by manager Elie Baup . Chamakh made his professional debut on 19 January 2003 in the team 's Coupe de la Ligue match against Metz . He appeared as a substitute and played 15 minutes in a 1 – 0 defeat . Chamakh made his league debut three weeks later in a 2 – 0 home defeat to Bastia again appearing as a substitute . On 20 May , he scored his first professional goal against Nice , netting the equalizing goal just a minute before injury time in a 1 – 1 draw . Chamakh appeared in 14 games , always as a substitute , during the campaign . In the 2003 – 04 season , he was promoted to the senior team permanently by new manager Michel Pavon and made his first professional league start on 1 November 2003 in a 1 – 0 win over Marseille . In the team 's following match , Chamakh scored the opening goal in a 1 – 1 draw with Strasbourg just before halftime . However , mid @-@ way through the second half , he received his first career red card after incurring a second yellow . Upon returning from his one @-@ game suspension , Chamakh developed into a regular starter for the club , scoring goals in consecutive matches against Metz and Montpellier . He finished the league campaign with six goals in 25 matches . In the club 's UEFA Cup campaign , Chamakh netted four times in eight appearances .
In the 2004 – 05 season , Pavon decided to move Chamakh into the lead striker position and install Argentine playmaker Juan Pablo Francia as a support striker . The move was a success with Chamakh scoring ten league goals . He opened the campaign by scoring his first professional hat trick in a 5 – 1 victory over Nice . In September 2004 , Chamakh scored goals in back @-@ to @-@ back matches against Bastia and Derby de la Garonne rivals Toulouse . He finished the campaign by scoring the opening goal in a 1 – 1 draw with Monaco . Despite the positive individual season from Chamakh , Bordeaux finished the campaign in 15th place ; its worst finish since ending the league campaign in 16th over a decade before . Pavon , due to heart problems , stepped down from his position and was replaced by Ricardo Gomes . Under Gomes , Chamakh struggled to meet the success of his previous season scoring only 12 league goals in 58 matches over the course of two seasons . Two of his notable performances during Gomes ' reign included scoring a double in league matches against Metz and Nancy . In the match against the former club , Chamakh scored both of his goals
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was to " achieve motion picture quality visuals and create even more suspense and fear than the original " .
Production on the game started at the beginning of 2001 with a team of only four programmers . Since Resident Evil was one of Capcom 's first titles developed for the GameCube , the development team had to study the system 's performance during the first stages of development . Initially , the team considered the possibility of creating the game 's environments with computer graphic animation , but then realized that this approach would require too much hardware capacity and processing to achieve realistic graphics . As a result , the graphical style of the remake features 3D models over pre @-@ rendered backgrounds like the Resident Evil games for the PlayStation . Despite this , the camera is more dynamic and can track the player at varying angles . The backgrounds also make use of particle effects and full motion video layers to simulate effects such as rushing water or swaying tree branches . Causing fear to the player was a high priority , and many of the game 's backgrounds were designed to have a high contrast between dark and light so that enemies could appear unexpectedly .
Originally , the developers planned to only upgrade the graphics and tweak the gameplay . However , as development was getting closer to completion , Capcom started making more substantial changes in the game . For example , the inventory was expanded so that players could carry a standard item like Jill 's lock picking , while defense items , which were initially not going to be separated from the main inventory , were introduced to make the game a bit easier than the original Resident Evil . The developers originally planned to make all enemies invisible but the idea was ultimately discarded because it would have made the remake very different from the original game . However , they designed the zombies so that they could come back to life a certain amount of time after they are killed . The developers also added new areas for the player to explore , changed most of the puzzle designs , and included a new control scheme called Type C where players move their characters by pressing the R button of the GameCube controller and steer them with the analog stick . Another addition is the subplot involving the character Lisa Trevor , which was cut from the original game . Instead of using adjectives to describe difficulty levels , Mikami deliberately decided to have unique questions so that the player would pick the hard one .
Capcom auditioned actors to be used as references by the character designers . The faces of the main protagonists were shaped and based on real people , while motion capture was used to animate their models . About 60 percent of the characters ' motions were animated based on the captured data , while the rest was created from scratch . The developers initially struggled to develop a system for computer graphic animation . However , Nintendo provided Capcom with assistance and the problems were eventually solved . Capcom also hired new voice actors and rewrote the game 's script to make the plot more convincing . The game was developed over the course of one year and two months . Final development of the game was very intense , as programmers had to work for two straight months with no days off to meet the proposed deadline .
= = Release = =
Resident Evil was originally released for the GameCube in March 2002 in Japan , April 2002 in North America , and September 2002 in Europe . As of January 2004 , 445 @,@ 176 copies of the game had been sold in the United States . In May 2008 , Capcom revealed that a total of 1 @.@ 35 million copies of the GameCube game were sold . In December 2008 , the game was ported to the Wii along with Resident Evil Zero . The port , titled Resident Evil Archives : Resident Evil , features a control system that supports the Wii Remote and the GameCube controller . Although Capcom originally had no plans to release the Wii version outside Japan , arguing that the game would not sell very well , the game was eventually released in North America and Europe in June 2009 due to the commercial success of Resident Evil 5 .
A high @-@ definition version of the game , titled Resident Evil HD Remaster , was released worldwide for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 3 , PlayStation 4 , Xbox 360 , and Xbox One in January 2015 . The HD version supports 5 @.@ 1 surround sound as well as a resolution of 1080p and a widescreen aspect ratio of 16 : 9 . Since the original controls of the game were criticized , the remaster also includes a new control scheme which allows players to move their character in the direction of the analog stick . Although the game is a digital @-@ only release in North America and Europe , a retail edition of the PlayStation 3 version was made available exclusively in Japan and Asia . The HD version was a commercial success , breaking several sales records . It became the PlayStation Network 's biggest launch title in the service 's history and Capcom 's fastest selling digital game across both North America and Europe . As of April 2015 , more than one million copies of HD Remaster had been sold worldwide across all platforms .
= = Reception = =
Upon its initial release , the GameCube version of Resident Evil received critical acclaim . Matt Casamassina of IGN felt that the game is " a triumph as a stand @-@ alone adventure and a major accomplishment as a remake " , calling it " the prettiest , most atmospheric and all @-@ around scariest game we 've ever played . " Similarly , GameSpot reviewer Shane Satterfield described the remake as " one amazing game that clearly stands as the best the [ Resident Evil ] series has to offer . " Jes Bickham , writing for NGC Magazine , criticized the gameplay for its limiting controls and tedious inventory management , but nevertheless judged its graphics impressive , noting that the game is " so visually rich that simply seeing the next area is an experience to be treasured . "
The game was widely praised for its graphics . Satterfield was impressed with the game 's attention to detail , realistic gore , volumetric fog , and Capcom 's ability to integrate real @-@ time lighting and shadows with pre @-@ rendered backgrounds , commenting that the company " has finally perfected the art of mixing prerendered scenery with ambient animations and polygonal objects , and the result is the most visually impressive video game ever released . " Bickham also remarked that , unlike in the original Resident Evil , the contrast between character models and backgrounds is seamless . Casamassina highlighted the complex geometry of the character models , stating that " close shots of Chris or Jill look almost photo @-@ realistic . " The game 's suspenseful and cinematic atmosphere received similar praise , with Game Revolution going so far as to say that the game makes the original Resident Evil look like Pong . Resident Evil was also praised for its realistic sound . AllGame reviewer Scott Alan Marriott felt that the game " [ creates ] a constant sense of dread without relying too much on obvious shock values " , while Satterfield highlighted the quality and variety of sound effects , noting that " there seem to be dozens of sound effects for footsteps alone . " However , some publications considered the voice acting to be weak due to its exaggerated delivery .
Changes to many aspects of the gameplay were positively viewed ; Mike Weigand of GamePro wrote that " It 's like playing Resident Evil for the first time . " Satterfield remarked that the defensive weapons add a new layer of strategy to the game . However , the controls were criticized for their lack of analog precision , a feature that was previously available in the Nintendo 64 version of Resident Evil 2 . Hector Guzman of GameSpy criticized the fact that the original game 's " laborious " movement scheme , where the analog stick moves the player character in the direction they are facing , was not changed , stating that it can cause unnecessary difficulties when players try to evade monsters . Casamassina also criticized the game 's default control scheme , but considered the Type C controls to be a welcome addition . At the GameSpot 's Best and Worst of 2002 awards , Resident Evil was nominated for Best Story on GameCube , Best Graphics ( Technical ) on GameCube , and Best Action Adventure Game on GameCube .
The Wii version of the game received generally favorable reviews from critics , but some publications such as IGN criticized it for its outdated controls and lack of new features . Critical reception towards the HD version was mostly positive . Several critics noted that some features like the inventory system and the insistence on having to revisit previously explored areas have not aged very well , but generally agreed that the remaster was a solid revival of a classic .
= = Legacy = =
Resident Evil is often regarded as one of the best and most visually impressive titles in the Resident Evil series . According to Lucas M. Thomas of IGN , the game 's graphics " became the new standard by which all future installments in the series would be compared . " Digital Spy writer Liam Martin remarked that the game is " the definitive version of a true classic " and that it still looked " fantastic " nearly 13 years after it was first released . Although the GameCube version received critical acclaim , it sold worse than expected . As a result , Mikami and Capcom decided that subsequent games in the Resident Evil series would shift away from the survival horror genre and incorporate more action @-@ based elements , starting with Resident Evil 4 in 2005 . Before that happened , Capcom developed Resident Evil Zero , a direct prequel using the same graphic engine and released in late 2002 . The commercial success of the HD version resulted in Capcom 's announcement of a similar edition of Resident Evil Zero in 2015 . A retail compilation called Resident Evil : Origins Collection that includes both Resident Evil HD Remaster and Resident Evil Zero HD Remaster was released on January 22 , 2016 .
= USS Ozark ( 1863 ) =
USS Ozark was a single @-@ turreted river monitor built for the United States Navy during the American Civil War . The ship served in the Mississippi River Squadron during the war , and participated in the Red River Campaign shortly after she was commissioned in early 1864 . Ozark patrolled the Mississippi River and its tributaries after the end of the campaign for the rest of the war . She was decommissioned after the war and sold in late 1865 .
The ship 's activities or owner are not known after her sale , but Ozark transported Federal troops and New Orleans police attempting to apprehend the white supremacists who killed a large number of blacks during the Colfax Massacre in 1873 . She ferried witnesses back and forth to their homes on the Red River during the subsequent trials in 1874 . Her ultimate fate is unknown .
= = Description = =
The ship was 180 feet ( 54 @.@ 9 m ) long overall and had a beam of 50 feet ( 15 @.@ 2 m ) . She had a depth of hold of 7 feet 4 inches ( 2 @.@ 2 m ) and a draft of six feet . Ozark had a tonnage of 578 tons burthen .
She was powered by a pair of two @-@ cylinder steam engines , each driving two four @-@ bladed , 7 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) propellers , using steam generated by four boilers . The engines were designed to reach a top speed of 9 miles per hour ( 14 km / h ) . They had a bore of 15 inches ( 381 mm ) and a stroke of 24 inches ( 610 mm ) . Ozark could carry about 100 long tons ( 102 t ) of coal . All of the machinery was built by the Franklin Foundry of St. Louis , Missouri .
The ship was fitted with three rudders , and the armored pilothouse was mounted on top of the gun turret . The officers ' staterooms were built on deck out of light pine , and a hurricane deck was positioned between the turret and the deckhouse , between the two funnels . The hull was subdivided by three transverse and three longitudinal watertight bulkheads .
Ozark 's main armament initially consisted of two smoothbore , muzzle @-@ loading 11 @-@ inch ( 279 mm ) Dahlgren guns mounted in a twin @-@ gun turret forward . The 11 @-@ inch gun weighed 16 @,@ 000 pounds ( 7 @,@ 300 kg ) and could fire a 136 @-@ pound ( 61 @.@ 7 kg ) shell up to a range of 1 @,@ 710 yards ( 1 @,@ 560 m ) at + 5 ° elevation . By July 1864 , her armament had been reinforced by the addition of one 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) Dahlgren gun and three 9 @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) Dahlgrens , all on pivot mounts . One of these guns was mounted at the bow , another at the stern and the two others were abreast the deckhouse , one on each broadside . The 10 @-@ inch Dahlgren weighed 12 @,@ 500 pounds ( 5 @,@ 700 kg ) and could fire a 103 @-@ pound ( 46 @.@ 7 kg ) shell up to a range of 3 @,@ 000 yards ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) at + 19 ° elevation . The nine @-@ inch gun weighed 9 @,@ 200 pounds ( 4 @,@ 200 kg ) and could fire a 72 @.@ 5 @-@ pound ( 32 @.@ 9 kg ) shell to a range of 3 @,@ 357 yards ( 3 @,@ 070 m ) at an elevation of + 15 ° . Ozark was chosen as the testbed for an experimental " underwater battery " that consisted of a nine @-@ inch Dahlgren gun firing through a pipe in the side of the hull below the waterline . Cost overruns caused the project to be cancelled in January 1863 before it could be tested .
The cylindrical Ericsson @-@ style turret was armored with six layers of wrought iron 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) plates . The forward 40 feet ( 12 @.@ 2 m ) of the hull was protected by two layers of 1 @.@ 25 @-@ inch ( 32 mm ) plates that extended 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 3 m ) below the waterline . Aft of the bow section , the hull 's armor consisted of two layers of 1 @.@ 125 @-@ inch ( 28 @.@ 6 mm ) plates . The ship 's deck was protected by iron plates one inch thick .
= = Construction and service = =
The contract for Ozark , the first ship of that name in the United States Navy and named for the Ozark Tribe of the Quapaw Indians , was awarded to George C. Bestor on 14 May 1862 . He subcontracted the ship 's construction to Hambleton , Collier & Co. at their Mound City Marine Ways shipyard in Mound City , Illinois . Ozark was laid down in 1862 and launched on 18 February 1863 . She was towed to St. Louis for fitting out and arrived there on 27 February . Ozark commissioned on 18 February 1864 , with Acting Volunteer Lieutenant George W. Brown in command . She cost about $ 215 @,@ 000 .
Ozark spent her entire Union Navy career serving in the Mississippi River Squadron . From 12 March to 22 May 1864 , she took part in the Rear Admiral David Porter 's Red River Expedition to Alexandria , Louisiana . During the retreat down the Red River , Ozark was trapped above the falls at Alexandria , along with most of the other ironclads of the Mississippi Squadron , when the river 's water level unexpectedly began to fall . Two temporary dams , known as Bailey 's Dam , had to be built in April – May to raise the water level high enough to allow the ironclads to proceed downstream . After the end of the campaign , Ozark was assigned to the Third District , patrolling the Mississippi River between Morganza , Louisiana and Fort Adams , Mississippi . Following the end of the war , she was decommissioned at Mound City on 24 July 1865 and was sold 29 November .
The identity of her purchaser is not known , nor are her activities after her sale , but Ozark was still in service in late 1873 and based at New Orleans . Louisiana governor William Pitt Kellogg used the ship to transport 35 soldiers of the 19th Infantry Regiment and 25 mounted members of the New Orleans Metropolitan Police to Colfax , Louisiana in October to apprehend the perpetrators of the Colfax Massacre . Due to widespread resistance by local whites , only a few men were arrested and transported to New Orleans by Ozark to stand trial in December . Prosecution witnesses were transported and housed in the ship during the trials in February – March 1874 to protect them from threats made by white supremacists . Nothing further is known about the Ozark 's activities or fate .
= Giles Deacon =
Giles Deacon ( born 1969 ) is a British fashion designer , best known for his playful designs and his collaboration with High Street retailer New Look . Deacon was employed by the fashion houses Bottega Veneta and Gucci , before founding his own label , GILES , in 2003 . He launched his first collection for GILES at the 2004 London Fashion Week and was named " Best New Designer " at the British Fashion Awards . Deacon 's designs have been met with critical acclaim and have sparked a renewed interest in London fashion . Having become one of the fashion industry 's most fêted figures , Deacon was named British Fashion Designer of the Year in 2006 and was awarded the French ANDAM Fashion Award 's Grand Prix in 2009 . The designer was appointed creative director of French fashion house Ungaro in April 2010 . Deacon retained the position until September 2011 , when he and Ungaro mutually decided to end their collaboration .
= = Early life = =
Deacon was born in Darlington , County Durham , but grew up near Ullswater in the Lake District . Deacon is the youngest child of David , an agricultural salesman and Judith , a housewife . He has one older sister . He attended Barnard Castle School in County Durham which he credits with instilling in him " the mindset of aesthetics " . Deacon initially wanted to become a marine biologist , but he failed his chemistry A @-@ level . He later joined Harrogate College of Arts , where he completed an art foundation course . After completing his course he went on to study at Central St Martins and was in the same class as fashion designers Alexander McQueen and Luella Bartley . He graduated in 1992 and began collaborating on the label ' Doran Deacon ' with his friend , Fi Doran as well as contributing illustrations to Dazed & Confused .
= = Career = =
Deacon chose to travel and gain experiences at fashion houses , before starting his own label . During his time in Paris , Deacon was hired to work with fashion designer Jean @-@ Charles de Castelbajac , where he learnt how to use a brand name commercially . Deacon worked with Castelbajac for two years , before returning to London to work for High Street fashion houses . During this time , Deacon met the owner of Italian luxury goods house , Bottega Veneta , and was hired to work for the company , becoming the head designer and debuting a much acclaimed collection in 2000 . Deacon was dismissed in 2001 when the Gucci group bought the company and terminated his contract , so they could hire German designer , Tomas Maier . However , he was immediately hired by Tom Ford to assist with Gucci womenswear . Deacon was forced to leave Gucci after one season when he became ill from an infected saliva gland .
Once he had recovered , Deacon decided to take out a loan to start his own label and he launched GILES in 2003 . He launched his first collection at London Fashion Week in February 2004 , styled by his friend Katie Grand , the show saw models Karen Elson , Lily Cole , Eva Herzigova and Linda Evangelista walking the catwalk . The collection received international acclaim and began a renewed interest in London fashion . Deacon regularly shows at London Fashion Week and the GILES collection is bought by over thirty retail stores including Barneys , Harvey Nichols and Selfridges . Deacon counts Thandie Newton , Princess Beatrice and Scarlett Johansson among his clients . Since Deacon launched his label , he has seen the turnover double every year and sales increase during the recession .
In April 2010 , it was announced that Deacon had been appointed the creative director position with French fashion house Ungaro , following the dismissal of Estrella Archs . Deacon became the fifth designer to be hired by the house since the it was sold to entrepreneur Asim Abdullah in 2005 . On 19 September 2010 , Deacon made a return to London Fashion Week , after spending two years showing his collection in Paris . Deacon showed his first collection for Ungaro in October 2010 . Vogue previewed the new collection , which was designed by Deacon , styled by Grand and accessorised by Katie Hillier and Stephen Jones , on their website . Vogue reporter , Dolly Jones , described the collection as one of the " most hotly anticipated shows " of the week and she added " [ Deacon ] looks like he 'll be credited with bringing the house of Ungaro back to life , at last . "
From June 2011 , Deacon took part in the Channel 4 entertainment series , New Look Style the Nation . The designer joined New Look 's creative director Barbara Horspool on a panel tasked with finding an " exceptional new fashion stylist " from contestants , who demonstrate good creativity and style . The winner is hired by New Look as a stylist . Deacon has previously appeared on Britain 's Next Top Model as a judge . On 15 September , it was announced Ungaro and Deacon had " mutually decided " to end their collaboration .
In 2013 , Deacon presented the first ever fashion exhibition at the William Morris Gallery in London .
= = = Style = = =
Deacon has been known to challenge the traditional ideas of womenswear and often uses wild prints and pop culture references in his designs . He has described his designs for GILES as humorous , dark and sexy and has stated that he wants diversity in among them . He said , " My dresses should be worn by young , cool girls just as much as by 55 to 60 year old women " . Deacon often designs " structured big @-@ entrance " dresses , which are aimed at women who want to be noticed . At the 2008 London Fashion Week , Deacon presented a collection with a futuristic theme based on the 1980s arcade game Pac @-@ Man . The character was embellished on many of the dresses and the models wore oversized helmets in the shape of Pac @-@ Man . The designer 's New Look menswear collections have been described by GQ magazine as " straddling the line between quirky and wearable " .
On Deacon 's style , fashion website Style.com has said , " His work is randomness incarnate . It can 't keep to any one message , or develop an intellectual thesis . If you 're looking for a point , he 'll never get to it " . Susannah Frankel of The Independent has said that Deacon 's collections are " a much @-@ needed injection of grand @-@ scale glamour " . Frankel added that a playfulness and humour have also found their way into Deacon 's collections . In May 2011 , Deacon said he does not design for wallflowers and that his collections would always be a " little bit sideways " , " quirky " and " British in feel . " The Scotsman said Deacon 's designs are not brash , but " they suit a woman who has the confidence to take centre @-@ stage . "
= = = Collaborations = = =
Deacon has worked on many collaborations with companies including Sky , Converse and Evoke , with whom he created his first jewellery collection . Deacon has called collaborations " practical " , because they " bring the money you need for your own company " . In a two season collaboration with British fashion company Mulberry , Deacon introduced a line of accessories called " Mulberry for Giles " , which was both a commercial and critical success . Deacon was then appointed to design for the classic British tailoring label , Daks . He showed his first and second collections for the brand in 2007 and his third in 2008 .
In 2009 , Deacon designed and created a strapless dress with polka dots for the Cadbury 's Caramel Bunny , to celebrate the launch of Caramel Nibbles . A limited edition scarf was also created and 1400 were given away via the world 's first online Pop Up Boutiques . The scarf then went on sale at selected John Lewis stores and online . In the same year , Deacon teamed up with Norwegian water company Isklar and created a limited edition Tote bag with fifty per cent of the proceeds from each bag sold going to Oxfam . The following year , Deacon designed a T @-@ shirt for the Environmental Justice Foundation and in January 2011 it was announced that he would be designing a capsule collection for Nine West .
Deacon 's best known collaboration has been with the High Street fashion chain New Look . The collection called Gold by Giles began in March 2007 . On choosing to collaborate with the clothing retailer , Deacon said : " I chose New Look as the high street store to work with , as we both have a sense of fun and believe in fashion for everyone . " Actress Drew Barrymore starred in the first ad campaigns for the collection , following a chance meeting between her and the designer in a lift . British model , Agyness Deyn took over and modelled the key pieces for Deacon 's 4th collection . Deacon 's first menswear collection debuted in 2008 and his first beachwear collection launched in early June 2009 . On 22 March 2010 , Deacon launched his tenth Gold collection . Three years after starting the collaboration with New Look , Deacon said ; " My tenth collection focuses on dresses which are easy throw @-@ on pieces with a glamorous edge to ensure that you 'll get noticed " . In November 2011 , Deacon launched a line of nail varnishes with New Look . The following year , the designer launched a full make @-@ up collection .
In April 2014 , it was announced that Deacon had collaborated with Ann Summers on a new range of lingerie . The collection was made up of key lingerie pieces and " fashion @-@ forward sexcessories " , which included eye masks and feather ticklers . The range launched in @-@ stores and online on 1 May 2014 . Deacon thought the collaboration would be something different and interesting . He wanted the collection to appeal to the existing Ann Summers customers and a new audience . Of creating the collection , Deacon said " From a quality perspective the fit , details and finish were of huge importance as I wanted it to look and feel as premium and as special as possible . " The Ann Summers collection marked the end of Deacon 's collaborations , as he concentrated on an e @-@ commerce site in time for Fashion Week in September 2014 .
In late 2015 , Deacon designed a womanswear collection for Debenhams . The collection titled Giles Deacon for Edition was modelled by Daisy Lowe and featured " beautiful dresses , bold prints and luxe outerwear " .
= = Recognition = =
In 2004 , Deacon was named ' Best New Designer ' at the British Fashion Awards and in the following year he was given the Young Designer Award at Elle magazine 's Style Awards . 2006 saw Deacon win the British Fashion Council 's Fashion Forward Award , as well as being named British Fashion Designer of the Year at the British Fashion Awards . He was named Best British Designer at the 2007 Elle Style Awards . Two years later , Deacon won the French ANDAM Fashion Award 's Grand Prix , becoming the second consecutive British designer to win the award following Gareth Pugh 's win in 2008 . In the same year , he was named GQ magazine 's Designer of the Year .
= = Personal life = =
Deacon divides his time between his home in Islington , London , his apartment in Paris and Italy . Deacon 's hobbies include swimming , hiking and gardening .
He counts Elsa Schiaparelli , Miuccia Prada , Coco Chanel and Mr J.M. Millet among his design inspirations .
Deacon is in a relationship with actress Gwendoline Christie .
= The Boat Race 1879 =
The 36th Boat Race took place on 5 April 1879 . The Boat Race is an annual side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Each crew contained four Blues . In a race umpired by former Oxford rower Joseph William Chitty , Cambridge led all the way , and won by a margin of three lengths in a time of 21 minutes 18 seconds . The victory took the overall record to 18 – 17 in Oxford 's favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions having won the previous year 's race by ten lengths . However Oxford held the overall lead , with 18 victories to Cambridge 's 16 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Cambridge 's coaches were James Brooks Close ( who rowed for the Light Blues in the 1872 , 1873 and 1874 races ) , Herbert Edward Rhodes ( who took part in four races between 1873 and 1876 ) and Robert John Spurrell ( a Blue in 1878 ) . Oxford were coached by William Grenfell ( who had rowed for the Dark Blues in 1877 and was the non @-@ rowing president of Oxford University Boat Club ) .
The race was umpired by Joseph William Chitty who had rowed for Oxford twice in 1849 ( in the March and December races ) and the 1852 race , while the starter was Edward Searle .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 12 st 0 @.@ 5 lb ( 76 @.@ 2 kg ) , 0 @.@ 75 pounds ( 0 @.@ 3 kg ) more than their opponents . Oxford 's crew contained four former Blues , including H. P. Marriott who was rowing in his fifth consecutive Boat Race . Similarly , Cambridge saw four Blues return to their crew , including cox George Latham Davies who was steering the Light Blue boat for the fifth time . Rower and author George Drinkwater stated that " neither of the crews this year was up to the high standard of the winning crews in the past few years " .
The Cambridge crew included the only non @-@ British participant in the race , Australian rower Charles Fairbairn . He was born in Victoria and was educated at Geelong Grammar School before matriculating at Jesus College .
= = Race = =
Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Cambridge . Cambridge made the better start and were clear of Oxford within the first 90 seconds of the race . Despite a lower stroke rate , the Light Blues had extended their lead to three lengths by Hammersmith Bridge . Encountering rough water in Corney Reach , Cambridge slowed and allowed Oxford to gain on them , but as the crews passed under Barnes Bridge into smoother water , the Light Blues reasserted their dominance . They passed the finishing post three lengths ahead in a time of 21 minutes 18 seconds . It was Cambridge 's first victory since the 1876 race , and their seventh in the last ten races , taking the overall record to 18 – 17 in Oxford 's favour .
= Anodyne ( album ) =
Anodyne is the fourth and final studio album by alternative country band Uncle Tupelo , released on October 5 , 1993 . The recording of the album was preceded by the departure of the original drummer Mike Heidorn and the addition of three new band members : bassist John Stirratt , drummer Ken Coomer , and multi @-@ instrumentalist Max Johnston . The band signed with Sire Records shortly before recording the album ; Anodyne was Uncle Tupelo 's only major label release until 89 / 93 : An Anthology in 2002 .
Recorded in Austin , Texas , Anodyne featured a split in songwriting credits between singers Jay Farrar and Jeff Tweedy , plus a cover version of the Doug Sahm song " Give Back the Key to My Heart " , with Sahm on vocals . The lyrical themes were influenced by country music and — more than their preceding releases — touched on interpersonal relationships . After two promotional tours for the album , tensions between Farrar and Tweedy culminated in the breakup of Uncle Tupelo . Well @-@ received upon its initial release , Anodyne was re @-@ mastered and re @-@ released in 2003 by Rhino Entertainment including five bonus tracks .
= = Context = =
Uncle Tupelo 's third album , March 16 – 20 , 1992 , was released though Rockville Records on August 3 , 1992 . On the release , the band eschewed the growing popularity of alternative rock by playing acoustic folk and country songs " as a big ' fuck you ' to the rock scene " . Drummer Mike Heidorn had a reduced role on the album ; because it was an acoustic album , Heidorn added only brush @-@ stroke percussion on a few songs . Heidorn wanted to leave the band to spend more time with his wife and two young children . Though band manager Tony Margherita announced that several major labels were interested in signing Uncle Tupelo , Heidorn decided to permanently leave the band .
Rockville Records refused to pay Uncle Tupelo any royalties , even though the band 's first two albums , No Depression and Still Feel Gone , sold a combined 40 @,@ 000 copies . Consequently , Margherita was trying to find a new recording deal for the band . On a recommendation by singer Gary Louris of The Jayhawks , talent scout Joe McEwen pursued the band for a contract with Sire Records . McEwen was impressed by how the band was willing to go against trends , calling the band " an alternative to the alternative " . Executing an out @-@ clause in their contract with Rockville , Uncle Tupelo signed a seven @-@ record deal with Sire in 1992 . The deal guaranteed the release of at least two albums , with a $ 150 @,@ 000 budget for the first .
Before releasing their first album with Sire , Uncle Tupelo needed a drummer . Farrar and Tweedy interviewed twenty @-@ four candidates and were both impressed with Ken Coomer and Bill Belzer . Belzer was chosen and Uncle Tupelo embarked on the European segment of the promotional tour for March 16 – 20 , 1992 as the opening act for Sugar . Belzer was dismissed from the band after six months , and Coomer was hired as his permanent replacement . Coomer was not the only new member added after the tour — Uncle Tupelo sought to expand beyond a trio for the Anodyne recording sessions . They recruited multi @-@ instrumentalist Max Johnston and bassist John Stirratt — Stirratt 's presence enabled Tweedy to become a full @-@ time guitarist on the songs that he wrote .
= = Recording = =
Anodyne was recorded from May to June 1993 at Cedar Creek studio in Austin , Texas . Uncle Tupelo liked the studio because it " just seemed really kind of homey and small and cheap " . The album was produced , mixed , and engineered by Brian Paulson . The now @-@ expanded lineup inspired Tweedy to spend more time with his bandmates . After Tweedy wrote each song , he would play it to Stirratt , Coomer , and Johnston to get their opinions . Farrar interpreted these practice sessions as a sign of Tweedy 's increasing arrogance . At live shows , during this time , tensions between Tweedy and Farrar increased and led to verbal altercations .
The album was recorded live in the studio , and each song was recorded in only one take . As a result , the recording sessions for Anodyne were completed in two weeks . Anodyne was the only Uncle Tupelo album to completely lack overdubbing . Sire was pleased with the album ; according to McEwen , " everybody [ at the label ] considered it a step up from what they 'd done before . " Farrar wrote six of the songs on the album and Tweedy wrote five , though all the new material was credited to both songwriters . While on tour , Uncle Tupelo met Texas Tornados singer Doug Sahm at the Hotel Phoenix in Boston , Massachusetts . Farrar invited him to join the band in the studio for a cover of Sahm 's " Give Back the Key to My Heart " , which Sahm contributed lead vocals to .
The lyrical content of Anodyne was influenced by 1950s and 1960s country music , particularly Ernest Tubb , Buck Owens , and Lefty Frizzell . Tweedy included several songs referencing aspects of the music industry . One example was " Acuff @-@ Rose " , a paean on the music publishers of Acuff @-@ Rose Music . He also wrote " We 've Been Had " , which was intended to chastise bands such as Nirvana and The Clash who were " all just show biz " in his opinion . Tweedy was also the author of " New Madrid " , a song about Iben Browning 's erroneous prediction of an apocalyptic earthquake in New Madrid , Missouri . Farrar was less comfortable discussing the lyrics that he wrote , claiming that his songs frequently change their meanings . Like other Uncle Tupelo albums , Farrar and Tweedy wrote their own lyrics , and played them for each other a week before the recording sessions . In comparison to the rest of the Uncle Tupelo catalog , Coomer described the music of the album as " some of [ the band 's ] earlier crunch with the acoustic subtlety of March 16 – 20 , 1992 " .
= = Promotion and reception = =
Anodyne was Uncle Tupelo 's only recording to appear on the American Billboard Heatseekers chart . Despite the lack of a single to promote the album , sales eventually surpassed 150 @,@ 000 copies . A promotional tour for the album began later that year , including a sold @-@ out show at Tramps in New York City . Most shows
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played by Minoru Chiaki ) , slain by Macbeth 's equivalent ( Captain Washizu ) when his wife explains that she is with child . News of Miki 's death does not reach Washizu until after he has seen the ghost in the banquet scene . In Roman Polanski 's 1971 adaptation , Banquo is played by acclaimed stage actor Martin Shaw , in a style reminiscent of earlier stage performances . Polanski 's version also emphasises Banquo 's objection to Macbeth 's ascendency by showing him remaining silent as the other thanes around him hail Macbeth as king. in the 1990 telling of Macbeth in a New York Mafia crime family setting , Men of Respect , the character of Banquo is named " Bankie Como " and played by American actor Dennis Farina .
= Backlash ( 2007 ) =
Backlash ( 2007 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) , which took place on April 29 , 2007 , at the Philips Arena in Atlanta , Georgia . Following WrestleMania , all pay @-@ per @-@ views became tri @-@ branded . It was the ninth annual event under the Backlash name and starred talent from Raw , SmackDown ! , and ECW .
The main match on the Raw brand was a Fatal Four @-@ Way match for the WWE Championship involving champion John Cena , Randy Orton , Edge , and Shawn Michaels . Cena won the match and retained the championship after pinning Orton . The primary match on the SmackDown ! brand was a Last Man Standing match for the World Heavyweight Championship between The Undertaker and Batista , which ended in a no @-@ contest after both men failed get to their feet before the referee counted to ten . The featured match on the ECW brand was Bobby Lashley versus Team McMahon ( Umaga , Vince and Shane McMahon ) in a Handicap match for the ECW World Championship . Vince won the title and the match for his team after pinning Lashley .
= = Background = =
The main event scripted into Backlash on the Raw brand was a Fatal Four Way match for the WWE Championship , a standard match involving four wrestlers between John Cena , Edge , Shawn Michaels and Randy Orton . At the Royal Rumble in January , Michaels was one of the final two participants in the Royal Rumble match , a multi @-@ competitor match type in which wrestlers are eliminated until one is left and declared winner before being eliminated by The Undertaker . On the February 5 , 2007 episode of Raw , Michaels earned the right to become the number @-@ one contender to the WWE Championship at WrestleMania after defeating Edge and Orton in a Triple Threat match , a standard match involving three wrestlers . At WrestleMania , Cena defeated Michaels to retain the WWE Championship , after wrapping his arm around the neck of Michaels in a sleeper hold , a submission referred to as an STFU . On the April 9 episode of Raw , a standard match between Michaels and Orton to determine the number @-@ one contender to the WWE Championship ended in a no contest , after both men 's shoulders were on the mat while they were pinning one another . Later that night , during Edge 's talk show , " The Cutting Edge " , Edge claimed that General Manager Jonathan Coachman , a portrayed match maker and rules enforcer had named him the number @-@ one contender to the WWE title . Honorary General Manager Michael Pena , from the Make @-@ a @-@ Wish Foundation , however , announced that Michaels , Orton , and Edge would face Cena for the title at Backlash in a Fatal Four @-@ Way match , a standard match involving four wrestlers .
Another rivalry leading up to the event was between The Undertaker and Batista over the World Heavyweight Championship . At the Royal Rumble in January , The Undertaker won the 2007 Royal Rumble match . As a result , he was given the right to a title match at WrestleMania for any of WWE 's three major championships ( ECW World , World Heavyweight , or WWE ) . On the February 5 episode of Raw , Undertaker teased all three World Champions ( Bobby Lashley , Batista , and John Cena ) . Undertaker then chose World Heavyweight Champion Batista as his opponent to face at WrestleMania 23 . At WrestleMania , The Undertaker defeated Batista to win the World Heavyweight Championship to extend his WrestleMania undefeated streak to 15 @-@ 0 . Their rivalry , however , did not end , as General Manager Theodore Long booked a Last Man Standing match — a match where the first person unable to respond to a ten count by the referee lost — between The Undertaker and Batista at Backlash .
The main rivalry on the ECW brand was between Bobby Lashley and Team McMahon ( Umaga , Vince and Shane McMahon ) , in which Lashley and Vince were feuding over the ECW World Championship . The rivalry started on the February 26 episode of Raw , when Lashley was selected by Donald Trump to compete at WrestleMania 23 . Lashley was selected to compete against Vince 's representative , Umaga , in Hair vs. Hair match , a match in which the loser or the loser 's representative would have to get his head shaved bald . At WrestleMania , Lashley defeated Umaga , and after the match , Trump and Lashley shaved Vince 's head bald . On the April 9 episode of Raw , Shane challenged Lashley to a Hair vs. Title match for the ECW World Championship . Shane got himself intentionally disqualified , but did not get his head shaved . After the match , Umaga and Vince and Shane attacked Lashley . After the beating , Vince announced that Lashley would have to defend the ECW World Championship against Team McMahon at Backlash in a three @-@ on @-@ one Handicap match , a match consisting of one team of wrestlers facing off against a team of wrestlers with numerical superiority such as three against two , or three against one .
= = Event = =
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
Before the event aired live on pay @-@ per @-@ view , Carlito defeated Johnny Nitro in a dark match . The first match of the event was The Hardys ( Matt and Jeff ) versus Lance Cade and Trevor Murdoch for the World Tag Team Championship . Cade and Murdoch controlled a majority of the match ; however , The Hardys won the bout when Matt pinned Murdoch after a Twist Of Fate , which was followed by Jeff Hardy 's Swanton Bomb .
The match that followed was Melina versus Mickie James for the WWE Women 's Championship . The match was short lived , as Melina performed an Inverted DDT upon Mickie James and pinned her to retain the WWE Women 's Championship . The third match was between Chris Benoit and Montel Vontavious Porter for the WWE United States Championship . Benoit and MVP struggled throughout the match , attempting to gain the upper hand . In the end , Benoit pinned MVP after a series of counters from both superstars , culminating in a small package to win the match and retain the WWE United States Championship .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The three @-@ on @-@ one Handicap ECW World Championship match between champion Bobby Lashley and Team McMahon ( Umaga , Vince and Shane McMahon ) was next . Near the end of the match , Shane hit Lashley with the title belt , which was followed by Umaga landing a top rope splash to Lashley . Umaga then tagged in Vince , who attempted to pin Lashley . Lashley , however , kicked out . Vince then tagged in Umaga , who once again executed a diving splash on Lashley . After being tagged in again , Vince pinned Lashley to win the ECW World Championship and the match for his team .
The following match was a Last Man Standing Match for the World Heavyweight Championship between The Undertaker and Batista . One spot in the match saw Undertaker perform a leg drop on Batista and through an announce table . Towards the end of the match , the two fought up the entrance ramp , where Batista gave a spear to The Undertaker off the stage . Neither man was able to get to their feet before the referee counted to ten ; as a result , the match was declared a draw . Due to WWE regulations , a title can not change hands in a Last Man Standing match via a draw , so The Undertaker retained his title .
Next was the main event , which saw John Cena defend the WWE Championship against Edge , Randy Orton , and Shawn Michaels in a Fatal Four @-@ Way match . During the opening minutes of the match , Michaels performed a moonsault from the top turnbuckle onto Cena , Edge , and Orton outside the ring . Near the end of the match , Orton attempted to RKO Cena . Cena , however , pushed Orton into Edge , which made Edge execute a Spear to Orton . Cena then performed an FU to Edge . When Cena turned around , Michaels superkicked Cena . When Cena fell , he landed on Orton and the referee counted the pinfall . Cena won the match and retained the WWE Championship .
= = Aftermath = =
Lance Cade and Trevor Murdoch continued their rivalry with The Hardys until the two teams had a rematch at Judgment Day for the World Tag Team Championship , which The Hardys won . Chris Benoit and Montel Vontavious Porter also continued their rivalry for the WWE United States Championship , which led to a best 2 out of 3 falls match at Judgment Day , which Porter won .
On the May 11 episode of SmackDown ! , The Undertaker defended the World Heavyweight Championship against Batista in a Steel cage match , a match fought within a cage formed by placing four sheets of mesh metal around , in , or against the edges of a wrestling ring . Both men escaped the steel cage at the same time , and The Undertaker was therefore declared still the champion . After the match , Mark Henry returned and attacked The Undertaker . Edge , who was scripted to beat Mr. Kennedy on the May 7 episode of Raw to win the Money in the Bank contract , cashed in his opportunity and defeated The Undertaker to win the World Heavyweight Championship .
Team McMahon 's feud with Bobby Lashley continued as Mr. McMahon gave Lashley a rematch at Judgment Day , which was another three @-@ on @-@ one Handicap match for the ECW World Championship . At Judgment Day , Lashley won the match , but Vince said that Lashley had not beaten him , as Lashley had pinned Shane instead , so Lashley was not awarded the belt . The rivalry continued until One Night Stand , where Lashley challenged Vince to a match where there is no disqualifications or countouts , dubbed a Street Fight . Lashley won the match and the ECW World Championship , and their rivalry ended .
= = Results = =
= Many @-@ banded krait =
The Many @-@ banded krait ( Bungarus multicinctus ) , also known as the Taiwanese krait or the Chinese krait , is a highly venomous species of elapid snake found in throughout much of central and southern China and Southeast Asia . The species was first described by the scientist Edward Blyth in 1861 . This species has two known subspecies , the nominate Bungarus multicinctus multicinctus , and Bungarus multicinctus wanghaotingi . The many @-@ banded krait mostly inhabits marshy areas throughout its geographical distribution , though it does occur in other habitat types .
= = Etymology = =
Since the species ' description by zoologist and pharmacist , Edward Blyth in 1861 , Bungarus multicinctus has been the binomial of the species . The generic name , Bungarus , is a Latinisation of Telegu baṅgāru , " krait . " The specific name multicinctus is derived from the Latin multi- , combining form of multus , " much , many " , and Latin cinctus , past participle of cingere , " to encircle " - as in a " band " . The full species name ( Bungarus multicinctus ) thus literally means " banded krait " . The common name " krait " is from Hindi ( करैत karait ) , which is perhaps ultimately derived from the Sanskrit word ( काल kāla ) , which means " black " .
= = Taxonomy and evolution = =
The kraits , as they are commonly known , belong to the family Elapidae and the genus Bungarus . The genus is endemic to the continent of Asia . They are morphologically well connected , forming a close @-@ knit and cohesive unit . The genus has 12 @-@ 13 species who are morphologically distinct from the Naja genus and the Afro @-@ elapids according to McDowell ( 1987 ) . McDowell stated " species diversity is greatest in Africa , but the Asiatic Bungarus and Ophiophagus are each so peculiar in anatomy as to suggest an ancient divergence ” . Others , including Slowinski , believed that the kraits ( Bungarus ) , are part of a clade that clusters with a group including the king cobra ( Ophiophagus hannah ) and oddly enough , with the African mambas ( Dendroaspis ) on the most @-@ parsimonious tree or with Elapsoidea on the maximum @-@ likelihood tree . This result calls into question the monophyly of cobras and underscores the uncertainty of the homology of the hood spreading behavior in cobras and mambas . The relationships of Dendroaspis , Ophiophagus , and Bungarus differed between the parsimony and likelihood analyses , suggesting that more work is necessary to resolve the relationships of these problematic taxa . McDowell 's findings in regard to the sister @-@ group of Bungarus and the sea snakes ( Hydrophiinae ) family , propose that the kraits might just be a per @-@ mutable clade between the elapidae " palatine @-@ erectors " and the hydrophiinae " palatine draggers " . Two genera within the hydrophiinae family in particular , support McDowell 's hypothesis . The two genera are Salomonelaps and Loveridgelaps due to many shared characteristics . Mao et al ( 1983 ) showed that this species , Bungarus multicinctus was slightly distinct from the other members of its genus and was immunologically more similar to Laticauda , terrestrial Australian elapids , and true sea snakes than it is to Elapsoidea sundevalli ( Sundevall 's garter snake ) , Naja naja ( Indan cobra ) or two Micrurus species ( New World or American coral snakes ) . Minton ( 1981 ) , Schwaner et al. and Cadle & Gorman ( 1981 ) all suggested similar things to Mao et al . ( 1983 ) based on immunological data . The many @-@ banded krait was more similar to the Australian elapids , Laticauda and true sea snakes than they were to numerous elapids they were compared to .
= = Description = =
The many @-@ banded krait is a medium to large sized species of snake , averaging 1 to 1 @.@ 5 m ( 3 @.@ 3 to 4 @.@ 9 ft ) in length , with maximum lengths reaching 1 @.@ 85 m ( 6 @.@ 1 ft ) . Its body is slender and moderately compressed . The scales of this species are smooth and glossy , with a noticeably distinct vertebral ridge . The colour of the snake is black to dark bluish @-@ black with approximately 21 @-@ 30 white or creamy white cross bands along the entire length of its upper body . More banding is seen in longer than average sized specimens . The tail is short and pointed , that is also black in colour with alternating white cross bands , of which there are 7 @-@ 11 . The belly of the snake is usually white in colour , but could be an off white or creamy white . The head is primarily black in colour , is broad and oval in shape , but flat and slightly distinct from the body . The eyes are small and black in colour . The pupils are black in colour , thus making them hardly noticeable as they blend in with the rest of the eyes . This species has large nostrils . The fangs are small , fixed and are located in the anterior of the upper jaw . Juveniles of this species usually have whitish blotches on the lower side of their heads .
= = = Scalation = = =
Dorsal scales in 15 rows ; ventral scales 200 @-@ 231 in males , 198 @-@ 227 in females ; tail short and tapering ; subcaudal scales single ( undivided ) , 43 @-@ 54 in males , 37 @-@ 55 in females .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
This species is found in throughout the island of Taiwan ( including the Archipelagos of Matsu and Kinmen ) , in the central and southern regions of mainland China ( in the provinces of Hainan , Anhui , Sichuan , Guangdong , Guangxi , Hunan , Hubei , Yunnan , Guizhou , Jiangxi , Zhejiang , and Fujian ) , Hong Kong , Myanmar ( Burma ) , Laos , and northern Vietnam . It may also be found in Thailand .
Although it can be found in elevations up to about 1 @,@ 500 m ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) , they are far more commonly found in humid lowland areas , most often observed in subtropical to marshy regions of its range . They also are frequently found in shrublands , woodlands , agricultural fields , and mangroves , often adjacent to water , such as rivers , streams , rice paddies , and ditches . They may also sometimes be found in villages and suburban areas . It is able to survive in other habitats also .
= = Behaviour and diet = =
The snake is nocturnal , when it may be more defensive . It is , however , a timid and placid species of snake . In the daytime , it hides under stones or in holes . The snake appears from April and retreats into hibernation in November . It is considered to be more defensive than the Banded krait ( Bungarus fasciatus ) , thrashing about as it is handled .
Unlike other Bungarus species , who are primarily snake @-@ eaters , the many @-@ banded krait usually feeds on fish , but it is also preys on other species of snakes , including members of its own species . This species also feeds on rodents , eels , frogs , and occasionally lizards .
= = = Reproduction = = =
There is limited information on the reproductive habits of this snake . Like many elapids , the many @-@ banded kraits are oviparous . Mating occurs between the months of August and September . Females usually deposit 3 @-@ 15 eggs , although up to 20 eggs can be produced . The eggs are deposited in late spring or early summer , usually in the month of June . Eggs usually hatch about a month and a half later . The hatchlings are around 25 centimetres ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) in length .
= = Venom and toxins = =
The venom of the many @-@ banded krait consists of both pre- and postsynaptic neurotoxins ( known as α @-@ bungarotoxins and β @-@ bungarotoxins , among others ) . The average venom yield from specimens kept on snake farms is about 4 @.@ 6 mg — 19 @.@ 4 mg per bite . The venom is highly toxic with LD50 values of 0 @.@ 09 mg / kg — 0 @.@ 108 mg / kg SC , 0 @.@ 113 mg / kg IV and 0 @.@ 08 mg / kg IP on mice . Based on several LD50 studies , the many @-@ banded krait is among the most venomous land snakes in the world .
α @-@ Bungarotoxin is important for neuromuscular histology , it is known to bind irreversibly to receptors of the neuromuscular junction , and can be labelled with fluorescent proteins such as green fluorescent protein or the rhodamine dye tetramethylrhodamine isothiocyanate .
= = = Clinical symptoms = = =
The local symptoms of victims bitten by the many @-@ banded krait are usually neither serious swelling nor pain ; the victims merely feel slightly itchy and numb . Systemic symptoms occur , in general , one to six hours after being bitten by this snake . Symptoms may include bilateral ptosis , diplopia , discomfort in the chest , general ache , weak feeling in limbs , ataxia , glossolysis , loss of voice , dysphagia , tunnel vision , and difficulty breathing . In case of serious bite , suppression of breathing may occur , leading to death .
Untreated , the mortality rate caused by the bites of this species varies among different studies , ranging from 25 @-@ 35 % to 70 @-@ 100 % . During the Vietnam War , American soldiers referred to the many @-@ banded krait as the “ two @-@ step snake , ” in the mistaken belief that its venom is so lethal , if bitten , you will die after taking just two steps .
The many @-@ banded krait gathered worldwide attention after a juvenile individual bit and killed Dr. Joe Slowinski on September 11 , 2001 in Myanmar . He died just 29 hours after being bitten .
= Something to Remember =
Something to Remember is a compilation album by American recording artist Madonna , released by Maverick and Warner Bros. on November 3 , 1995 . The record was conceived after a controversial period in Madonna 's career , when many critics had speculated that her career had declined . In response Madonna composed the album , composed of ballads spanning over a decade of her career , including a reworked version of " Love Don 't Live Here Anymore " and three new songs : " You 'll See " , " One More Chance " and a cover of Marvin Gaye 's " I Want You " . The record also features previously released singles that had never been included on a Madonna album , " I 'll Remember " and " This Used to Be My Playground " , and altogether provided a softer image for the singer during a critical period in her career .
For producing the new songs for the album , Madonna worked with David Foster and Nellee Hooper , the former known for his work with such artists as Barbra Streisand and Olivia Newton @-@ John . Madonna stated that the concept for the album was to make fans and critics alike remember her music contributions rather than her media controversies . Something to Remember was well received by music critics who were impressed with Madonna 's vocals and the album 's cohesiveness . It was also a commercial success , topping charts in Australia , Austria , Finland , and Italy , and peaking within top ten elsewhere . In the United States , it reached number six on the Billboard 200 and was certified three times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of three million units . Worldwide , Something to Remember has sold over ten million copies .
Four singles and one promotional single were released to promote the album . Originally intended as the album 's lead single , " I Want You " was released as the promotional single preceding the album , with a music video directed by Earle Sebastian . " You 'll See " was released as the album 's first single on October 23 , 1995 , accompanied by a Spanish version titled " Verás " and a music video directed by Michael Haussman . The song peaked at number six on the Billboard Hot 100 , while reaching the top five in Austria , Canada , Finland , Italy and the United Kingdom . " Oh Father " , " One More Chance " and " Love Don 't Live Here Anymore " were released as the follow up singles , but gained little commercial response ; the latter received a music video directed by Jean @-@ Baptiste Mondino .
= = Background = =
After a controversy @-@ fueled period , Madonna 's personal life had started to dominate over her musical career . " She knew it was time to make a change " as said by one anonymous member of her management team who claimed that she wanted to prove there was more to her than the constant media circus surrounding her . J. Randy Taraborrelli , author of Madonna : An Intimate Biography , documented that Madonna had previously stated that many of her songs have been overlooked in response to current trends , with her long @-@ time friend and producer Mirwais Ahmadzaï stating " she hasn 't shouted about her musical abilities . " Taraborrelli explained " So , whether Madonna released Something to Remember , a collection of previously released love songs , because she had a point to prove or simply to keep a contractual obligation , the fourteen track recording did make a statement . " Described as a " love letter from Madonna to her fans and music lovers alike " the compilation seemed to notify her contemporaries of her musical talent . On the album 's liner note , Madonna further explained :
So much controversy has swirled around my career this past decade that very little attention ever gets paid to my music . The songs are all but forgotten . While I have no regrets regarding the choices I 've made artistically , I 've learned to appreciate the idea of doing things in a simpler way . So without a lot of fanfare , without any distractions , I present to you this collection of ballads . Some are old , some are new . All of them are from my heart .
The new material for the album saw her collaboration with a well @-@ known producer David Foster , who had worked with the likes of Barbra Streisand , Al Jarreau and Earth , Wind & Fire . Foster recalled the first time Madonna 's publicist Liz Rosenberg contacting him for a dinner with the singer : " When Madonna first called , I was a little surprised — my music isn 't really hip enough for her — but I guess her camp thought we should meet , and I got a call from Liz Rosenberg , the PR maven who has been with Madonna from the beginning . " Not long after the dinner , Madonna and Foster began the recording session in his Malibu studio . During the album conception , Madonna was also asked by her Bedtime Stories producer Nellee Hooper to collaborate with British trip hop group Massive Attack for a Marvin Gaye tribute album . Previously , the band had offered the collaboration to several artists , including Chaka Khan who rejected it . Madonna and Massive Attack covered Gaye 's 1976 hit " I Want You " , which finished among the new material for Something to Remember and was also included on the Inner City Blues : The Music of Marvin Gaye released by Motown Records .
= = Development = =
The first track selected for use on the compilation album was " Love Don 't Live Here Anymore " from Like a Virgin ( 1984 ) . The track was reworked by producer David Reitzas and features a quite different composition from the 1984 version . Madonna also included two soundtrack singles which had never been featured on her own album , " This Used to Be My Playground " from the 1992 film A League of Their Own and " I 'll Remember " from the 1994 film With Honors . Other previously released material selected for the compilation were " Crazy for You " from Vision Quest ( 1985 ) , " Live to Tell " from True Blue ( 1986 ) , " Oh Father " from Like a Prayer ( 1989 ) , " Something to Remember " from I 'm Breathless ( 1990 ) , " Rain " from Erotica ( 1992 ) , as well as " Take a Bow " and " Forbidden Love " , both from Bedtime Stories ( 1994 ) . Two tracks on the compilation , " Crazy for You " and " Live to Tell " , were overlapping with her first greatest hits album , The Immaculate Collection ( 1990 ) . According to Rikky Rooksby , the author of The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna , the song selection creates a soft atmosphere , the music is downbeat and " emotionally introverted " with mellow vibes throughout .
Madonna 's recording session with David Foster resulted two new songs to the final track listing , " You 'll See " and " One More Chance " . Foster commented : " At the end of the day , the songs we did were not particularly impressive , though one of them , " You 'll See " , was really neat . Madonna had written a great lyric ( You think that I can 't live without your love / You 'll see ) and I thought my music was great . " " You 'll See " is a low bass track featuring wind chimes and a Spanish guitar . Throughout the chord changes progression to give Madonna 's vocals dominance in the song , and after a minute the percussion starts with a tremolo guitar added later . Lyrically , the song talks of independence after the end of a love affair stating that Madonna will go onto greater things . Madonna was asked whether the track was about revenge to which she replied " No , it 's about empowering yourself . " The next original song , " One More Chance " features an acoustic guitar introduction with plenty of chord changes . Lyrically , the song features Madonna attempting to win a lost lover back . Madonna later recorded the Spanish version of " You 'll See " in Gloria and Emilio Estefan 's studio in Miami . Titled " Verás " , the song was adapted into Spanish by Paz Martinez .
Nellee Hooper produced another new addition to the compilation , the cover version of Marvin Gaye 's " I Want You " . After Madonna accepted Hooper 's suggestion to collaborate with Massive Attack , the band sent Madonna the music of the song first . Robert " 3D " Del Naja , one of the band members , subsequently went to New York with Hooper and worked in the studio for two days . Del Naja said , " I think the really cool thing about it was the fact that [ Madonna ] sang it so beautifully . There was no special effects , no messing around — it was just in there singing it with a lot of passion and soul . " Musically , the song starts with a long introduction featuring a hip @-@ hop drum beat with emphasis on the bass section of the instrumental alongside a semi @-@ tonal string figure . The second verse features a harp and a repeating drum loop accompanied with a telephone style bleeping sound . Madonna 's vocals at times are accompanied by spoken passages with her overall vocals dominating the track , with lyrics discussing a man that no longer wants her , while she is determined to change his mind . The compilation also features the orchestral version of " I Want You " in which the original drum track , bass and percussion are removed . The version starts slower with Madonna 's vocals entering with a low string bass line only , gradually more string arrangements are added with harp and brass featured in the background of the mix . A moment towards the end of the track hears her voice with no accompaniment creating a " dramatic " theme , and overall the version features around 20 seconds less than the original .
= = Artwork and release = =
The album 's artwork was shot by fashion photographer Mario Testino . It was originally made for Madonna 's Versace adversitsement which appeared on high @-@ fashion magazines . The packaging included with the release showed Madonna looking " deliciously cosmopolitan " as she wore a tight @-@ fit white cocktail attire , while the back cover artwork is predominantly more playful . The front cover artwork presented Madonna leaning against a wall with an expression of " romantic loss or absorption . " Designed as the Madonna album which would appeal to a larger audience in contrast to her previous records , Bedtime Stories and Erotica , the booklet featured red roses inside and a golden yellow flower on the back cover . According to The Guardian writer Caroline Sullivan , the fact that Madonna removed her nose ring for the cover shot indicated she " wants the album to be taken on its own merits . " In 2013 , the artwork was dubbed as one of the " 20 Most Fashionable Album Covers Ever " by the Dutch edition of Elle magazine . The title of the album derives from her 1990 song of the same name since it had received little attention during the release of its original album , I 'm Breathless .
Something to Remember was released in some European countries on November 3 , 1995 . In Madonna 's native country , the album was released on November 7 , 1995 . In Japan , the album was released under the title Best of Madonna : Ballad Collection on November 10 , 1995 , containing her 1986 song " La Isla Bonita " as a bonus track . " La Isla Bonita " was re @-@ released three months prior the compilation as a double A @-@ side record with " Human Nature " , the final single from Bedtime Stories . Receiving gold certification from the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) , the song was added to Something to Remember track listing in the hope of boosting the album sales in the region . In Latin America , the album included the bonus track " Verás " , the Spanish version of " You 'll See " . In 2001 , WEA Records released a box set of Something to Remember and The Immaculate Collection to coincide with the release of Madonna 's second greatest hits package , GHV2 .
= = Singles = =
" I Want You " was released as a promotional single from the album on October 2 , 1995 . It was originally intended as the album 's first single , but cancelled due to contract problems between Madonna 's label and Motown Records , the copyright owner of the song . The music video for the song was directed by Earle Sebastian and was nominated for the MTV Amour category at the MTV Europe Music Awards 1996 . " You 'll See " was released as the album 's lead single on October 30 , 1995 . The song reached the top five position in Austria , Canada , Finland , Italy and the United Kingdom . The single managed to peak at number six on the Billboard Hot 100 , making Madonna the third act in history ( after Aretha Franklin and Marvin Gaye ) to have a hit peak at each position from one to ten on the chart . An accompanying music video was directed by Michael Haussman as a sequel to Madonna 's previous music video for " Take a Bow " .
" Oh Father " was released as the second single for European market on December 21 , 1995 . It became a top ten hit in Finland and the United Kingdom , but charted weakly in the rest of the continent , resulting a low peak of 62 on the European Hot 100 Singles chart . " One More Chance " received a limited single release in Australia and several European countries on March 7 , 1996 . Despite barely any promotion and no music video , the song still charted as high as number two in Italy and peaked inside the top 40 in Australia , Finland , Sweden and the United Kingdom . " Love Don 't Live Here Anymore " was released as the final single from the album on March 19 , 1996 . The song received poor commercial reception , peaking at number 78 on the Billboard Hot 100 , while reaching the top forty in Australia and Canada . Its accompanying music video was directed in by Jean @-@ Baptiste Mondino at the Confitería El Molino in Buenos Aires , Argentina , during Madonna 's day off from filming Evita . It was shot in a single frame portraying Madonna in an empty suite of an abandoned hotel .
= = Critical reception = =
Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic wrote that " Throughout the album , Madonna proves that she 's a terrific singer whose voice has improved over the years . " He added , " Not one of the tracks is second @-@ rate , and the best songs on Something to Remember rank among the best pop music of the ' 80s and ' 90s " . Neil Strauss of The New York Times felt all the songs on the album " cohere better than a greatest @-@ hits package would " and " they tell a story of their own , of a voice and attitude that have hardened in the dozen years that have elapsed between the bubble @-@ gum @-@ chomping innocence of 1983 's ' Crazy for You ' and the tortured torch singing of the new ' You 'll See ' . " Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly commented : " By placing her greatest @-@ hit ballads ( ' Live to Tell ' , ' Crazy for You ' , ' Take a Bow ' , etc . ) in a new context — that is , separated from her more attention @-@ getting dance music — Madonna reinvigorates them , which is just what a good best @-@ of compilation is supposed to do . The three new songs ' You 'll See ' , ' One More Chance ' , and a wonderfully eerie version of Marvin Gaye 's ' I Want You ' are consumer enticements that just add to the allure . "
According to Greg Forman from The Post and Courier , the album shows that " There 's an important difference between having a great voice and being a great singer . Whitney Houston or Mariah Carey can sing circles ( and octaves ) around the most famous woman on the planet , but Madonna , through sheer force of personality sells her slow numbers with a panache few modern singers can match . " John Wirt from The Advocate said that the album shows that Madonna " can craft slow songs as effectively as she knocks out dance numbers " and found " an unaffected simplicity and sincerity " in her ballad singing . Writing for The Baltimore Sun , J. D. Considine believed that with the album " Madonna not only reminds us that there 's more to her music than dance tunes , but also demonstrates that her voice is nowhere near as thin and chirpy as her detractors imagine . " He further explained , " one of the most amazing things about the album is how sultry and assured she sounds ... The Madonna on display here not only has a richer , deeper voice than you imagined , but more interpretive insight as well . "
Alwyn W. Turner in the book The Rough Guide to Rock stated that the album features " the best of her slow pieces " displaying that " Madonna had evolved over the years into an excellent ballad singer . " Edna Gundersen from USA Today said that the album " flaunts the less sizzling , though equally galvanizing , highlights of her career . " She was mostly impressed with Madonna 's vocal and emotional power on the track " You 'll See " which became " the clearest proof that the ambitious blonde is more singer than celebrity . " J. Randy Taraborrelli in his book Madonna : An Intimate Biography picked the David Foster produced tracks as standouts , saying " It was interesting that , with all of his [ David Foster ] exciting musical ability from which to draw , he and Madonna would come up with two of the most sombre songs she has ever recorded — but such is the excitement of collaboration ; one never knows what will come of it . " Tirzah Agassi from The Jerusalem Post said the arrangements on the new songs " show a great leap in sophistication " and felt that Madonna " has invested much in improving her vocal technique . " Robert Christgau criticized the album with a " dud " rating , indicating " a bad record whose details rarely merit further thought . "
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , Something to Remember debuted and peaked at number six on the Billboard 200 chart on the issue date of November 25 , 1995 . It stayed on the chart for 34 weeks and was certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of three million units . According to Nielsen SoundScan , the album has sold 2 @,@ 086 @,@ 000 copies as of August 2009 . This figure does not include sales from clubs , such as BMG Music Club where the album sold an additional 179 @,@ 000 copies . In Canada , the album entered the RPM Albums Chart at number two on November 20 , 1995 . The album held the top ten position for eight consecutive weeks before descending to number 12 on January 29 , 1996 . It stayed on the chart for 26 weeks , and was certified double platinum by the Music Canada ( MC ) for shipments of 200 @,@ 000 copies . The album also performed well in other North American market such as Mexico , where it was certified platinum by Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas ( AMPROFON ) for shipments of 250 @,@ 000 copies .
In the United Kingdom , Something to Remember debuted at number three on the UK Albums Chart on November 18 , 1995 . It dropped to number four in its second and third week , spending twelve consecutive weeks in the top ten before falling to number 11 on February 2 , 1996 . The album was certified triple platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for shipments of 900 @,@ 000 copies . In Germany , the album reached number two on the Media Control Charts for two weeks and was certified platinum by the Bundesverband Musikindustrie ( BVMI ) for shipping 500 @,@ 000 copies . The album also reached the top ten of the charts in other European countries and peaked at number one in Austria , Finland and Italy , where it shipped more than 500 @,@ 000 copies according to the Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana ( FIMI ) . Its commercial success in the continent allowed the album to peak at number three on the European Top 100 Albums chart . It was certified triple platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) for selling over three million copies across Europe .
The album was also well received commercially in Asia @-@ Pacific territories . In Japan , the album peaked at number nine on the Oricon Albums Chart and was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for shipping 400 @,@ 000 copies . In Australia , the album debuted at number two on November 19 , 1995 and topped the record chart the following week . It stayed on the top 50 for 19 weeks and received quadruple platinum award from the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipments of 280 @,@ 000 copies . It also became a top @-@ ten album in New Zealand , peaking at number eight , and was certified platinum by the Recorded Music NZ ( RMNZ ) for shipments of 15 @,@ 000 copies . Overall , the album has sold more than ten million copies worldwide . With the commercial success it achieved , Something to Remember set a trend of releasing ballad albums afterward , such as the 1996 albums Love Songs by Elton John and If We Fall in Love Tonight by Rod Stewart .
= = Track listing and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= John Hay =
John Milton Hay ( October 8 , 1838 – July 1 , 1905 ) was an American statesman and official whose career in government stretched over almost half a century . Beginning as a private secretary and assistant to Abraham Lincoln , Hay 's highest office was United States Secretary of State under Presidents William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt . Hay was also an author and biographer , and wrote poetry and other literature throughout much of his life .
Born in Indiana to an anti @-@ slavery family that moved to Illinois when he was young , Hay showed great potential , and his family sent him to Brown University . After graduation in 1858 , Hay read law in his uncle 's office in Springfield , Illinois , adjacent to that of Lincoln . Hay worked for Lincoln 's successful presidential campaign , and became one of his private secretaries at the White House . Throughout the American Civil War , Hay was close to Lincoln , and stood by his deathbed after the President was shot at Ford 's Theatre . In addition to his other literary works , Hay co @-@ authored with John George Nicolay a multi @-@ volume biography of Lincoln that helped shape the assassinated president 's historical image .
After Lincoln 's death , Hay spent several years at diplomatic posts in Europe , then worked for the New @-@ York Tribune under Horace Greeley and Whitelaw Reid . Yet , Hay remained active in politics , and from 1879 to 1881 served as Assistant Secretary of State . Afterwards , he remained in the private sector , until President McKinley , for whom he had been a major backer , made him Ambassador to the United Kingdom in 1897 . Hay became Secretary of State the following year .
Hay served for almost seven years as Secretary of State under President McKinley , and after his assassination , under Theodore Roosevelt . Hay was responsible for negotiating the Open Door Policy , which kept China open to trade with all countries on an equal basis , with international powers . By negotiating the Hay – Pauncefote Treaty with the United Kingdom , the ( ultimately unratified ) Hay – Herrán Treaty with Colombia , and finally the Hay – Bunau @-@ Varilla Treaty with the newly @-@ independent Republic of Panama , Hay also cleared the way for the building of the Panama Canal .
= = Early life = =
= = = Family and youth = = =
John Milton Hay was born in Salem , Indiana , on October 8 , 1838 . He was the third son of Dr. Charles Hay and the former Helen Leonard . Charles Hay , born in Lexington , Kentucky , hated slavery , and moved to the North in
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arts indicated that Hay " had not been active enough in political efforts " , to Hay 's regret , who told Reid that he " would like a second @-@ class mission uncommonly well " .
From May to October 1879 , Hay set out to reconfirm his credentials as a loyal Republican , giving speeches in support of candidates and attacking the Democrats . In October , President and Mrs. Hayes came to a reception at Hay 's Cleveland home . When Assistant Secretary of State Frederick W. Seward resigned later that month , Hay was offered his place and accepted , after some hesitancy because he was considering running for Congress .
In Washington , Hay oversaw a staff of eighty employees , renewed his acquaintance with his friend Henry Adams , and substituted for Evarts at Cabinet meetings when the Secretary was out of town . In 1880 , he campaigned for the Republican nominee for president , his fellow Ohioan , Congressman James A. Garfield . Hay felt that Garfield did not have enough backbone , and hoped that Reid and others would " inoculate him with the gall which I fear he lacks " . Garfield consulted Hay before and after his election as president on appointments and other matters , but offered Hay only the post of private secretary ( though he promised to increase its pay and power ) , and Hay declined . Hay resigned as assistant secretary effective March 31 , 1881 , and spent the next seven months as acting editor of the Tribune during Reid 's extended absence in Europe . Garfield 's death in September and Reid 's return the following month left Hay again on the outside of political power , looking in . He would spend the next fifteen years in that position .
= = = Wealthy traveler ( 1881 – 97 ) = = =
= = = = Author and dilettante = = = =
After 1881 , Hay did not again hold public office until 1897 . Amasa Stone committed suicide in 1883 ; his death left the Hays very wealthy . They spent several months in most years traveling in Europe . The Lincoln biography absorbed some of Hay 's time , the hardest work being done with Nicolay in 1884 and 1885 ; beginning in 1886 , portions began appearing serially , and the ten @-@ volume biography was published in 1890 .
In 1884 , Hay and Adams commissioned architect Henry Hobson Richardson to construct houses for them on Washington 's Lafayette Square ; these were completed by 1886 . Hay 's house , facing the White House and fronting on Sixteenth Street , was described even before completion as " the finest house in Washington " . The price for the combined tract , purchased from William Wilson Corcoran , was $ 73 @,@ 800 , of which Adams paid a third for his lot . Hay budgeted the construction cost at $ 50 @,@ 000 ; his ornate , 12 @,@ 000 square feet ( 1 @,@ 100 m2 ) mansion eventually cost over twice that . Despite their possession of two lavish houses , the Hays spent less than half the year in Washington and only a few weeks a year in Cleveland . They also spent time at The Fells , their summer residence in Newbury , New Hampshire . According to Gale , " for a full decade before his appointment in 1897 as ambassador to England , Hay was lazy and uncertain . "
Hay continued to devote much of his energy to Republican politics . In 1884 , he supported Blaine for president , donating considerable sums to the senator 's unsuccessful campaign against New York Governor Grover Cleveland . Many of Hay 's friends were unenthusiastic about Blaine 's candidacy , to Hay 's anger , and he wrote to editor Richard Watson Gilder , " I have never been able to appreciate the logic that induces some excellent people every four years because they cannot nominate the candidate they prefer to vote for the party they don 't prefer . " In 1888 , Hay had to follow his own advice as his favored candidate , Ohio Senator John Sherman , was unsuccessful at the Republican convention . After some reluctance , Hay supported the nominee , former Indiana senator Benjamin Harrison , who was elected . Though Harrison appointed men whom Hay supported , including Blaine , Reid , and Robert Lincoln , Hay was not asked to serve in the Harrison administration . In 1890 , Hay spoke for Republican congressional candidates , addressing a rally of 10 @,@ 000 people in New York City , but the party was defeated , losing control of Congress . Hay contributed funds to Harrison 's unsuccessful re @-@ election effort , in part because Reid had been made Harrison 's 1892 running mate .
= = = = McKinley backer = = = =
Hay was an early supporter of Ohio 's William McKinley , and worked closely with McKinley 's political manager , Cleveland industrialist Mark Hanna . In 1889 , Hay supported McKinley in his unsuccessful effort to become Speaker of the House . Four years later , McKinley — by then Governor of Ohio — faced a crisis when a friend whose notes he had imprudently co @-@ signed went bankrupt during the Panic of 1893 . The debts were beyond the governor 's means to pay , and the possibility of insolvency threatened McKinley 's promising political career . Hay was among those Hanna called upon to contribute , buying up $ 3 @,@ 000 of the debt of over $ 100 @,@ 000 . Although others paid more , " Hay 's checks were two of the first , and his touch was more personal , a kindness McKinley never forgot " . The governor wrote , " How can I ever repay you & other dear friends ? "
The same panic that nearly ruined McKinley convinced Hay that men like himself must take office to save the country from disaster . By the end of 1894 , he was deeply involved in efforts to lay the groundwork for the governor 's 1896 presidential bid . It was Hay 's job to persuade potential supporters that McKinley was worth backing . Nevertheless , Hay found time for a lengthy stay in New Hampshire — one visitor at The Fells in mid @-@ 1895 was Rudyard Kipling — and later in the year wrote , " The summer wanes and I have done nothing for McKinley . " He atoned with a $ 500 check to Hanna , the first of many that were to follow . During the winter of 1895 – 96 , Hay passed along what he heard from other Republicans influential in Washington , such as Massachusetts Senator Henry Cabot Lodge .
Hay spent part of the spring and early summer of 1896 in the United Kingdom , and elsewhere in Europe . There was a border dispute between Venezuela and British Guiana , and Cleveland 's Secretary of State , Richard Olney , supported the Venezuelan position . Hay told British politicians that McKinley , if elected , would be unlikely to change course . McKinley was nominated in June 1896 ; still , many Britons were minded to support whoever became the Democratic candidate . This changed when the 1896 Democratic National Convention nominated former Nebraska congressman William Jennings Bryan on a " free silver " platform ; he had electrified the delegates with his Cross of Gold speech . Hay reported to McKinley when he returned to Britain after a brief stay on the Continent during which Bryan was nominated in Chicago : " they were all scared out of their wits for fear Bryan would be elected , and very polite in their references to you . "
Once Hay returned to the United States in early August , he went to The Fells and watched from afar as Bryan barnstormed the nation in his campaign while McKinley gave speeches from his front porch . Despite an invitation from the candidate , Hay was reluctant to visit McKinley at his home in Canton . " He has asked me to come , but I thought I would not struggle with the millions on his trampled lawn " . In October , after basing himself at his Cleveland home and giving a speech for McKinley , Hay went to Canton at last , writing to Adams ,
I had been dreading it for a month , thinking it would be like talking in a boiler factory . But he met me at the [ railroad ] station , gave me meat & took me upstairs and talked for two hours as calmly & serenely as if we were summer boarders in Bethlehem , at a loss for means to kill time . I was more struck than ever with his mask . It is a genuine Italian ecclesiastical face of the XVth Century .
Hay was disgusted by Bryan 's speeches , writing in language that Taliaferro compares to The Bread @-@ Winners that the Democrat " simply reiterates the unquestioned truths that every man with a clean shirt is a thief and ought to be hanged : that there is no goodness and wisdom except among the illiterate & criminal classes " . Despite Bryan 's strenuous efforts , McKinley won the election easily , with a campaign run by himself and Hanna , and well @-@ financed by supporters like Hay . Henry Adams later wondered , " I would give six @-@ pence to know how much Hay paid for McKinley . His politics must have cost . "
= = Ambassador = =
= = = Appointment = = =
In the post @-@ election speculation as to who would be given office under McKinley , Hay 's name figured prominently , as did that of Whitelaw Reid ; both men sought high office in the State Department , either as secretary or one of the major ambassadorial posts . Reid , in addition to his vice @-@ presidential run , had been Minister to France under Harrison . Reid , an asthmatic , handicapped himself by departing for Arizona Territory for the winter , leading to speculation about his health .
Hay was faster than Reid to realize that the race for these posts would be affected by Hanna 's desire to be senator from Ohio , as with one of the state 's places about to be occupied by the newly elected Joseph B. Foraker , the only possible seat for him was that held by Senator Sherman . As the septuagenarian senator had served as Treasury Secretary under Hayes , only the secretaryship of state was likely to attract him and cause a vacancy that Hanna could fill . Hay knew that with only eight cabinet positions , only one could go to an Ohioan , and so Hay had no chance for a cabinet post . Accordingly , Hay encouraged Reid to seek the State position , while firmly ruling himself out as a possible candidate for that post , and quietly seeking the inside track to be ambassador in London . Zeitz states that Hay " aggressively lobbied " for the position .
According to Taliaferro , " only after the deed was accomplished and Hay was installed as the ambassador to the Court of St. James 's would it be possible to detect just how subtly and completely he had finessed his ally and friend , Whitelaw Reid " . A telegraph from Hay to McKinley in the latter 's papers , dated December 26 ( most likely 1896 ) reveals the former 's suggestion that McKinley tell Reid that the editor 's friends had insisted that Reid not endanger his health through office , especially in London 's smoggy climes . The following month , in a letter , Hay set forth his own case for the ambassadorship , and urged McKinley to act quickly , as suitable accommodations in London would be difficult to secure . Hay gained his object ( as did Hanna ) , and shifted his focus to appeasing Reid . Taliaferro states that Reid never blamed Hay , but Kushner and Sherrill recorded , " Reid was certain that he had been wronged " by Hay , and the announcement of Hay 's appointment nearly ended their 26 @-@ year friendship .
Reaction to Hay 's appointment in Britain was generally positive , with George Smalley of The Times writing to him , " we want a man who is a true American yet not anti @-@ English " . Hay secured a Georgian house on Carlton House Terrace , overlooking Horse Guards Parade , with 11 servants . He brought with him Clara , their own silver , two carriages , and five horses . Hay 's salary of $ 17 @,@ 000 " did not even begin to cover the cost of their extravagant lifestyle " .
= = = Service = = =
During his service as ambassador , Hay attempted to advance the relationship between the U.S. and Britain . The latter country had long been seen negatively by many Americans , legacy of its colonial role and refreshed by its Civil War neutrality , when British @-@ built raiders such as the Alabama preyed on US @-@ flagged ships . In spite of these past differences , according to Taliaferro , " rapprochement made more sense than at any time in their respective histories " . In his Thanksgiving Day address to the American Society in London in 1897 , Hay echoed these points , " The great body of people in the United States and England are friends ... [ sharing ] that intense respect and reverence for order , liberty , and law which is so profound a sentiment in both countries " . Although Hay was not successful in resolving specific controversies in his year and a third as ambassador , both he and British policymakers regarded his tenure as a success , because of the advancement of good feelings and cooperation between the two nations .
An ongoing dispute between the U.S. and Britain was over the practice of pelagic sealing , that is , the capture of seals offshore of Alaska . The U.S. considered them American resources ; the Canadians ( Britain was still responsible for that dominion 's foreign policy ) contended that the mammals were being taken on the high seas , free to all . Soon after Hay 's arrival , McKinley sent former Secretary of State John W. Foster to London to negotiate the issue . Foster quickly issued an accusatory note to the British that was printed in the newspapers . Although Hay was successful in getting Lord Salisbury , then both Prime Minister and Foreign Secretary , to agree to a conference to decide the matter , the British withdrew when the U.S. also invited Russia and Japan , rendering the conference ineffective . Another issue on which no agreement was reached was that of bimetallism : McKinley had promised silver @-@ leaning Republicans to seek an international agreement varying the price ratio between silver and gold to allow for free coinage of silver , and Hay was instructed to seek British participation . The British would only join if the Indian colonial government ( on a silver standard until 1893 ) was willing ; this did not occur , and coupled with an improving economic situation that decreased support for bimetallism in the United States , no agreement was reached .
Hay had little involvement in the crisis over Cuba that culminated in the Spanish – American War . He met with Lord Salisbury in October 1897 and gained assurances Britain would not intervene if the U.S. found it necessary to go to war against Spain . Hay 's role was " to make friends and to pass along the English point of view to Washington " . Hay spent much of early 1898 on an extended trip to the Middle East , and did not return to London until the last week of March , by which time the USS Maine had exploded in Havana harbor . During the war , he worked to ensure U.S.-British amity , and British acceptance of the U.S. occupation of the Philippines — Salisbury and his government preferred that the U.S. have the islands than have them fall into the hands of the Germans .
In its early days , Hay described the war " as necessary as it is righteous " . In July , writing to former Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt , who had gained wartime glory by leading the Rough Riders volunteer regiment , Hay made a description of the war for which , according to Zeitz , he " is best remembered by many students of American history " :
It has been a splendid little war , begun with the highest motives , carried on with magnificent intelligence and spirit , favored by that Fortune that loves the brave . It is now to be concluded , I hope , with that fine good nature , which is , after all , the distinguishing trait of the American character .
Secretary Sherman had resigned on the eve of war , and been replaced by his first assistant , William R. Day . One of McKinley 's Canton cronies , with little experience of statecraft , Day was never intended as more than a temporary wartime replacement . With America about to splash her flag across the Pacific , McKinley needed a secretary with stronger credentials . On August 14 , 1898 , Hay received a telegram from McKinley that Day would head the American delegation to the peace talks with Spain , and that Hay would be the new Secretary of State . After some indecision , Hay , who did not think he could decline and still remain as ambassador , accepted . British response to Hay 's promotion was generally positive , and Queen Victoria , after he took formal leave of her at Osborne House , invited him again the following day , and subsequently pronounced him , " the most interesting of all the Ambassadors I have known . "
= = Secretary of State = =
= = = McKinley years = = =
John Hay was sworn in as Secretary of State on September 30 , 1898 . He needed little introduction to Cabinet meetings , and sat at the President 's right hand . Meetings were held in the Cabinet Room of the White House , where he found his old office and bedroom each occupied by several clerks . Now responsible for 1 @,@ 300 federal employees , he leaned heavily for administrative help on his old friend Alvey Adee , the second assistant .
By the time Hay took office , the war was effectively over and it had been decided to strip Spain of her overseas empire and transfer at least part of it to the United States . At the time of Hay 's swearing @-@ in , McKinley was still undecided whether to take the Philippines , but in October finally decided to do so , and Hay sent instructions to Day and the other peace commissioners to insist on it . Spain yielded , and the result was the Treaty of Paris , narrowly ratified by the Senate in February 1899 over the objections of anti @-@ imperialists .
= = = = Open Door Policy = = = =
By the 1890s , China had become a major trading partner for Western nations , and for Japan . China lacked military muscle to resist these countries , and several , including Russia , Britain , and Germany , had carved off bits of China — some known as treaty ports — for use as trading or military bases . Within those jurisdictions , the nation in possession often gave preference to its own citizens in trade or in developing infrastructure such as railroads . Although the United States did not claim any parts of China , a third of the China trade was carried in American ships , and having an outpost near there was a major factor in deciding to retain the former Spanish colony of the Philippines in the Treaty of Paris .
Hay had been concerned about the Far East since the 1870s . As Ambassador , he had attempted to forge a common policy with the British , but the United Kingdom was willing to undertake territorial acquisition in China to guard its interests there whereas McKinley was not . In March 1898 , Hay warned that Russia , Germany , and France were seeking to exclude Britain and America from the China trade , but he was disregarded by Sherman , who accepted assurances from Russia and Germany .
McKinley was of the view that equality of opportunity for American trade in China was key to success there , rather than colonial acquisitions ; that Hay shared these views was one reason for his appointment as Secretary of State . Many influential Americans , seeing coastal China being divided into spheres of influence , urged McKinley to join in ; still , in his annual message to Congress in December 1898 , he stated that as long as Americans were not discriminated against , he saw no need for the United States to become " an actor in the scene " .
As Secretary of State , it was Hay 's responsibility to put together a workable China policy . He was advised by William Rockhill , an old China hand . Also influential was Charles Beresford , a British Member of Parliament who gave a number of speeches to American businessmen , met with McKinley and Hay , and in a letter to the secretary stated that " it is imperative for American interests as well as our own that the policy of the ' open door ' should be maintained " . Assuring that all would play on an even playing field in China would give the foreign powers little incentive to dismember the Chinese Empire through territorial acquisition .
In mid @-@ 1899 , the British inspector of Chinese maritime customs , Alfred Hippisley , visited the United States . In a letter to Rockhill , a friend , he urged that the United States and other powers agree to uniform Chinese tariffs , including in the enclaves . Rockhill passed the letter on to Hay , and subsequently summarized the thinking of Hippisley and others , that there should be " an open market through China for our trade on terms of equality with all other foreigners " . Hay was in agreement , but feared Senate and popular opposition , and wanted to avoid Senate ratification of a treaty . Rockhill drafted the first Open Door note , calling for equality of commercial opportunity for foreigners in China .
Hay formally issued his Open Door note on September 6 , 1899 . This was not a treaty , and did not require the approval of the Senate . Most of the powers had at least some caveats , and negotiations continued through the remainder of the year . On March 20 , 1900 , Hay announced that all powers had agreed , and he was not contradicted . Former secretary Day wrote to Hay , congratulating him , " moving at the right time and in the right manner , you have secured a diplomatic triumph in the ' open door ' in China of the first importance to your country " .
= = = = Boxer Rebellion = = = =
Little thought was given to the Chinese reaction to the Open Door note ; the Chinese minister in Washington , Wu Ting @-@ fang , did not learn of it until he read of it in the newspapers . Among those in China who opposed Western influence there was a movement in Shantung Province , in the north , that became known as the Fists of Righteous Harmony , or Boxers , after the martial arts they practiced . The Boxers were especially angered by missionaries and their converts . As late as June 1900 , Rockhill dismissed the Boxers , contending that they would soon disband . By the middle of that month , the Boxers , joined by imperial troops , had cut the railroad between Peking and the coast , killed many missionaries and converts , and besieged the foreign legations . Hay faced a precarious situation ; how to rescue the Americans trapped in Peking , and how to avoid giving the other powers an excuse to partition China , in an election year when there was already Democrat opposition to what they deemed American imperialism .
As American troops were sent to China to relieve the nation 's legation , Hay sent a letter to foreign powers ( often called the Second Open Door note ) , stating while the United States wanted to see lives preserved and the guilty punished , it intended that China not be dismembered . Hay issued this on July 3 , 1900 , suspecting that the powers were quietly making private arrangements to divide up China . Communication between the foreign legations and the outside world had been cut off , and the personnel there were falsely presumed slaughtered , but Hay realized that Minister Wu could get a message in , and Hay was able to establish communication . Hay suggested to the Chinese government that it now cooperate for its own good . When the foreign relief force , principally Japanese but including 2 @,@ 000 Americans , relieved the legations and sacked Peking , China was made to pay a huge indemnity but there was no cession of land .
= = = = Death of McKinley = = = =
McKinley 's vice president , Garret Hobart , had died in November 1899 . Under the laws then in force , this made Hay next in line to the presidency should anything happen to McKinley . There was a presidential election in 1900 , and McKinley was unanimously renominated at the Republican National Convention that year . He allowed the convention to make its own choice of running mate , and it selected Roosevelt , by then Governor of New York . Senator Hanna bitterly opposed that choice , but nevertheless raised millions for the McKinley / Roosevelt ticket , which was elected .
Hay accompanied McKinley on his nationwide train tour in mid @-@ 1901 , during which both men visited California and saw the Pacific Ocean for the only times in their lives . The summer of 1901 was tragic for Hay ; his older son Adelbert , who had been consul in Pretoria during the Boer War and was about to become McKinley 's personal secretary , died in a fall from a New Haven hotel window .
Secretary Hay was at The Fells when McKinley was shot by Leon Czolgosz , an anarchist , on September 6 in Buffalo . With Vice President Roosevelt and much of the cabinet hastening to the bedside of McKinley , who had been operated on ( it was thought successfully ) soon after the shooting , Hay planned to go to Washington to manage the communication with foreign governments , but presidential secretary George Cortelyou urged him to come to Buffalo . He traveled to Buffalo on September 10 ; hearing on his arrival an account of the President 's recovery , Hay responded that McKinley would die . He was more cheerful after visiting McKinley , giving a statement to the press , and went to Washington , as Roosevelt and other officials also dispersed . Hay was about to return to New Hampshire on the 13th , when word came that McKinley was dying . Hay remained at his office and the next morning , on the way to Buffalo , the former Rough Rider received from Hay his first communication as head of state , officially informing President Roosevelt of McKinley 's death .
= = = Theodore Roosevelt administration = = =
= = = = Staying on = = = =
Hay , again next in line to the presidency , remained in Washington as McKinley 's body was transported to the capital by funeral train , and stayed there as the late president was taken to Canton for interment . He had admired McKinley , describing him as " awfully like Lincoln in many respects " and wrote to a friend , " what a strange and tragic fate it has been of mine — to stand by the bier of three of my dearest friends , Lincoln , Garfield , and McKinley , three of the gentlest of men , all risen to be head of the State , and all done to death by assassins " .
By letter , Hay offered his resignation to Roosevelt while the new president was still in Buffalo , amid newspaper speculation that Hay would be replaced — Garfield 's Secretary of State , Blaine , had not remained long under the Arthur administration . When Hay met the funeral train in Washington , Roosevelt greeted him at the station and immediately told him he must stay on as Secretary . According to Zeitz , " Roosevelt 's accidental ascendance to the presidency made John Hay an essential anachronism ... the wise elder statesman and senior member of the cabinet , he was indispensable to TR , who even today remains the youngest president ever " .
The deaths of his son and of McKinley were not the only griefs Hay suffered in 1901 — on September 26 , John Nicolay died after a long illness , as did Hay 's close friend Clarence King on Christmas Eve .
= = = = Panama = = = =
Hay 's involvement in the efforts to have a canal joining the oceans in Central America went back to his time as Assistant Secretary of State under Hayes , when he served as translator for Ferdinand de Lesseps in his efforts to interest the American government in investing in his canal company . President Hayes was only interested in the idea of a canal under American control , which de Lesseps 's project would not be . By the time Hay became Secretary of State , de Lesseps 's project in Panama ( then a Colombian province ) had collapsed , as had an American @-@ run project in Nicaragua . The 1850 Clayton @-@ Bulwer Treaty ( between the United States and Britain ) forbade the United States from building a Central American canal that it exclusively controlled , and Hay , from early in his tenure , sought the removal of this restriction . But the Canadians , for whose foreign policy Britain was still available , saw the canal matter as their greatest leverage to get other disputes resolved in their favor , persuaded Salisbury not to resolve it independently . Shortly before Hay took office , Britain and the U.S. agreed to establish a Joint High Commission to adjudicate unsettled matters , which met in late 1898 but made slow progress , especially on the Canada @-@ Alaska boundary .
The Alaska issue became less contentious in August 1899 when the Canadians accepted a provisional boundary pending final settlement . With Congress anxious to begin work on a canal bill , and increasingly likely to ignore the Clayton @-@ Bulwer restriction , Hay and British Ambassador Julian Pauncefote began work on a new treaty in January 1900 . The first Hay @-@ Pauncefote Treaty was sent to the Senate the following month , where it met a cold reception , as the terms forbade the United States from blockading or fortifying the canal , that was to be open to all nations in wartime as in peace . The Senate Foreign Relations Committee added an amendment allowing the U.S. to fortify the canal , then in March postponed further consideration until after the 1900 election . Hay submitted his resignation , which McKinley refused . The treaty , as amended , was ratified by the Senate in December , but the British would not agree to the changes .
Despite the lack of agreement , Congress was enthusiastic about a canal , and was inclined to move forward , with or without a treaty . Authorizing legislation was slowed by discussion on whether to take the Nicaraguan or Panamanian route . Much of the negotiation of a revised treaty , allowing the U.S. to fortify the canal , took place between Hay 's replacement in London , Joseph H. Choate , and the British Foreign Secretary , Lord Lansdowne , and the second Hay @-@ Pauncefote Treaty was ratified by the Senate by a large margin on December 6 , 1901 .
Seeing that the Americans were likely to build a Nicaragua Canal , the owners of the defunct French company , including Philippe Bunau @-@ Varilla , who still had exclusive rights to the Panama route , lowered their price . Beginning in early 1902 , President Roosevelt became a backer of the latter route , and Congress passed legislation for it , if it could be secured within a reasonable time . In June , Roosevelt told Hay to take personal charge of the negotiations with Colombia . Later that year , Hay began talks with Colombia 's acting minister in Washington , Tomás Herrán . The Hay @-@ Herrán Treaty , granting $ 10 million to Colombia for the right to build a canal , plus $ 250 @,@ 000 annually , was signed on January 22 , 1903 , and ratified by the United States Senate two months later . In August , however , the treaty was rejected by the Colombian Senate .
Roosevelt was minded to build the canal anyway , using an earlier treaty with Colombia that gave the U.S. transit rights in regard to the Panama Railroad . Hay predicted " an insurrection on the Isthmus [ of Panama ] against that regime of folly and graft ... at Bogotá " . Bunau @-@ Varilla gained meetings with both men , and assured them that a revolution , and a Panamanian government more friendly to a canal , was coming . In October , Roosevelt ordered Navy ships to be stationed near Panama . The Panamanians duly revolted in early November 1903 , with Colombian interference deterred by the presence of U.S. forces . By prearrangement , Bunau @-@ Varilla was appointed representative of the nascent nation in Washington , and quickly negotiated the Hay – Bunau @-@ Varilla Treaty , signed on November 18 , giving the United States the right to build the canal in a zone 10 miles ( 16 km ) wide , over which the U.S. would exercise full jurisdiction . This was less than satisfactory to the Panamanian diplomats who arrived in Washington shortly after the signing , but they did not dare renounce it . The treaty was approved by the two nations , and work on the Panama Canal began in 1904 . Hay wrote to Secretary of War Elihu Root , praising " the perfectly regular course which the President did follow " as much preferable to armed occupation of the isthmus .
= = = = Relationship with Roosevelt , other events = = = =
Hay had met the President 's father , Theodore Roosevelt , Sr. , during the Civil War , and during his time at the Tribune came to know the adolescent " Teddy " , twenty years younger than himself . Although before becoming president Roosevelt often wrote fulsome letters of praise to Secretary Hay , his letters to others then and later were less complimentary . Hay felt Roosevelt too impulsive , and privately opposed his inclusion on the ticket in 1900 , though he quickly wrote a congratulatory note after the convention .
As President and Secretary of State , the two men took pains to cultivate a cordial relationship . Roosevelt read all ten volumes of the Lincoln biography and in mid @-@ 1903 , wrote to Hay that by then " I have had a chance to know far more fully what a really great Secretary of State you are " . Hay for his part publicly praised Roosevelt as " young , gallant , able , [ and ] brilliant " , words that Roosevelt wrote that he hoped would be engraved on his tombstone .
Privately , and in correspondence with others , they were less generous : Hay grumbled that while McKinley would give him his full attention , Roosevelt was always busy with others , and it would be " an hour 's wait for a minute 's talk " . Roosevelt , after Hay 's death in 1905 , wrote to Senator Lodge that Hay had not been " a great Secretary of State ... under me he accomplished little ... his usefulness to me was almost exclusively the usefulness of a fine figurehead " . Nevertheless , when Roosevelt successfully sought election in his own right in 1904 , he persuaded the aging and infirm Hay to campaign for him , and Hay gave a speech linking the administration 's policies with those of Lincoln : " there is not a principle avowed by the Republican party to @-@ day which is out of harmony with his [ Lincoln 's ] teaching or inconsistent with his character . " Kushner and Sherrill suggested that the differences between Hay and Roosevelt were more style than ideological substance .
In December 1902 , the German government asked Roosevelt to arbitrate its dispute with Venezuela over unpaid debts . Hay did not think this appropriate , as Venezuela also owed the U.S. money , and quickly arranged for the International Court of Arbitration in The Hague to step in . Hay supposedly said , as final details were being worked out , " I have it all arranged . If Teddy will keep his mouth shut until tomorrow noon ! " Hay and Roosevelt also differed over the composition of the Joint High Commission that was to settle the Alaska boundary dispute . The commission was to be composed of " impartial jurists " and the British and Canadians duly appointed notable judges . Roosevelt appointed politicians , including Secretary Root and Senator Lodge . Although Hay was supportive of the President 's choices in public , in private he protested loudly to Roosevelt , complained by letter to his friends , and offered his resignation . Roosevelt declined it , but the incident confirmed him in his belief that Hay was too much of an Anglophile to be trusted where Britain was concerned . The American position on the boundary dispute was imposed on Canada by a 4 – 2 vote , with the one English judge joining the three Americans .
One incident involving Hay that benefitted Roosevelt politically was the kidnapping of Greek @-@ American playboy Ion Perdicaris in Morocco by chieftain Mulai Ahmed er Raisuli , an opponent of Sultan Abdelaziz . Raisuli demanded a ransom , but also wanted political prisoners to be released and control of Tangier in place of the military governor . Raisuli supposed Perdicaris to be a wealthy American , and hoped United States pressure would secure his demands . In fact , Perdicaris , though born in New Jersey , had renounced his citizenship during the Civil War to avoid Confederate confiscation of property in South Carolina , and had accepted Greek naturalization , a fact not generally known until years later , but that decreased Roosevelt 's desire for military action . The sultan was ineffective in dealing with the incident , and Roosevelt considered seizing the Tangier waterfront , source of much of Abdelaziz 's income , as a means of motivating him . With Raisuli 's demands escalating , Hay , with Roosevelt 's approval , finally cabled the consul @-@ general in Tangier , Samuel Gummeré :
We want Perdicaris alive or Raisuli dead . We desire least possible complications with Morocco or other Powers . You will not arrange for landing marines or seizing customs house without specific direction from the [ State ] department .
The 1904 Republican National Convention was in session , and the Speaker of the House , Joseph Cannon , its chair , read the first sentence of the cable — and only the first sentence — to the convention , electrifying what had been a humdrum coronation of Roosevelt . " The results were perfect . This was the fighting Teddy that America loved , and his frenzied supporters — and American chauvinists everywhere — roared in delight . " In fact , by then the sultan had already agreed to the demands , and Perdicaris was released . What was seen as tough talk boosted Roosevelt 's election chances .
= = = = Final months and death = = = =
Hay never fully recovered from the death of his son Adelbert , writing in 1904 to his close friend Lizzie Cameron that " the death of our boy made my wife and me old , at once and for the rest of our lives " . Gale described Hay in his final years as a " saddened , slowly dying old man " .
Although Hay gave speeches in support of Roosevelt , he spent much of the fall of 1904 at his New Hampshire house or with his younger brother Charles , who was ill in Boston . After the election , Roosevelt asked Hay to remain another four years . Hay asked for time to consider , but the President did not allow it , announcing to the press two days later that Hay would stay at his post . Early 1905 saw futility for Hay , as a number of treaties he had negotiated were defeated or amended by the Senate — one involving the British dominion of Newfoundland due to Senator Lodge 's fears it would harm his fisherman constituents . Others , promoting arbitration , were voted down or amended because the Senate did not want to be bypassed in the settlement of international disputes .
By Roosevelt 's inauguration on March 4 , 1905 , Hay 's health was so bad that both his wife and his friend Henry Adams insisted on his going to Europe , where he could rest and get medical treatment . Presidential doctor Presley Rixey issued a statement that Hay was suffering from overwork , but in letters the secretary hinted his conviction that he did not have long to live . An eminent physician in Italy prescribed medicinal baths for Hay 's heart condition , and he duly journeyed to Bad Nauheim , near Frankfurt , Germany . Kaiser Wilhelm II was among the monarchs who wrote to Hay asking him to visit , though he declined ; Belgian King Leopold II succeeded in seeing him by showing up at his hotel , unannounced . Adams suggested that Hay retire while there was still enough life left in him to do so , and that Roosevelt would be delighted to act as his own Secretary of State . Hay jokingly wrote to sculptor Augustus Saint @-@ Gaudens that " there is nothing the matter with me except old age , the Senate , and one or two other mortal maladies " .
After the course of treatment , Hay went to Paris and began to take on his workload again by meeting with the French foreign minister , Théophile Delcassé . In London , King Edward VII broke protocol by meeting with Hay in a small drawing room , and Hay lunched with Whitelaw Reid , ambassador in London at last . There was not time to see all who wished to see Hay on what he knew was his final visit .
On his return to the United States , despite his family 's desire to take him to New Hampshire , the secretary went to Washington to deal with departmental business and " say Ave Caesar ! to the President " , as Hay put it . He was pleased to learn that Roosevelt was well on his way to settling the Russo @-@ Japanese War , an action for which the President would win the Nobel Peace Prize . Hay left Washington for the last time on June 23 , 1905 , arriving in New Hampshire the following day . He died there on July 1 of his heart ailment and complications . Hay was interred in Lake View Cemetery in Cleveland , near the grave of Garfield , in the presence of Roosevelt and many dignitaries , including Robert Lincoln .
= = Literary career = =
= = = Early works = = =
Hay wrote some poetry while at Brown University , and more during the Civil War . In 1865 , early in his Paris stay , Hay penned " Sunrise in the Place de la Concorde " , a poem attacking Napoleon III for his reinstitution of the monarchy , depicting the Emperor as having been entrusted with the child Democracy by Liberty , and strangling it with his own hands . In " A Triumph of Order " , set in the breakup of the Paris Commune , a boy promises soldiers that he will return from an errand to be executed with his fellow rebels . Much to their surprise , he keeps his word and shouts to them to " blaze away " as " The Chassepots tore the stout young heart , / And saved Society . "
In poetry , he sought the revolutionary outcome for other nations that he believed had come to a successful conclusion in the United States . His 1871 poem , " The Prayer of the Romans " , recites Italian history up to that time , with the Risorgimento in progress : liberty cannot be truly present until " crosier and crown pass away " , when there will be " One freedom , one faith without fetters , / One republic in Italy free ! " His stay in Vienna yielded " The Curse of Hungary " , in which Hay foresees the end of the Austria @-@ Hungarian Empire . After Hay 's death in 1905 , William Dean Howells suggested that the Europe @-@ themed poems expressed " ( now , perhaps , old @-@ fashioned ) American sympathy for all the oppressed . Castilian Days , souvenir of Hay 's time in Madrid , is a collection of seventeen essays about Spanish history and customs , first published in 1871 , though several of the individual chapters appeared in The Atlantic in 1870 . It went through eight editions in Hay 's lifetime . The Spanish are depicted as afflicted by the " triple curse of crown , crozier , and sabre " — most kings and ecclesiastics are presented as useless — and Hay pins his hope in the republican movement in Spain . Gale deems Castilian Days " a remarkable , if biased , book of essays about Spanish civilization " .
Pike County Ballads , a grouping of six poems published ( with other Hay poetry ) as a book in 1871 , brought him great success . Written in the dialect of Pike County , Illinois , where Hay went to school as a child , they are approximately contemporaneous with pioneering poems in similar dialect by Bret Harte and there has been debate as to which came first . The poem that brought the greatest immediate reaction was " Jim Bludso " , about a boatman who is " no saint " with one wife in Mississippi and another in Illinois . Yet , when his steamboat catches fire , " He saw his duty , a dead @-@ sure thing , — / And went for it , thar and then . " Jim holds the burning steamboat against the riverbank until the last passenger gets ashore , at the cost of his life . Hay 's narrator states that , " And Christ ain 't a @-@ going to be too hard / On a man that died for men . " Hay 's poem offended some clergymen , but was widely reprinted and even included in anthologies of verse .
= = = The Bread @-@ Winners = = =
The Bread @-@ Winners , one of the first novels to take an anti @-@ labor perspective , was published anonymously in 1883 ( published editions did not bear Hay 's name until 1916 ) and he may have tried to disguise his writing style . The book examines two conflicts : between capital and labor , and between the nouveau riche and old money . In writing it , Hay was influenced by the labor unrest of the 1870s , that affected him personally , as corporations belonging to Stone , his father @-@ in @-@ law , were among those struck , at a time when Hay had been left in charge in Stone 's absence . According to historian Scott Dalrymple , " in response , Hay proceeded to write an indictment of organized labor so scathing , so vehement , that he dared not attach his name to it . "
The major character is Arthur Farnham , a wealthy Civil War veteran , likely based on Hay . Farnham , who inherited money , is without much influence in municipal politics , as his ticket is defeated in elections , symbolic of the decreasing influence of America 's old @-@ money patricians . The villain is Andrew Jackson Offitt ( true name Ananias Offitt ) , who leads the Bread @-@ winners , a labor organization that begins a violent general strike . Peace is restored by a group of veterans led by Farnham , and , at the end , he appears likely to marry Alice Belding , a woman of his own class .
Although unusual among the many books inspired by the labor unrest of the late 1870s in taking the perspective of the wealthy , it was the most successful of them , and was a sensation , gaining many favorable reviews . It was also attacked as an anti @-@ labor polemic with an upper @-@ class bias . There were many guesses as to authorship , with the supposed authors ranging from Hay 's friend Henry Adams to New York Governor Grover Cleveland , and the speculation fueled sales .
= = = Lincoln biography = = =
Early in his presidency , Hay and Nicolay requested and received permission from Lincoln to write his biography . By 1872 , Hay was " convinced that we ought to be at work on our ' Lincoln . ' I don 't think the time for publication has come , but the time for preparation is slipping away . " Robert Lincoln in 1874 formally agreed to let Hay and Nicolay use his father 's papers ; by 1875 , they were engaged in research . Hay and Nicolay enjoyed exclusive access to Lincoln 's papers , which were not opened to other researchers until 1947 . They gathered documents written by others , as well as many of the Civil War books already being published . They at rare times relied on memory , such as Nicolay 's recollection of the moment at the 1860 Republican convention when Lincoln was nominated , but for much of the rest relied on research .
Hay began his part of the writing in 1876 ; the work was interrupted by illnesses of Hay , Nicolay , or family members , or by Hay 's writing of The Bread @-@ Winners . By 1885 , Hay had completed the chapters on Lincoln 's early life , and they were submitted to Robert Lincoln for approval . Sale of the serialization rights to The Century magazine , edited by Hay 's friend Richard Gilder , helped give the pair the impetus to bring what had become a massive project to an end .
The published work , Abraham Lincoln : A History , alternates parts in which Lincoln is at center with discussions of contextual matters , such as legislative events or battles . The first serial installment , published in November 1886 , received positive reviews . When the ten @-@ volume set emerged in 1890 , it was not sold in bookstores , but instead door @-@ to @-@ door , then a common practice . Despite a price of $ 50 , and the fact that a good part of the work had been serialized , five thousand copies were quickly sold . The books helped forge the modern view of Lincoln as great war leader , against competing narratives that gave more credit to subordinates such as Seward . According to historian Joshua Zeitz , " it is easy to forget how widely underrated Lincoln the president and Lincoln the man were at the time of his death and how successful Hay and Nicolay were in elevating his place in the nation 's collective historical memory . "
= = Assessment and legacy = =
In 1902 , Hay wrote that when he died , " I shall not be much missed except by my wife . " Nevertheless , due to his premature death at age 66 , he was survived by most of his friends . These included Adams , who although he blamed the pressures of Hay 's office , where he was badgered by Roosevelt and many senators , for the Secretary of State 's death , admitted that Hay had remained in the position because he feared being bored . He memorialized his friend in the final pages of his autobiography , The Education of Henry Adams : with Hay 's death , his own education had ended .
Gale pointed out that Hay " accomplished a great deal in the realm of international statesmanship , and the world may be a better place because of his efforts as secretary of state ... the man was a scintillating ambassador " . Yet , Gale felt , any assessment of Hay must include negatives as well , that after his marriage to the wealthy Clara Stone , Hay " allowed his deep @-@ seated love of ease triumph over his Middle Western devotion to work and a fair shake for all . " Despite his literary accomplishments , Hay " was often lazy . His first poetry was his best . "
Taliaferro suggests that " if Hay put any ... indelible stamp on history , perhaps it was that he demonstrated how the United States ought to comport itself . He , not Roosevelt , was the adult in charge when the nation and the State Department attained global maturity . " He quotes John St. Loe Strachey , " All that the world saw was a great gentleman and a great statesman doing his work for the State and for the President with perfect taste , perfect good sense , and perfect good humour " .
Hay 's efforts to shape Lincoln 's image increased his own prominence and reputation in making his association ( and that of Nicolay ) with the assassinated president ever more remarkable and noteworthy . According to Zeitz , " the greater Lincoln grew in death , the greater they grew for having known him so well , and so intimately , in life . Everyone wanted to know them , if only to ask what it had been like — what he had been like . " Their answer to that , expressed in ten volumes of biography , Gale wrote , " has been incredibly influential " . In 1974 , Lincoln scholar Roy P. Basler stated that later biographers such as Carl Sandburg , did not " ma [ k ] e revisions of the essential story told by N. [ icolay ] & H. [ ay ] . Zeitz concurs , " Americans today understand Abraham Lincoln much as Nicolay and Hay hoped that they would . "
Hay brought about more than 50 treaties , including the Canal @-@ related treaties , and settlement of the Samoan dispute , as a result of which the United States secured what became known as American Samoa . In 1900 , Hay negotiated of a treaty with Denmark for the cession of the Danish West Indies . That treaty failed in the Danish parliament on a tied vote .
Brown University 's John Hay Library is named for that prominent alumnus . Hay 's New Hampshire estate has been conserved by various organizations . Although he and his family never lived there ( Hay died while it was under construction ) , the Hay @-@ McKinney House , home to the Cleveland History Center and thousands of artifacts , serves to remind Clevelanders of John Hay 's lengthy service .
According to historian Lewis L. Gould , in his account of McKinley 's presidency ,
One of the most entertaining and interesting letter writers who ever ran the State Department , the witty , dapper , and bearded Hay left behind an abundance of documentary evidence on his public career . His name is indelibly linked with that verity of the nation 's Asian policy , the Open Door , and he contributed much to the resolution of the longstanding problems with the British . Patient , discreet , and judicious , Hay deserves to stand in the front rank of secretaries of state .
= Lucky and Squash =
Lucky and Squash is an 2012 American children 's book written by Jeanne Birdsall and illustrated with watercolor paintings by Jane Dyer published by Harper . The two eponymous characters are dogs based on Birdsall 's and Dyer 's actual dogs , Cagney and Scuppers , a Boston Terrier and a Tibetan Terrier respectively .
Lucky and Squash received generally positive reviews . A School Library Journal article praises Birdsall 's writing , describing the story as funny , sweet , heartwarming , and suspenseful . A Publishers Weekly review refers to Lucky and Squash as almost being " Emma meets Ferris Bueller 's Day Off with wagging tails " and states that Birdsall 's " genial , intimate storytelling instantly establishes a bond with readers " . A Booklist reviewer compares the story 's dog characters to Pyramus and Thisbe , lovers in Ovid 's Metamorphoses who , frustrated by being separated by a wall , conspire to run away together . An article in Kirkus Reviews calls the illustrations charming and says that they " have all the clever details that are Dyer 's signature touch " .
= = Background = =
Lucky and Squash is a children 's book by Jeanne Birdsall , author of Flora 's Very Windy Day . It is illustrated with watercolor paintings by Jane Dyer , illustrator of more than fifty books , Lucky and Squash was published in 2012 by Harper . The book is appropriate for children between the ages of 3 and 7 . The eponymous characters are dogs , Lucky being a brave Lhasa Apso and Squash being a smart Boston Terrier . They are based on two real dogs who knew each other since they were puppies and often played together : Cagney , Birdsall 's Boston Terrier ; and Scuppers , Dyer 's Tibetan Terrier .
= = Plot = =
Lucky and Squash are neighbors separated by a fence that prevents them from playing together . Lucky 's owner , Mr. Bernard , and Squash 's owner , Miss Violet , are both single and have never spoken to each other because they are so shy . Lucky and Squash decide to run away hoping that , when their owners come rescue them , the two owners will meet , fall in love , and get married , thereby making the dogs " brothers " and allowing them to play together whenever they wish . Lucky and Squash escape from their respective yards three days in a row and go on adventures . The owners do meet and fall in love .
= = Reception = =
A Publishers Weekly review refers to Lucky and Squash as almost being " Emma meets Ferris Bueller 's Day Off with wagging tails " and states that Birdsall 's " genial , intimate storytelling instantly establishes a bond with readers " . An article in Kirkus Reviews suggests that Lucky and Squash is similar to a fairy tale in its narrative structure , language , and romantic wedding scene conclusion . This reviewer summarizes Lucky and Squash as a " gentle , entertaining story ... good for dog lovers and romantics alike " .
In a School Library Journal article , Anne Beier of the Hendrick Hudson Free Library in Montrose , New York gives the book a positive review , praising Birdsall 's writing and describing the story as funny , sweet , heartwarming , and suspenseful . Beier especially praises the climactic scene of the dogs ' capture by the bear , writing that the repeated story arc of running away is strong as a result of the increased tension . She calls the dog characters endearing and writes , " This title will be a hit at storytime or in a one @-@ on @-@ one setting " . Connie Fletcher of Booklist also gives the book a positive review , comparing the two eponymous characters to Pyramus and Thisbe , two lovers in Ovid 's poem Metamorphoses . In her review , Fletcher calls the book " a fun canine fantasy with humor , excitement , a happy ending , and , most important of all , two ridiculously adorable dogs that end up getting their way - as dogs tend to do " .
The Publishers Weekly reviewer is critical of Dyer 's illustrations , arguing that they do not provide the two dogs with sufficiently differing personalities . The reviewer calls the illustrations " pretty and sweet " , but argues that they are too understated in their depiction of the dogs going on improbable adventures , such as snorkeling at the beach and riding in a hansom cab in Manhattan .
Other reviews of the book 's illustrations were positive . Beier writes highly of the illustrations and states that Dyer 's paintings of the dogs ' faces are priceless , particularly in the scenes where they are looking at each other through the fence and those where they are in their owners ' arms . Similarly , the Kirkus reviewer calls the illustrations charming and writes that they " have all the clever details that are Dyer 's signature touch " , noting specifically the lavender frames of Miss Violet 's eyeglasses and the inclusion of the dogs ' names on their collars . Fletcher suggests that , apart from the " ominous grays and greens " in the illustrations of the forest scenes with the bear , the pastel @-@ colored illustrations in the book are evocative of 1940s picture postcards , which she considers " just right for such jolly capers " .
= 2011 Canadian Grand Prix =
The 2011 Canadian Grand Prix ( formally the Formula 1 Grand Prix du Canada ) was a Formula One motor race held on 12 June 2011 at the Circuit Gilles Villeneuve , in Montreal , Canada . It was the seventh race of the 2011 Formula One season and the 48th Canadian Grand Prix . The 70 @-@ lap race was won by McLaren driver Jenson Button after starting from seventh position . Sebastian Vettel , who started from pole position , finished second in a Red Bull with teammate Mark Webber finishing third .
The race began behind the safety car , and once it returned to the pits Vettel built a lead over Fernando Alonso . A second safety car deployment caused by the collision of Button and teammate Lewis Hamilton closed the time gaps between cars , but Vettel retained the lead . By lap 26 , increasingly heavy rain led to the race 's suspension , before it was restarted over two hours later . Button was involved in another collision on lap 37 , which led to Alonso 's retirement and Button falling to last place . Over the remainder of the race , he moved from twenty @-@ first place to first , passing Webber and Michael Schumacher , who had started fourth and eighth respectively , for second place on lap 65 , and Vettel on the final lap .
The victory was Button 's first of the season , and put him into second place in the World Drivers ' Championship , sixty points behind leader Vettel , who had extended his lead despite finishing second . Webber remained in third , and Hamilton 's retirement meant he slipped to fourth . In the World Constructors ' Championship Red Bull extended their lead to 65 points from McLaren , with Ferrari a further 85 points behind . At over four hours the race set the record as the longest in Formula One history .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
The Grand Prix was contested by twelve teams , each of two drivers . The teams , also known as constructors , were Red Bull , McLaren , Ferrari , Mercedes , Renault , Williams , Force India , Sauber , Toro Rosso , Lotus , HRT and Virgin . Tyre supplier Pirelli brought four different tyre types to the race : two dry compounds , the soft " primes " and the super @-@ soft " options " and two wet @-@ weather compounds , the intermediate and full wet . The drag reduction system ( DRS ) had two activation zones for the race ; one was on the straight between turns 11 and 13 , and the second on the start / finish straight from the final to first corners .
Going into the race , Red Bull driver Sebastian Vettel led the Drivers ' Championship with 143 points , ahead of Lewis Hamilton on 85 points and Mark Webber on 79 . Jenson Button was fourth with 76 points while Fernando Alonso was fifth on 69 points . In the Constructors ' Championship Red Bull were leading with 222 points , McLaren and Ferrari were second and third with 161 and 93 points respectively , while Renault with 50 and Mercedes with 40 points contended for fourth place . Red Bull and Sebastian Vettel had so far dominated the championship , winning five out of the six previous races , with Lewis Hamilton winning the Chinese Grand Prix . Championship contenders Webber and Button had gained one second @-@ place finish each , and Alonso , Vitaly Petrov and Nick Heidfeld had achieved third place podium finishes .
Prior to the event Virgin Racing announced they would end their partnership with Wirth Research , the company responsible for designing and developing the team 's racing cars . In order to cut costs , Wirth Research had designed the cars exclusively using computational fluid dynamics , and unlike their competitors Wirth had not utilised a wind tunnel . The approach was not successful as the team had failed to qualify higher than 20th so far in the season , and Virgin decided to end the partnership . Virgin Racing 's CEO Andy Webb , who had aims to challenge for a podium position at the inaugural Russian Grand Prix , expressed that ending the partnership would mean " that the team will take greater control of its own destiny " . Wirth Research would continue to develop the car until the end of the 2011 season , while Virgin Racing would set up their own technical department under the control of former Renault Director of Engineering Pat Symonds .
Several teams made major technical updates to their cars for the Grand Prix . McLaren and Ferrari altered the brake ducts on their cars , improving the cooling to manage the high brake temperatures encountered in Montreal . Ferrari and Mercedes revised their rear suspension layouts , while Red Bull brought a new front wing optimised for a lower downforce level . Renault and Williams brought new rear wings , which were designed specifically for low @-@ downforce circuits such as Circuit Gilles Villeneuve .
= = = Practice and qualifying = = =
Three practice sessions were held before the race ; two 90 minute sessions on Friday and one lasting an hour on Saturday . Nico Rosberg was the fastest driver in the first practice session , ahead of Alonso and Mercedes driver Michael Schumacher . Vettel caused the session to be suspended after crashing into the circuit 's " Wall of Champions " on the last corner , heavily damaging his car . After the morning session Sergio Pérez , who had suffered from concussion after a crash at the previous race , withdrew from the Grand Prix . Although he had passed the FIA 's medical examination , Perez said that " I only want to drive when I 'm a hundred per cent well . I need some more time to recover " . He was replaced by McLaren 's reserve driver Pedro de la Rosa , who had competed for Sauber in 2010 . Alonso was fastest in the second session , ahead of Vettel , Massa and Hamilton – although the McLaren driver received a puncture mid @-@ way through practice . The session was disrupted by incidents as Kamui Kobayashi and Jérôme d 'Ambrosio struck the barriers – both accidents requiring a suspension as marshals cleared the track of debris – and Adrian Sutil 's Force India broke its suspension in a crash at turn 7 . The third session on Saturday morning saw Vettel fastest , ahead of Alonso , Rosberg and Massa . A KERS failure on Mark Webber 's RB7 prevented him from participating . A crash by de la Rosa in the final minute brought out a red flag , and the session was prematurely ended due to the limited time remaining .
The qualifying session on Saturday afternoon was split into three parts . The first part ran for 20 minutes and eliminated the cars from qualifying that finished the session 18th or lower . During this session , the 107 % rule was in effect , which necessitated each driver set a time within 107 % of the quickest lap to qualify for the race . The second part of qualifying lasted 15 minutes and eliminated cars that finished in positions 11 to 17 . The final part of qualifying determined the positions from first to tenth , and decided pole position .
Vettel achieved his sixth pole position of the season , and his first at the Circuit Gilles Villeneuve , with a time of 1 : 13 @.@ 014 . He was joined on the front row of the grid by Alonso , with teammate Massa in third , giving Ferrari their best qualifying performance of the season . Webber had not been able to use his car 's KERS and qualified fourth , four @-@ tenths of a second behind Vettel . Hamilton and Button qualified in fifth and seventh respectively and McLaren blamed the slow pace on too high levels of downforce on the high @-@ speed circuit . The Mercedes drivers qualified in sixth and eighth , and Heidfeld and Vitaly Petrov completed the top ten . Paul di Resta was in 11th position , ahead of fellow rookies Pastor Maldonado and Kobayashi . Adrian Sutil struggled with grip throughout the session and was 14th ; following him were Sébastien Buemi , Barrichello and de la Rosa . Jaime Alguersuari qualifying in 18th complained of insufficient grip and brake balance , and at the back of the grid were the Lotus , HRT and Virgin drivers . D 'Ambrosio did not qualify after failing to set a time within 107 % in the first qualifying session . However the stewards allowed him to race , having considered he was using a new chassis after an accident in Friday practice , where he had set faster lap times .
= = = Race = = =
The track was wet before the race , as rain showers had hit the area throughout the day . The race was due to start at 13 : 00 local time ( UTC @-@ 5 ) , and heavy rain was expected to arrive an hour into the race . The air temperature ranged between 17 – 19 ° C ( 63 – 66 ° F ) , with the track temperature between 18 – 20 ° C ( 64 – 68 ° F ) . Standing water on the track , which was causing heavy spray and impairing visibility , meant that the race would start behind the safety car and all cars would use the full wet tyres . Alguersuari would start the race from the pitlane , as he modified his Toro Rosso 's set @-@ up to optimise the car for the wet conditions .
The race began behind the safety car , with no formation lap , and despite the slow speed drivers struggled for grip on the wet surface . The safety car came into the pits after five laps , and the cars were allowed to overtake . Vettel retained first place withstanding Alonso 's attempts to pass , while behind Hamilton and Webber collided at the first corner – dropping the drivers to seventh and fourteenth respectively . Button lost fifth place mid @-@ lap after running wide , losing two places to Schumacher and Hamilton . At the end of the first racing lap , Di Resta had moved up to eighth position , followed by Heidfeld and Kobayashi , who made three places off the grid . Vettel extended his lead over the next lap , while the positions behind continued to change . Kobayashi had improved to eighth and Webber recovered to twelfth , while di Resta fell back to thirteenth . Hamilton lost sixth position running wide on a failed overtaking move on Schumacher , and fell behind Button . He attempted an overtake on the pit straight , but the two drivers collided and Hamilton hit the pit wall . The accident caused Hamilton 's retirement , which prompted a safety car deployment at the end of lap eight .
The race was resumed on lap 13 and Button , who had changed to intermediate tyres before the safety car period , was given a drive @-@ through penalty for speeding behind the safety car , emerging in 15th place . Vettel began to enlarge his lead over Alonso and Massa in second and third . Alonso and the Mercedes pitted for intermediate tyres , leaving Massa in second and Kobayashi in third by lap 17 . Barrichello , who switched for
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Hawking , Terry Pratchett , original producer Paul Jackson , Mr. Blobby , Patrick Stewart , and a dalek . Finally , the night ended with a showing of the episode " Gunmen of the Apocalypse " .
= Avatar ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Avatar " is the twenty @-@ first episode of the third season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network in the United States on April 26 , 1996 . The story for the episode was developed by David Duchovny and Howard Gordon , the teleplay was written by Gordon , and it was directed by James Charleston . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Avatar " earned a Nielsen household rating of 9 @.@ 3 , being watched by 14 @.@ 62 million viewers in its initial broadcast . The episode received mixed reviews from television critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , when Assistant Director Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) is accused of murdering a prostitute , Mulder and Scully investigate to determine the truth behind what happened .
" Avatar " was developed after Duchovny initially suggested having a Skinner @-@ centric episode as a way to give himself a break . Skinner 's popularity amongst fans had risen with his increased role in the episodes " The Blessing Way " and " Paper Clip " and these episodes helped re @-@ establish the ground rules regarding where Skinner stood in regards to the X @-@ Files . The episode title means the incarnation of a deity in Sanskrit .
= = Plot = =
FBI assistant director Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) is given divorce papers from his wife , Sharon , after seventeen years of marriage . At a bar , he meets an attractive woman named Carina Sayles ( Amanda Tapping ) ; the two engage in a one night stand . However , after the tryst , Skinner has a nightmare of an old woman in bed with him . He awakens to find Sayles dead , her head twisted completely around .
As the murder investigation unfolds , Skinner tells agent Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) not to get involved . He refuses to take a polygraph test and is viewed as a suspect . Agent Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) examines Sayles ' corpse , finding a phosphorescent glow around her lips . Mulder finds out that Sayles was a prostitute and interviews her madam , who claims that Skinner 's credit card number was collected the previous night .
Skinner sees the old woman looking at him on a city street . However , when he pursues the old woman , he instead finds Sharon . The agents talk to Sharon , who says that the marriage failed because of Skinner 's emotional distance . Scully learns that Skinner had been receiving treatment for a sleep disorder , in which he apparently had dreams about being suffocated in bed by an old woman . She fears that Skinner may have unwittingly killed Sayles in his sleep . However , Mulder believes that Skinner may be having visions of a succubus , a female demon , with the mention of similar symptoms of people 's bad dreams they 've experienced .
Sharon visits Skinner at his home . After she leaves he falls asleep , seeing the old woman again . He awakens as detectives enter the house , telling him Sharon has been run off the road and severely injured . Skinner admits to Mulder that he saw the woman during his experience in Vietnam , but passed it off as being due to drugs . It is revealed that The Smoking Man is observing their conversation through the one @-@ way mirror of the interrogation room .
Mulder investigates the airbag on Skinner 's car , which was the one used to hit Sharon . Scully defends Skinner to the Office of Professional Responsibility , but it does no good and he is fired . Mulder believes this was done to weaken the X @-@ Files . Mulder , with the help of Agent Pendrell finds a face imprint in the airbag which is not Skinner 's . He goes to see the prostitute 's boss again but discovers that she has been murdered . The agents hope to use Judy , an employee who saw the man who actually hired the prostitute and use her to set up another meeting with him . They agree to meet at the Ambassador Hotel in an hour . Skinner goes to see his wife , telling her why he could not sign the divorce papers , and witnesses the old woman again as she awakens from the coma .
Mulder waits in the hotel bar while Scully guards Judy in a hotel room . The assassin enters the room to attack them but is quickly killed by Skinner , who was also there . The dead man 's identity is unknown . Skinner returns to work , declining to say to Mulder how he knew to be at the hotel . After Mulder leaves , he reaches into his drawer and puts his wedding ring back on .
= = Production = =
David Duchovny initially suggested having a Walter Skinner @-@ centric episode as a way to give himself a break , although ultimately he still ended up having a large part in the episode . Duchovny felt that Skinner was a good character who was not utilized to his full extent on the show . Duchovny 's idea , which was written in collaboration with writer Howard Gordon , also surrounded the conceit that what Mulder and Skinner do comes with a tremendous price . Skinner 's popularity amongst fans had risen with his increased role in the episodes " The Blessing Way " and " Paper Clip " and these episodes helped re @-@ establish the ground rules regarding where Skinner stood in regards to the X @-@ Files . Writer Vince Gilligan noted that Skinner was originally intended to be a bad guy , but because Mitch Pileggi was such a good actor the writers decided to not take his character in that direction .
A scene between Skinner and The Smoking Man was removed from the final cut due to time considerations , reducing his role in the episode to a very short dialogue @-@ less appearance . Another scene where Mulder questions Skinner 's allegiance was also removed when it was viewed as too combative . The episode title means the incarnation of a deity in Sanskrit .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Avatar " premiered on the Fox network in the United States on April 26 , 1996 . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 3 , with a 16 share , meaning that roughly 9 @.@ 3 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 16 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . The episode was watched by a total of 14 @.@ 62 million viewers . The episode later aired in the United Kingdom on January 30 , 1997 on BBC One .
The episode received mostly mixed reviews from critics . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club gave the episode a B + . He praised the storytelling , positively commenting on how it revolved around Skinner and his past life . In addition he wrote that the episode possessed some " good scares " . However , he felt that the " central paranormal mystery of the episode is handled in a fashion that feels a bit muddled " . John Keegan from Critical Myth gave the episode a moderately negative review and awarded it a 4 out of 10 . He wrote , " Overall , this episode fails to capitalize on the idea of delving into the world of Walter Skinner . The conspiracy elements seem a bit redundant , and the paranormal side of the episode is a forced and inconsistent mess . Instead of developing something unique about Skinner , the episode dwells on what is already known or suggested , leaving the character in the same emotional place at the end as in the beginning . " Entertainment Weekly gave " Avatar " a D + , describing it as " ridiculous " and saying , " The clench @-@ toothed Skinner deserves more air time , but not this USA Network reject " .
Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode three stars out of five . The two were critical of the storyline , noting that it " doesn 't really work as either a Don 't Look Now ghost story or as a conspiracy piece " , but praised the acting of Pileggi and the dialogue written by Gordon ; the two called the former " great " and the latter " so terse and so real " . Paula Vitaris of Cinefantastique gave the episode a mixed review and awarded it two stars out of four . She referred to the scenes between Skinner and Sharon as " contrived " and derided Skinner 's bedside confession as " simply poor writing " . Vitaris was positive of Duchovny and Hetrick 's acting , and wrote that Pileggi gave " his best " despite the fact that there was little chemistry between the characters to make it effective . David Duchovny , on the other hand , was very pleased with the episode and Mitch Pileggi 's performance ; he later noted , " It was nice for Mitch , and I think he deserved an episode after two years . He did a great job " .
= The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 4 – Super Soldiers =
The X @-@ Files Mythology – Volume 4 collection is the fourth DVD release containing selected episodes from the eighth to the ninth seasons of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . The episodes collected in the release form the end of the series ' mythology , and are centered on those that involve the alien " Super Soldiers " and Dana Scully 's ( Gillian Anderson ) son , William .
The collection contains seven episodes from the eighth season and seven from the ninth . The episodes follow the investigations of paranormal @-@ related cases , or X @-@ Files , by Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) special agents Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) and John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) , following Scully 's former partner Fox Mulder 's ( David Duchovny ) abduction by aliens . The two are assisted by Assistant Director Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) and Agent Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) . Events covered in the episodes include : the return , death , and resurrection of Mulder ; the birth of Scully 's child , William ; the discovery of the " Super Soldier " conspiracy ; the discovery of the remains of a space ship in Canada ; Scully 's choice to give William up for adoption ; and Mulder 's trial , conviction , escape , and discovery of the truth .
The collection contains the final episodes in the series ' mythology , or fictional overarching story . The release features the closure of most of the series ' long @-@ running arcs . Production for the episodes was drastically affected after co @-@ star Duchovny left the show . Released on November 22 , 2005 , the collection received mixed to negative reviews from critics . Adam Baldwin , Chris Owens , Nicholas Lea , Laurie Holden , and William B. Davis all play supporting roles in the collection .
= = Plot summary = =
When Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) learns that several women have reportedly been abducted and impregnated with alien babies , she begins to question her own pregnancy . John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) introduces Scully to Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) , an FBI specialist in ritualistic crime , shortly before Fox Mulder 's ( David Duchovny ) deceased body suddenly appears in a forest at night . Following Mulder 's funeral , Assistant Director Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) is threatened by Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) that he must kill Scully 's baby before it is born . Billy Miles , a multiple abductee who disappeared on the same night as Mulder , is returned deceased but his dead body is resurrected and restored to full health . Mulder also returns from death , with Scully supervising his recovery . Fully rejuvenated , Mulder investigates several X @-@ Files , against orders to do so , but soon gets fired , leaving Doggett in charge of the cases . Mulder continues to provide input in an unofficial capacity .
Reluctantly accepting Krycek 's assistance , Mulder , Doggett and Skinner learn that an alien virus recently created in secret by members of the United States government have replaced several humans , including Miles and several high @-@ ranking FBI personnel , with so @-@ called alien " Super Soldiers " . Krycek claims that the soldiers are virtually unstoppable aliens who want to make sure that humans will not survive the colonization of Earth . They have learned that Scully 's baby is a miraculously special child and are afraid that it may be greater than them . When Miles arrives at the FBI Headquarters , Mulder , Doggett , Skinner and Krycek help Scully to escape along with Reyes who drives her to a remote farm . Shortly after Skinner kills Krycek , Scully delivers an apparently normal baby while the alien " Super Soldiers " surround her . Without explanation , the aliens leave the area as Mulder arrives . While Doggett and Reyes report to the FBI Headquarters , Mulder takes Scully and their newborn son , William , back to her apartment .
Mulder goes into hiding , Scully is again reassigned to the FBI Academy , and Reyes becomes Doggett 's new FBI partner at the X @-@ Files office . Doggett , Scully , and Reyes discover a conspiracy to place Chloramine in the nation 's water , causing mutations and creating " Super Soldiers " . This leads them to a clandestine laboratory where a secret experiment is taking place on board , with connections to Scully 's child , William . The X @-@ Files office 's investigation is hampered by Deputy Director Alvin Kersh ( James Pickens , Jr . ) and Assistant Director Brad Follmer ( Cary Elwes ) . Hopeful about reuniting with Mulder , a complete stranger , " Shadow Man " ( Terry O 'Quinn ) , offers his service to drive Mulder out of hiding . Scully takes the offer , but near gets herself and Mulder killed when it is revealed the man is a Super Soldier . Later on , Scully , Doggett and Reyes find evidence of a dangerous UFO cult which has found a spacecraft similar to one Scully studied in Africa two years ago . The cult kidnaps William , but is destroyed when the baby 's crying activates the ship , killing everyone in the cult , sans William .
Doggett finds a strange disfigured man in the X @-@ Files office . Initially , Doggett believes the man is Mulder , but he is revealed to Jeffrey Spender ( Chris Owens ) , Mulder 's half @-@ brother . Spender sticks a needle into William , which the other agents believe to be a virus of some kind , but is later revealed to be a cure for William 's powers . Mulder returns from hiding to only be discovered looking for classified information at an army base and , after allegedly killing an apparently indestructible " Super Soldier " Knowle Rohrer ( Adam Baldwin ) , he is placed on trial to defend the X @-@ Files and himself . But with the help of Kersh , Scully , Reyes , Doggett , Spender , Marita Covarrubias ( Laurie Holden ) and Gibson Praise ( Jeff Gulka ) , Mulder breaks out . Mulder and Scully travel to New Mexico to find an old " wise man " , who is later revealed to be The Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) , who tells them that the aliens will arrive in 2012 . Doggett and Reyes aid Mulder and Scully in escaping the FBI , and the two are last seen together in a motel room facing an uncertain future .
= = Production = =
After settling his contract dispute with Fox , Duchovny quit full @-@ time participation in the show after the seventh season . In order to explain Mulder 's absence , Duchovny 's character was abducted by aliens in the seventh season finale , " Requiem . " After several rounds of contractual discussions , Duchovny agreed to return for a total of 11 eighth season episodes . Thus , " Per Manum " marked the return of Duchovny as Mulder , although he had appeared briefly in flashback appearances and small cameos . Series creator Chris Carter later argued that Mulder 's absences from the series did not affect the characterization , noting that " there are characters who can be powerful as absent centers , as Mulder was through the eight and ninth seasons . "
After the end of the eighth season , Duchovny announced that he would leave the show for good . In addition , lead actress Anderson 's contract also expired at the end of the eighth season . Anderson had expressed her growing disinterest in the series ever since the beginning of the eighth season , saying " For a lot of people , if you don 't like your job , you can quit your job , I don 't necessarily have that option . " Anderson cited the fact that " eight years is a long time " as a contributing factor to her indifference . However , Carter soon changed his position and announced he would remain on the show and continue only if Anderson agreed to do another season . Eventually , Fox offered Anderson a " generous " incentive to stay , resulting in the retention of Carter and Anderson and a final season of the show . With the departure of Duchovny and limited use of Anderson , the show garnered much criticism by fans and critics alike , saying the bond between Mulder and Scully was what actually kept the show together for the first seven seasons of the show .
Going into the ninth season , the producers decided to drastically change the show . The style of the opening credits in " Nothing Important Happened Today " were changed from the original credits , which , more or less , had been the same for the previous eight seasons . The credits included new graphics as well as new cards for Gish and Pileggi . The finale episode of the series , " The Truth " , was written by series creator Carter ; he later noted , " It 's the end — you don 't get another chance . So you 'd better put everything you 've ever wanted to put in into the episode . There were things to distract us from what was really going on . The band was breaking up . " He expounded on the idea , saying , " Frank [ Spotnitz ] and I [ decided ] it was probably time to go [ … ] it was strange to be writing these things knowing it was the last time we 'd see Scully doing certain things or hear Mulder saying certain things . " Spotnitz explained , " What was kind of nice that Chris made the announcement in January is that we had times to wrap our minds around the end and plan for it and give all of the characters their due . " Gish later said , " I have a great respect for the elegant in which they 're closing the curtain " . Bruce Harwood called the finale the " passing of a generation " .
= = Reception = =
The collection , as well as the episodes themselves , received mixed to negative reviews from critics . Monica Kuebler of Exclaim ! gave the collection a rather negative review and noted that it closed on a " lacklustre note " . Furthermore , she wrote that the main issue with the release was that " the hardcore fans [ of the series ] had come to see The X @-@ Files as Mulder and Scully and understandably weren 't quick to swallow a couple of new characters running the department . " Ultimately , she concluded that the poor episodes and the lack of bonus features included with the collection were proof that " Fox seems eager to wash their hands of the disappointing demise of the show " .
Sabadino Parker from PopMatters wrote negatively about the mythology of the last two seasons , noting that " story itself became even more convoluted " and that " the past two seasons should never have happened . " Entertainment Weekly reviewer Ken Tucker speculated that Chris Carter was the only one who seemed to understand the show 's complex mytharc . Joyce Millman from The New York Times called the storyline involving Scully 's child — which left her " haunted and irritable " — " a sad misuse of the radiant Anderson " . The A.V. Club was highly critical of the final season and its mythology story , calling them a " clumsy mish @-@ mash of stuff that had once worked and new serialized storylines about so @-@ called ' super soldiers ' " .
= = Episodes = =
= = Special features = =
= Wandering Son =
Wandering Son ( 放浪息子 , Hōrō Musuko ) is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Takako Shimura . It was originally serialized in Comic Beam from the December 2002 to August 2013 issue , and published in 15 tankōbon volumes by Enterbrain from July 2003 to August 2013 . The series is licensed in English by Fantagraphics Books , which released the first volume in North America in July 2011 . A 12 @-@ episode anime adaptation produced by AIC Classic and directed by Ei Aoki aired in Japan between January and March 2011 . Eleven episodes aired on television , with episodes 10 and 11 edited into a single episode , and were released individually on their respective BD / DVD volumes .
The story depicts a young student named Shuichi Nitori , described by the author as a boy who wants to be a girl , and Shuichi 's friend Yoshino Takatsuki , described as a girl who wants to be a boy . The series deals with issues such as transsexualism , gender identity , and the beginning of puberty . Shimura was originally going to write the story about a girl in high school who wants to be a boy , but she realized that a boy who wants to become a girl before entering into puberty would have a lot of worries related to growing up , and changed the story to fit this model . Wandering Son was selected as a recommended work by the awards jury of the tenth Japan Media Arts Festival in 2006 . The series has been lauded for its use of gender reversal as the core of the story , though the emotional realism of the young characters has been called into question .
= = Plot = =
At the start of Wandering Son , Shuichi Nitori is a young , feminine child assigned male at birth ( AMAB ) in the fifth grade who transfers into a new school . Shuichi quickly becomes friends with another student , tall , boyish Yoshino Takatsuki . Yoshino soon learns of Shuichi 's desire to be a girl . In a show of friendship , Yoshino confesses a similar desire to be a boy . Shuichi also becomes friends with Saori Chiba and Kanako Sasa , two other girls in the class . Saori instantly takes a liking to Shuichi and continuously encourages Shuichi to wear feminine clothes . After Shuichi , Yoshino , and their friends enter sixth grade , Shuichi meets Makoto Ariga , another AMAB student their age from another class who also secretly wants to be a girl . Shuichi and Yoshino become friends with an adult transsexual woman named Yuki who is living with a man named Shiina . Shuichi 's older sister Maho becomes a model and eventually becomes friends with Maiko , a teen model whom she idolizes , and two other teen models : Tamaki Satō and Anna Suehiro . Maho gets a boyfriend , Riku Seya , and Shuichi confesses a crush on Yoshino , but Yoshino cannot reciprocate Shuichi 's feelings . After Saori learns of this , she confesses she likes Shuichi , but Shuichi too cannot return her feelings . This results in a falling @-@ out between Shuichi 's friends as they prepare to enter junior high school .
In junior high school , they meet a tall , eccentric girl who befriends everyone named Chizuru Sarashina and her prickly friend Momoko Shirai , who does not get along well with the others — especially Saori . Eventually , Saori and Yoshino rejoin Shuichi 's group of friends , though Saori says she still hates Yoshino and Momoko . Shuichi and Anna start dating , much to the surprise of their friends and Shuichi 's sister . Yoshino and Saori manage to halfway repair their friendship , though Saori is still standoffish to others . Shuichi 's friends are split up into several classes upon entering their second year in junior high school . Shuichi becomes friends with Shinpei Doi , who previously teased Shuichi about wanting to be a girl . Yoshino attends school in a boy 's uniform for a short time , and Shuichi tries to go to school dressed as a girl one day , but is laughed at , and becomes discouraged . Shuichi 's friends worry as Shuichi begins skipping school . Although Shuichi eventually starts attending school regularly again , Anna breaks off their relationship . By the time Shuichi , Yoshino , and their friends enter their third year in junior high school , Shuichi 's voice is changing . The group of friends start thinking about their future high school plans , and Shuichi and Anna start dating again .
Shuichi begins attending the same all @-@ boy high school as Makoto and Doi , while Yoshino and Saori begin attending a high school where uniforms are not required . Saori starts dating Fumiya Ninomiya . Yoshino starts working at Anna 's modeling agency and Shuichi begins working at a cafe , but later quits . Shuichi starts writing a semi @-@ autobiographical novel . Yoshino later tells Shuichi that Yoshino does not think about wanting to be a boy anymore , and also confesses a romantic attraction to Shuichi . Shuichi still identifies as a girl , and even after informing Anna of this , she stays with Shuichi . After graduating from high school , Shuichi moves out and goes to the same college as Doi . Shuichi continues to write the novel , which is given the title The Boy Who 's a Girl ( ぼくは 、 おんなのこ , Boku wa , Onna no Ko ) .
= = Characters = =
= = = Protagonists = = =
Shuichi Nitori ( 二鳥 修一 , Nitori Shūichi )
Voiced by : Kōsuke Hatakeyama
Shuichi , one of two protagonists , is a young , effeminate child who at the beginning of Wandering Son is in the fifth grade of elementary school . Otherwise known by the nicknames Shu ( シュウ , Shū ) and Nitorin ( にとりん ) , Shuichi was assigned male at birth , but wants to be a girl and often cross @-@ dresses to assume the role of the female gender . Shuichi is described as cute by many of the other characters and is able to appear as a girl when cross @-@ dressing , because of a feminine @-@ looking face and physical build . Shuichi enjoys wearing cute clothes ; although initially not a cross @-@ dresser , Shuichi 's friends Yoshino Takatsuki and Saori Chiba encourage Shuichi to dress and act femininely . As Shuichi grows up , puberty becomes a topic of increasing concern , such as the growth of body hair , a deepening voice , and the onset of pimples . Shuichi exhibits signs of gender dysphoria and displays an outward attraction to two girls in the series — Yoshino and Anna Suehiro . Shuichi and Anna date for a time in junior high , until she breaks off their relationship . However , the two soon resume their relationship with each other .
Shuichi is interested in doing indoor activities , and does not partake in activities favored by boys of the same age , such as playing sports . Shuichi enjoys and is skillful in baking sweet foods , though is never shown cooking other , more conventional foods . After starting an exchange diary with Yoshino , Shuichi becomes interested in writing stories , and even joins the drama club as a writer with Saori in junior high school after they co @-@ write a rendition of Romeo and Juliet performed by members of their class . Shuichi has an honest personality , and easily gets along with others . As a child , Shuichi has an obedient , dutiful attitude . However , upon entering puberty , Shuichi sometimes experiences outbursts of intense emotion . Shuichi can be overly sensitive at times and is often shown crying in front of others . Due to these personality quirks , it is easier for Shuichi to associate with girls of the same age . Accordingly , Shuichi has few male friends .
Yoshino Takatsuki ( 高槻 よしの , Takatsuki Yoshino )
Voiced by : Asami Seto
Yoshino , the other protagonist , is a tall , masculine child who at the beginning of Wandering Son is a fifth grader in Shuichi 's class . Otherwise known as Takatsuki @-@ kun ( 高槻くん ) by their classmates , with an honorific used mainly with boys , Yoshino was assigned female at birth , but wants to be a boy . Yoshino usually refrains from dressing in traditionally feminine clothes , such as skirts or dresses . Despite this , Yoshino 's mother insists on buying such clothes for Yoshino . Shortly after becoming friends with Shuichi , Yoshino gets a haircut in a boyish style , taking on the appearance of a boy their age , especially when Yoshino is dressed in a male school uniform . Like Shuichi , Yoshino becomes increasingly concerned and resentful about undergoing puberty , such as at the beginning of menstruation or the growth of breasts . Yoshino goes to buy a chest @-@ flattening garment to escape the necessity of wearing a bra . Also like Shuichi , Yoshino shows signs indicating gender dysphoria , though later stops thinking that way due to personal exposure to modeling .
Yoshino prefers to dress and act like a boy , but usually abstains from anything which would draw attention , such as going to school in a male uniform after entering junior high . However , Yoshino does on occasion dress in a male school uniform and go to neighboring cities while dressed as a boy ; during one such time , Yoshino enjoys being hit on by an older woman . Yoshino wants to look " cool " and wears clothes which are not girlish . When teased by others , Yoshino is prone to getting emotional and is known to get violent on occasion . Yoshino takes up an interest in basketball after entering junior high school and joins the female basketball team with Chizuru Sarashina . In junior high , Yoshino decides not to get a haircut after a comment by Saori , but later cuts it back to a short , boyish style . Yoshino 's family consists of a father , mother , older brother , and older sister .
= = = Classmates = = =
Saori Chiba ( 千葉 さおり , Chiba Saori )
Voiced by : Yuuka Nanri
Saori , nicknamed Saorin ( さおりん ) , is a girl who is a fifth grader in Shuichi 's class at the beginning of Wandering Son . She takes an interest in encouraging Shuichi to cross @-@ dress , even going so far as to buy Shuichi an expensive dress for Shuichi 's birthday , which Shuichi later returns , much to her displeasure . Saori finds it difficult to associate with others ; she has few friends , though becomes close to Shuichi . She tends to convey what is on her mind and disregards how others may take what she says . As Saori grows up , she gradually becomes more standoffish and stoic ; she even has bad relations with her teachers . Despite her self @-@ centered attitude , she remains popular among her male classmates due to her physical attractiveness . She is a sensitive girl whose temper sometimes gets the better of her when reprimanding bullies that tease Shuichi , because of Shuichi 's femininity and cross @-@ dressing . Saori is often emotionally affected by circumstances involving Shuichi , because of her feelings for Shuichi . Saori converts to Christianity partly because of this influence to seek forgiveness for her previous actions , though she only attends mass when feeling guilty about her behavior .
Kanako Sasa ( 佐々 かなこ , Sasa Kanako )
Voiced by : Yoshino Nanjō
Kanako Sasa , usually referred to by her surname , is a girl who is a fifth grader in Shuichi 's class at the beginning of Wandering Son . She is sometimes called Kanabun ( カナブン , lit. drone beetle ) by her younger brother and Chizuru . She makes her first appearance in chapter two of the manga , but is not named until volume two . She is a short , energetic girl who thinks of herself as everyone 's friend and becomes distressed when her friends fight among themselves . Sasa acts as a mediator between her friends in such times and tries not to leave anyone alone . She has been friends with Yoshino since pre @-@ school , and later becomes close with Chizuru . Sasa is an innocent , childish girl who does not have many worries aside from her friends ' quarrels . She tends to be a handful for her mother , who picks out her clothes for her and even helps her get ready for school in the morning . She mentions that if she thinks too hard about something , her brain becomes itchy .
Makoto Ariga ( 有賀 誠 , Ariga Makoto )
Voiced by : Yūichi Iguchi
Makoto first appears when the cast is in sixth grade , though is in a different class . Known as Mako for short , though mostly only to Shuichi , Makoto was also assigned male at birth , but wishes to be a girl and shares Shuichi 's interest in cross @-@ dressing ; it is this that spurs Makoto to become Shuichi 's closest friend . Due to facial freckles and round glasses , Makoto is not able to appear as cute as Shuichi when wearing feminine clothes . Makoto 's primary reason for wanting to be a girl may be due to an attraction to men , something Shuichi cannot relate to ; Makoto is a romantic who wants to be in a relationship with a cool , adult man . Makoto is unusually mature and is able to think calmly and objectively while providing advice to friends . Makoto also gets along well with boys and girls of the same age , because of good listening skills ; Makoto often becomes an onlooker to what is going on in other characters ' lives . Makoto is an only child whose parents run a bakery .
Chizuru Sarashina ( 更科 千鶴 , Sarashina Chizuru )
Voiced by : Saeko Chiba
Chizuru , nicknamed Chii @-@ chan , is a tall girl who first appears as a classmate of Shuichi when they both enter junior high school . She is Momoko 's childhood friend , and has a stylish demeanor , highlighted by her stature and long hair , which captivates both Shuichi and Yoshino when they first meet her . Chizuru is described as a free spirit , someone who enjoys doing unconventional , often outrageous things which surprise those around her ; she frequently acts without thinking , and as a result projects a childish personality . Her impulsive behavior sometimes gets her in trouble with other characters , but she quickly becomes ashamed when she realizes the consequences . She tries to be everyone 's friend , though Saori strongly dislikes her impulsiveness . Chizuru joins the girl 's basketball team in junior high . Her family runs a soba restaurant .
Momoko Shirai ( 白井 桃子 , Shirai Momoko )
Voiced by : Aki Toyosaki
Momoko is a childhood friend and classmate in junior high school of Chizuru ; she is nicknamed Momo . She constantly hangs around Chizuru and is visibly annoyed when Chizuru socializes with others , or even if someone simply sits too close to her . Momoko inevitably starts fighting Saori , who does not particularly respect Chizuru , when they talk .
= = = Others = = =
Maho Nitori ( 二鳥 真穂 , Nitori Maho )
Voiced by : Nana Mizuki
Maho is Shuichi 's sister . She is one year older than Shuichi is , and at the beginning of Wandering Son , she is in the sixth grade of elementary school . Maho shows a strong interest in clothes , and spends much of her money on new apparel . She is a big fan of a teen fashion model named Maiko , and to meet her , Maho auditions for the same modeling agency as Maiko . After she is hired and becomes recognized as a model , Maho enjoys being asked her autograph by complete strangers . While her modeling career initially starts out slowly , Maho soon gains confidence in her abilities , and becomes friends with Maiko and two other models , Anna Suehiro and Tamaki Satō . In contrast to her younger sibling , Maho is very out @-@ spoken and tends to be rough with Shuichi , even hitting or slapping Shuichi on occasion , and she often forces things on Shuichi with little consideration of Shuichi 's opinion . She does not like Shuichi 's cross @-@ dressing and gets angry and disturbed when she finds Shuichi dressed as a girl . In junior high school , Maho becomes attracted to her classmate Riku Seya , and eventually starts dating him .
Riku Seya ( 瀬谷 理久 , Seya Riku )
Voiced by : Yoshitsugu Matsuoka
Riku Seya , usually referred to by his surname , is a classmate of Maho 's who meets her when they enter junior high school . He is generally a soft @-@ spoken boy who initially takes an interest in Shuichi , whom he believes to be a girl , when they first meet . When he learns that Shuichi is assigned male , Seya becomes angry at Maho for hiding this and stringing him along , but he soon reconciles with her and eventually starts dating her . Seya remains polite with Shuichi , though due to their initial meeting , there is always some awkwardness between the two .
Anna Suehiro ( 末広 安那 , Suehiro Anna )
Voiced by : Yui Horie
Anna is a teen model who is a good friend of Maiko and goes to the same all @-@ girl school as her ; she is similarly well @-@ known and experienced in modeling . She is considered outspoken and sharp @-@ tongued by other models . Anna at first disapproves of Shuichi dressing as a girl , and even calls Shuichi a freak soon after meeting Shuichi . Anna initially tells Maho she has no interest in her " weak " sibling because of Shuichi 's femininity , though later dates Shuichi for a time after Shuichi asks her out , until she breaks up with Shuichi . However , the two soon resume their relationship with each other . Furthermore , Anna 's opinion of Shuichi presenting as female also changes , she saying that it actually suits Shuichi , and the two even go out together on a date with Shuichi dressed as a girl . She feels Shuichi is an interesting person , and once says Shuichi is like a cute little sister . Anna spends a lot of money on clothes , and enjoys modifying them .
Hiroyuki Yoshida ( 吉田 紘之 , Yoshida Hiroyuki ) / Yuki ( ユキ )
Voiced by : Takako Honda
Hiroyuki , usually referred to as Yuki , is a tall and attractive trans woman living with her boyfriend Shiina . Yuki takes an early interest in Yoshino when she believes Yoshino to be a boy , though remains on good terms with Yoshino even after learning of Yoshino 's assigned sex , and gives Shuichi and Yoshino helpful advice when they are troubled . Despite the differences between their situations , Yuki sees a lot of herself in Shuichi : when they were growing up , Shiina was the only friend who stood by the young Hiroyuki , as she was called then , while girls teased her and the boys bullied her to change . Yuki always keeps up a positive attitude , and runs a gay bar . Since her transition , she has not been on good terms with her parents , who run a uniform store .
Yuki is the main character of Takako Shimura 's short story " Hana " ( 花 ) , in the collection Boku wa , Onna no Ko ( ぼくは 、 おんなのこ ) , in which her family — which consists of her father , mother , brother , and sister @-@ in @-@ law — also appears ; Yuki is revealed to be a fan of Keiji Sada , a Shōwa period actor .
Shiina ( 椎名 )
Voiced by : Keiji Fujiwara
Shiina , given name unknown , otherwise referred to by his nickname Shii ( しー ) , is another adult friend of Shuichi and Yoshino . He was Yuki 's classmate in elementary school , and he eventually became her boyfriend after her transition . Unlike Yuki , Shiina had many friends in school . He generally just watches over Shuichi and Yoshino with Yuki , but he sometimes does bold and unexpected things , such as grabbing Yoshino 's crotch when he first meets Yoshino because he feared that , because Yoshino was dressed as a boy at the time , Yuki might be having an illicit affair with Yoshino .
Fumiya Ninomiya ( 二宮 文弥 , Ninomiya Fumiya )
Voiced by : Kaoru Mizuhara
Fumiya is a talkative boy one year older than Saori whom she meets when she starts going to church . Saori is easily annoyed by him , especially when he brings her flowers from his parents ' flower shop . He takes an early interest in Saori and tries to become her boyfriend . After meeting Shuichi , Fumiya becomes jealous of Saori 's interest in Shuichi , and finds Shuichi 's cross @-@ dressing gross . While initially lying to Saori and Shuichi about having an interest in cross @-@ dressing , he is later seen dressed as a girl while out with Shuichi , and again at the cultural festival at Shuichi 's school . Fumiya enjoys the added attention that comes from cross @-@ dressing and admits that he likes being called cute .
= = Production = =
In an interview in August 2003 , Takako Shimura stated that the theme of Wandering Son is similar to the second half of her previous manga series Shikii no Jūnin . Shimura took the junior high school teacher Kentarō Kaneda from Shikii no Jūnin and inserted him into Wandering Son , where he teaches at Shuichi 's junior high school , because she really liked his character . Shimura originally planned to use a female high school student who wants to become a boy as the main character . However , she realized that a boy who wants to become a girl before entering into puberty would have many worries related to growing up , and changed the story accordingly . Shimura used her realization that the boy would go through significant changes as he grew up to deepen the development of the story and characters . The Japanese title , Hōrō Musuko , is a pun on hōtō musuko ( 放蕩息子 ) , meaning " prodigal son " .
Shimura mainly found her characters ' names by looking through name dictionaries , although she also took the names of acquaintances and slightly changed them , and even used train station names for side characters appearing only once . Out of all the characters , Shimura is most pleased with Kanako Sasa . For the designs of clothes for the female characters , Shimura consulted various fashion magazines for girls in their early teens , especially Nicola . Shimura commented self @-@ deprecatingly in the afterword of volume one that , like her other series , her characters do not look very different from each other , her panels are too white , and there is much pathos .
= = Media = =
= = = Manga = = =
The manga Wandering Son is written and illustrated by Takako Shimura . It was serialized in the monthly seinen ( aimed at younger adult men ) manga magazine Comic Beam from the December 2002 to August 2013 issue . The individual chapters were collected and published in 15 tankōbon volumes by Enterbrain from July 25 , 2003 to August 28 , 2013 . Wandering Son was one of several manga titles included with the launch in December 2009 of the manga distribution service of the PlayStation Store for the Japanese PlayStation Portable handheld game console .
The series is licensed in English by Fantagraphics Books , which began releasing the series in North America in hardcover format starting with the first volume on July 5 , 2011 . Gary Groth of Fantagraphics Books said in an interview he licensed Wandering Son because " it 's not a typical choice for a manga title published in the U.S. and it 's not typical subject matter for comics in general , " saying that the subject is " perfectly legitimate ... for literature — or comics . " The series is also licensed by Ever Glory Publishing in Taiwan and by Haksan Culture Company in Korea .
= = = Anime = = =
A 12 @-@ episode anime TV series adaptation produced by AIC Classic and Aniplex aired in Japan between January 13 and March 31 , 2011 on Fuji TV 's Noitamina programming block . Crunchyroll simulcasted the anime on their streaming website . Aniplex released the anime on six Blu @-@ ray and DVD compilation volumes in Japan between April 27 and September 21 , 2011 . Of the 11 episodes to be aired on TV , episodes 10 and 11 were edited into a single episode , and were released individually on their respective BD / DVD volumes . The anime adapts the story from the point where the characters enter junior high school . Following the arrest of Ai Takabe , the voice actress who played Maiko , for drug possession in October 2015 , Bandai Channel removed the series from its streaming catalog .
The anime is directed by Ei Aoki and the screenplay was written by Mari Okada . Chief animator Ryūichi Makino based the character design used in the anime on Takako Shimura 's original concept and the main animator is Michio Satō . The music was produced by Satoru Kosaki and Keiichi Okabe , both from Monaca , and the sound director is Jin Aketagawa . The anime 's opening theme song is " Itsudatte . " ( いつだって 。 ) by Daisuke and the single was released on March 2 , 2011 . The ending theme is " For You " by Rie fu and the single was released on February 16 , 2011 . The original soundtrack was released on August 24 , 2011 .
= = Reception = =
It was reported in June 2013 that approximately 1 @.@ 05 million copies of the manga are in print in Japan . Wandering Son was selected as a recommended work by the awards jury of the tenth Japan Media Arts Festival in 2006 . The Young Adult Library Services Association nominated Wandering Son for its 2012 Great Graphic Novels for Teens list . The anime was awarded the honorable mention prize for technical achievement in broadcast animation at the 65th Motion Picture and Television Engineering Society of Japan Awards in 2012 .
In a review of the first volume by Rebecca Silverman of Anime News Network ( ANN ) , she praised the slow pace of the storytelling , which " gives it a more realistic feel . " Silverman praises Takako Shimura for making Shuichi into a " human protagonist " , but notes that " most of the children act much older than they are . " The second volume was featured in ANN 's Right Turn Only column in March 2007 as the Import of the Month , where Carlo Santos lauded the series for using gender reversal as the " actual heart of the story " in contrast to " every other series " involving cross @-@ dressing , which use " gender reversal as a goofy plot device . " The art was praised as " simple [ with ] few lines , but incredibly expressive " which Santos claimed is a " style that 's the most difficult and beautiful of all . " Santos criticized the " emotional realism " of the work for having the young characters ' " unrealistically mature attitude " towards " issues above their grade level . "
Matt Thorn , the English translator of the manga , wrote that fans of Anne of Green Gables or The Rose of Versailles would also enjoy Wandering Son , and Silverman compared Wandering Son to Mizuiro Jidai . Thorn described the art as " clean and lovely " and went on to cite Wandering Son as " sweet , thought @-@ provoking , funny , and moving , and I think it will resonate with readers regardless of their gender identity or sexual orientation . " The first manga volume as translated by Fantagraphics Books had an early debut at the May 2011 Toronto Comic Arts Festival and sold out within the first two hours of the event .
= Edward Scissorhands ( dance ) =
Edward Scissorhands is a contemporary dance adaptation of the 1990 American romance fantasy film Edward Scissorhands , created by Matthew Bourne , with music by Terry Davies . The screenwriter and composer of the film version , Caroline Thompson and Danny Elfman , helped to develop the dance version , which is set in the 1950s ( the film is set in the late 1980s ) . The story is told entirely through music and dance with no discourse although the plot is similar to the movie .
The piece debuted in London in 2005 and , despite mixed reviews , has subsequently toured in Britain , Asia , the U.S. ( earning a 2007 Drama Desk Award for Unique Theatrical Experience ) , Australia and Europe . The productions have been put on by Bourne 's New Adventures dance company .
= = Composition and development = =
Bourne 's all @-@ male 1995 version of Swan Lake has become the longest @-@ running ballet production and earned him the distinction as the only British director to become a winner of both the Tony Award for Best Direction of a Musical and the Tony Award for Best Choreography at the 53rd Tony Awards in 1999 . In 2002 , 2003 and 2005 , he earned the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Theatre Choreographer for My Fair Lady , Play Without Words and Mary Poppins , respectively . Eventually ( in 2008 ) , Time would begin an article on Bourne with the following summary : " Matthew Bourne is the world 's most popular living dance maker . "
Bourne was asked by composer friends to brainstorm about films that could be adapted into stage productions in his dance style . Thompson met Bourne in 1997 through Alan Cumming after already having seen Swan Lake . Bourne asked Thompson 's consent to adapt the Scissorhands film the following year , but it took another seven years to obtain the necessary funding and get the film 's director Tim Burton and composer Elfman to go along . The work , which Bourne choreographed , was developed as dance theatre instead of as a traditional musical and has no singing or speaking . The musical score is by Terry Davies , but it includes significant portions of Elfman 's film score .
Thompson claims Scissorhands is based on a pet dog of hers . She described her dog as follows : " he was the most soulful , yearning creature I ever met . She wanted to participate in everything . She didn ’ t need language to communicate . She communicated with her eyes . " She described the character as similar to Frankenstein 's monster and Pinocchio in the sense that he is " an outsider who wants to be an insider " .
= = Plot = =
The work " tells the gothic story of a boy , created by an eccentric inventor , trying to adapt to suburban life with only scissors for hands . " The dance version is set in the 1950s , unlike the 1990 film , which was set in the late 1980s .
An inventor 's son was electrocuted in a dungeon @-@ like room while holding scissors . In his grief , the inventor creates another " son " with flashing scissors for hands . The creation is orphaned when unsavory characters frighten his father to death with some Halloween activities . He then ventures from his gothic origins into a suburban town where his loneliness is reinforced until he is taken in by Peg Boggs and adopted by both her family and the town .
In the promotional video for the American debut , Bourne highlights the juxtaposition of the gothic horror setting and the suburban settings of the adaptation . He also notes that San Francisco was a good place for the United States debut of the work in part because as a city it exhibits a tolerance similar to that of the suburbanites in the work . The piece has no spoken words . Like in the film , Edward is equipped with only scissors for hands because his inventor died in the middle of outfitting him . He is discovered in his castle by an Avon lady who brings him into her home . He then wanders into a town where a family takes him in . The theatrical adaptation has a more robust prologue than the film , but the additional backstory does not add content to the character .
= = Productions = =
The British New Adventures dance company raised $ 2 million that was augmented by $ 780 @,@ 000 from the Arts Council England to stage the original production at London 's Sadler 's Wells Theatre , which opened in November 2005 and closed on February 5 , 2006 . Eventually , the show was staged in Asia , the United States , Australia and Europe with New Adventures . The dance adaptation featured 30 members of the company . Marc Platt was the lead producer .
Sam Archer and Richard Winsor alternated in the main role , wearing a heavily elasticized costume with fiberglass blades and a thick leather forearm brace . They also starred in the following tour , with Archer staying on through the U.S. tour . Regular Bourne collaborators Scott Ambler and Etta Murfitt were associate directors and co @-@ stars . Set and costume design were both by Lez Brotherston in a style described as a sort of Desperate Housewives suburbia of mild @-@ mannered characters . His 1950 's suburbia sets were inspired by Peggy Sue Got Married and Back to the Future . Howard Harrison designed lights and Paul Groothuis was sound designer .
Following its 11 @-@ week London run , it had a United Kingdom tour that lasted for 14 weeks and that was followed by performances in Japan , Korea and the United States , where it ran until Spring 2007 . In November and December 2006 , it played in San Francisco at the Orpheum Theatre , where it made its American debut with previews on November 11 and 12 and a November 14 opening . In February 2007 , it played at the Kennedy Center in Washington , D.C. It spent part of April and May at the 5th Avenue Theatre in Seattle . The New York run was held at the Brooklyn Academy of Music . Other venues on the United States tour included Ahmanson Theatre in Los Angeles , Belk Theatre in Charlotte , North Carolina , Benedum Center in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , Kimmel Center in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania and Fox Theatre in St. Louis , Missouri . By the time it played in Brooklyn , it had visited a dozen North American cities .
In May 2008 , an Australian national tour was launched at the Sydney Opera House . The piece returned to Europe for a 2008 – 09 tour that included performances in Britain for the 2008 Christmas season . Venues on the Europe tour included Théâtre du Châtelet in Paris , Hippodrome Theatre in Birmingham , New Wimbledon Theatre and Sadler 's Wells Theatre in London as well as stops in Salford , Athens and Antwerp . Among the cities that it sold out are New York , Los Angeles , San Francisco , Sydney , Melbourne and Paris .
= = Reception = =
The dance adaptation received mixed reviews . The earliest review of the London production by The New York Times in November 2005 said that like the film version , " doomed love story remains bittersweet " . Matt Wolf of The New York Times panned the original run with statements such as " a potential dance sensation seems peculiarly short on actual dance " and " But a dream ballet late in the first act and various set pieces later seem , in terms of actual choreography , oddly pro forma for Bourne . . . " He felt that overcoming the obstacle of choreographing dances around a lead with blades for fingers was too much to overcome . A fellow critic from The New York Times described it as " visually alluring " two weeks later . On its Christmas 2008 return to England , The Times gave the show a positive review : " Matthew Bourne 's adaptation of Tim Burton 's 1990 film is one of the biggest and brightest of this season 's glut of cultural ornaments . Indeed , so much skill has been lavished on this dance @-@ theatre show for Bourne 's company , New Adventures , that it almost feels churlish to withhold my affections . " The Independent 's reviewer was critical , saying " Edward is more kids ' cartoon than satire , with two @-@ dimensional characters that stand a hair 's breadth from cliché " . Another critic from The Independent opened her review as follows : " The best part of Matthew Bourne 's Edward Scissorhands is the curtain call . " However , contemporaneous reviews by The Guardian were a bit more positive saying that " Bourne is a natural storyteller , who never leaves his audience behind " .
The work 's American debut in San Francisco drew mixed reviews . Robert Hurwitt of the San Francisco Chronicle described it as a high point in his " Theatre Year in Review top 10 " , saying it was " invigoratingly choreographed and beguilingly designed " . However , when analyzing the year from the entire Arts and culture perspective the Steven Winn ( also with the San Francisco Chronicle ) described the work as lacking , noting that its November run " fell well short of this show 's [ Swan Lake ] ' s inspired high mark " from March in the arts and culture year end top 10 . Hurwitt stated at the beginning of the San Francisco run that " Where Bourne triumphs , with considerable help from Davies , Thompson and Brotherston , is in replicating Burton 's delicately bittersweet whimsy in a manner uniquely his own . "
Johnny Depp attended the December 30 , 2006 show danced by Archer and signed a souvenir program for Bourne with the following partial inscription : " Trembled on the verge of tears , mate . " At the time of its off @-@ Broadway debut , The New York Times described it as not " so much a dance enhanced by a famous story as a drama condensed by the removal of words . " It was further panned in a more detailed review the following week by The New York Times Jennifer Dunning , who said " Mr. Bourne 's " Edward Scissorhands " is mostly a candy @-@ coated bore . " In Time , he was praised for the uniqueness of his dancing hedges .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
The work received a nomination for the 2007 Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Choreography ( for Bourne ) and won the 2007 Drama Desk Award for Unique Theatrical Experience . Bourne was also nominated for Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Choreography that year for Mary Poppins .
= Russian battleship Dvenadsat Apostolov =
Dvenadsat Apostolov ( Russian : Двенадцать Апостолов — " Twelve Apostles " ) was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship built for the Imperial Russian Navy , the sole ship of her class . She served in the Black Sea Fleet and was built by Nikolayev Admiralty Dockyard . Laid down in February 1888 , and launched in September 1890 , she was commissioned in December 1892 . She became an immobile submarine depot ship in 1912 after she was decommissioned and disarmed the previous year . She was captured by the Germans in 1918 in Sevastopol and was handed over to the Allies in December 1918 . Lying immobile in Sevastopol , she was captured by both sides in the Russian Civil War before permanently falling into the hands of the Soviets when the White Russians evacuated the Crimea . She was used as a stand @-@ in for the title ship during the filming of The Battleship Potemkin and was finally scrapped in 1931 .
= = Design = =
Dvenadsat Apostolov was originally ordered as one of a pair of battleships for the Black Sea Fleet , but the second ship was awarded to a firm on the verge of bankruptcy and they made no significant progress . Her initial armament was planned to be eight 9 @-@ inch ( 230 mm ) guns , four in two twin @-@ gun turrets and four in the central casemate . However , the final form of the turrets and machinery layout was not decided upon , even after construction of the hull began in early 1888 . The following September the Naval Technical Committee decided to increase the thickness of the waterline armour belt from 13 inches ( 330 mm ) to 14 inches ( 356 mm ) at the cost of 75 long tons ( 76 t ) . It also decided to move the forward turret back 7 feet 8 inches ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) because it thought that the ship might be bow @-@ heavy . They also decided against the original armament and fixed on four 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns in twin @-@ gun barbettes at each end of the ship with four 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) guns in a shortened central battery , although it added over 100 long tons ( 100 t ) of additional weight to the ship .
= = = General characteristics = = =
She was 335 feet 6 inches ( 102 @.@ 3 m ) long at the waterline and 342 feet ( 104 @.@ 2 m ) long overall . She had a beam of 60 feet ( 18 @.@ 3 m ) and a draft of 27 feet 6 inches ( 8 @.@ 4 m ) . Her exact displacement was never measured , but has been estimated at 8 @,@ 710 long tons ( 8 @,@ 850 t ) , over 600 long tons ( 610 t ) more than her designed displacement of 8 @,@ 076 long tons ( 8 @,@ 206 t ) .
Her hull was generally similar to that of the Imperator Aleksandr II class although her ram was 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) longer . It was subdivided by eleven transverse and one centreline longitudinal watertight bulkheads and she had a complete double bottom 35 @.@ 4 inches ( 900 mm ) deep . She had a metacentric height of 2 @.@ 62 feet ( 0 @.@ 80 m ) . She demonstrated better seagoing qualities than the older Ekaterina II class during a storm in October 1894 , although she rolled badly and leaked through her ports and hatches . She was assessed as a considerably better fighting ship that the Imperator Aleksandr II class .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Dvenadsat Apostolov had two 3 @-@ cylinder vertical triple expansion steam engines built by Baltic Works and had a total designed output of 8 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 6 @,@ 338 kW ) . Eight cylindrical boilers , four single @-@ ended and four double @-@ ended , provided steam to the engines , which drove two 5 @.@ 26 @-@ metre ( 17 ft ) screw propellers . On trials , the powerplant produced 8 @,@ 758 ihp ( 6 @,@ 531 kW ) and a top speed of 15 @.@ 15 knots ( 28 @.@ 06 km / h ; 17 @.@ 43 mph ) . After her initial engine trials her funnels were raised by 12 ft 6 in ( 3 @.@ 81 m ) to improve their draft and to keep the superstructure clear of funnel gases . She carried 710 long tons ( 720 t ) of coal at full load that provided a range of 1 @,@ 900 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 500 km ; 2 @,@ 200 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had six Siemens dynamos with a total output of 540 kW .
= = = Armament = = =
The main armament of Dvenadsat Apostolov were two pairs of 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) Obukhov Model 1877 30 @-@ caliber guns mounted in twin barbette mounts forward and aft . They had a maximum elevation of 15 ° and could depress to − 5 ° and could traverse 270 ° . 66 rounds per gun were carried . They fired a 731 @.@ 3 @-@ pound ( 331 @.@ 7 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 870 ft / s ( 570 m / s ) to a range of 5 @,@ 570 yards ( 5 @,@ 090 m ) at an elevation of 6 ° . The rate of fire was one round every five minutes , but the loading machinery would not work if the ship was heeled more than 5 ° .
The four 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) Model 1877 35 @-@ caliber guns were mounted on pivot mounts in the central casemate . The sides of the hull were recessed to give them axial fire . They could traverse a total of 100 ° . Each gun had an arc of fire of 130 ° . The ship carried 130 rounds for each gun . The guns could elevate to a maximum of 8 @.@ 5 ° and depress to − 8 ° . They fired a ' heavy ' shell that weighed 119 – 123 @.@ 5 lb ( 54 @.@ 0 – 56 @.@ 0 kg ) at a velocity of 1 @,@ 896 ft / s ( 578 m / s ) or a ' light ' shell that weighed 91 @.@ 5 lb ( 41 @.@ 5 kg ) with a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 329 ft / s ( 710 m / s ) . A ' light ' shell had a maximum range of 8 @,@ 170 yards ( 7 @,@ 470 m ) when fired at an elevation of 12 ° , although the casemate only permitted a maximum elevation of 8 @.@ 5 ° . The guns could fire one round per minute .
Her ten 47 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns were mounted in embrasures in the hull or superstructure . They fired a 3 @.@ 3 @-@ pound ( 1 @.@ 5 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 476 ft / s ( 450 m / s ) at a rate of 20 rounds per minute to a range of 2 @,@ 020 yards ( 1 @,@ 850 m ) . Two 37 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss revolving cannon were mounted at the forward end of the superstructure and two on the platform just abaft the second funnel . They fired a 1 @.@ 1 @-@ pound ( 0 @.@ 50 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 450 ft / s ( 440 m / s ) at a rate of 32 rounds per minute to a range of 3 @,@ 038 yards ( 2 @,@ 778 m ) . Six single @-@ barrelled versions , with a rate of fire of only twenty rounds per minute , were carried in the fighting top on the foremast and two were in small embrasures at the after end of the superstructure . The location of the other two guns is unknown .
Dvenadsat Apostolov carried six above @-@ water 15 in ( 381 mm ) torpedo tubes . One tube was in the bow , two tubes on each broadside and a tube in the stern .
= = = Protection = = =
Compound armour was supplied by Charles Cammell of Sheffield , England and comprised the bulk of the armour used in Dvenadsat Apostolov . The main waterline belt had a maximum thickness of 14 inches ( 356 mm ) abreast the machinery spaces , but thinned to 12 inches abreast the magazine and was only 7 – 8 inches ( 178 – 203 mm ) thick at its lower edge . It was 228 feet 8 inches ( 70 m ) long and 5 ft 6 in ( 1 @.@ 68 m ) high , most of which ( 4 ft 3 in ( 1 @.@ 30 m ) ) was below the waterline as actually completed because she was overweight . The belt tapered to eight inches at the lower edge . Bulkheads nine to twelve inches thick provided transverse protection for the ship 's vitals . The lower casemate armour was 214 feet ( 65 m ) long and twelve inches thick . Above it was the casemate armour for the six @-@ inch guns that consisted of 5 inches ( 127 mm ) of steel armour . The barbette armour was 10 – 12 inches ( 254 – 305 mm ) thick . Initially the barbette was open @-@ topped , but a 2 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 64 mm ) thick protective hood was added later , possibly in 1893 . The conning tower had eight @-@ inch sides of steel armour .
= = History = =
Dvenadsat Apostolov was built by the Nikolayev Admiralty Dockyard at Nikolayev . She was laid down on 21 August 1889 , launched on 13 September 1890 , and sailed to Sevastopol for fitting out on 11 May 1892 . She joined the fleet on 17 June 1893 , but she was not fully ready for service until 1894 . In 1895 she was used to test a new system of laying mines by rails that had been invented by Lieutenant A. P. Ygrumov and also to evaluate the proper dimensions for anti @-@ torpedo nets and their booms . For this last test torpedoes were fired at the ship with the anti @-@ torpedo nets deployed . One gun , of an unknown calibre , burst in 1903 , killing one man and wounding two others .
Dvenadsat Apostolov participated in the failed attempt to recapture the mutinous battleship Potemkin on 30 June 1905 . She attempted to ram Potemkin but sailors sympathetic to the mutiny reversed the engines and then prevented an attempt by Captain Kolands to blow his own ship by severing the detonating wires .
The Naval Technical Committee proposed to reboiler her in 1907 with new Belleville water @-@ tube boilers , but this was forestalled by a plan to reuse those of the Chesma . Simultaneously a proposal to rearm her with four ten @-@ inch guns in two turrets and several 6 @-@ inch guns in a new casemate was made by the Naval General Staff . This was estimated to cost 1 @,@ 275 @,@ 000 roubles and would only add 15 long tons ( 15 t ) to her displacement , but both proposals were rejected by the Naval Technical Committee which believed it was a waste of money given her obsolete layout . The General Staff made another proposal in 1909 to rearm her as with smaller guns as a guardship intended to defend Sevastopol from attacks by enemy light forces . This was initially approved by the Navy Minister , Admiral Ivan Grigorovich in June 1909 , but this was later reversed .
Dvenadsat Apostolov was transferred to the Sev
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astopol Port Authority on 1 April 1911 , stricken from the Navy List and disarmed on 15 April . She became a depot ship for submarines in 1912 . Renamed as Blokshiv ( hulk ) No. 8 on 4 September 1914 , she was used on various harbour duties . Immobile , she was captured by the Germans in Sevastopol in May 1918 and handed over to the Allies in December 1918 . She was captured by both sides during the Russian Civil War , but was abandoned by the White Russians when they evacuated the Crimea . Her machinery was removed in 1921 . She was used as a stand @-@ in for the Potemkin during the filming of The Battleship Potemkin , while reportedly serving as a mine storage hulk , before she was sold for scrap on 28 January 1931 .
= Sinthgunt =
Sinthgunt is a figure in Germanic mythology , attested solely in the Old High German 9th- or 10th @-@ century " horse cure " Merseburg Incantation . In the incantation , Sinthgunt is referred to as the sister of the personified sun , Sunna ( whose name is alliterative to Sinthgunt ) , and the two sisters are cited as both producing charms to heal Phol 's horse , a figure also otherwise unattested . The two are then followed by Friia and Uolla , also alliterative and stated as sisters .
As Sinthgunt is otherwise unattested , her significance is otherwise unknown , but some scholarly theories exist about her role in Germanic mythology based on proposed etymologies , and the potential significance of her placement within the incantation .
= = Etymology = =
The etymology of Sinthgunt is unclear . Within the original manuscript , Sinthgunt is spelled " Sinhtgunt " ( emphasis added ) . Sticking directly to this reading has yielded interpretations such as " the night @-@ walking one " . As a result of the paring with Sunna , the personified sun , this etymology has been interpreted as a reference to the moon . However , this reading has yielded problems ; the moon in Germanic mythology is considered masculine , exemplified in the personification of the moon in Norse mythology , Máni , a male figure . Interpretations from the amended " Sinthgunt " have resulted in readings such as " the one moving into battle " or " heavenly body , star " .
= = Placement = =
The figures Fulla ( Uolla ) and Frigg ( Friia ) are attested together in later Old Norse sources ( though not as sisters ) , and theories have been proposed that the Fulla may at one time have been an aspect of Frigg . As a result , this notion has resulted in theory that a similar situation may have existed between the figures of Sinthgunt and Sól , in that the two may have been understood as aspects of one another rather than entirely separate figures .
= Benjamin Franklin Tilley =
Benjamin Franklin Tilley ( March 29 , 1848 – March 18 , 1907 ) , often known as B. F. Tilley , was a career officer in the United States Navy who served from the end of the American Civil War through the Spanish – American War . He is best remembered as the first Acting @-@ Governor of American Samoa , as well as the territory 's first Naval governor .
Tilley entered the United States Naval Academy during the height of the Civil War . Graduating after the conflict , he gradually rose through the ranks . As a lieutenant , he participated in the United States military 's crackdown against workers in the wake of the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 . During the 1891 Chilean Civil War , Tilley and a small contingent of sailors and marines defended the American consulate in Santiago , Chile . As a commander during the Spanish – American War , Tilley and his gunship , USS Newport , successfully captured two Spanish Navy ships . After the war , Tilley was made the first acting @-@ Governor of Tutuila and Manua ( later called American Samoa ) and set legal and administrative precedents for the new territory . Near the conclusion of his 41 years of service , he was promoted to rear admiral , but died shortly afterwards from pneumonia .
= = Early life and Naval career = =
Benjamin Franklin Tilley was born March 29 , 1848 , the sixth of nine children , in Bristol , Rhode Island . During the American Civil War , Tilley enrolled in the United States Naval Academy on September 22 , 1863 , at the age of 15 . The war forced the school to relocate from Annapolis , Maryland ( then threatened by the Confederacy ) to Newport , Rhode Island . In 1866 he graduated first in his class , going on to serve as a midshipman first on board USS Franklin , and then USS Frolic . Tilley spent three years serving on board Frolic , eventually being promoted to ensign . His next assignment was on board USS Lancaster , where he was promoted twice : first to master in 1870 and then to lieutenant in 1871 . From 1872 to 1875 , Tilley served on board USS Pensacola in the South Pacific . After Pensacola , he served briefly on board USS New Hampshire and then spent two years serving on USS Hartford .
= = = Railroad strike of 1877 = = =
In July 1877 , a violent railroad strike began in Martinsburg , West Virginia , sparking riots in other American cities such as Pittsburgh and Philadelphia . In response , President Rutherford B. Hayes authorized the use of the military to put down the rioting . During the crisis , Tilley was temporarily transferred to USS Plymouth , sailing up the Potomac River to Washington , D.C. Military leaders feared rioters from Baltimore could travel to Washington to seize or damage vulnerable government targets . The troops defending Washington , including army , navy , and marines , were organized into a battalion of seven companies ( Naval Brigade ) , under the command of Captain Edward Barrett ; Tilley was placed in command of Company C. The precautions proved to be unnecessary , as the expected wave of rioters never materialized following the military 's suppression of the strikers in Baltimore . Within a short time , the riots in other cities were also quashed .
After the strike , Tilley was transferred to the flagship USS Powhatan , before requesting to take a six @-@ month leave so that he could marry . On June 6 , 1878 , Tilley married Emily Edelin Williamson , the daughter of a Navy surgeon and left with her on an extended honeymoon in Europe . On his return to duty , Tilley served in the United States Naval Academy and remained there , either in a classroom or on a training ship , until 1882 . For the next three years , Tilley served on board USS Tennessee . In 1885 , Tilley was promoted to lieutenant commander and returned to teach at the academy . During his tenure there , he was appointed head of two departments : first the Department of Astronomy , Navigation , and Surveying and then transferred to the Department of Mechanical Drawing . In September 1889 , he moved to the Washington Navy Yard to teach ordnance .
= = = Chilean Civil War = = =
In 1890 , Tilley was transferred to San Francisco , to help test the newly @-@ built USS San Francisco and to become her executive officer . During the 1891 Chilean Civil War , San Francisco transported troops to the port of Valparaíso , from where they could move on to protect the American consulate in the capital , Santiago . When insurgents captured the city , Tilley and a force of 100 men remained to defend the consulate . After the war , Tilley returned to the naval academy as head of the astronomy and navigation department . In 1896 , he took command of USS Bancroft and sailed on an inspection tour of naval yards along the east coast of the United States . That October , he was promoted to commander . The following year , Tilley was given command of USS Newport to sail to Nicaragua to evaluate the progress of the isthmus canal commission .
= = = Spanish – American War = = =
On April 23 , 1898 , Spain declared war on the United States in response to American efforts to support Cuban independence . Tilley , still in command of Newport , was in the Caribbean and in the heart of the conflict area . Two days after the United States responded with its own declaration of war against Spain , on April 27 , Tilley captured the Spanish Navy 's sloop Paquete and schooner Pireno . Tilley participated in the naval blockade of Santiago de Cuba , but missed the subsequent Battle of Santiago de Cuba as Newport was refueling at Guantánamo Bay when fighting broke out . Toward the end of the war , Tilley was responsible for shelling the Cuban port of Manzanillo . Over the months of fighting , Tilley and Newport assisted in the capture of nine Spanish vessels . At the conclusion of the war , he was transferred to the Newport Naval Yard , before being given the command of USS Vicksburg in October .
= = Commandant of U.S. Naval Station Tutuila = =
The United States first expressed interest in building a naval station at Pago Pago , Samoa , in 1872 at the behest of Henry A. Peirce , the United States Minister to Hawaii . A treaty to that effect was written and submitted , but it was not approved by the United States Senate . Six years later , on February 13 , 1878 , a separate treaty was ratified by the Senate that granted the Samoan government diplomatic recognition and reaffirmed permission to build a naval station in the country . Although there were no further political obstacles , funding for the station was not allocated and only a small coaling station was built on the island . Construction of the naval station did not begin until twenty years later , in 1898 , led by civilian contractors . In early 1899 , Tilley was assigned the task of overseeing the station construction and becoming its first commandant . He was also put in command of a collier , USS Abarenda , which would transport steel and coal to the construction site and to serve as the first station ship . After a long voyage , Tilley took on his new post on August 13 , 1899 .
Even before Tilley arrived in Samoa , the political situation there was shifting . The Second Samoan Civil War had recently ended , leaving the nation without a functioning central government . The United States , the United Kingdom , and Germany had competing strategic or economic interests in the region . On June 10 , 1899 , the Western powers signed the Treaty of Berlin , which partitioned Samoa in two . The eastern part , with Tutuila as its largest island , was placed under the control of the United States . The larger and historically dominant western part was given to Germany . Under this treaty , the British government relinquished its claims over the region in exchange for certain concessions from Germany . News of this arrangement did not reach Tilley and the islands until December 6 , 1899 .
After learning of the agreement , Tilley notified the local chiefs and asserted nominal United States control , but a formal decision on how the United States government would manage the territory had not yet been made . The construction of the naval base remained Tilley 's primary responsibility , and he was dispatched to pick up additional supplies and coal at Auckland , New Zealand . Less than a month after returning , on February 19 , 1900 , President William McKinley placed the territory under the control of the United States Navy . Assistant Secretary of the Navy Charles H. Allen named Tilley commandant of United States Naval Station Tutuila with a charter to " cultivate friendly relations with the natives " .
= = Acting Governor of Tutuila = =
Tilley 's first task in his new role was to negotiate a deed of cession with the local powers to ensure a formal and peaceful transfer of control to the United States . With the partitioning of Samoa , two regional governments remained on Tutuila , which had been subordinated to a government on the western ( and now German @-@ controlled ) island of Upolu . Both of these governments were favorable toward the cession . The inhabitants of the island of Taʻu and the volcanic doublet of Ofu @-@ Olosega — together known as Manu 'a — 70 miles ( 110 km ) to the east , were politically separate from Tutuila . On March 12 , 1900 , Tilley traveled to Taʻu to meet with the local king , Tui Manuʻa Elisala . Ultimately , the king agreed to cede some sovereignty to the United States , but refused to consider full cession . The deed of cession , signed on April 17 , 1900 , listed Manu 'a as part of the United States ' new territory , but without the signature of its representative . In it , Tilley was named Acting Governor ; the territory would not have an official governor until the title was given to Governor Edmund Beardsley Underwood in 1905 . Manu 'a would not agree to sign the deed until 1904 , after negotiating concessions from the United States .
As Acting Governor , Tilley 's first acts were to impose a duty on imports to the territory , ban the sale of alcohol to the local population ( but not Americans ) , and forbid the sale of Samoan lands to non @-@ Samoans . On May 1 , 1900 , he proclaimed that the laws of the United States were in force in the territory , but that Samoan laws that did not conflict with U.S. law would remain in effect . He partitioned the territory into three districts , along the historical divisions implicitly acknowledged in the deed of cession : the two governments on Tutuila and the third comprising the islands of Manu 'a , which still did not regard themselves as part of the territory . Over the next year , Tilley regulated firearms , enforced mandatory registrations of births , deaths , and marriages , levied taxes , and made the sabbath a public holiday . For defense and police , Tilley created a small militia of native Samoans , called the Fita Fita Guard . The native volunteers in this force were trained at the naval station by a sergeant of the United States Marine Corps .
During Tilley 's administration problems arose because of conflicting Samoan and American laws . In one case , a native had caught and eaten a skipjack , a sacred fish which , under Samoan law , could only be eaten with the permission of a local chief . Traditional punishment decreed that the offender 's house should be burned down , his crops uprooted , and he should be exiled from the territory . The native challenged his punishment under the American legal system however , resulting in the arrest of the chief responsible for ordering the destruction of his property . In a criminal proceeding on which Tilley sat as judge , the chief was sentenced to a year of house arrest and ordered to pay compensation for the destroyed property . There were similar issues with Samoan customs not blending well with the newly introduced American political divisions in the territory . For example , although the territory 's three district governors had equal authority , they were of differing Samoan social status . This disparity made decision @-@ making more difficult and caused social tensions . Despite these problems , Tilley was well @-@ considered by the locals . On December 18 , 1900 , the local chiefs sent a letter of congratulations on the re @-@ election of President McKinley . In this letter , they said of Tilley " ... you gave us a leader , a Governor , a High Chief , whom we have learned to love and respect " .
Tilley took leave in June 1901 to return to Washington , leaving E. J. Dorn in command . Dorn subsequently had medical issues and was replaced by J. L. Jayne in October . That month an anonymous complaint was made to Assistant Secretary of the Navy Frank W. Hackett against Commandant Tilley alleging immorality and drunkenness . Almost simultaneously , Tilley was promoted to captain by President Theodore Roosevelt . Tilley returned to Samoa on November 7 , 1901 with his wife , and two days later was given a court martial . The trial lasted four days and only one witness was called for the prosecution . Ultimately , Tilley was acquitted . Despite this , Captain Uriel Sebree was appointed as commandant on November 27 , 1901 . Tilley and his wife returned to the United States the following month .
Sebree later remarked of his predecessor that he had " great ability , kindness , tact and sound common sense " . Unlike Sebree , who was concerned that he did not have a legal mandate to govern , Tilley was not shy about enacting legislation and being the de facto leader of the territory . Although the deed of cession recognized his authority and gave him the title of Acting Governor , as far as the United States government was concerned , he was officially responsible only for the naval station . As the first naval governor , Tilley laid the groundwork for much of the future governance of the territory , which did not yet even have a formal name . The American Samoa government includes Tilley and the other pre @-@ 1905 station commandants in its list of territorial governors .
= = Later Career and Death = =
Tilley 's next assignment , in March 1902 , was as a captain of the Mare Island Naval Shipyard in Vallejo , California . He remained in this post for three years before being assigned to USS Iowa on January 11 , 1905 . Two years later , on February 23 , 1907 , Tilley was made commandant of League Island Naval Yard in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . He was promoted to rear admiral the following day . Less than a month later , on March 18 , 1907 , Tilley died of pneumonia . At the end of the year , Tilley was one of 322 men and women listed by The Washington Post as " foremost in their various callings " that had died in 1907 . Tilley was survived by one son and two daughters . His son , Benjamin Franklin Tilley , Jr . , also entered the Navy and retired with the rank of lieutenant commander .
= Japanese aircraft carrier Shinano =
Shinano ( 信濃 ) , was an aircraft carrier built by the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) during World War II , the largest such built up to that time . Laid down in May 1940 as the third of the Yamato @-@ class battleships , Shinano 's partially complete hull was ordered to be converted to a carrier following Japan 's disastrous loss of four fleet carriers at the Battle of Midway in mid @-@ 1942 . Her conversion was still not finished in November 1944 when she was ordered to sail from the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal to Kure Naval Base to complete fitting out and transfer a load of 50 Yokosuka MXY7 Ohka rocket @-@ propelled kamikaze flying bombs . Hastily dispatched , she had an inexperienced crew and serious design and construction flaws , lacked adequate pumps and fire @-@ control systems , and did not even carry a single carrier aircraft . She was sunk en route , 10 days after commissioning , on 29 November 1944 , by four torpedoes from the U.S. Navy submarine Archerfish . Over a thousand sailors and civilians were rescued and 1 @,@ 435 were lost , including her captain . She remains the largest warship ever sunk by a submarine .
= = Design and description = =
One of two additional Yamato @-@ class battleships ordered as part of the 4th Naval Armaments Supplement Program of 1939 , Shinano was named after the old province of Shinano , following the Japanese ship @-@ naming conventions for battleships . She was laid down on 4 May 1940 at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal to a modified Yamato @-@ class design : her armor would be 10 – 20 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 39 – 0 @.@ 79 in ) thinner than that of the earlier ships , as it had proved to be thicker than it needed to be for the desired level of protection , and her heavy anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns would be the new 65 @-@ caliber 10 cm Type 98 dual @-@ purpose gun , as it had superior ballistic characteristics and a higher rate of fire than the 40 @-@ caliber 12 @.@ 7 cm Type 89 guns used by her half @-@ sisters .
= = = Construction and conversion = = =
As with Shinano 's half @-@ sisters Yamato and Musashi , the new ship 's existence was kept a closely guarded secret . A tall fence was erected on three sides of the graving dock , and those working on the conversion were confined to the yard compound . Serious punishment — up to and including death — awaited any worker who mentioned the new ship . As a result , Shinano was the only major warship built in the 20th century to have avoided being officially photographed during its construction . The ship is only known to have been photographed twice : on 1 November 1944 , by a Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress reconnaissance aircraft from an altitude of 9 @,@ 800 meters ( 32 @,@ 000 ft ) , and ten days later , by a civilian photographer aboard a harbor tug during Shinano 's initial sea trials in Tokyo Bay .
In December 1941 , construction on Shinano 's hull was temporarily suspended to allow the IJN time to decide what to do with the ship . She was not expected to be completed until 1945 , and the sinking of the British capital ships Prince of Wales and Repulse by IJN bombers had called into question the viability of battleships in the war . The navy also wanted to make the large drydock in which the ship was being built available , which required either scrapping the portion already completed or finishing it enough to launch it and clear the drydock . The IJN decided on the latter , albeit with a reduced work force which was expected to be able to launch the ship in one year .
In the month following the disastrous loss of four fleet carriers at the June 1942 Battle of Midway , the IJN ordered the ship 's unfinished hull converted into an aircraft carrier . Her hull was only 45 percent complete by that time , with structural work complete up to the lower deck and most of her machinery installed . The main deck , lower side armor , and upper side armor around the ship 's magazines had been completely installed , and the forward barbettes for the main guns were also nearly finished . The navy decided that Shinano would become a heavily armored support carrier — carrying reserve aircraft , fuel and ordnance in support of other carriers — rather than a fleet carrier .
As completed , Shinano had a length of 265 @.@ 8 meters ( 872 ft 1 in ) overall , a beam of 36 @.@ 3 meters ( 119 ft 1 in ) and a draft of 10 @.@ 3 meters ( 33 ft 10 in ) . She displaced 65 @,@ 800 metric tons ( 64 @,@ 800 long tons ) at standard load , 69 @,@ 151 metric tons ( 68 @,@ 059 long tons ) at normal load and 73 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 72 @,@ 000 long tons ) at full load . Shinano was the largest aircraft carrier yet built , a record she held until the 81 @,@ 000 @-@ metric @-@ ton ( 80 @,@ 000 @-@ long @-@ ton ) USS Forrestal was launched in 1954 . She was designed for a crew of 2 @,@ 400 officers and enlisted men .
= = = Machinery = = =
Shinano 's machinery was identical to that of her half @-@ sisters . The ships were fitted with four geared steam turbine sets with a total of 150 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 110 @,@ 000 kW ) , each driving one propeller shaft , using steam provided by 12 Kampon water @-@ tube boilers . The ships had a designed speed of 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) , but Shinano never conducted full @-@ speed sea trials so her actual performance is unknown . She carried 9 @,@ 047 metric tons ( 8 @,@ 904 long tons ) of fuel oil which gave her an estimated range of 10 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 19 @,@ 000 km ; 12 @,@ 000 mi ) at 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
= = = Flight deck and hangar = = =
Shinano was designed to load and fuel her aircraft on deck where it was safer for the ship ; experiences in the Battles of Midway and the Coral Sea had demonstrated that the existing doctrine of fueling and arming their aircraft below decks was a real danger to the carriers if they were attacked while doing so . Much of Shinano 's hangar was left open for better ventilation , although steel shutters could close off most of the hangar sides if necessary . This also allowed ordnance or burning aircraft to be jettisoned into the sea , something that the earlier carriers could not do with their enclosed hangars .
The carrier 's 256 @-@ meter ( 839 ft 11 in ) flight deck was 40 @.@ 0 meters ( 131 ft 3 in ) wide and overhung her hull at both ends , supported by pairs of pillars . A large island , modeled on that fitted on Taihō , was sponsoned off the starboard side and integrated with the ship 's funnel . Much like the earlier Taihō design , Shinano 's armored flight deck ( they were the only Japanese carriers with armored flight decks ) functioned as the ship 's strength deck and copied British practice as seen in their Illustrious @-@ class carriers . Designed to resist penetration by 500 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) bombs dropped by a dive bomber , the flight deck consisted of 75 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) of armor plate laid over 20 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) of ordinary steel . It was equipped with 15 transverse arrestor wires and three crash barriers that could stop a 7 @,@ 500 @-@ kilogram ( 16 @,@ 500 lb ) aircraft ; five of these wires were positioned further forward to allow the ship to land aircraft over the bow in case the aft portion of the flight deck was unusable .
Unlike the British carriers , Taihō and Shinano had unarmored sides to their hangars . For stability reasons , the latter only had a single hangar that was 163 @.@ 4 by 33 @.@ 8 meters ( 536 by 111 ft ) , with a minimum width of 19 @.@ 8 meters ( 65 ft ) aft , and had a height of 5 @.@ 0 meters ( 16 ft 6 in ) . The forward area of the hangar was dedicated to maintenance and storage facilities . Aircraft were transported between the hangar and the flight deck by two elevators , one at each end of the hangar on the centerline of the flight deck . The larger of the two measured 15 @.@ 0 by 14 @.@ 0 meters ( 49 @.@ 25 by 45 @.@ 9 ft ) . They were capable of lifting aircraft weighing up to 7 @,@ 500 kilograms ( 16 @,@ 500 lb ) . The ship had an aviation gasoline ( avgas ) capacity of 720 @,@ 000 liters ( 160 @,@ 000 imp gal ; 190 @,@ 000 U.S. gal ) . Large ventilation fans were installed on the hangar deck to expel fumes in case of damage to the gasoline system ; Taihō had been sunk by an explosion of gasoline fumes . Canvas wind scoops could also be rigged over the elevator opening to force more air inside .
The ship 's organic air group was intended to consist of 18 Mitsubishi A7M Reppū ( Allied reporting name " Sam " ) fighters ( plus two in storage ) , 18 Aichi B7A Ryusei ( " Grace " ) torpedo @-@ dive bombers ( plus two in storage ) , and 6 Nakajima C6N Saiun ( " Myrt " ) reconnaissance aircraft ( plus one in storage ) . The remainder of the hangar space would have held up to 120 replacement aircraft for other carriers and land bases .
= = = Armament = = =
Shinano 's primary armament consisted of sixteen 40 @-@ caliber 12 @.@ 7 @-@ centimeter ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) Type 89 dual @-@ purpose guns in eight twin mounts , two at each corner of the hull . When firing at surface targets , the guns had a range of 14 @,@ 700 meters ( 16 @,@ 100 yd ) ; they had a maximum ceiling of 9 @,@ 440 meters ( 30 @,@ 970 ft ) at their maximum elevation of 90 degrees . Their maximum rate of fire was 14 rounds a minute ; their sustained rate of fire was around eight rounds per minute .
The ship also carried 105 Type 96 25 mm light AA guns in 35 triple @-@ gun mounts . These 25 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) guns had an effective range of 1 @,@ 500 – 3 @,@ 000 meters ( 1 @,@ 600 – 3 @,@ 300 yd ) , and an effective ceiling of 5 @,@ 500 meters ( 18 @,@ 000 ft ) at an elevation of + 85 degrees . The maximum effective rate of fire was only between 110 and 120 rounds per minute because of the frequent need to change the fifteen @-@ round magazines . This was the standard Japanese light AA gun during World War II , but it suffered from severe design shortcomings that rendered it largely ineffective . According to historian Mark Stille , the weapon had many faults including an inability to " handle high @-@ speed targets because it could not be trained or elevated fast enough by either hand or power , its sights were inadequate for high @-@ speed targets , it possessed excessive vibration and muzzle blast " .... These guns were supplemented by a dozen 28 @-@ round AA rocket launchers . Each 12 @-@ centimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) rocket weighed 22 @.@ 5 kilograms ( 50 lb ) and had a maximum velocity of 200 m / s ( 660 ft / s ) . Their maximum range was 4 @,@ 800 meters ( 5 @,@ 200 yd ) .
Four Type 94 high @-@ angle fire @-@ control directors were fitted to control the Type 89 guns . The two controlling the port @-@ side guns were adjacent to their guns while the starboard directors were mounted fore and aft on the island . They could control all of the forward and rear guns respectively as necessary . Type 22 and Type 13 air search radars may have been fitted .
= = = Armor = = =
The ship 's original waterline armor belt thickness of 400 millimeters ( 15 @.@ 7 in ) was only retained where it had already been installed abreast the magazines , and reduced to 160 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) elsewhere . Below it was a strake of armor that tapered in thickness from 200 millimeters ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) to 75 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) at its bottom edge . The flat portion of the armor deck over the machinery and magazine spaces , ranging from 100 to 190 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 9 to 7 @.@ 5 in ) , was retained , and the sloped portion that angled downward towards the bottom of the main armor belt was 230 millimeters ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) thick . Large external anti @-@ torpedo bulges below the waterline provided the main defense against torpedoes , backed up by an armored bulkhead extending down from the belt armor ; the bulkhead was intended to prevent splinters from piercing the main hull and , though not watertight , was backed by a second one which was . The joint between the upper and lower armor belts was weak and proved to be a serious problem when struck by torpedoes .
Even though Shinano 's avgas tanks were protected by armor that could resist a 155 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 1 in ) shell , the IJN attempted to isolate the tanks from the rest of the ship with a cofferdam . However the investigation into the loss of Taihō had revealed that her avgas tanks had sprung leaks after she was torpedoed . The resulting fumes then penetrated the cofferdam and exploded . Therefore , the IJN thought it prudent to fill the empty spaces between the tanks and the cofferdam with 2 @,@ 400 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 362 long tons ) of concrete to prevent any fumes from escaping .
= = = Launching = = =
The ship was originally scheduled for completion in April 1945 , but construction was expedited after the defeat at the Battle of the Philippine Sea in June 1944 as the IJN anticipated that the United States would now be able to bomb Japan with long @-@ range aircraft from bases in the Mariana Islands . The builder was unable to increase the number of workers on Shinano and could not meet the new deadline of October . Even so , the pressure to finish as quickly as possible led to poor workmanship by the workforce .
Shinano 's launch on 8 October 1944 , with Captain Toshio Abe in command , was marred by what some considered an ill @-@ omened accident . During the floating @-@ out procedure , one of the caissons at the end of the dock unexpectedly lifted as the water rose to the level of the harbor ( no one had checked to ensure that all the caissons were properly ballasted with seawater ) . The sudden inrush of water into the graving dock pushed the carrier into the forward end , damaging the bow structure below the waterline and requiring repairs in drydock . These were completed by 26 October .
= = Commissioning and sinking = =
= = = Departure from Yokosuka = = =
On 19 November 1944 , Shinano was formally commissioned at Yokosuka , having spent the previous two weeks fitting out and performing sea trials . Worried about her safety after a U.S. reconnaissance bomber fly @-@ over , the Navy General Staff ordered Shinano to depart for Kure by no later than 28 November , where the remainder of her fitting @-@ out would take place . Abe asked for a delay in the sailing date as the majority of her watertight doors had yet to be installed , the compartment air tests had not been conducted , and many holes in the compartment bulkheads for electrical cables , ventilation ducts and pipes had not been sealed . Importantly , fire mains and bailing systems lacked pumps and were inoperable ; even though most of the crew had sea @-@ going experience , they lacked training in the portable pumps on board . The escorting destroyers , Isokaze , Yukikaze and Hamakaze , had just returned from the Battle of Leyte Gulf and required more than three days to conduct repairs and to allow their crews to recuperate .
Abe 's request was denied , and Shinano departed as scheduled with the escorting destroyers at 18 : 00 on 28 November . Abe commanded a crew of 2 @,@ 175 officers and men . Also on board were 300 shipyard workers and 40 civilian employees . Watertight doors and hatches were left open for ease of access to machinery spaces , as were some manholes in the double and triple @-@ bottomed hull . Abe preferred a daylight passage , since it would have allowed him extra time to train his crew and given the destroyer crews time to rest . However , he was forced to make a nighttime run when he learned the Navy General Staff could not provide air support . Shinano carried six Shinyo suicide boats , and 50 Ohka suicide flying bombs ; her other aircraft were not planned to come aboard until later . Her orders were to go to Kure , where she would complete fitting out and then deliver the kamikaze craft to the Philippines and Okinawa . Traveling at an average speed of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) , she needed sixteen hours to cover the 300 miles ( 480 km ) to Kure . As a measure of how important Shinano was to the naval command , Abe was slated for promotion to rear admiral once its fitting out was complete .
= = = Attacked = = =
At 20 : 48 , the American submarine Archerfish , commanded by Commander Joseph F. Enright , picked up Shinano and her escorts on her radar and pursued them on a parallel course . Over an hour and a half earlier , Shinano had detected the submarine 's radar . Normally , Shinano would have been able to outrun Archerfish , but the zig @-@ zagging movement of the carrier and her escorts — intended to avoid submarine attack — inadvertently turned the task group back into the sub 's path on several occasions . At 22 : 45 , the carrier 's lookouts spotted Archerfish on the surface and Isokaze broke formation , against orders , to investigate . Abe ordered the destroyer to return to the formation without attacking because he believed that the submarine was part of an American wolfpack and that Archerfish was being used as a decoy to lure away one of the escorts to allow the rest of the pack a clear shot at Shinano . He ordered his ships to turn away from the submarine with the expectation of outrunning it , counting on his 2 @-@ knot ( 3 @.@ 7 km / h ; 2 @.@ 3 mph ) margin of speed over the submarine . Around 23 : 22 , the carrier was forced to reduce speed to 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) , the same speed as Archerfish , to prevent damage to the propeller shaft when a bearing overheated . At 02 : 56 on 29 November , Shinano turned to the southwest and headed straight for Archerfish . Eight minutes later , Archerfish turned east and submerged in preparation to attack . Enright ordered his torpedoes set for a depth of 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) in case they ran deeper than set ; he also intended to increase the chances of capsizing the ship by punching holes higher up in the hull . A few minutes later , she turned south , exposing her entire side to Archerfish--a nearly ideal firing situation for a submarine . The escorting destroyer on that side passed right over Archerfish without detecting her . At 03 : 15 Archerfish fired six torpedoes before diving to 400 feet ( 121 @.@ 9 m ) to escape a depth charge attack from the escorts .
Four struck the Shinano , at an average depth of 4 @.@ 27 meters ( 14 ft 0 in ) . The first hit towards the stern , flooding refrigerated storage compartments and one of the empty aviation gasoline storage tanks , and killing many of the sleeping engineering personnel in the compartments above . The second hit the compartment where the starboard outboard propeller shaft entered the hull and flooded the outboard engine room . The third hit further forward , flooding the No. 3 boiler room and killing every man on watch . Structural failures caused the two adjacent boiler rooms to flood as well . The fourth flooded the starboard air compressor room , adjacent anti @-@ aircraft gun magazines , and the No. 2 damage @-@ control station , and ruptured the adjacent oil tank .
= = = Sinking = = =
Though severe , the damage to Shinano was at first judged to be manageable . The crew were confident in the ship 's armor and strength , which translated into lax initial efforts to save the ship . This overconfidence extended to Abe . He doubted the sub 's torpedoes could inflict serious damage , since he was well aware that American torpedoes were inferior to Japanese torpedoes in both potency and accuracy . He ordered the carrier to maintain its maximum speed even after the last torpedo hit . The resultant extensive flooding caused the carrier to list 10 degrees to starboard within a few minutes . Despite the crew pumping 3 @,@ 000 long tons ( 3 @,@ 000 t ) of water into the port bilges , the list increased to 13 degrees . When it became apparent the damage was more severe than first thought , Abe ordered a change of course towards Shiono Point . Progressively increasing flooding increased the list to 15 degrees by 03 : 30 . Fifty minutes later , Abe ordered the empty port outboard tanks to be counter @-@ flooded , reducing the list to 12 degrees for a brief time . After 05 : 00 he ordered the civilian workers to be transferred to the escorts as they were impeding the crew in their duties .
A half @-@ hour later , Shinano was making 10 knots with a 13 degree list . At 06 : 00 her list had increased to 20 degrees after the starboard boiler room flooded , at which point the valves of the port trimming tanks rose above the waterline and became ineffective . The engines shut down for lack of steam around 07 : 00 , and Abe ordered all of the propulsion compartments evacuated an hour later . He then ordered the three outboard port boiler rooms flooded in a futile attempt to reduce the carrier 's list . He also ordered Hamakaze and Isokaze to take her in tow . However , the two destroyers only displaced 5 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 4 @,@ 900 long tons ) between them , about one @-@ fourteenth of Shinano 's displacement and not nearly enough to overcome her deadweight . The first tow cables snapped under the strain and the second attempt was aborted for fear of injury to the crews if they snapped again . The ship lost all power around 09 : 00 and was now listing over 20 degrees . At 10 : 18 , Abe gave the order to abandon ship ; by this time Shinano had a list of 30 degrees . As she heeled , her flight deck touched the water , which flowed into the open elevator well , sucking many swimming sailors back into the ship as she sank . A large exhaust vent below the flight deck also sucked many other sailors into the ship as it submerged .
At 10 : 57 Shinano finally capsized and sank stern @-@ first at coordinates ( 32 ° 07 ′ N 137 ° 04 ′ E ) , 65 miles ( 105 km ) from the nearest land , in approximately 4 @,@ 000 meters ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) of water , taking 1 @,@ 435 officers , men and civilians to their deaths . The dead included Abe and both of his navigators , who chose to go down with the ship . Rescued were 55 officers and 993 petty officers and enlisted men , plus 32 civilians for a total of 1 @,@ 080 survivors . After their rescue , the survivors were isolated on the island of Mitsuko @-@ jima until January 1945 to suppress the news of the carrier 's loss . The carrier was formally struck from the Naval Register on 31 August .
US Naval Intelligence did not initially believe Enright 's claim to have sunk a carrier . Shinano 's construction had not been detected through decoded radio messages or other means , and the American analysts believed that they had located all of Japan 's surviving carriers . Enright was eventually credited with sinking a 28 @,@ 000 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 28 @,@ 000 t ) Hayatake ( Hiyō @-@ class ) carrier by the acting commander of the Pacific Fleet 's submarine force on the basis of a drawing Enright submitted depicting the ship he had attacked . The Americans only learned about the existence of Shinano after the war ; following this discovery Enright was credited with her sinking and awarded the Navy Cross .
= = Post @-@ war analysis of the sinking = =
Post @-@ war analysis by the U.S. Naval Technical Mission to Japan noted that Shinano had serious design flaws . Specifically , the joint between the waterline armor belt on the upper hull and the anti @-@ torpedo bulge on the underwater portion was poorly designed ; Archerfish 's torpedoes all exploded along this joint . The force of the torpedo explosions also dislodged an I @-@ beam in one of the boiler rooms which punched a hole into another boiler room . In addition , the failure to test for water @-@ tightness in each compartment played a role as potential leaks could not be found and patched before Shinano put to sea . The executive officer blamed the large amount of water that entered the ship on the failure to air @-@ test the compartments for leaks . He reported hearing air rushing through gaps in the water @-@ tight doors just minutes after the last torpedo hit — a sign that seawater was rapidly entering the ship , proving the doors were unseaworthy .
= 2003 Sri Lanka cyclone =
In May 2003 , a tropical cyclone officially called Very Severe Cyclonic Storm BOB 01 produced the worst flooding in Sri Lanka in 56 years . The first storm of the 2003 North Indian Ocean cyclone season , it developed over the Bay of Bengal on May 10 . Favorable environmental conditions allowed the system to intensify steadily while moving northwestward . The storm reached peak maximum sustained winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) on May 13 , making it a very severe cyclonic storm according to the India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) , which is the official Regional Specialized Meteorological Center for the basin . The cyclone drifted north over the central Bay of Bengal , gradually weakening due to heightened wind shear . Turning eastward , the storm deteriorated to a deep depression on May 16 before it curved northeastward and re @-@ intensified into a cyclonic storm . It came ashore in western Myanmar and dissipated over land the following day .
In the wake of prolonged precipitation during the first half of May , the cyclone produced torrential rains across southwest Sri Lanka while stationary in the central Bay of Bengal . The storm drew extensive moisture that coalesced in the mountainous portion of the island . A station at Ratnapura recorded 366 @.@ 1 millimetres ( 14 @.@ 41 in ) of rainfall in 18 hours on May 17 , including 99 @.@ 8 mm ( 3 @.@ 93 in ) in one hour . In southwestern Sri Lanka , the rainfall caused flooding and landslides that destroyed 24 @,@ 750 homes and damaged 32 @,@ 426 others , displacing about 800 @,@ 000 people . Overall damage totaled about $ 135 million ( 2003 USD ) , and there were 260 deaths . The cyclone also produced some rainfall in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India and along the country 's eastern coast . The storm funneled moisture away from the mainland , which possibly contributed to a heat wave that killed 1 @,@ 900 people , and dropped heavy rainfall in Myanmar .
= = Meteorological history = =
Around May 6 , the monsoon trough extended across the southern Bay of Bengal , producing a vast field of thunderstorm activity . A broad low @-@ pressure area formed by the next day and remained nearly stationary . Over the next few days , the convection varied in intensity until becoming more organized around the nascent surface low on May 10 . At 03 : 00 UTC on May 10 , the India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) reported the formation of a depression about 535 km ( 330 mi ) west of Banda Aceh , Indonesia . Within nine hours , the depression further intensified into a deep depression . Around the same time , the system was classified as Tropical Cyclone 01B by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center .
With warm sea surface temperatures , a formidable anticyclone aloft , and low wind shear , the system continued to mature as it tracked northwestward . Early on May 11 , the deep depression strengthened into a cyclonic storm – marked by maximum sustained winds of at least 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) – and later in the day into a severe cyclonic storm . Simultaneously , the system was driven toward the north by a ridge of high pressure to the northeast . At the time , the cyclone was located about 700 km ( 430 mi ) east of Sri Lanka . The storm continued to intensify , becoming a very severe cyclonic storm on May 12 . That day , the JTWC upgraded Tropical Cyclone 01B to the equivalence of a minimal hurricane with winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . In post @-@ season analysis , however , the agency revised the storm 's maximum winds to 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) . At 06 : 00 UTC on May 13 , the IMD estimated that the storm attained peak winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) . The intensity estimate was based on a satellite @-@ derived Dvorak number of 4 @.@ 5 , limited chiefly by the lack of an eye feature .
After peaking in intensity , the storm began weakening due to increasing easterly wind shear from the ridge to the north , displacing the center of circulation from the deepest convection . Early on May 14 , the IMD downgraded the storm to a severe cyclonic storm . Around this time , steering currents slackened , and the cyclone meandered northward over the central Bay of Bengal . By late on May 14 , convection had largely dissipated , with the exception of a small area near the center , and the system weakened to minimal cyclonic storm status . Thunderstorm activity continued to wax and wane as the storm turned to the southeastward , though persistent hostile conditions caused the storm to weaken further to a deep depression on May 16 . As the nearby ridge translated eastward , the depression was able to move more steadily to the east and later to the northeast , passing northwest of the Andaman Islands on May 18 . On the next day , the deep depression re @-@ intensified into a cyclonic storm , reaching a secondary peak with winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) . At about 10 : 00 UTC on May 19 , the storm made landfall close to Kyaukpyu , Ramree Island , in western Myanmar . The storm rapidly weakened into a depression and later degenerated into a low pressure area on May 20 , and was no longer discernible on satellite imagery by the next day .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Sri Lanka = = =
Due to the significant distance between Sri Lanka and the Bay of Bengal storm , no cyclone warnings were posted . The India @-@ based National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting anticipated the flood event three days in advance . However , the Sri Lankan government did not issue the first flood warnings until May 17 , the same day that the flooding began . Many residents learned about the impending floods through loudspeakers and word of mouth , although some were alerted by television or radio . About 8 @,@ 000 people evacuated on May 18 , utilizing schools and public buildings as emergency shelters . The precipitation occurred in the wake of an already rainy period ; a station near the Kalu River reported over 600 mm ( 24 in ) of rainfall in the first 15 days of May .
While the storm was nearly stationary in the central Bay of Bengal , the southwesterly flow drew abundant moisture over Sri Lanka to produce severe flooding . In the island 's mountainous southwestern portion , the winds across the island produced heavy rainfall rates through a process known as orographic lift , mostly occurring on May 17 – 18 . Throughout May 2003 , the highest rainfall in the country was 899 mm ( 35 @.@ 4 in ) at Gonapenigala Iranganie Estate . A station at Ratnapura recorded 718 mm ( 28 @.@ 3 in ) of precipitation in the month , of which 366 @.@ 1 mm ( 14 @.@ 41 in ) fell over an 18 ‑ hour period on May 17 ; at the same station , there was a peak hourly rainfall total of 99 @.@ 8 mm ( 3 @.@ 93 in ) . These were the heaviest rains on the island since 1947 . Rainfall was primarily concentrated in southwestern Sri Lanka , with a rain shadow farther inland that resulted in minimal precipitation in and Matale . After the Kalu River overflowed , floodwaters reached 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) deep in Ratnapura City , submerging the first floors of most homes and persisting for about three days . Landslides created a temporary natural dam on the river that washed away a bridge when it broke . Along the Gin River , flood waters inundated the surrounding terrain up to 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) deep , covered roadways , and complicated evacuations . In Hambantota District , the inundation occurred after an ongoing drought , which amplified flood @-@ related damage . Although the flooding was severe in the southwestern portion of Sri Lanka , effects were minimal in the central and north @-@ central regions , and there was no severe flooding in the capital city of Colombo .
Since the previously wet conditions had saturated soils , the rains related to the cyclone caused severe flooding and landslides , mostly in Ratnapura and Nuwara Eliya districts . A landslide in Batugoda killed 81 people , and at least 125 people died in Ratnapura . The floods increased river levels in Hambantota , Matara , Galle , and Kalutara districts , persisting until May 30 in Matara . Many roads were damaged , including the one that links Ratnapura to Colombo . About 100 schools were destroyed and another 200 were damaged , and some health facilities lost their equipment . Flooding from the cyclone destroyed 53 @,@ 300 hectares ( 132 @,@ 000 acres ) of tea crops , representing an estimated 20 – 30 % loss for the year in the low country . Farmers in the affected areas also lost some of their rice paddies to the high waters , although only about 3 % of the rice crop in the region was damaged , so no impact on the rice harvest was expected . Many areas lost electricity and telephone service , and there were disruptions to food and water supplies .
Throughout Sri Lanka , the floods destroyed at least 24 @,@ 750 homes and damaged 32 @,@ 426 others , displacing about 800 @,@ 000 people , many of whom lost everything they owned . Total damage was estimated at $ 135 million ( 2003 USD ) , primarily to homes and roads . Across the island , floods related to the cyclone killed 260 people . Most of the deaths were along the nation 's southern coast where the floods occurred , primarily along the Kalu River , and were mainly farmers . Levees helped drain floodwaters where systems were already in place .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
In its formative stages , the storm produced moderate rainfall in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands , totaling 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) at Mayabunder . Later , as the storm was approaching Myanmar , it dropped 89 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) of rainfall on Hut Bay . Several stations in Tamil Nadu reported light precipitation , including a total of 98 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) at Adirampattinam . Along the coast of Odisha , the fringes of the cyclonic storm dropped light rainfall , reaching 53 mm ( 2 @.@ 1 in ) at Swampatna . As the storm made landfall in Myanmar , it produced heavy rainfall in Rakhine State , signalling an early start to the monsoon season .
The slow movement of the storm altered the atmospheric flow over southeastern India . According to the IMD , the cyclone " might have caused the severe heat wave conditions prevailing over the coastal Andhra Pradesh " from May into early June , killing up to 1 @,@ 400 people , and increasing air temperatures to 50 ° C ( 122 ° F ) .
= = Aftermath = =
In the immediate aftermath of the flooding in Sri Lanka , the country 's air force , army , and navy , as well as police forces , operated search and rescue missions . The navy and air force collected residents stranded in trees and on roofs , and were later assisted by the Indian military . However , the lack of electricity and the damaged infrastructure hampered relief work . In the hardest hit area of Ratnapura , there was a shortage of doctors , prompting officials to request help from adjacent towns . There were increased reports of diarrhea , viral flu , and typhoid in the aftermath of the floods . Mobile health crews treated over 44 @,@ 000 residents , which helped reduce the spread of disease . Residents in one village went without food for three days , and in the storm 's aftermath , many were also without access to clean water . By May 19 , flooding had begun to recede in the worst affected areas , allowing workers to repair roads . The government released RS6 million ( LKR , $ 62 @,@ 500 USD ) for immediate relief , and also provided RS15,000 ( LKR , $ 156 USD ) toward funeral expenses for each death . From May 22 – 25 , the country 's legislature had reduced sessions so members could return to their districts . By the end of May 2003 , the government had allocated RS17.29 million ( LKR , $ 180 @,@ 000 USD ) for relief measures , including RS27,000 ( LKR $ 280 USD ) for each family to rebuild houses . The Sri Lankan government also set up a four @-@ person task force to manage flood relief . The local Red Cross chapter utilized emergency supplies to distribute 10 @,@ 000 food packages while also deploying trained volunteers to assist in the disaster areas . The Red Cross ultimately distributed about 26 @,@ 000 loaves of bread , 862 kg ( 1 @,@ 900 lb ) of sugar , and 1 @,@ 775 kg ( 3 @,@ 913 lb ) of rice , among other supplies . By May 20 , the Sri Lankan air force had distributed 35 tons of food , using eight helicopters to airdrop parcels . Red Cross workers cleaned hundreds of contaminated wells in the region , thereby restoring clean water access ; this task was finished by August . By May 16 , or nine days after the floods began , power was restored to about 95 % of areas , and roads were gradually rebuilt . Road access to most villages was restored by May 26 , with the exception of Matara . There , the ongoing floods prompted officials to close schools to reduce the spread of disease . After the floods largely subsided , the World Socialist Web Site criticized the Sri Lankan government for not having better disaster management in place , as well as noting that deforestation and gem mining contributed to the landslides . A Red Cross report in August 2003 noted the swift work to bring relief to the affected citizens , while also commenting that the floods displayed the country 's problems with disaster mitigation .
On May 19 , the Red Cross launched an appeal to the international community for assistance . A day prior , the Red Cross allocated CHF50,000 to buy relief supplies , while the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs provided a $ 50 @,@ 000 grant . In the days after the floods , the government of India sent a ship with inflatable dinghies and medical supplies . A total of 18 countries or local Red Crosses sent Fr.2.3 million CHF worth of cash to Sri Lanka . Sweden sent kr800,000 ( 2003 SEK ) toward relief transport and distribution . The government of Japan sent ¥ 19 @.@ 8 million yen worth of tents , sheets , and other supplies to the country , The Iranian Red Cross sent $ 65 @,@ 625 ( USD ) worth of blankets and tents to Sri Lanka , which helped about 240 families . Australia 's government sent about $ 400 @,@ 000 ( AUD ) to UNICEF to help rebuild the damaged schools and other social services . The European Community Humanitarian Aid Office donated about € 800 @,@ 000 ( $ 944 @,@ 000 USD ) to the country . The World Food Programme distributed meals to about 10 @,@ 000 families , while the World Health Organization provided water purification tablets , typhoid vaccines , and health kits to about 100 @,@ 000 people . During a peace agreement amid the ongoing civil war , the Tamil Tigers in Sri Lanka sent trucks with clothing and food to the affected areas . In July 2004 , the Asian Development Bank provided $ 12 @.@ 5 million of the $ 17 @.@ 5 million needed to repair the damaged infrastructure , while the Sri Lankan government provided the remaining $ 5 million .
= The Legend of Zelda : Oracle of Seasons and Oracle of Ages =
The Legend of Zelda : Oracle of Seasons and The Legend of Zelda : Oracle of Ages are two action @-@ adventure games in the Legend of Zelda series , developed by Flagship ( a subsidiary of Capcom ) . They were released on February 27 , 2001 in Japan , May 14 , 2001 in North America , and October 5 , 2001 in Europe for Nintendo 's Game Boy Color handheld console . Both games were re @-@ released on the Virtual Console for the Nintendo 3DS in Japan on February 27 , 2013 and in North America and Europe on May 30 , 2013 . The games feature a brighter color palette when played on a Nintendo Game Boy Advance in order to make up for the darkness of the screen , and a special shop is also made available . After experimenting with porting the original The Legend of Zelda to the Game Boy Color , the Flagship team , supervised by Yoshiki Okamoto , began developing three interconnected Zelda games that could be played in any order . The complexity of this system led the team to cancel one game .
The player controls Link from an overhead perspective , with the same control scheme from The Legend of Zelda : Link 's Awakening for the Game Boy . In Seasons , the Triforce transports Link to the land of Holodrum , where he sees Onox kidnap Din , the Oracle of Seasons . In Ages , the Triforce transports Link to Labrynna , where Veran possesses Nayru . The main plot is revealed once the player finishes both
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games . Link is armed with a sword and shield as well as a variety of secondary weapons and items for battling enemies and solving puzzles . The central items are the Rod of Seasons , which controls the seasons in Holodrum , and the Harp of Ages , which lets Link travel through time in Labrynna . Before he can infiltrate Onox 's castle and Veran 's tower , Link must collect the eight Essences of Nature and the eight Essences of Time , which are hidden in dungeons and guarded by bosses .
Taking roughly three years to develop , the game was a critical and commercial success , with the two games together selling eight million units . Critics complimented the gameplay , colorful designs and graphic quality , but criticized the inconsistent sound quality .
= = Plot = =
= = = Oracle of Seasons = = =
Seasons begins as the Triforce calls out to Link from within Hyrule Castle . Link approaches it , and is transported to a dark forest where he encounters a traveling group led by a dancer named Din . After Din welcomes Link to Holodrum , the sky becomes covered in black clouds . A voice from the clouds calls Din the Oracle of Seasons and refers to himself as Onox , General of Darkness . A funnel cloud drops from the sky , taking Din into its dark heights . As the tornado dissipates , the seasons of Holodrum fall into disarray and change rapidly .
Din 's attendant , Impa , tells Link that they were headed for Hyrule ; she instructs him to see the Maku Tree in Horon Village , the capital of Holodrum . Link finds a sword in a cave and makes his way to the tree . The Maku Tree tells Link he will need the eight Essences of Nature and gives him the Gnarled Key , which unlocks the dungeon holding the first Essence . Link retrieves the eight Essences , hidden in eight dungeons throughout Holodrum and Subrosia , and brings them to the Maku Tree . The Maku Tree uses them to create a Huge Maku Seed , a sacred seed that cleanses evil , which allows Link to enter Onox 's castle . Link enters the castle , defeats Onox , and rescues Din , who tells him that he is now a true hero and must face a new trial soon . Twinrova , watching the scene remotely , states that the Flame of Destruction has been powered by the havoc Onox has wrought .
= = = Oracle of Ages = = =
As with Seasons , the Triforce calls out to Link . Link is transported to a forest in the land of Labrynna , where he hears screaming . In a clearing , Link finds a woman encircled by monsters . When the monsters see Link , they scatter in all directions . The woman is Princess Zelda 's nurse , Impa , who asks Link to help her find a singer in the forest . Continuing through the forest , the two find Nayru , a young woman with blue hair singing on a tree stump , surrounded by forest creatures . A shadow emerges from Impa and reveals itself as Veran , Sorceress of Shadows . Veran soars into Nayru 's body and possesses her . Nayru was the Oracle of Ages ; her abduction causes a disruption in the time flow of Labrynna .
Link receives a sword from Impa and makes his way to the Maku Tree in Lynna City , the capital of Labrynna . The Maku Tree is killed in the past on Veran 's orders ; Link uses a time portal to travel to the past to prevent this . The Maku Tree tells Link he will need the eight Essences of Time to defeat Veran . Link sets out to retrieve the eight Essences , hidden in eight dungeons throughout Labrynna 's past and present . After getting the sixth Essence , Link is told he has the opportunity to save Nayru . He invades Queen Ambi 's castle and removes Veran 's spirit from Nayru , but Veran then possesses Queen Ambi . Link gathers the remaining Essences and brings them to the Maku Tree , who uses them to create a Huge Maku Seed that allows Link to enter Veran 's Black Tower . Link ascends the tower and defeats Veran . He rescues Queen Ambi , and Nayru tells him that all has returned to normal . Twinrova , watching the scene remotely , states that Veran has lit the Flame of Sorrow .
= = = Linked ending = = =
If one game is played as a sequel to the other by a linked password , Twinrova captures Princess Zelda , lighting the Flame of Despair . Link enters a warp point by the Maku Tree and faces Twinrova , who is attempting to use the three Flames to revive Ganon , the primary antagonist in the Zelda series . Link defeats both Twinrova and a mindless , poorly resurrected Ganon . He frees Zelda , whose sacrifice would have been the full resurrection of Ganon ; together , they exit the crumbling castle . After the credits , Link is seen waving to a crowd from a sailboat off the shore of a land with a castle in the background .
= = Gameplay = =
The gameplay of Oracle of Seasons and Ages is similar to that of The Legend of Zelda : Link 's Awakening , copying basic controls , graphics , and sounds from the Game Boy title . Like most The Legend of Zelda titles , exploration and combat take place from an overhead perspective . Link uses a sword for his primary attack , complemented by secondary weapons and items . Basic items , such as bombs and a boomerang , are common to both games . Some new items are exclusive to one game , usually with a counterpart in the other , with similar uses ( e.g. the slingshot in Seasons and the seed shooter in Ages both shoot seeds , while the magnetic gloves in Seasons and the switch hook in Ages are used to access otherwise unreachable areas via special targets ) . Unlike most Zelda titles , a sword and shield is not always equipped when the player possesses them ; they can be assigned like any other item into either of two available slots . Most of each of the games is spent finding the eight Essences ( Essences of Nature in Seasons and Essences of Time in Ages ) , each hidden in a dungeon — a large , usually underground , area containing enemies and puzzles . Each dungeon culminates with a boss that guards the Essence .
When not in a dungeon , Link explores the overworld . In Seasons , the overworld consists of Holodrum and the subterranean world of Subrosia . The two worlds are linked by several portals . In Ages , Link travels between present @-@ day Labrynna and the past , connected by Time Holes . In either game , some areas of one world are accessible only from portals from the other and vice versa . Holodrum , Subrosia , and Labrynna contain optional side quests and upgrades for Link and his equipment . One such side quest is ring collection ; rings provide Link with various bonuses and abilities , such as improved defense . Some rings do not have any practical uses , e.g. rings that weaken Link 's attack or defense , or transform Link into an enemy creature , or are awarded when certain criteria are met but do not have any effect . Another side quest is the optional trading game , in which Link receives and delivers special items to certain people throughout the land . Once completed , Link receives an upgraded sword .
In both games , there are many circumstances when a previous item can be upgraded into a more useful form . The latter three dungeons in both games will hold a more powerful version of an item received earlier in the game . Both the sword 's offensive power and the shield 's defensive abilities can be upgraded twice , once through passwords and again through side quests . If Link swings an enhanced sword at full health , a sword @-@ shaped beam will escape from the sword as a ranged attack . The number of bombs and Mystical Seeds that can be held can also be increased through the same ways as the shield and sword . Roc 's Feather and the Power Bracelet are special cases , as , while the two are in both games , the former can only be upgraded in Oracle of Seasons while the latter only in Oracle of Ages .
The central item of Oracle of Seasons is the Rod of Seasons . By standing on a stump and swinging the rod , Link can change the season and affect his surroundings . For example , to cross a body of water , Link can change the season to winter and walk on the ice . Changing the season to summer causes vines to flourish , which Link can use to scale cliffs . When Link obtains the rod , he initially cannot use it . In the course of the game , Link visits four towers that house the four spirits of the seasons ; each tower Link visits allows him to switch to an additional season .
In Oracle of Ages , the central item is the Harp of Ages , which Link uses to manipulate time and travel between the past and the present . In the course of the game , Link learns three tunes to play on the harp . The Tune of Echoes activates Time Portals at fixed locations ; the Tune of Currents enables Link to travel from the past to the present without a Time Portal ; the Tune of Ages allows Link to switch between the two time periods at almost any location on the map .
= = = Interaction = = =
Although the two are built on the same game engine , Oracle of Ages concentrates on puzzles , while Oracle of Seasons focuses on action . Each is a complete game capable of interacting with the other , via passwords or a Game Link Cable .
Upon completing either game , players receive a password that can be used to play an alternative version of the other . In this version , some characters mention passwords that can be given to characters in the first game in exchange for an item or upgrade . Then , by taking a new password back into the linked game , the item or upgrade can be transferred . Rings can be traded by this password system or randomly created by connecting two games with a Game Link Cable .
In the alternative version , plot points are changed or expanded upon to allow the game to serve as a sequel . It also features an extended ending in which Twinrova kidnaps Zelda , and lights the third Flame of Despair to revive Ganon . The player can then enter Twinrova 's lair and battle Twinrova and Ganon . Upon completing the alternative game , another password is shown that gives the player the Victory Ring , which commemorates the defeat of Ganon .
= = Development = =
In early 1999 , Yoshiki Okamoto , then head of Capcom 's screenwriter subsidiary Flagship , proposed his idea of remaking the original The Legend of Zelda for the Game Boy Color to Shigeru Miyamoto , the game designer at Nintendo who created the series . Okamoto was eventually asked to develop six Zelda games for the Game Boy Color : two based on earlier installments and four original entries into the series . Okamoto wanted to release them in quick succession of four to five months , and held on to his concept of bringing the first game to the handheld console to make young children experience the merits of the original Zelda , but also as a test for the development team to move on to a more ambitious sequel if it turned out to be successful .
Contrary to Miyamoto 's design mentality of creating the gameplay system first , development started out with the scenario writing , which Flagship was in charge of . Some of the staff members , the team led by director and designer Hidemaro Fujibayashi that was responsible for tasks other than the storyline , wanted to skip the remake and create an original Zelda title right away . As the first installment in the series was deemed too difficult for the new generation of players , more and more changes were applied to the point where it had an entirely different world map . As a result , the team ran into problems because the scenario and the maps had to be reworked constantly to make all the modifications match . The Game Boy Color 's screen presented an additional hurdle when attempting to rework the earlier Zelda title as it is narrower than that of a television ; players could not view an entire room without scrolling which made it easy to overlook stairways or clues on walls .
Dismayed by the rate at which the team had been spending money for a year without results , Okamoto asked Miyamoto for help , who then came up with the idea of a whole trilogy of games , each with a different focus on gameplay elements . This trilogy was referred to as the " Triforce Series " , named after a fictional holy relic known as the Triforce that plays a major role in many Zelda titles . The Triforce is composed of three parts : the Triforces of Power , Wisdom , and Courage ; each game in the trilogy was to be associated with a piece of the Triforce , one of the titles being the conversion of the original The Legend of Zelda . The first game of the three was demonstrated at Nintendo 's SpaceWorld trade show in 1999 , under the working title Zelda no Densetsu : Fushigi no Kinomi – Chikara no Shō ( ゼルダの伝説 ふしぎの木の実 ～ 力の章 ～ ) . This action @-@ oriented game concerned Ganon 's theft of Princess Zelda and the " Rod of the Seasons " , which threw the seasons of Hyrule into chaos — a precursor to the plot of Oracle of Seasons . In the playable demonstration , Link solved puzzles by using the Rod of the Seasons to manipulate the environment and change the current season . Chie no Shō , which focused on color @-@ based puzzles , and Yūki no Shō , which used the times of day to solve puzzles in a mechanic similar to the use of seasons , were not shown . In the US , the games became The Legend of Zelda : Mystical Seed of Power , Mystical Seed of Wisdom , and Mystical Seed of Courage .
The games interacted with each other : players could begin with any of the three titles and have the actions of the first game affect the story of the other two , a concept conceived by Okamoto . More than ten of Flagship 's scenarists , among them Resident Evil writer Junichi Miyashita , worked simultaneously on the three stories . The developers considered using a cell phone adapter to transfer data , but later decided on a password system . The limitations of this system and the difficulty of coordinating three games proved too complicated , so the team scaled back to two titles at Miyamoto 's suggestion . Condensing the games into a single cartridge was never considered , as the prospect of multiple endings and the added replay value afforded by the ability to play the titles in either order was very attractive . Oracle of Seasons was adapted from Mystical Seed of Power , Oracle of Ages was adapted from Mystical Seed of Wisdom , and Mystical Seed of Courage was canceled .
These sweeping design changes pushed the release dates closer to the upcoming release of the Game Boy Advance ( GBA ) , the next system in the Game Boy line that is backward compatible with Game Boy Color games . The team considered adding special functionality to the game triggered only when played on a GBA , but was afraid that the additional development time required for the addition would cause the games to be released after the GBA . When the release date of the GBA was postponed , the team was able to incorporate GBA functionality and still release the games approximately a month before the GBA was released . Staggered releases were abandoned in favor of releasing the two games simultaneously . This made it easier for the team to test the interaction between the games and keep the style consistent . Each title was shipped on an 8 @-@ megabit ( 16 @-@ megabit in Europe ) cartridge . The music for the games was composed by two employees of the Japanese music and sound effect production company Pure Sound , credited under the pseudonyms " M @-@ Adachi " and " Kyopi " . Nintendo artist and series regular Yusuke Nakano designed the characters for the two titles , and incorporated previous creations from Ocarina of Time into Oracle of Seasons and characters from Majora 's Mask into Oracle of Ages .
= = Reception = =
Oracle of Seasons and Ages were critical and commercial successes , selling nearly 4 million copies each . Reviews were strongly positive : Chris Carle of IGN said that Seasons and Ages were " the best games ever made for the Game Boy Color " , and Craig Majaski of Gaming Age called them " the two best games ever to grace a handheld system " . It was rated the 34th ( Seasons ) and 39th ( Ages ) best games made on a Nintendo System in Nintendo Power 's Top 200 Games list . In August 2008 , Nintendo Power listed Oracle of Seasons and Ages as the fourth and fifth best Game Boy / Game Boy Color video games respectively . The games placed joint 57th in Official Nintendo Magazine 's 100 greatest Nintendo games of all time . Game Informer 's Ben Reeves called them the 10th best Game Boy games collectively . The interconnection was seen as one of the highlight features of the titles . The ability to play the games in reverse order after completion increases the replay value , as does trading passwords between the two . GamesRadar listed The Legend of Zelda : Oracle of Seasons / Ages as one of the titles they want in the 3DS Virtual Console , both Oracle of Ages and Oracle of Seasons were later released on the platform May 30 , 2013 .
Critics enjoyed the graphics ; GamePro called Seasons " bright and colorful " with " surprisingly expressive and well @-@ designed " animations , and Gaming Target said Ages is " beautiful and creative " , with " meticulous attention to detail " . Gaming Age called both games " the pinnacle of good graphics on the Game Boy Color system " . Although the two share graphics to a large extent , Seasons is distinguished by swapping the color palette to reflect the current season . IGN felt that the expressive colors used for the changing seasons made Seasons the more graphically impressive of the two .
Reviews of the audio were mixed . Reviewers noted that the sound was hampered by the poor quality of the Game Boy Color 's speakers , although it fared favorably compared with other games for the system . The selection of songs was praised for complementing familiar Zelda songs and sounds with new music . The Zelda theme and the traditional sound effect played upon solving a puzzle were considered welcome additions , but other sound effects were criticized as simplistic " beeps " .
= = Gamebooks = =
Two game books were released based on the games as part of the Nintendo You Decide on the Adventure series by Scholastic . Both were written by Craig Wessel and based on the events in the games with few minor differences . The first one , based on Oracle of Seasons , was published in October 2001 . The second , based on Oracle of Ages , was published in January 2002 .
= Babakotia =
Babakotia is an extinct genus of medium @-@ sized lemur , or strepsirrhine primate , from Madagascar that contains a single species , Babakotia radofilai . Together with Palaeopropithecus , Archaeoindris , and Mesopropithecus , it forms the family Palaeopropithecidae , commonly known as the sloth lemurs . The name Babakotia comes from the Malagasy name for the indri , babakoto , to which it and all other sloth lemurs are closely related . Due to its mix of morphological traits that show intermediate stages between the slow @-@ moving smaller sloth lemurs and the suspensory large sloth lemurs , it has helped determine the relationship between both groups and the closely related and extinct monkey lemurs .
Babakotia radofilai and all other sloth lemurs share many traits with living sloths , demonstrating convergent evolution . It had long forearms , curved digits , and highly mobile hip and ankle joints . Its skull was more heavily built than that of indriids , but not as much as in the larger sloth lemurs . Its dentition is similar to that of all other indriids and sloth lemurs . It lived in the northern part of Madagascar and shared its range with at least two other sloth lemur species , Palaeopropithecus ingens and Mesopropithecus dolichobrachion . Babakotia radofilai was primarily a leaf @-@ eater ( folivore ) , though it also ate fruit and hard seeds . It is known only from subfossil remains and may have died out shortly after the arrival of humans on the island , but not enough radiocarbon dating has been done with this species to know for certain .
= = Etymology = =
The name of the genus Babakotia derives from the Malagasy common name for the Indri , babakoto , a close relative of Babakotia . The species name , radofilai , was chosen in honor of French mathematician and expatriate Jean Radofilao , an avid spelunker who mapped the caves where remains of Babakotia radofilai were first found .
= = Classification and phylogeny = =
Babakotia radofilai is the sole member of the genus Babakotia and belongs to the family Palaeopropithecidae , which includes three other genera of sloth lemurs : Palaeopropithecus , Archaeoindris , and Mesopropithecus . This family in turn belongs to the infraorder Lemuriformes , which includes all the Malagasy lemurs .
The first subfossil remains of Babakotia radofilai were discovered as part of a series of expeditions following upon discoveries of Jean Radofilao and two Anglo @-@ Malagasy reconnaissance expeditions in 1981 and 1986 – 7 . The second wave of research was launched in the 1980s by biological anthropologist Elwyn L. Simons who unearthed in 1988 at a cave known as Antsiroandoha in the Ankarana Massif , northern Madagascar a nearly complete skeleton and skull in addition to the remains of roughly a dozen other individuals . Identified immediately as a sloth lemur ( palaeopropithecid ) upon its discovery , Babakotia along with Mesopropithecus helped to settle a debate about the relationship between the sloth lemurs , the monkey lemurs ( family Archaeolemuridae ) and the living indriids . The monkey lemurs had skulls that more closely resembled the indriids , but their teeth were very specialized and unlike those of the indriids . The larger sloth lemurs , on the other hand , retained a dentition similar to living indriids , yet differed by having more robust and specialized skulls . Babakotia and Mesopropithecus not only shared the indriid dentition , but also the indriid @-@ like skulls , providing evidence that sloth lemurs were most closely related to living indriids , with monkey lemurs as a sister group to both . Furthermore , the discovery of Babakotia helped to demonstrate that the ancestral indriids were not " ricochetal leapers " ( bouncing rapidly from tree to tree ) like living indriids , but vertical climbers and hanging feeders , and possibly occasional leapers .
= = Anatomy and physiology = =
Weighing between 16 and 20 kg ( 35 and 44 lb ) , Babakotia radofilai was a medium @-@ sized lemur and noticeably smaller than the large sloth lemurs ( Archaeoindris and Palaeopropithecus ) , but larger than the small sloth lemurs ( Mesopropithecus ) . In many ways , it had an intermediate level of adaptations for suspensory behavior between the large sloth lemurs and the small sloth lemurs . This includes its highly mobile hip and ankle joints , as well as other specializations in the vertebral column , pelvis , and limbs . Its forelimbs were 20 % longer than its hind limbs , giving it a higher intermembral index ( ~ 119 ) than Mesopropithecus ( ~ 97 to 113 ) , suggesting that it was convergently similar to arboreal sloths . It had a reduced tarsus and curved , elongated digits , adapted for grasping and suggesting suspensory behavior . Its hind feet were reduced , making it well @-@ adapted for climbing and hanging ( like in other palaeopropithecids ) , but not leaping ( like in indriids ) . Wrist bones found in 1999 further demonstrated that this species was a vertical climber . Additionally , analysis of its semicircular canals , lumbar vertebrae and its spinous processes indicate slow movement and climbing ( antipronograde ) adaptations , but not necessarily sloth @-@ like hanging , vertical clinging , or leaping . Therefore , it was likely a slow climber like a loris and also exhibited some suspensory behavior like a sloth .
All sloth lemurs have relatively robust skulls compared to the indriids , yet despite shared cranial features with the larger sloth lemurs , its skull still resembles that of an indri . The cranial traits shared with the other sloth lemurs include relatively small orbits , robust zygomatic arches , and a mostly rectangular hard palate . The small orbits taken into consideration with the relative size of the optic canal suggest that Babakotia had low visual acuity , which is typical for lemurs . The skull length averages 144 mm ( 5 @.@ 7 in ) .
The dental formula of Babakotia radofilai was the same as the other sloth lemurs and indriids : either 2 @.@ 1 @.@ 2 @.@ 31 @.@ 1 @.@ 2 @.@ 3 or 2 @.@ 1 @.@ 2 @.@ 32 @.@ 0 @.@ 2 @.@ 3 × 2 = 30 . It is unclear whether one of the teeth in the permanent dentition is an incisor or canine , resulting in these two conflicting dental formulae . Regardless , the lack of either a lower canine or incisor results in a four @-@ tooth toothcomb instead of the more typical six @-@ tooth strepsirrhine toothcomb . Babakotia radofilai differed slightly from indriids in having somewhat elongated premolars . Its cheek teeth had broad shearing crests and crenulated enamel .
= = Distribution and ecology = =
Like all other lemurs , Babakotia radofilai was endemic to Madagascar . Its remains have only been found in limestone caves at the Ankarana Massif within the Ankarana Reserve and at Anjohibe , indicating a range across the extreme north and northwest of the island . The restricted range of this arboreal primate , particularly during a time when much of the island was blanketed in forest , might have been due to habitat specificity , competitive exclusion , or some other unknown factor . It was sympatric ( occurred together ) with Palaeopropithecus maximus and Mesopropithecus dolichobrachion .
Based on its size , the morphology of its molars , and microwear analysis on its teeth , Babakotia radofilai was likely a folivore , while supplementing its diet with fruit and hard seeds . In all sloth lemurs , including Babakotia radofilai , the permanent teeth erupted early , a trait seen in indriids that improves survivability of juveniles during the first dry season following weaning .
= = Extinction = =
Because it died out relatively recently and is only known from subfossil remains , it is considered to be a modern form of Malagasy lemur . Babakotia radofilai lived during the Holocene epoch and is thought to have disappeared shortly after the arrival of humans to the island , possibly within the last 1000 years . However , the only radiocarbon date that has been reported for it dates back to about 3100 – 2800 BCE .
= Howard Sims =
Howard " Sandman " Sims ( January 24 , 1917 – May 20 , 2003 ) was an African @-@ American tap dancer who began his career in vaudeville . He was skilled in a style of dancing that he performed in a wooden sandbox of his own construction , and acquired his nickname from the sand he sprinkled to alter and amplify the sound of his dance steps . " They called the board my Stradivarius , " Sims said of his sandbox .
From the 1950s to the year 2000 , Sims was a regular attraction — a " fixture " — at Harlem 's noted Apollo Theater , comedically ushering failed acts offstage with a hook , broom or other prop . He was also involved in New York City 's Hoofers Club , a venue primarily for Black tap dancers .
As part of the resurgence of interest in tap dancing in the 1980s , Sandman Sims served as a cultural ambassador , representing the United States with dance performances around the world . He was featured in the 1989 dance film Tap , along with Sammy Davis Jr . , Gregory Hines and Savion Glover , demonstrating classic challenge dancing . Sims also appeared in a 1990 episode of The Cosby Show as Rudy 's tap dancing teacher , facing off against Cliff ( Bill Cosby ) in a good @-@ natured tap challenge .
In her review of the play based on his life , New York Times critic Anna Kisselgoff wrote , " Sims is a virtuoso among virtuosos — in a class by himself . To say Mr. Sims dances on sand is like saying Philippe Petit is a tightrope walker . "
= = Early life = =
Born in Fort Smith , Arkansas on January 24 , 1917 , Sims was one of 12 children . The family soon relocated to Los Angeles , California , where he was raised . Describing his childhood , Sims said , " It was just a whole big dancing family . " He learned to dance from his father , and said he was dancing as soon as he could walk . He began tap @-@ dancing at the age of 3 . He attributed some of his early love for tap dancing in particular to his mother , exasperated that he kept wearing out the toes of his shoes , putting steel taps on the shoes . Along with his brothers , Sims was dancing on the sidewalks of Los Angeles from a young age . At the age of 14 , peeping in the windows of a dance school got Sims arrested for loitering , but he was able to dance his way to freedom , convincing a judge that his reason for being on that street was legitimate .
As a young man , despite his dance talent , Sims aspired to be not a professional dancer , but a professional boxer . After twice breaking his hand , he decided he needed a different means of making a living . Sims had noticed that boxing audiences reacted positively to the way he would dance in the rosin box before getting into the ring , and especially to the distinctive sound his dancing made moving the rosin granules around the wooden box . He began to consider dancing as a career alternative . Sims experimented with several different methods of reproducing the rosin box effect , gluing sandpaper to either his shoes or his dancing mat , but the sandpaper created too much wear on the other surface . Finally he found the solution : loose sand in a low @-@ lipped box . " People went for the scraping sound ... So I made a sound board by sprinkling sand on a flat platform . That was in 1935 . " His sandbox remained his trademark throughout his career , with some venues even telling Sims , " If you don 't bring your sandbox , don 't come at all . "
During this period , it was common for dancers to carry tap shoes with them and , when they encountered another dancer on the street , throw down their shoes by way of challenge . The culture of street dancing in the 1920s has been compared to the rise of break dancing six decades later . As the journal Jump Cut described it , " ' challenge dancing , ' in which each performer tries to outdo the other , is part of tap dancing 's heritage , something like the jazz solos in which musicians try to outshine one another . " Sims later described how the atmosphere of these dance challenges was at least as much collegial as combative , and how dancers learned from one another in what became essentially " open air dance schools " . Despite performing at various vaudeville venues , Sims found neither fame nor success as a dancer in Los Angeles . In 1947 , he tagged along on one of his professional @-@ boxer friend Archie Moore 's cross @-@ country drives , and settled in New York City .
= = Harlem = =
After arriving in Harlem , Sims began performing on the street as he had done in California , but faced stiff competition from other innovative dancers : " I knew people who danced on dinner plates ... There was a man who could dance on newspapers without tearing them . And another who constructed a gigantic xylophone to tap on . " He performed on corners in between working whatever jobs he could find , and then discovered the " Amateur Night " stage on Wednesdays at the Apollo Theater , where he soon gained local notoriety . He eventually won the Amateur Night competition a record @-@ breaking 25 times , after which a rule was instituted that performers could no longer compete once they had earned four first prizes .
When big name dancers played The Apollo , there was nothing in the audience but dancers with their shoes , " said Sandman Sims . " Up in the balcony dancers , and the first six rows , you saw nothing but tap @-@ dancers , want @-@ to @-@ be tap @-@ dancers , gonna @-@ be tap @-@ dancers , tried @-@ to @-@ be tap @-@ dancers . That 's the reason a guy would want to dance at The Apollo .
By the mid @-@ 1950s , he had been hired as the Apollo 's stage manager , and soon began his role as the Apollo 's famed " executioner " , chasing Amateur Night contestants the crowd disapproved of off the stage with a shepherd 's crook ( known since vaudeville times as " the hook " ) a broom , or other props , while dressed in a variety of wacky costumes , whether long underwear , a clown suit , or even a diaper . Backstage , however , he would console defeated contestants with the story of his having been booed off ten times before he finally got to finish his own act . Sims would play " executioner " until shortly after Time Warner took over the Apollo in 1999 .
Having found work dancing did not stop him from dancing on the street , however . " If I saw a dancer , I 'd challenge him . I didn 't care who it was . The way to get known in New York was to be the best . That 's what I strived to be . " Part of the culture of street challenges , as in Los Angeles , was that competing dancers would also learn from one another .
A significant change to Sims 's dancing style came about as a result of his interaction with Harlem 's hoofers , practitioners of a variation on the tap he had learned on the west coast . Sims would later define the main difference between tap and hoofing as being that tap focuses on the heel and toe whereas hoofers " use the whole foot " . As a result of the synergy between hoofing technique and his unique use of a sandbox , his routines were described as being " as rich in sounds and textures as they were in steps . " Sims himself put it , " The feet are a set of drums . "
Constance Valis Hill , in her 2009 survey Tap Dancing America : A Cultural History , described the hoofers ' mecca thusly :
At the Hoofers Club , rookie and veteran , mostly [ B ] lack male tap dancers assembled to share with , steal from , and challenge each other ; there , new standards were set for competition . These were nothing like the formalized buck @-@ dancing competitions of Tammany Hall , where judges sat beside , before , and beneath the stage to evaluate the [ dancers ' ] clarity , speed , and presentation . The Hoofers Club comprised a more informal panel of peers , whose judgments could be cruel and mocking and were driven by an insistence on innovation . " Survive or die " was the credo . In an eccentric fusion of imitation and innovation , young dancers were forced to find their style and rhythmic voice . It was said that on the wall of the Hoofers Club was written : " Thou shalt not copy each other 's steps — Exactly . "
Though he frequently took opportunities to explain the difference between tap and hoofing to the press in later years , and tended to refer to himself as a hoofer rather than a tap dancer , Sims did practice both forms of dance . In 1949 , motivated by the death of Bill " Bojangles " Robinson , Sims became a founding member of the Original Copasetics , another fellowship of tap dancers that became a source of mentor @-@ student relationships and would help bring about the revival of tap in the 1970s and 1980s .
= = Decline and revival of tap = =
Tap dancing lost popularity with audiences beginning in the late 1940s . A number of causes factored into this decline , among them the going out of style of vaudeville @-@ style variety shows ; a new tax that forced many ballrooms to close and thus closed venues to the big bands with whom tap dancers had used to perform ; trends in music that favored smaller , more intimate groups of performers ; and concomitant increases in interest among audiences in watching formal modern dance and ballet performances . Sims was quoted as having said of the period that " [ t ] ap didn 't die ... It was just neglected . "
With paying gigs harder to find and paying less , Sims turned to other sources of income . Despite not having had any formal instruction himself , he taught dance , including to such later stars as Gregory Hines and Ben Vereen . He also taught footwork to boxing greats Sugar Ray Robinson and Muhammad Ali . Less glamorously , he ran a café , and even worked as a carpenter and a mechanic . Despite the lean times for hoofers , Sims was always able to put food on the table for his family , having married in 1959 .
The late 1960s brought the beginning of a wave of nostalgia for tap , and Sims found his dance skills in demand again . In 1969 , he was part of the all @-@ star cast of Tap Happening , a revue that played Off @-@ Broadway . Tap Happening was popular enough to run for several years .
The crescendo of interest in tap dancing continued , and in 1972 , Sims danced in the production Best of the Hoofers at the Orpheum Theatre . " Hoofing is not a dying art form , " he asserted in 1977 , and subsequent events would prove him right .
1979 saw the release of No Maps on My Taps , which featured Sims facing off against fellow tap stars Chuck Green — who had served as Sims 's mentor during his early years in New York — and Bunny Briggs , in a three @-@ way dance challenge . The documentary also reunited him with bandleader Lionel Hampton , whom he had toured with in years past .
In 1980 , a far cry from the tiny venues he had been lucky to play just a few years earlier , Sims performed before a crowd of 2 @,@ 600 fans at the Lincoln Center during the Newport Jazz Festival . Later that year , Sims was one of the instructor @-@ performers of the By Word of Foot " teach @-@ in " series , spending a week demonstrating his hoofing techniques for a new generation of tap enthusiasts .
As part of New York 's leg of the 1981 Newport Jazz Festival ( which spanned both NYC and its home city of Newport , Rhode Island , that year ) , he performed with former Cotton Club bandleader Cab Calloway in a production called Stompin ' at the Savoy . A few weeks later , Sims was on stage at the American Dance Festival , dancing both with and without his sandbox .
By 1982 , Sims was part of a promotional tour reviving interest in No Maps on My Taps with co @-@ stars Bunny Briggs and Chuck Green , their pre @-@ screening performances backed by Cab Calloway . Even as booked performances were coming more regularly , Sims never stopped participating in street @-@ corner challenges , encouraging younger generations of dancers and inviting them to learn his moves .
The National Endowment for the Arts granted Sims a $ 5 @,@ 000 National Heritage Fellowship in 1984 . " I thought I was making noise all these years , " Sims said of the award . " Now they 're calling it culture . " He used the funds to teach dance to children in Harlem , using a parking lot in lieu of a formal dance studio , drawing on his own youth learning dance on the street . Sims would later explain , " most people wait [ to study dance ] until after they 've grown up — and then it 's too late . " That same year , clogger Ira Bernstein received an NEA Folk Arts Apprenticeship grant " [ t ] o study traditional [ B ] lack tap dance with master dancer Howard ' Sandman ' Sims . " Sims loved to teach ; his son recounted how Sandman would " stop every kid he saw and show them a step and get them to copy a step . He enjoyed that more than performing in front of an audience . "
= = = The Apollo reopens = = =
Meanwhile , Harlem 's Apollo Theater , where Sims had served for years as Amateur Night 's " executioner " , had been closed for most of a decade . Then , following an extensive renovation , the venue reopened in 1985 , bringing increased attention to both the Apollo and his role there . " I 'm their protector , not the executioner , " he explained to The Washington Post . " Because that audience can get really hostile . " Sims described seeing displeased audiences throw bottles and even horseshoes at performers who he did not hustle off stage fast enough . When The New York Times interviewed him about his " executioner " role , he said of the acts that got booed off , " I tell them to work on their act and come back , " encouraging them to try again .
In 1986 , Sims starred in The Tap Tradition at Symphony Space New York ( which also hosted a showing of No Maps on My Taps ) , earning a rave review from The New York Times . He also made a brief appearance in a play based on his life , The Sand Dancer , which was written by poet Sandra Hochman and starred LeLand Gantt , and which received another rave review : " Sims is a virtuoso among virtuosos — in a class by himself . To say Mr. Sims dances on sand is like saying Philippe Petit is a tightrope walker . " And he traveled to Los Angeles to perform in a production called Essence of Rhythm with fellow tap stars including Charles " Honi " Coles and Jimmy Slyde .
Sandman Sims was the guest star of Late Night with David Letterman on May 14 , 1987 . It 's Showtime at the Apollo , a TV broadcast of the Apollo Theater 's Amateur Night performances , began broadcasting in September 1987 on NBC stations , bringing awareness of Sims 's " executioner " role to a wider audience .
A particularly busy year , 1988 saw Sims tour the world as a cultural ambassador on behalf of the U.S. State Department , traveling to over 50 countries in a span of 11 months .
By 1989 , Sims 's popularity was at an all @-@ time high , and he told the Associated Press , " I can 't fulfill all the work they give me . [ … ] I can 't walk out on the street without somebody showing me a time step . " Tap dancing 's popularity was nearing a new peak as well , with three major American cities ( Houston , Texas ; Portland , Oregon ; Washington , D.C. ) hosting tap @-@ dance festivals . In movie theaters , the dance drama Tap was introducing Sims 's footwork ( and that of his former student Gregory Hines ) to audiences who had never had the opportunity to see him perform before .
Playing a thinly @-@ fictionalized version of himself named " Mr. Sims " , Sims made a 1990 appearance on The Cosby Show , then one of the most popular programs on television . " Mr. Sims " was the dance instructor the Huxtables signed their young daughter Rudy up with in order to help her prepare for a class assignment about the Harlem Renaissance . During the episode , Cliff Huxtable ( Bill Cosby ) challenged " Mr. Sims " to a dance @-@ off , part tribute to and part parody of Sims 's real @-@ life tap challenges , which Sims won handily . Later that same year , the Apollo Theater played host to Rat @-@ a @-@ Tat @-@ Tap , another tap @-@ dance festival , and the Sandman , " always a deserved audience favorite at tap festivals , " was a featured performer there alongside his Tap co @-@ stars Savion Glover and Gregory Hines .
Sims was a featured performer at the third annual celebration of National Tap Dance Day on May 30 , 1993 .
In 1998 , the New York Committee to Celebrate National Tap Dance Day and the Young People 's Tap Conference honored Sandman Sims for his contributions to the art of hoofing .
= = In popular culture = =
Sandman Sims , particularly in his role as Apollo Theater executioner , has been referenced frequently in African @-@ American culture .
On April 5 , 2000 , he was invoked by Huey Freeman in the long @-@ running comic strip The Boondocks , who responded to an ineptly @-@ told joke by saying , " Where is Sandman Sims when you need him ... "
Performance artist Holly Bass , along with other dancers , put on another play about Sims 's life at the Smithsonian Institution 's American History Museum ( which was then hosting an exhibit on the Apollo Theater ) on July 10 , 2010 .
President Barack Obama , referring to his own performance singing on the Apollo Theater stage ( albeit not on Amateur Night ) the evening before his 2012 State of the Union address , said , " Sandman did not come out ! "
= = Personal life = =
While Sims had a first marriage which produced his first child Diane Sims , he later married his second wife , Solange . They would have 1 son together , Howard Sims Jr . , as well as 5 grandchildren and 1 great @-@ grandchild .
Particularly in later years , Sims sometimes claimed not to be certain of his birth year , at times saying it was " a matter of opinion . " Asked by a fan how old he was , Sims once replied , " Any number can play . "
= = Death = =
Sims died on May 20 , 2003 in New York City . He had suffered from Alzheimer 's disease .
A memorial service for Sims was held May 28 , 2003 at the Apollo Theater .
= = Filmography = =
No Maps on My Taps ( 1979 ) — Himself
Uptown : A Tribute to the Apollo Theatre ( 1980 ) — Himself
The Cotton Club ( 1984 ) — Hoofer
Motown Returns to the Apollo ( 1985 ) — Himself
The Kennedy Center Honors : A Celebration of the Performing Arts ( 1987 ) — Himself
It 's Showtime at the Apollo ( 1987 – 2000 ) — Himself / the " executioner "
Harlem Nights ( 1989 ) — Crapshooter
Tap ( 1989 ) — Sandman
Tap Dance in America ( 1989 ) — Himself
The Cosby Show ( 1990 ) — season 6 , episode 19 , " Mr. Sandman " — Mr. Sims
= Hoochie Coochie Man =
" Hoochie Coochie Man " ( originally titled " I 'm Your Hoochie Cooche Man " ) is a blues standard written by Willie Dixon and first recorded by Muddy Waters in 1954 . The song references hoodoo folk magic elements and makes novel use of a stop @-@ time musical arrangement . It became one of Waters ' most popular and identifiable songs and helped secure Dixon 's role as Chess Records ' chief songwriter .
The song is a classic of Chicago blues and one of Waters ' first recordings with a full backing band . Dixon 's lyrics build on Waters ' earlier use of braggadocio and themes of fortune and sex appeal . The stop @-@ time riff was " soon absorbed into the lingua franca of blues , R & B , jazz , and rock and roll " , according to musicologist Robert Palmer , and is used in several popular songs . When Bo Diddley adapted it for " I 'm a Man " , it became one of the most recognizable musical phrases in blues .
After the song 's initial success in 1954 , Waters recorded several live and new studio versions . The original appears on the 1958 The Best of Muddy Waters album and many compilations . Numerous musicians have recorded " Hoochie Coochie Man " in a variety of styles , making it one of the most interpreted Waters and Dixon songs . The Blues Foundation and the Grammy Hall of Fame recognize the song for its influence in popular music and the US Library of Congress ' National Recording Registry selected it for preservation in 2004 .
= = Background = =
Between 1947 and 1954 , Muddy Waters charted a number of hits recording for Chess Records and its Artistocrat predecessor . One of his first singles was " Gypsy Woman " , recorded in 1947 . The song shows Delta blues guitar @-@ style roots , but the lyrics place " emphasis on supernatural elements — gypsies , fortune telling , [ and ] luck " , according to musicologist Robert Palmer .
Waters expanded the theme in " Louisiana Blues " , which was recorded in 1950 with Little Walter accompanying on harmonica . He sings of traveling to New Orleans , Louisiana , to acquire a mojo hand , a hoodoo amulet or talisman ; with its magical powers , he hopes " to show all you good lookin ' women just how to treat your man " . Similar lyrics appeared in " Hoodoo Hoodoo " , a 1946 recording by John Lee " Sonny Boy " Williamson : " Well now I 'm goin ' down to Louisiana , and buy me another mojo hand " . Although Waters was ambivalent about hoodoo , he saw the music as having its own power :
When you 're writin ' them songs that are coming from down that way [ Mississippi Delta ] , you can 't leave out somethin ' about that mojo thing . Because this is what black people really believed in at that time ... even today [ circa 1980 ] , when you play the old blues like me , you can 't get from around that .
From 1946 to 1951 , Willie Dixon sang and played bass with the Big Three Trio . After the group disbanded , he worked for Chess Records as a recording session arranger and bassist . Dixon wrote several songs , but label co @-@ owner Leonard Chess failed to show any interest at first . Finally , in 1953 , Chess used two of Dixon 's songs : " Too Late " , recorded by Little Walter , and " Third Degree " , recorded by Eddie Boyd . " Third Degree " became Dixon 's first composition to enter the record charts . In September , Waters recorded his " Mad Love ( I Want You to Love Me ) " , which Dixon biographer Mitsutoshi Inaba calls " a test piece for the forthcoming ' Hoochie Coochie Man ' " because of its shared lyrical and musical elements . The song became Waters ' first record chart success in nearly two years .
The term " hoochie coochie " , with variations in the spelling , is used in different contexts . Appearing in the late 19th century , the hoochie coochie was a sexually provocative dance . Don Wilmeth identifies it as " a precursor of the striptease ... from the belly dance but punctuated with bumps and grinds and a combination of exposure , erotic movements , and teasing . " By one account , it first appeared at the Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition in 1876 and was a popular attraction at the 1893 Chicago World 's Fair . The dance is associated with entertainers Little Egypt and Sophie Tucker , but by the 1910s it declined in popularity . " Hoochie coochie " is also used to refer to a sexually attractive person or a practitioner of hoodoo . In his autobiography , I Am the Blues , Dixon included " hoochie coochie man " in his examples of a seer or a clairvoyant with a connection to folklore of the American South : " This guy is a hoodoo man , this lady is a witch , this other guy 's a hoochie coochie man , she 's some kind of voodoo person " .
= = Composition and recording = =
Not long after the success of " Mad Love " in November 1953 , Dixon approached Leonard Chess with " Hoochie Coochie Man " , a new song he felt was right for Waters . Chess responded , " if Muddy likes it , give it to him " . At the time , Waters was performing at the Club Zanzibar in Chicago . During an intermission , Dixon showed him the song . According to Dixon , Waters took to the tune immediately because it had so many familiar elements and he was able to learn enough to perform it that night . Jimmy Rogers , who was Waters ' second guitarist , remembered that it took a little longer :
Dixon came to the club and he would hum it to Muddy and write the lyrics out . Muddy would work them around for a while until he got it down where he could understand it and fool around with it . He would be onstage and try it out , do a few licks of it . We were building the arrangement , that 's what we were really doing .
On January 7 , 1954 , Waters entered the recording studio with his band to record the song . Considered the classic Chicago blues band , music critic Bill Janovitz described Waters ' group as " a who 's who of bluesmen " . Waters sings and plays electric guitar along with Rogers , blues harmonica virtuoso Little Walter , and drummer Elgin Evans , all of whom had been performing with Waters since 1951 . ( Fred Below , who replaced Evans during 1954 , is sometimes listed as the drummer . ) Pianist Otis Spann , who joined in 1953 , and Dixon , in his debut on double bass for Waters ' recording session , round out the group . Two takes of the song were recorded . Although there are some moments in the alternate take when a player 's timing rushes or drags perceptibly , because the band is so tight , the difference with the master is only six seconds ( for a nearly three @-@ minute song ) .
" Hoochie Coochie Man " follows a sixteen @-@ bar blues progression , which is an expansion of the well @-@ known twelve @-@ bar blues pattern . The first four bars are doubled in length so the harmony remains on the tonic for eight bars or one @-@ half of the sixteen bar progression . Dixon explained that expanding twelve @-@ bar blues was in response to amplification , which gave instruments more sustain
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. The extra bars also increase the contrasting effect of the repeating stop @-@ time musical figure or riff . For the second eight bars , the song reverts to the last eight of the twelve @-@ bar progression , which functions as a refrain or hook . The different textures provides the tune with a strong contrast , which helps underscore the lyrics . The song is performed at a moderate blues tempo ( 72 beats per minute ) in the key of A. It is notated in 128 time and contains three sixteen @-@ bar sections .
A key feature of the song is the use of stop time , or pauses in the music , during the first half of the progression . This musical device is commonly heard in New Orleans jazz , when the instrumentation briefly stops , allowing for a short instrumental solo before resuming . However , Waters ' and Dixon 's use of stop time serves to heighten the tension through repetition , followed by a vocal rather than an instrument fill . The accompanying riff , which Dixon described as a five @-@ note figure , is similar to that of " Mad Love " . He attributed it to the band and using such a phrase for eight bars was a new approach . Although Palmer comments that the entire group phrases the riff in unison , Boone describes it as a " heavy , unhurried counterpoint by all the instruments together " . Campbell identifies the opening as actually having " two competing riffs " or contrapuntal motion , with one played by Little Walter on an amplified harmonica and another by Waters on electric guitar .
For the second eight @-@ bars of the progression , the song follows the standard I – IV – V7 structure , which maintains its connection to traditional blues . The whole band plays it as a shuffle with a triplet rhythm , which Campbell describes as a " free @-@ for @-@ all [ with ] harmonica trills , guitar riffs , piano chords , thumping bass , [ and ] shuffle pattern on the drums " . He adds that this type of heavy sound was rarely heard in small music combos before rock . However , unlike the polyphony of New Orleans jazz , the instrumentation parallels Waters ' aggressive vocal approach and reinforces the lyrics . The players use of amplification , pushed to the point of distortion , is a key feature of Chicago blues and another rock precedent . In particular , Little Walters ' overdriven saxophone @-@ like harmonica playing weaves in and out of the vocal lines , which heightens the drama .
= = Lyrics and interpretation = =
" Hoochie Coochie Man " is characterized as a " self @-@ mythologizing testament " by Janovitz . The narrator boasts of his good fortune and his effect on women as aided by hoodoo . Waters explored similar themes in earlier songs , but his approach was more subtle . According to Palmer , Dixon upped the ante with more " flamboyance , macho posturing , and extra @-@ generous helping of hoodoo sensationalism " . Dixon claimed that the idea of a seer was inspired by history and the Bible . The verses in the song 's three sixteen @-@ bar sections proceed chronologically . The opening verse starts before the narrator is born and references Waters ' 1947 song " Gypsy Woman " :
As a boy in the South , Dixon recalled gypsies in covered wagons plying their trade from town to town . The fortune tellers would emphasize auspicious circumstances to enhance their earnings , especially when doing readings for pregnant women . In the second section , the narrative is in the present and several references are made to charms used by hoodoo conjurers . These include a black cat bone , a John the conqueror root , and a mojo , the last of which figured in " Louisiana Blues " . Their magical powers assure that the gypsy 's prophecy will be borne out : women and the rest of world will take notice . The song concludes with a final section which projects the good fortune into the future . The number seven is prominent : on the seventh hour , on the seventh day , etc . The stringing together of sevens is another good omen and is analogous to the seventh son of a seventh son of folklore . Dixon later expanded the theme in his 1955 song " The Seventh Son " .
Each section is linked by a refrain or recurring chorus . It functions as a hook and it differs from the usual " free @-@ associative aspect " of traditional blues . Writer Benjamin Filene sees this and Dixon 's desire to tell complete stories , with the verses building on each other , as sharing elements of pop music . The chorus , " But you know I 'm here , everybody knows I 'm here , Well you know I 'm the hoochie coochie man , everybody knows I 'm here " , confirms the narrator 's identity as both the subject of the gypsy 's prophecy as well as an omnipotent seer himself . Dixon felt that the lyrics expressed part of the audience 's unfulfilled desire to brag , while Waters later admitted that they were supposed to have a comic effect . Music historian Ted Gioia points to the underlying theme of sexuality and virility as sociologically significant . He sees it as challenge to the fear of miscegenation in the dying days of racial segregation in the United States . Record producer Marshall Chess took a simpler view : " It was sex . If you have ever seen Muddy then , the effect he had on women [ was clear ] . Because the blues , you know , has always been a women 's market " .
= = Releases and charts = =
In early 1954 , Chess Records issued " I 'm Your Hoochie Cooche Man " backed with " She 's So Pretty " on both the standard ten @-@ inch 78 rpm and the newer seven @-@ inch 45 rpm record single formats . It soon became the biggest hit of Waters ' career . The single entered Billboard magazine 's Rhythm & Blues Records charts on March 13 , 1954 , and reached number three on the Juke Box chart and number eight on the Best Seller chart . It remained on the charts for 13 weeks , making it Waters ' longest charting record up to that time ( two more Waters @-@ Dixon songs , " Just Make Love to Me ( I Just Want to Make Love to You " ) and " Close to You " , both later also lasted 13 weeks ) .
Chess included the song on Waters ' first album , the 1958 compilation The Best of Muddy Waters , but retitled it " Hoochie Coochie " . Numerous later Waters ' official compilations contain it , such as Sail On ; McKinley Morganfield a.k.a. Muddy Waters ; The Chess Box ; His Best : 1947 to 1955 ; The Best of Muddy Waters – The Millennium Collection ; The Anthology ( 1947 – 1972 ) ; Hoochie Coochie Man : The Complete Chess Masters , Vol . 2 : 1952 – 1958 ; and The Definitive Collection . Marshall Chess arranged for Waters to remake the song using psychedelic rock @-@ style instrumentation for the 1968 album Electric Mud , which was an attempt to reach a new audience . In 1972 , Waters recorded an " unplugged " rendition of the song , with Louis Myers on acoustic guitar and George " Mojo " Buford on unamplified harmonica . Chess released it in 1994 on the Waters rarieties collection One More Mile . He revisited the song with original guitarist Jimmy Rogers in 1977 . They re @-@ recorded it for I 'm Ready , the Grammy Award @-@ winning album produced by Johnny Winter .
Waters featured the song in his performances and several live recordings have been issued . His acclaimed At Newport 1960 , one of the first live blues albums , includes a rendition by his later band with Spann , Pat Hare , James Cotton , and Francis Clay . Other live albums have versions that span his career with different backup bands . These include Live in 1958 ( recorded in England in 1958 with Spann and Chris Barber 's trad jazz band , released in 1993 and re @-@ released as Collaboration in 1995 ) ; Authorized Bootleg : Live at the Fillmore Auditorium – San Francisco Nov 04 – 06 1966 ( released 2009 ) ; The Lost Tapes ( recorded 1971 , released 1999 ) ; Muddy " Mississippi " Waters – Live ( recorded 1977 , released 1979 ) ; and Live at the Checkerboard Lounge , Chicago 1981 with members of the Rolling Stones ( released 2012 ) .
= = Influence and recognition = =
" Hoochie Coochie Man " represents Waters ' recording transition from an electrified , but more traditional Delta @-@ based blues of the late 1940s – early 1950s to a newer Chicago blues ensemble sound . The song was important to Dixon 's career and signaled a change as well – Chess became convinced of Dixon 's value as a songwriter and secured his relationship as such with the label . Waters soon followed up with several variations on the sixteen @-@ bar stop @-@ time arrangement written by Dixon . These include " I Just Want to Make Love to You " , " I 'm Ready " , and " I 'm a Natural Born Lover " . All of these songs follow a similar lyrical theme and " helped shape Muddy Waters ' image as the testosterone king of the blues " , according to Gioia .
Bo Diddley modified the song 's signature riff for his March 1955 song " I 'm a Man " . He reworked it as a four @-@ note figure , which is repeated for the entire song without a progression to other chords . Music critic and writer Cub Koda calls it " the most recognizable blues lick in the world " . Waters , not to be outdone , responded two months later with an answer song to " I 'm a Man " , titled " Mannish Boy " . " Bo Diddley , he was tracking me down with my beat when he made ' I 'm a Man ' . That 's from ' Hoochie Coochie Man . ' Then I got on it with ' Mannish Boy ' and just drove him out of my way " , Waters recalled . Emphasizing the origin of Bo Diddley 's song , Waters sticks to the original first eight @-@ bar phrase from " Hoochie Coochie Man " and includes some of the hoodoo references .
According to Palmer , songwriters adapted the phrase for other artists and it was " soon absorbed into the lingua franca of blues , jazz , and rock and roll " . In 1955 , songwriters Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller used the riff for " Riot in Cell Block Number 9 " ( later reworked by the Beach Boys as " Student Demonstration Time " ) and " Framed " for the R & B group the Robins . " Trouble " , another Leiber and Stoller composition that uses the riff , was sung by Elvis Presley in the 1958 musical drama film King Creole . American composer Elmer Bernstein quoted the figure in another film , The Man with the Golden Arm , which received a nomination for an Academy Award for Best Original Score in 1955 . Dixon remarked , " we felt like this was a great achievement for one of these blues phrases to be used in a movie " .
As numerous artists recorded it in a variety of styles , " Hoochie Coochie Man " became a blues standard . Janovitz describes the song as " a vital piece of Chicago @-@ style electric blues that links the Delta to rock & roll " . Rock musicians are among the many who have interpreted it . In 1984 , Waters ' original " I 'm Your Hoochie Coochie Man " was inducted into the Blues Foundation Hall of Fame . The Foundation noted that " In addition to countless versions by Chicago blues artists , the song has been recorded by performers as diverse as Jimi Hendrix , Chuck Berry , and jazz organist Jimmy Smith " to which Grove adds B.B. King , Buddy Guy , John P. Hammond , the Allman Brothers Band , and Eric Clapton . A Grammy Hall of Fame Award followed in 1998 , which " honor [ s ] recordings of lasting qualitative or historical significance " . The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's list of the " 500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll " recognizes the song 's influence on rock . Representatives of the music industry and press voted it number 226 for Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the " 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " . In 2004 , the National Recording Preservation Board , advisors to the US Library of Congress , selected it for preservation in the National Recording Registry and noted the contributions of the band members .
= Soulmates ( Parks and Recreation ) =
" Soulmates " is the tenth episode of the American comedy television series Parks and Recreation 's third season , and the 40th overall episode of the series . In the episode , Leslie is disappointed when Ben rejects her romantic advances , and is surprised when she is matched with Tom in an online dating service . Meanwhile , Ron and Chris have a cook @-@ off to determine which is better : red or lean meat . The episode was written by Alan Yang and directed by Ken Whittingham .
After it aired , NBC launched a website for HoosierMate.com , the fictional online dating site featured in " Soulmates " . The episode featured a guest appearance by stand @-@ up comedian Kirk Fox as sewage department employee Joe , who previously appeared in the second season . Josh Pence , who appeared with Parks co @-@ star Rashida Jones in the 2010 film The Social Network , also appeared in " Soulmates " as a man wearing cowboy clothes who dates Ann .
According to Nielsen Media Research , the episode was seen by 4 @.@ 89 million household viewers , a slight decrease from the previous original episode , " Andy and April 's Fancy Party " . It received generally positive reviews , with several commentators particularly praising the performance of Aziz Ansari as Tom Haverford .
= = Plot = =
Chris ( Rob Lowe ) enacts a government @-@ wide health initiative in Pawnee , starting by banning red meat from the city hall commissary , much to the displeasure of Ron ( Nick Offerman ) . He challenges Chris to a burger cook @-@ off to prove red meat is superior to Chris ' preferred lean meat , with red meat staying on the menu if Ron wins . Meanwhile , Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) invites Ben ( Adam Scott ) out to dinner , but he turns her down , leaving Leslie confused because she was sure Ben was attracted to her . Ann ( Rashida Jones ) , who is now dating multiple men after taking Donna 's ( Retta ) advice to be more adventurous , tells Leslie to join an online dating website called HoosierMate.com and helps set up her profile ( after Leslie 's original description of herself was " yellow haired female ; likes waffles and news " ) .
Leslie finds a match that is 98 percent compatible with her – a " soulmate " rating – but is horrified to discover that it is Tom ( Aziz Ansari ) . Additionally , the crude sewage department employee Joe ( Kirk Fox ) makes a romantic advance toward Leslie , prompting her to launch a " douche @-@ vestigation " to find out why she attracts the wrong type of man . Meanwhile , Chris takes Andy ( Chris Pratt ) , April ( Aubrey Plaza ) , and Ron to a health food market called Grain ' n Simple , where he gathers numerous ingredients for the perfect turkey burger , but Ron is unfazed , simply buying a pound of red meat from his favorite food market , Food and Stuff .
In her investigation , Leslie quickly learns Joe merely hits on any woman as long as she is not elderly . She takes Tom out to lunch to learn more about him . He responds to all of Leslie 's questions with his usual chauvinistic answers , annoying her to the point that she admits she took him out because they matched on HoosierMate . A delighted Tom teases Leslie the rest of the day by pretending they are a couple , but she finally silences him by kissing him . Chris notices the kiss and warns Leslie that he has a strict policy against workplace dating .
At the cook @-@ off , Chris prepares his meticulous turkey burgers for the judges : Tom , Donna , Jerry ( Jim O 'Heir ) , and Kyle ( Andy Forrest ) . They all love it , but give much higher praise to Ron 's simple hamburger on a bun . Initially surprised , even Chris comes to admit the burger is superior after trying it , so he agrees to reinstate red meat on the commissary menu . Chris later tells Leslie his dating policy has affected others , explaining that he earlier warned Ben not to ask out a co @-@ worker . Leslie realizes that is why Ben rejected her and is glad when Ben asks her to eat in front of her favorite city hall mural . Leslie deletes her profile on HoosierMate , and is relieved to learn that Tom has 26 different profiles on the site to match himself with any type of woman , although the one Leslie matched with was his " nerd " profile .
= = Production = =
" Soulmates " was written by Alan Yang and directed by Ken Whittingham . The idea of Chris ' no @-@ dating policy stemmed from real life policies in small town governments . Parks and Recreation co @-@ creator Michael Schur said although romantic obstacles between two characters are difficult to make effective and genuine , he believed the policy was realistic and fitting with the type of show . Schur said : " The ' no dating ' thing is a very big deal in government – these people are handling taxpayer money , so relationships are even more frowned upon than they are in the private sector . "
The episode features a fictional online dating service called HoosierMate.com , inspired by the nickname Hoosier for residents of Indiana , where Parks and Recreation is set . After the episode aired , NBC started a fake website on an actual HoosierMate.com domain , which included fake accounts for Leslie and Tom similar to those featured in " Soulmates " . Stand @-@ up comedian Kirk Fox made a guest appearance in " Soulmates " as Pawnee sewer department employee Joe , who he previously played in the second season episodes " The Camel " and " Telethon " . Josh Pence , who appeared with Parks co @-@ star Rashida Jones in the 2010 film The Social Network , also appeared in " Soulmates " as a man wearing cowboy clothes who dates Ann .
During one scene in " Soulmates " , Ron misunderstood a turkey burger to be " a fried turkey leg inside a grilled hamburger " . After the episode aired , the cooking website Eater.com created and posted a recipe for that exact food .
= = Cultural references = =
When Leslie asks Tom what he would ask for if given three wishes , one of them is to star in a remake of the 1991 action film Point Break playing the roles of both main characters , who are played by Keanu Reeves and Patrick Swayze . During one scene , while on hold during a telephone call , Tom sings badly out of tune to the hold music of " Forever Young " , by the German synthpop group Alphaville . At one point , Tom describes the nicknames he has for various foods , and describes sandwiches as " sammies , sandoozles or Adam Sandlers " , the latter of which refers to the comedian and actor Adam Sandler . Andy tells Chris his favorite food is Skittles sandwiched between two Starburst , which he calls " Andy 's Mouth Surprise " . When Leslie describes her ideal date as a dark and mysterious man who can play the organ , Ann says she believes Leslie is describing the title character from The Phantom of the Opera , a story about a deformed man who haunts an opera hall .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast , " Soulmates " was seen by an estimated 4 @.@ 89 million household viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research , with a 2 @.@ 9 rating / 5 share among all viewers and a 2 @.@ 4 rating / 6 share among viewers between ages 18 and 49 . A rating point represents one percent of the total number of television sets in American households , and a share means the percentage of television sets in use tuned to the program . The " Soulmates " rating constituted a slight decrease from the previous episode , " Andy and April 's Fancy Party " , which was seen by 5 @.@ 16 million households .
In its 9 : 30 p.m. timeslot , " Soulmates " was outperformed by the Fox crime drama series Bones , which was seen by 10 @.@ 96 million household viewers , and the CBS forensic crime series CSI : Crime Scene Investigation , which was seen by 8 @.@ 47 million households . It outperformed a repeat of the ABC medical drama series Grey 's Anatomy , which was seen by 3 @.@ 86 million household viewers , and an original episode of the CW Television Network drama series Nikita , which was seen by 2 @.@ 013 million households .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Soulmates " received generally positive reviews , with several commentators particularly praising the performance of Aziz Ansari . The Atlantic writer Scott Meslow said Ansari " has somehow found a way to make Tom petulant , sexist , and materialistic without ever being unlikable " . Meslow also complimented the " slight but charming " subplot about the burger cook @-@ off , and said Rob Lowe stood his own against the show 's reliable comedic stars Nick Offerman and Chris Pratt . Zap2it writer Rick Porter called " Soulmates " one of the " out @-@ and @-@ out funniest episodes of the season " and provided Ansari with the " best sustained bit of comedy he 's had in a long time " . Porter also said he appreciated how the script " wisely didn 't make much " over Ann 's dating many men , claiming the subtlety of the joke was effective . Andy Daglas of ChicagoNow also said Ansari " stole the show " and that " Soulmates " was an excellent showcase for his character , who had largely remained on the sidelines throughout the season . Daglas said the scenes with Tom mocking Leslie were effective not only due to Ansari 's performance , but also because of the genuine loyalty and admiration that had been built between the two characters .
The A.V. Club writer Steve Heisler called " Soulmates " one of the best Parks and Recreation episodes , and praised it for advancing its character relationships and finding " tons of natural , free @-@ flowing comedy in something incredibly mundane " , such as a conflict over burgers . Matt Fowler of IGN said he enjoyed seeing Offerman and Lowe pitted against each other , which he described as an " epic " pairing . Fowler also said he enjoyed that the script introduced " mini @-@ mysteries " that took some time to reveal , like why Ben seemed uncomfortable around Leslie , and why Leslie and Tom were a match on the dating website . Nick McHatton of TV Fanatic said he is enjoying the slow and deliberate pace at which the Leslie and Ben relationship is progressing . He also said Ansari " delivered just the right amount to creep out Leslie ( and ) keep me in fits of laughter " , and said Tom 's slang nicknames for food were " some of the funniest Tom @-@ isms he 's doled out yet " . New York magazine writer Steve Kandell said the episode demonstrates how , even several months after the addition of Lowe and Adam Scott to the cast , their presence allows for excellent new story opportunities , like the Ron and Chris cook @-@ off and Ben 's infatuation with Leslie .
Eric Sundermann of Hollywood.com said " Soulmates " demonstrates how Parks and Recreation is superior to other comedy shows because it " invests in its characters and really allows the audience time to get to know them " rather than depending solely on gags . Alan Sepinwall said he " laughed louder and more frequently at it than any episode so far this season " except for " Flu Season " and called the Ron and Chris subplot as " predictable as hell but perfectly @-@ executed " . Sepinwall objected to the introduction of a no @-@ dating policy simply to slow the budding romance between Leslie and Ben , and said " so much of this season has been so perfect that the rare imperfections stand out even more than they would on a weaker overall comedy " . Joel Keller of TV Squad said the no @-@ dating policy felt like a plot contrivance meant strictly to keep Ben and Leslie apart , which he felt was not good for the story . However , he complimented Leslie and Tom 's scenes together , and said the subplot was even funnier , which he called a " Ron Swanson classic " . Entertainment Weekly writer Hillary Busis said the episode was " a little too disjointed for me " , particularly because the two plots were barely associated with each other . However , she said the show included funny individual jokes , and enjoyed the moment when Leslie kissed Tom .
= M @-@ 87 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 87 is the designation of a former state trunkline highway in the Lower Peninsula of the US state of Michigan , which prior to 1960 ran east – west between the towns of Fenton and Holly . The highway served as a connector between US Highway 23 ( US 23 ) and the former routing of US 10 , which ran along what is now the Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) corridor . The highway connected the downtown areas of each community as well as running through then @-@ rural areas of Genesee and Oakland counties . The trunkline was decommissioned in late 1960 , removing it from the system .
= = Route description = =
Immediately before decommissioning , M @-@ 87 began at a junction with Business US 23 ( Bus . US 23 , Leroy Street ) east of the Shiawassee River in the town of Fenton . From there the road traveled to the east along Main Street , where it crossed a branch rail line of the present @-@ day CSX Transportation. and headed east out of town in Genesee County . After about one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , the highway crossed into Oakland County and followed Grange Hall Road south of Seven Lakes State Park . The road then turned south in the town of Holly along Saginaw Street . Near Bevins Lake , the street curved to the east around the end of the lake . The highway turned east on Maple Street and ran south of Simonson Lake as it continued eastward out of Holly . The road crossed a branch line of the present day Canadian National Railway in Springfield Township . The trunkline continued to the east and southeast through rural areas before terminating at US 10 ( Dixie Highway ) .
= = History = =
M @-@ 87 was assumed into the state trunkline system by July 1 , 1919 , when the system was first signed . At the time , the highway connected M @-@ 65 in Fenton with M @-@ 10 east of Holly . Later when the United States Numbered Highway System was created on November 11 , 1926 , those two highways were renumbered US 23 and US 10 respectively . The highway was fully paved in 1937 . In 1958 , Fenton was bypassed by the Fenton – Clio Expressway to the west of downtown. and the former route through downtown was redesignated Bus . US 23 . M @-@ 87 was removed from the state trunkline system and turned back to local control in late 1960 .
= = Major intersections = =
= SMS Von der Tann =
SMS Von der Tann was the first battlecruiser built for the German Kaiserliche Marine , as well as Germany 's first major turbine @-@ powered warship . At the time of her construction , Von der Tann was the fastest dreadnought @-@ type warship afloat , capable of reaching speeds in excess of 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) . She was designed in response to the British Invincible class . While the German design had slightly lighter guns — 28 cm ( 11 in ) , compared to the 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 in ) Mark X mounted on the British ships — Von der Tann was faster and significantly better @-@ armored . She set the precedent of German battlecruisers carrying much heavier armor than their British equivalents , albeit at the cost of smaller guns .
Von der Tann participated in a number of fleet actions during the First World War , including several bombardments of the English coast . She was present at the Battle of Jutland , where she destroyed the British battlecruiser HMS Indefatigable in the opening minutes of the engagement . Von der Tann was hit several times by large @-@ caliber shells during the battle , and at one point in the engagement , the ship had all of her main battery guns out of action either due to damage or malfunction . Nevertheless , the damage was quickly repaired and the ship returned to the fleet in two months .
Following the end of the war in November 1918 , Von der Tann , along with most of the High Seas Fleet , was interned at Scapa Flow pending a decision by the Allies as to the fate of the fleet . The ship met her end in 1919 when German caretaker crews scuttled their ships to prevent their division among Allied navies . The wreck was raised in 1930 , and scrapped at Rosyth from 1931 to 1934 .
= = Development = =
The preceding German large cruiser design , Blücher , was an incremental increase over previous armored cruisers . Blücher was armed with twelve 21 cm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) guns , and designed to counter what the Germans knew about the British Invincible class , which were assumed to be larger iterations of the basic armored cruiser type . Once sufficient information about the new British cruisers became available , it was obvious that they were not simply an enlargement on previous designs but a whole new type of warship — the battlecruiser — to which Blücher was quite inferior . However , there were insufficient funds to alter Blücher 's layout , so the cruiser assigned for 1907 would have to be an entirely new design .
Design of Von der Tann began in August 1906 , under the name " Cruiser F " , amid disagreements over the intended role of the new ship . Admiral Tirpitz advocated a ship similar to the new British battlecruisers of the Invincible class : heavier guns , lighter armor , and higher speed with the intention of using the ship as a fleet scout and to destroy the opposing fleet 's cruisers . Tirpitz had no intention of using the ship in the main battle line . Kaiser Wilhelm II however , along with most of the Reichsmarineamt ( Imperial Navy Office ) , was in favor of incorporating the ship into the battle line after initial contact was made , which necessitated much heavier armor . This insistence upon the capability to fight in the battle line was a result of the numerical inferiority of the German High Seas fleet compared to the British Royal Navy .
Several design proposals were submitted , all calling for heavy main guns , between 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 in ) and 34 @.@ 3 cm ( 13 @.@ 5 in ) calibers . However , financial limitations dictated that smaller , less expensive weaponry would be used instead . The final design therefore used the same 28 cm ( 11 in ) double turret introduced for the last two Nassau @-@ class battleships — hydraulic elevated Drh LC / 1907 instead of electrical elevated Drh LC / 1906 . In compensation , the design was given a relatively heavy secondary armament .
At a conference in September 1906 , many of the disagreements over the ship 's design were resolved . The Naval Constructor , von Eickstedt , argued that since the explosive trials for the proposed protection systems for the new battlecruiser had not been completed , the construction should be postponed , to allow for any alterations to the design . He also argued that guns of 21 cm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) or 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) caliber would be sufficient to penetrate the armor of the new British battlecruisers . However , Admiral August von Heeringen , of the General Navy Department , stated that for the ship to be able to engage battleships , the 28 cm ( 11 in ) caliber guns were necessary .
Admiral Capelle , the deputy director of the Reichsmarineamt , stated that by mid November 1906 , the testing for the underwater protection designs would be complete . He suggested that if the torpedo bulkhead needed to be strengthened , the ship might be too heavy for the 28 cm ( 11 in ) guns , if the displacement of around 19 @,@ 000 t ( 21 @,@ 000 short tons ) was to be retained . Tirpitz refused to consider using smaller guns , even if it meant increasing the displacement of the ship . Von Eickstedt proposed employing a secondary battery of 17 cm ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) guns instead of the 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) the design called for , but the increased weight would have made it impossible to mount eight main battery guns .
On 22 June 1907 , the Kaiser authorized construction of Cruiser F , to be named Von der Tann , after Ludwig Freiherr von und zu der Tann @-@ Rathsamhausen , a Bavarian general who fought in the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 . The contract was awarded to the Blohm & Voss shipyard in Hamburg , on 26 September 1907 . The keel was laid on 21 March 1908 , and the ship was launched nearly a year later , on 20 March 1909 . The source of the ship 's name was the subject of much gratitude from the Bavarian aristocracy . Newspapers at the time reported that Luitpold , the prince regent and de facto ruler of Bavaria , telegraphed a message of thanks to the German emperor , and the launch ceremony was overseen by one of Von der Tann 's descendants , also a general . He spoke to the assembled crowd , stating his hope that Von der Tann would , in his words , " go out to protect Germany 's might world @-@ trade , or , at the command of his Majesty the Emperor , to ward off an enemy who attacked the vital interests or the honour of the Empire . Might the ship acquit herself upon the ocean as the General whose name she bore had acquitted himself upon the blood @-@ drenched battlefield and bring her flag victorious out of the fight for the greatness and the honour of Germany . " The ship cost 36 @.@ 523 million Marks .
= = Design = =
= = = Armament = = =
Von der Tann carried eight 28 cm ( 11 @.@ 02 in ) SK L / 45 guns , mounted in four twin turrets : one fore , one aft , and two staggered wing turrets . The guns were emplaced in the Drh.L C / 1907 turntable mount , which was traversed electrically , while the guns themselves used hydraulics to change elevation . The guns could be elevated up to 20 degrees , which enabled a maximum range of 18 @,@ 900 m ( 20 @,@ 700 yd ) . A refit in 1915 increased this to 20 @,@ 400 m ( 22 @,@ 300 yd ) . The main guns fired a 302 kg ( 670 lb ) armored @-@ piercing shell that had a muzzle velocity of 875 m / s ; the main propellant charges were encased in a brass cartridge . A total of 660 projectiles were stored in four shell rooms , each containing 165 shells . The wing turrets were staggered in such a way that all eight guns were able to fire on broadside on a very wide arc .
Unlike her British contemporaries , Von der Tann also carried a heavy secondary battery , consisting of ten 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 91 in ) SK L / 45 guns , casemated in MPL C / 06 pivot mounts , each with 150 high explosive and armor @-@ piercing shells . At construction , these guns could fire their 45 @.@ 3 kg ( 100 lb ) shells at targets up to 13 @,@ 500 m ( 14 @,@ 800 yd ) away ; after the 1915 refit , their maximum range was extended to 16 @,@ 800 m ( 18 @,@ 400 yd ) . She was also armed with sixteen 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 45 naval gun 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 46 in ) SK L / 45 guns , to defend against torpedo boats and destroyers . These were also emplaced in pivot mounts , of the MPL C / 01 @-@ 06 type , with a total of 3 @,@ 200 shells for these guns . These guns fired a 9 kg ( 20 lb ) shell at the high rate of 15 rounds per minute , up to a range of 10 @,@ 694 m ( 11 @,@ 695 yd ) , which was quite long for a smaller caliber weapon . In late 1916 , following repair work after the damage sustained during the Battle of Jutland , Von der Tann had her 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) guns removed and the firing ports welded shut . Two 8 @.@ 8 cm flak guns were installed on the aft superstructure .
As was customary for capital ships of the time , Von der Tann was equipped with four 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 72 in ) torpedo tubes , with a total of 11 torpedoes . These were located in the bow , the stern , and two on the broadside . The torpedoes carried a 110 kg ( 240 lb ) warhead , and had an effective range of 2 km ( 1 @.@ 04 nmi ) when set for a speed of 32 kn ( 59 km / h ) , and 1 @.@ 5 km ( 0 @.@ 81 nmi ) at 36 kn ( 67 km / h ) .
= = = Armor = = =
Because the Von der Tann was designed to fight in the battle line , her armor was much thicker than that of the British battlecruisers . Von der Tann weighed over 2 @,@ 000 tonnes more than the Indefatigable class , and used 10 % more of her weight for armor than the battlecruisers she faced at the Battle of Jutland .
Von der Tann 's armor consisted of Krupp cemented and nickel steel . The main belt armor was 80 – 120 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) thick forward , 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) thick over the ship 's citadel , and was 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick aft . The forward conning tower was protected by 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) , while the aft conning tower by 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) . The four turrets had 230 mm ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) faces , 180 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) sides , and 90 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) on the roofs . The horizontal armor measured 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) thick , and the sloping deck armor was 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick . Like the armored cruiser Blücher before her , she was protected by a torpedo bulkhead , 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) thick . It was set back a distance of 4 meters ( 13 ft ) from the outer hull skin , the space in between being used to store coal .
= = = Machinery = = =
Von der Tann was powered by 18 naval coal @-@ fueled double boilers , separated into five boiler rooms . The boilers produced steam at a pressure of 235 psi ( 16 atmospheres ) . Von der Tann was the first large German warship to use turbine propulsion . The ship used two sets of turbines : high pressure turbines , which ran the outer two shafts , and low pressure turbines , which powered the inner two shafts . Each shaft had a propeller 3 @.@ 6 m ( 12 ft ) in diameter . The ship was designed to have a power output of 41 @,@ 426 shaft horsepower ( 30 @,@ 891 kW ) at a speed of 300 rpm , which enabled a rated top speed of 24 @.@ 8 kn ( 45 @.@ 9 km / h ) . However , as was the case with all later German battlecruisers , the ship could be run dramatically higher . During sea trials , the turbines provided 77 @,@ 928 shp ( 58 @,@ 111 kW ) at 339 rpm for a top speed of 27 @.@ 757 kn ( 51 @.@ 39 km / h ) . In one instance during a cruise from Tenerife to Germany , the ship averaged 27 kn ( 50 km / h ) , and reached a maximum speed of 28 kn ( 52 km / h ) . At the time of her launch , she was the fastest dreadnought afloat . The ship had two parallel rudders , which were controlled by steam @-@ powered engines . Von der Tann 's electrical plant consisted of six steam turbo generators that had a total output of 1 @,@ 200 @-@ kW ( 1 @,@ 600 @-@ hp ) .
Like many German capital ships , Von der Tann had chronic problems with the often low @-@ quality coal available for the ship 's boilers . Following the end of the raid on Scarborough , Von der Tann 's commander , Captain Max von Hahn , remarked that " the inadequacy of our coal and its burning properties results in heavy smoke clouds and signals our presence . " During the battle of Jutland , the ship was unable to maintain fires in all of her boilers after 16 : 00 , due to the poor quality coal . Many other German ships suffered the same difficulties during the battle , including Derfflinger and Seydlitz . After 1916 , the coal firing in the boilers was supplemented by spraying tar @-@ oil on the coal , which made the coal burn better .
= = = Other characteristics = = =
Frahm anti @-@ roll tanks were fitted during construction , but these proved to be ineffective ; the tanks only reduced rolling by 33 % . Bilge keels were later added to improve stability , and the space previously used for the anti @-@ roll tanks was instead used as extra fuel storage . The ship was able to carry an additional 180 t ( 200 short tons ) of coal in the anti @-@ roll tanks . Von der Tann 's hull consisted of 15 watertight compartments , and a double bottom extended for 75 % of the ship 's length . The ship was known to have good maneuvering characteristics , with a speed loss of 60 % and a heel of 8 degrees at full rudder .
The ship 's crew compartments were arranged such that the officers were accommodated in the forecastle . This arrangement was found to be unsatisfactory , and not repeated in later classes . Von der Tann was designed to be fitted with a lattice mast , but the ship received standard masts instead . In 1914 , spotting posts were attached to the masts in order to observe the fall of artillery fire . In 1915 , seaplane trials were conducted on Von der Tann , and a crane was attached on the aft deck to lift the seaplane aboard the ship . Von der Tann had originally been equipped with anti @-@ torpedo nets , but these were removed towards the end of 1916 .
= = Service history = =
In May 1910 , Von der Tann sailed from the Blohm & Voss shipyard in Hamburg to receive her final fitting @-@ out in the Imperial Dockyard at Kiel . The German Navy was chronically short of crews at the time , so dockyard workers had to bring the ship to Kiel . On 1 September 1910 , the ship was commissioned into the German Navy , with a crew composed largely of crewmembers from the dreadnought Rheinland . During trials , an average speed of 27 kn ( 50 km / h ) was attained over a six @-@ hour period , with a top speed of 28 @.@ 124 kn ( 52 @.@ 086 km / h ) with the engines at maximum output .
Von der Tann made several long @-@ distance voyages after completion . She visited Rio de Janeiro , Puerto Militar , and Bahía Blanca in South America in early 1911 , and returned to Kiel on 6 May 1911 . The primary purpose of the cruise was to obtain armament contracts from South American countries by impressing them with what was " widely advertised as the fastest and most powerful warship then afloat . " On 8 May 1911 , Von der Tann joined the Unit of Reconnaissance Ships . In June 1911 Von der Tann attended the Fleet Review at Spithead , for the coronation of King George V.
= = = First World War = = =
At the outbreak of the First World War , Von der Tann was serving as the flagship of the 3rd Admiral of Reconnaissance Forces , Konteradmiral Tapken . The ship was assigned to the I Scouting Group of the High Seas Fleet , under the command of Rear Admiral Franz Hipper . Von der Tann 's first major sortie during the war occurred when the ship took part in the unsuccessful search for British battlecruisers , after the Battle of Heligoland Bight , in August 1914 . During the Battle of Heligoland Bight , Von der Tann had been stationed in Wilhelmshaven Roads , and had been ordered to raise steam as early as 08 : 20 , to assist the German cruisers under attack in the Heligoland Bight . At 08 : 50 , Rear Admiral Hipper requested permission from Admiral von Ingenohl , the commander in chief of the High Seas Fleet , to send Von der Tann and Moltke to relieve the beleaguered German cruisers .
Von der Tann was ready to sail by 10 : 15 , more than an hour before the British battlecruisers arrived on the scene . However , the ship was held up by low tide , which prevented the battlecruisers from crossing the bar at the mouth of the Jade Estuary . At 14 : 10 , Von der Tann and Moltke were able to cross the Jade bar , and Hipper ordered the German light cruisers to fall back on the two heavy ships , while Hipper himself was about an hour behind in the battlecruiser Seydlitz . At 14 : 25 , the remaining light cruisers , Strassburg , Stettin , Frauenlob , Stralsund , and Ariadne , rendezvoused with the battlecruisers . Seydlitz arrived on the scene by 15 : 10 ; Ariadne succumbed to battle damage and sank . Hipper ventured forth cautiously to search for the two missing light cruisers , Mainz and Cöln . By 16 : 00 , the German flotilla began returning to the Jade Estuary , arriving at approximately 20 : 23 .
= = = = Bombardments of the English coast = = = =
Later that year Von der Tann was present at the Raid on Yarmouth , on 2 – 3 November . At 16 : 30 on the 2nd , Von der Tann , along with Seydlitz ( Hipper 's flagship ) , Moltke , the armored cruiser Blücher , and the four light cruisers Strassburg , Graudenz , Kolberg , and Stralsund , departed the Jade Estuary , bound for the English coast with the intent to lay minefields in British sea lanes . At 18 : 00 , two dreadnought battle squadrons of the High Seas Fleet departed to provide support . Hipper 's force veered north in an arc to avoid Heligoland and the British submarines stationed there , and then increased speed to 18 knots . At approximately 06 : 30 the following morning , Hipper 's battlecruisers spotted the British minesweeper Halcyon and opened fire , which drew the attention of the destroyer Lively . Hipper realized that he was wasting time , and that further pursuit would run his ships into a known minefield , so he ordered his ships back to sea . As the flotilla was turning away , the battlecruisers fired several salvos at Great Yarmouth , to little effect . By the time the British Admiralty was fully aware of the situation , the German force had retreated back to home waters .
Von der Tann also participated in the raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby , on 15 – 16 December . The raid was another attempt to lure out a portion of the Grand Fleet and destroy it , with the whole of the High Seas Fleet standing by in support . Von der Tann delayed the raid itself by several days , because Admiral Ingenohl was unwilling to send forth the I Scouting Group at anything less than full strength , and Von der Tann was undergoing routine repairs in early December . The I Scouting Group , along with the II Scouting Group , composed of the four light cruisers Kolberg , Strassburg , Stralsund , and Graudenz , and two torpedo boat flotillas , left the Jade at 03 : 20 . Hipper 's ships sailed north , through the channels in the minefields , past Heligoland to the Horns Reef light vessel , at which point the ships turned westward , towards the English coast . The main battle squadrons of the High Seas Fleet left in the late afternoon of the 15th . During the night of 15 December , the main body of the High Seas Fleet encountered British destroyers , and fearing the prospect of a night @-@ time torpedo attack , Admiral Ingenohl ordered the ships to retreat .
Upon nearing the British coast , Hipper 's battlecruisers split into two groups . Seydlitz , Moltke , and Blücher went north to shell Hartlepool , while Von der Tann and Derfflinger went south to shell Scarborough and Whitby . The two ships destroyed the coast guard stations in both towns , along with the signalling station in Whitby . By 09 : 45 on the 16th , the two groups had reassembled , and began to retreat eastward . Hipper was unaware of Ingenohl 's withdrawal , and following the bombardment of the target cities , turned back to rendezvous with the German fleet . By this time , David Beatty 's battlecruisers were in position to block Hipper 's chosen egress route , while other forces were en route to complete the encirclement . At 12 : 25 , the light cruisers of the II Scouting Group began to pass the British forces searching for Hipper . One of the cruisers in the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron spotted Stralsund , and signaled a report to Beatty . At 12 : 30 , Beatty turned his battlecruisers towards the German ships . Beatty presumed that the German cruisers were the advance screen for Hipper 's ships , however , those were some 50 km ( 31 mi ) ahead . The 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron , which had been screening for Beatty 's ships , detached to pursue the German cruisers , but a misinterpreted signal from the British battlecruisers sent them back to their screening positions . This confusion allowed the German light cruisers to escape , and alerted Hipper to the location of the British battlecruisers . The German battlecruisers wheeled to the northeast of the British forces and made good their escape .
Von der Tann was being refitted at the time of the Battle of Dogger Bank , and so she missed this action . She was replaced by the armored cruiser Blücher , which was sunk during the battle . A detachment of men from Von der Tann had been sent to Blücher and went down with the ship . In 1915 the ship took part in operations in the North and Baltic Seas . On 10 August 1915 , Von der Tann shelled the island fortress at Utö , in the eastern Baltic , during which she took part in an artillery duel with the Russian armored cruiser Admiral Makarov . Von der Tann also engaged the Russian armored cruiser Bayan and five destroyers , during which Von der Tann was struck by a shell through the funnel , which caused no casualties . On 3 – 4 February 1916 , Von der Tann participated in the fleet advance to welcome home the commerce raider Möwe . The ship was also present during the fleet sorties of 5 – 7 March , 17 April , 21 – 22 April , and 5 May .
Von der Tann also took part in the bombardment of Yarmouth and Lowestoft on 24 – 25 April . Hipper was away on sick leave , so the German ships were under the command of Konteradmiral Friedrich Boedicker . The German battlecruisers Derfflinger , Lützow , Moltke , Seydlitz and Von der Tann left the Jade Estuary at 10 : 55 on 24 April , and were supported by a screening force of 6 light cruisers and two torpedo boat flotillas . The heavy units of the High Seas Fleet sailed at 13 : 40 , with the objective to provide distant support for Boedicker 's ships . The British Admiralty was made aware of the German sortie through the interception of German wireless signals , and deployed the Grand Fleet at 15 : 50 .
By 14 : 00 , Boedicker 's ships had reached a position off Norderney , at which point he turned his ships northward to avoid the Dutch observers on the island of Terschelling . At 15 : 38 , Seydlitz struck a mine , which tore a 50 @-@ ft ( 15 @-@ m ) hole in her hull , just abaft of the starboard broadside torpedo tube , which allowed 1 @,@ 400 @-@ t ( 1 @,@ 500 @-@ short tons ) of water to enter the ship . Seydlitz turned back , with the screen of light cruisers , at a speed of 15 knots . The four remaining battlecruisers turned south immediately in the direction of Norderney to avoid further mine damage . By 16 : 00 , Seydlitz was clear of imminent danger , so the ship stopped to allow Boedicker to disembark . The torpedo boat V28 brought Boedicker to Lützow .
At 04 : 50 on 25 April , the German battlecruisers were approaching Lowestoft when the light cruisers Rostock and Elbing , which had been covering the southern flank , spotted the light cruisers and destroyers of Admiral Tyrwhitt 's Harwich Force . Boedicker refused to be distracted by the British ships , and instead trained his ships ' guns on Lowestoft . The two 6 in ( 15 cm ) shore batteries were destroyed , along with other damage to the town . KzS Zenker , Von der Tann 's commanding officer , later wrote :
Mist over the sea and the smoke from the ships ahead made it difficult for us to make out our targets as we steered for Lowestoft . But after we turned [ to the north ] , the Empire Hotel offered us an ample landmark for effective bombardment . At 05 : 11 we opened fire with our heavy and medium calibers on the harbor works and swing bridges . After a few " shorts " the shooting was good . From the after @-@ bridge a fire in the town , and from another vantage point a great explosion at the entry [ to the harbor ] were reported .
At 05 : 20 , the German raiders turned north , towards Yarmouth , which they reached by 05 : 42 . The visibility was so poor that the German ships fired one salvo each , with the exception of Derfflinger , which fired fourteen rounds from her main battery . The German ships turned back south , and at 05 : 47 , encountered for the second time the Harwich Force , which had by then been engaged by the six light cruisers of the screening force . Boedicker 's ships opened fire from a range of 13 @,@ 000 yd ( 12 @,@ 000 m ) . Tyrwhitt immediately turned his ships around and fled south , but not before the cruiser Conquest sustained severe damage . Due to reports of British submarines and torpedo attacks , Boedicker broke off the chase , and turned back east towards the High Seas Fleet . At this point , Scheer , who had been warned of the Grand Fleet 's sortie from Scapa Flow , turned back towards Germany .
= = = = Battle of Jutland = = = =
Von der Tann participated in the Battle of Jutland , as part of Hipper 's First Scouting Group . Von der Tann was the rearmost of five battlecruisers in Hipper 's line . Shortly before 16 : 00 CET , Hipper 's force encountered Vice Admiral Beatty 's battlecruiser squadron . The German ships were the first to open fire , at a range of approximately 15 @,@ 000 yd ( 14 @,@ 000 m ) . At 16 : 49 , Von der Tann fired her first shot at Indefatigable . Fourteen minutes of firing later , Von der Tann had scored five hits on Indefatigable out of 52 heavy shells fired , one of which caused Indefatigable to explode and sink . An observer on the battlecruiser New Zealand , which was directly ahead of Indefatigable , later remarked that he saw " the Indefatigable hit by two shells from the Von der Tann , one on the fore turret . Both appeared to explode on impact . After an interval of thirty seconds , the ship blew up . Sheets of flame were followed by dense smoke which obscured her from view . "
Following the destruction of Indefatigable , Beatty turned his force away , while the British 5th Battle Squadron closed in on the German battlecruisers , opening fire from approximately 19 @,@ 000 yd ( 17 @,@ 000 m ) . Von der Tann and Moltke , the two rearmost of Hipper 's squadron , came under fire from the three lead British battleships of the 5th BS : Barham , Valiant , and Malaya . The German battlecruisers began zig @-@ zagging to avoid the gunfire from the British ships . At 17 : 09 , six minutes after sinking Indefatigable , Von der Tann was hit by one 15 in ( 38 cm ) shell from Barham , which struck beneath the waterline and dislodged a section of the belt armor , causing Von der Tann to take in 600 tons of water . This hit temporarily damaged the ship 's steering gear , and combined with Von der Tann 's zig @-@ zagging cause her to fall out of line to port . The German Official History commented that " the greatest calamity of a complete breakdown of the steering gear was averted , otherwise , Von der Tann would have been delivered into the hands of the oncoming battleships as in the case of Blücher during the Dogger Bank action . "
At 17 : 20 , a 13 @.@ 5 in ( 34 cm ) shell from the battlecruiser Tiger struck the barbette of Von der Tann 's A turret . A chunk of armor plate was dislodged from inside the turret , and struck the turret training gear , which jammed the turret at 120 degrees . This put the turret out of action for the duration of the engagement . At 17 : 23 , the ship was hit again by a 13 @.@ 5 in ( 34 cm ) shell from Tiger , which struck near the C turret and killed 6 men . The shell holed the deck and created enough wreckage that the turret was unable to traverse , and the starboard rudder engine room was damaged . The C turret was out of action until the wreckage could be cut away . Smoke from a fire caused by burning practice targets that had been stowed below the turret obscured the ship . Sections of the torpedo nets were knocked loose and trailed behind the ship . However , they were cut loose before they could catch in the propellers . New Zealand , which had been engaging Von der Tann following Indefatigable 's destruction , lost sight of her target and shifted fire to Moltke . At 17 : 18 , the range to Von der Tann from Barham had closed to 17 @,@ 500 yd ( 16 @,@ 000 m ) , at which point Von der Tann opened fire on the British battleship . Shortly thereafter , at 17 : 23 , Von der Tann registered a hit on Barham . However , after firing only 24 shells , Von der Tann had to return to her earlier target , New Zealand , because her fore and aft turrets had since been disabled , and her amidships turrets were no longer able to target Barham .
At 18 : 15 , the guns of the last active turret jammed in their mountings , leaving Von der Tann without any working main armament . Regardless , she remained in the battle line to distract the British gunners . Because she was no longer firing her main guns , Von der Tann was able to maneuver in an erratic manner , such that she could avoid British gunfire . By 18 : 53 , the ship 's speed fell from 26 kn ( 48 km / h ) to 23 kn ( 43 km / h ) . Over an hour and a half after having failed due to mechanical difficulties , D turret was repaired and again ready for action . Von der Tann sustained her fourth and final heavy shell hit at 20 : 19 , when one 15 in ( 38 cm ) shell from Revenge struck the aft conning tower . Shell splinters penetrated the conning tower , killing the Third Gunnery Officer and both rangefinder operators and wounding every other crewman in the tower . Shell fragments and other debris fell through the ventilating shaft and onto the condenser , which put out all the lights in the ship . Eleven minutes later , at 20 : 30 , B turret was again clear for action , and by 21 : 00 , C turret was also in working order . However , both of the amidships turrets suffered further mechanical difficulties that put them out of action later during the battle .
At approximately 22 : 15 , Hipper , with his flag now in Moltke , ordered his battlecruisers to increase speed to 20 knots , and to fall into the rear of the main German line . Neither Derfflinger , due to battle damage , nor Von der Tann , due to the dirtiness of her boiler fires , could steam at more than 18 knots . Derfflinger and Von der Tann took up positions astern of the II Squadron , and were later joined by the old pre @-@ dreadnoughts Schlesien and Schleswig @-@ Holstein at 00 : 05 . At 03 : 37 , the British destroyer Moresby fired a torpedo at the rear of the German line ; this passed closely across Von der Tann 's bow , and forced the ship to turn sharply to starboard to avoid being hit . Close to the end of the battle , at 03 : 55 , Hipper transmitted a report to Admiral Scheer , informing him of the tremendous damage his ships had suffered . By that time , Derfflinger and Von der Tann each had only two guns in operation , Moltke was flooded with 1 @,@ 000 tons of water , and Seydlitz was severely damaged . Hipper reported : " I Scouting Group was therefore no longer of any value for a serious engagement , and was consequently directed to return to harbor by the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , while he himself determined to await developments off Horns Reef with the battlefleet . "
During the course of the battle , two of Von der Tann 's main turrets were knocked out by British gunfire , while her other two turrets suffered mechanical failures . The ship was firing so fast that several of the main guns in the amidships turrets became overheated and jammed in their recoil slides , and could not be returned to working order . Von der Tann was without her main battery for 11 hours , although three turrets were restored to working order before the end of the battle ; D turret only after much cutting away of bent metal with oxyacetylene torches — afterwards the guns could be worked only by hand . Her casualties amounted to 11 dead and 35 wounded . During the battle Von der Tann fired 170 heavy shells and 98 secondary caliber shells .
= = = = Later actions = = = =
After Jutland , she underwent repairs from 2 June until 29 July . After returning to the fleet , Von der Tann took part in several unsuccessful raids into the North Sea in 1916 , including the advances on 18 – 19 August , 25 – 26 September , 18 – 19 October , 23 – 24 October , as well as the advance on 23 – 24 March 1917 .
During the fleet advance on 18 – 19 August , Von der Tann was one of two remaining German battlecruisers still in fighting condition ( along with Moltke ) , so three dreadnoughts were assigned to the I Scouting Group for the operation : Markgraf , Grosser Kurfürst , and Bayern . The I Scouting Group was to bombard the coastal town of Sunderland , in an attempt to draw out and destroy Beatty 's battlecruisers . Admiral Scheer and the rest of the High Seas Fleet , with 15 dreadnoughts of its own , would trail behind , providing cover . The British were aware of the German plans , and sortied the Grand Fleet to meet them . By 14 : 35 , Scheer had been warned of the Grand Fleet 's approach and , unwilling to engage the whole of the Grand Fleet just 11 weeks after the decidedly close call at Jutland , turned his forces around and retreated to German ports .
Von der Tann served as the flagship of Rear Admiral von Reuter during the fleet advance to Norway on 23 – 25 April 1918 , as well as in the sortie on 8 – 9 July .
= = = Fate = = =
Von der Tann was to have taken part in a final fleet action at the end of October 1918 , days before the Armistice was to take effect . The bulk of the High Seas Fleet was to have sortied from their base in Wilhelmshaven to engage the British Grand Fleet ; Scheer — by now the Grand Admiral ( Grossadmiral ) of the fleet — intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy , in order to retain a
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better bargaining position for Germany , despite the expected casualties . However , many of the war @-@ weary sailors felt the operation would disrupt the peace process and prolong the war . While the High Seas Fleet was consolidating in Wilhelmshaven , sailors began deserting en masse . As Von der Tann and Derfflinger passed through the locks that separated Wilhelmshaven 's inner harbor and roadstead , some 300 men from both ships climbed over the side and disappeared ashore . On the morning of 29 October 1918 , the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven the following day . Starting on the night of 29 October , sailors on Thüringen and then on several other battleships mutinied . The unrest ultimately forced Hipper and Scheer to cancel the operation . Informed of the situation , the Kaiser stated " I no longer have a navy . "
Following the capitulation of Germany in November 1918 , most of the High Seas Fleet , under the command of Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , were interned in the British naval base in Scapa Flow . Prior to the departure of the German fleet , Admiral Adolf von Trotha made clear to von Reuter that he could not allow the Allies to seize the ships , under any conditions . The fleet rendezvoused with the British light cruiser Cardiff , which led the ships to the Allied fleet that was to escort the Germans to Scapa Flow . The massive flotilla consisted of some 370 British , American , and French warships . Once the ships were interned , their guns were disabled through the removal of their breech blocks , and their crews were reduced to 200 officers and enlisted men . Von der Tann was interned at Scapa Flow under the command of Kapitän @-@ Leutnant Wollante . While in Scapa Flow , a soldiers ' council was formed aboard the ship ; the council took complete , dictatorial control of the vessel for the duration of the interment .
The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Treaty of Versailles . Von Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June 1919 , which was the deadline for Germany to have signed the peace treaty . Unaware that the deadline had been extended to the 23rd , Reuter ordered the ships to be sunk at the next opportunity . On the morning of 21 June , the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers , and at 11 : 20 Reuter transmitted the order to his ships . The ship sank in two hours and fifteen minutes . The task of raising Von der Tann was secured by Ernest Cox 's salvage company . During preparation work , three workers were nearly killed when their oxy @-@ acetylene cutters set off a major explosion . The blast tore holes in the still submerged vessel and allowed water into the compartment that had been emptied with compressed air ; by the time the men were rescued , the compartment had refilled almost completely and the men were up to their necks . Nevertheless , the ship was successfully brought up on 7 December 1930 , and scrapped at Rosyth by the Alloa Shipbreaking Company between 1931 and 1934 .
= The Day After Tomorrow ( TV special ) =
The Day After Tomorrow ( also known as Into Infinity in the United Kingdom ) is a 1975 British science @-@ fiction television drama produced by Gerry Anderson between the first and second series of Space : 1999 . Written by Johnny Byrne and directed by Charles Crichton , it stars Brian Blessed , Joanna Dunham and Nick Tate and is narrated by Ed Bishop . The Day After Tomorrow first aired in December 1975 in the United States on NBC , as an episode of an occasional series of after school specials for children , Special Treat . In the UK , it was broadcast on BBC1 as a TV special in December 1976 and December 1977 ; 37 years later , in November 2014 , a revised version was broadcast on BBC Four . The plot of The Day After Tomorrow concerns the interstellar mission of Altares , a science vessel of the future that can travel at the speed of light . From its initial destination of Alpha Centauri , the ship pushes deeper into space ; there , her crew of three adults and two children encounter such phenomena as a meteor shower , a red giant and , finally , a black hole , which pulls the ship into another universe .
Originally commissioned to create a child @-@ friendly introduction to Albert Einstein 's special relativity theory in the form of an exciting action @-@ adventure , Anderson and Byrne conceived The Day After Tomorrow as a television pilot for a potential series and gave it an alternative episode title of " Into Infinity " . Ultimately , Anderson 's limited budget prevented additional episodes from being made . With a cast and crew including veterans of earlier Anderson productions , filming on The Day After Tomorrow ran from July to September 1975 ; this comprised ten days of principal photography and six weeks of special effects shooting . The visuals of Space : 1999 provided inspiration for both Martin Bower , who designed the scale model effects for the special , and production designer Reg Hill , who re @-@ used set elements created for various episodes of that series to build the interiors of Altares . Newcomer Derek Wadsworth collaborated with Steve Coe to compose the theme and incidental music .
Critical reception to The Day After Tomorrow remains mixed . The model effects and music have been praised ; however , commentators have been both favourable and unfavourable in their comparisons of the special 's " psychedelic " images to the visual style employed by film director Stanley Kubrick . Although Byrne 's scriptwriting has been described as " lyrical " , and it has been suggested that The Day After Tomorrow contains homages to the 1960s TV series Lost in Space , the plot has been criticised for a lack of suspense , which critics have generally attributed to the fact that the special is primarily a science education programme . Further criticism has been directed at the acting , with Martin Lev 's performance attracting a particularly negative response . Home video releases of The Day After Tomorrow are limited to one VHS and one DVD , both of which are available only to members of Fanderson , the official Gerry Anderson appreciation society . Author Douglas R. Mason 's novelisation of the special remains unpublished .
= = Plot = =
In the future , the survival of human civilisation is increasingly threatened by rising pollution , environmental damage and the depletion of the Earth 's natural resources . The narrator ( Ed Bishop ) introduces Space Station Delta and the " lightship " Altares – the latter of which is the first Earth spacecraft to " harness the limitless power of the photon " , allowing it to travel at the speed of light : " This could create the effects predicted by Einstein 's Theory of Relativity – effects that could shrink the very fabric of space , distort time , and perhaps alter the structure of the universe as we understand it . "
Altares is due to leave Delta on a mission beyond the Solar System to seek out Earth @-@ like planets for possible colonisation . Due to the effects of time dilation , by which astronauts travelling at near @-@ light speed age far more slowly than people on Earth , the ship will be crewed by two whole " family units " . Arriving in a United Nations shuttle , Doctors Tom and Anna Bowen ( Brian Blessed and Joanna Dunham ) board Altares with their son , David ( Martin Lev ) . Meanwhile , Jane Masters ( Katharine Levy ) leaves her dog , Spring , in the care of station commander Jim Forbes ( Don Fellows ) . Her father , Captain Harry Masters ( Nick Tate ) , engages Altares 's " photon drive " and the vessel starts its 4 @.@ 3 @-@ light @-@ year journey to the star Alpha Centauri , its first scheduled stop . As Altares nears the edge of the Solar System , Jane and David observe how Pluto appears to change colour from blue to red due to the shortening and lengthening of light waves caused by the Doppler effect . Arriving at Alpha Centauri , the crew launch a series of satellites to relay data back to Earth . Having completed their primary objective , the Masters and Bowen families then agree to push deeper into space .
When Altares encounters a star cluster , Anna tells Jane of Einstein 's accomplishments in the areas of special relativity and unified field theory . Shortly after , the ship is hit by a meteor shower that damages various systems and causes the photon drive to re @-@ activate , hurling Altares through space at such velocity that the travellers are knocked out . A fail @-@ safe brings the vessel , now powerless , to a halt within the gravitational field of a red giant on the brink of supernova . Donning a heat suit , Captain Masters risks his life by entering the reactor core in a bid to repair the drive . He succeeds , and Anna and Jane pilot the ship outside the blast radius of the star before it explodes .
Detecting a signal from Delta , which has taken the equivalent of 15 Earth years to reach them , the travellers are able to plot their position and lay in a course home . However , disaster strikes when Altares is caught in the gravity of a black hole that has formed from a collapsed star . The photon drive is unable to provide the faster @-@ than @-@ light speeds necessary to break free ; nevertheless , Anna urges the crew not to give up hope , for she suspects that the object may be a gateway to another universe . Her theory is proven correct when , sustaining the various space @-@ time distortions at the event horizon , Altares safely emerges from the black hole – intact , albeit with no way of returning to Earth . As the vessel and its intrepid crew approach a planet , the narrator concludes , " One thing is sure – this is not the final word . Not the end , but the beginning . A new universe , a new hope ? Only time will tell . "
= = Production = =
In the spring of 1975 , after filming on " Year One " of Space : 1999 had been completed , NBC agent George Heinemann contacted Group Three producer Gerry Anderson with an idea for a new science @-@ fiction TV series . This would comprise seven one @-@ hour episodes designed to teach children about scientific subjects in the format of an entertaining action @-@ adventure . To publicise the series , NBC undertook to distribute information leaflets to schools . Heinemann hired Anderson to produce a TV special that would discuss , as its main topic , the physicist Albert Einstein 's theory of special relativity , which holds that the speed of light cannot be exceeded and remains constant whether an object is still or in motion .
= = = Writing = = =
By 1975 , Group Three Productions had received no assurance from its distributor , ITC Entertainment , that a second series of Space : 1999 would be commissioned . With the possibility of cancellation looming , Anderson and his scriptwriter , Space : 1999 script editor Johnny Byrne , conceived the special that would become The Day After Tomorrow as the pilot episode of a prospective new series . If successful , the pilot , titled " Into Infinity " , would be followed by additional episodes – the series itself to be named The Day After Tomorrow . Ultimately , Anderson was unsuccessful in securing the funding needed to make a full series , and The Day After Tomorrow : " Into Infinity " remains a self @-@ contained science @-@ fiction drama .
In preparation for his work on the special , Anderson researched Einstein 's achievements ; in his authorised biography , he admitted that he did not understand any of the physicist 's theories . Byrne 's script directed that E = mc2 – the Einsteinian formula that relates mass to energy – appear on @-@ screen at intervals . Of the ending , it commented that , " it 's a universe not only stranger than we imagine , but stranger than we can imagine . " Although special relativity provides the main scientific and educational focus of the programme , The Day After Tomorrow also examines time dilation – an effect whereby time decelerates at a rate proportional to that of the acceleration of an object . For the crew of Altares , a ship capable of travelling at the speed of light , the mission to Alpha Centauri is measured in years , while whole decades pass on Earth . To encourage children to explore the topics in their own time ( and thereby develop their research skills ) , Byrne wrote the characters in such a way that they provide only partial explanations of special relativity and related subjects .
= = = Casting = = =
Most of the cast of The Day After Tomorrow had appeared in or otherwise contributed to earlier Anderson productions . Nick Tate , who had appeared as the supporting character of Alan Carter in Year One of Space : 1999 , played the Captain of Altares , Harry Masters . His contract awarded him third place in the credits . Brian Blessed and Joanna Dunham , starring as the husband @-@ and @-@ wife duo of Doctors Tom and Anna Bowen , and billed above Tate , had both appeared in guest roles – Blessed in the episode " Death 's Other Dominion " , Dunham in " Missing Link " .
In the role of Space Station Delta Commander Jim Forbes was Don Fellows , who had played an uncredited voice part in Space : 1999 's first episode , " Breakaway " . Ed Bishop had voiced the character of Captain Blue in Anderson 's late @-@ 1960s puppet series Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons before taking on in the lead role of Commander Ed Straker in the live @-@ action UFO . Neither Martin Lev nor Katherine Levy had any previous acting experience , although the filming of The Day After Tomorrow at Pinewood Studios coincided with that of Alan Parker 's musical comedy Bugsy Malone , in which Lev played the role of gangster Dandy Dan . Byrne 's dog , Bones , appeared as the Masters ' pet , Spring .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography was conducted over ten days in July 1975 at Pinewood Studios in Buckinghamshire on a budget of £ 105 @,@ 000 . The special effects sequences required a further six weeks ' filming at Bray Studios in Berkshire ; production ended in September . During the filming of Space : 1999 's " Year Two " , Group Three re @-@ used a number of props from The Day After Tomorrow as a cost @-@ saving measure . The production staff included several Anderson regulars who had contributed to the earlier series – among them effects director Brian Johnson , editor David Lane and cinematographer Frank Watts . Charles Crichton , whose credits included eight episodes of Space : 1999 , returned to direct The Day After Tomorrow . As Barry Gray was busy with other commitments , the task of composing the theme music fell to newcomer Derek Wadsworth , who also collaborated with Steve Coe to produce the incidental music and would subsequently compose for Year Two of Space : 1999 . Professor John Taylor served as scientific adviser on the production .
In the absence of Bob Bell and Keith Wilson , who were working on The New Avengers and Star Maidens , the role of production designer was taken up by Reg Hill . The set designs for the Altares interiors were the first that Hill had presented to Anderson since the making of the Supermarionation series Fireball XL5 in 1961 . To realise Hill 's concepts , the production team adapted parts of the Ultra Probe set created for the Space : 1999 episode " Dragon 's Domain " , along with various set elements that had appeared in other episodes . Working on the mistaken assumption that his commissions were to appear in Space : 1999 , uncredited effects technician Martin Bower took inspiration from the appearance of spaceships featured in the earlier series in designing and building scale models of the lightship Altares . A small , three @-@ foot ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) model appears in long shots ; a larger , six @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) version , fitted with gas @-@ powered rocket jets to simulate exhaust and a high @-@ powered light to represent the photon drive , was used for close @-@ ups . To construct the 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) model of Space Station Delta , Bower revamped the SS Daria prop first seen in " Mission of the Darians " . The United Nations shuttle model was 2 @.@ 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 76 m ) long .
= = Broadcast = =
In the United States , The Day After Tomorrow aired on 9 December 1975 on NBC as the third episode of Special Treat . In the United Kingdom , it was first broadcast on 11 December 1976 on BBC1 .
Fearing that the use of both the " Day After Tomorrow " and " Into Infinity " titles would confuse British audiences ( as The Day After Tomorrow was to air not as a pilot , but as a special on UK television ) , the BBC edited the opening titles to delete the former . In any case , the removal of the episode title , " Into Infinity " , would have been more difficult ; while the series title appears against a simple starfield , the episode title is superimposed on a moving model shot of the lift that transfers the Bowen and Masters families from Space Station Delta to Altares during the programme 's opening scenes . Consequently , The Day After Tomorrow was listed in Radio Times magazine and other British media exclusively under the title of " Into Infinity " .
The Day After Tomorrow had its first UK repeat on BBC1 on 6 December 1977 . In 1997 , the BBC deleted the master tape from its archives but retained an edited copy for possible future repeats . Clips of The Day After Tomorrow ( as well as the Space : 1999 episode " Black Sun " ) were featured in " Black Holes " , a 1997 edition of the Channel 4 documentary series Equinox .
Under the title of The Day after Tomorrow : Into Infinity , a new version was screened in the UK on 9 November 2014 on BBC Four . This revised version ( with edited end credits to facilitate the inclusion of the Anderson Entertainment logo ) was introduced by Professor Brian Cox of the University of Manchester , who stated that he had been a fan of The Day after Tomorrow since childhood and praised the programme for its scientific accuracy .
= = Reception = =
Chris Bentley , author of The Complete Gerry Anderson : The Authorised Episode Guide , notes similarities between The Day After Tomorrow and the Fireball XL5 episode " Faster Than Light " , whose plot concerns the problems encountered by the crew of spacecraft when it accelerates to light speed . Elizabeth Howell , a science journalist , argues that the programme is remarkable for its depiction of space exploration " in the colonisation sense , rather than Star Wars and its descendants who show space as a spot to be conquered . " She comments further that the themes are " strangely timeless ... the true , unknown part hits you at the very end . " In a review published in TV Zone magazine in 2002 , Andrew Pixley praised the acting , music and direction in general , writing that the film " oozes with the charm associated with the golden era of Anderson . " However , criticising other aspects , he argued that " it is the fundamental concept that falls flat . Rather than making physics a palatable piece of escapist hokum , the format is dragged down to the level of a scantily @-@ illustrated physics textbook ... something isn 't quite right . "
Vincent Law , in a review published in the Gerry Anderson @-@ centric fanzine Andersonic , considers The Day After Tomorrow an " oddity " and an " uncharacteristically lacklustre entry in the Anderson canon " , commenting that the programme " cracks along at a fair old pace , but the educational content does tend to deaden the first half of the story and limits the room for character development . " Although he credits the production for " getting its science lesson across in a superficial way " , he expresses a negative view of the narration , remarking that " at times Ed [ Bishop ] comes across like a presenter of one of those old schools programmes from the 70s , just imparting a string of dry facts . " He believes that Jane is the only character who develops over the course of the special . The adults , by contrast , are " pretty much peripheral " , while David can be considered a " miniature Spock " who " lurks around the ship either brandishing his slide rule , threatening to calculate something , or staring out of the porthole ( a nice touch ! ) dribbling about pulsars . "
Law believes that the general standard of production design and special effects is lower than that of Space : 1999 , expressing satisfaction with the scale models but suggesting that " the slow @-@ motion filming and wobbly mirror effects are more in keeping with Blake 's 7 . " He views the " info dump " opening titles as a weak imitation of the Space : 1999 introduction , and the multiple appearances of the E = mc2 equation as confusing . Certain props ( such as the slide rule ) and design elements ( such as punched cards ) also come under criticism from Law , who questions whether a futuristic " lightship " would be equipped with such relatively primitive technology . Although he suggests that the plot device of the accident @-@ prone Altares reflects the shifting public perception of space exploration in the 1970s ( " a time when optimism in the space programme was on the wane " ) , Law regards such design elements as indicative of the manner in which The Day After Tomorrow " has stood the test of time less well than other series . "
Commenting on his online blog , literary critic John Kenneth Muir praises Johnny Byrne 's " lyrical " scriptwriting , judges Brian Johnson 's effects to be " top @-@ notch for the era " , and deems Frank Watts ' filming " stunning " . For Muir , the message of the special implies a " high @-@ tech , science @-@ minded update of the whole Lost in Space format " , while the plot effectively mixes elements of the " claustrophobic " and " action @-@ packed " with " psychedelic " elements such as the descent into the black hole , a subject on which he alludes to the work of Stanley Kubrick : the sequence is " a Kubrickian wonder , a montage dominated by double images , slow @-@ motion photography and the use of a creepy distortion lens . Pretty powerful stuff for a kids ' show . " Law , meanwhile , considers the faster @-@ than @-@ light shots to be the special 's best effects , and compares the black hole sequence unfavourably to the closing act of Kubrick 's 1968 film 2001 : A Space Odyssey : " Kubrick 's Star @-@ Gate it is not . "
Arguing that The Day After Tomorrow is " kinda like Kubrick 's 2001 : A Space Odyssey ... for kids " , science @-@ fiction writer and reviewer Christopher Mills expresses disappointment with the effect of the black hole itself , but describes the fall into the anomaly as " very colourful " . However , in contrast with Muir , he views the sequences set inside Altares during the descent as " a bit of a hoot " , directing particular criticism at the actors ' exaggerated gesticulations . Commenting that the plot contains " plenty of wonky pseudo @-@ science and insanely improbable coincidences " , Mills also recalls his fascination at " how ' British ' ... the characters [ are ] , facing each new peril with remarkable calm and ' stiff upper lip ' stoicism . By the time they 're caught in the clutches of the ominous black hole , they 're apparently so resigned to being jerked around by the universe that they just hold hands and calmly await their fate . "
Muir suggests that the feel of The Day After Tomorrow is " a little more colourful ( less minimalist ) in colour and costume than Space : 1999 's sterling Year One " , with such elements as Wadsworth 's " hard @-@ hitting , hard @-@ driving musical score " livening up the proceedings . The music has also received praise from Law , who notes a " dynamic pace " , as well as Anderson himself . Muir summarises the final product as a " Year One @-@ style ' awe and mystery of space ' narrative , but one conveyed in the more colourful @-@ looking or -sounding Year Two fashion " , and a " time capsule of once @-@ state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art science fiction " . To Law , it is " half @-@ forgotten experiment which is now perhaps only of interest to aficionados " , but " an interesting look at what might have been " if Anderson had been able to produce a full series . Mills interprets it as a " solid little piece of 70s juvenile sci @-@ fi " that is perhaps " not quite as ' scientifically accurate ' as it pretends to be , but fun " .
= = Other media = =
In 1997 , the British Board of Film Classification ( BBFC ) awarded The Day After Tomorrow a U certificate . Fanderson , the official Gerry Anderson fan club , retains the home video distribution rights . Licensed releases of The Day After Tomorrow are limited to a 1997 VHS and a 2002 DVD , both of which are exclusive merchandise available to Fanderson members only . Space Police ( a pilot that inspired the series Space Precinct ) is also included on the DVD , which presents both films in digitally remastered form . In addition to Region 0 and dual PAL @-@ NTSC coding , it contains special features such as production and design photographs . Both the VHS and the DVD include the opening titles as originally presented prior to the 1976 BBC edits . In his 2002 review , Andrew Pixley praised Fanderson for the professionalism of the release , describing it as " excellent " .
Science @-@ fiction writer Douglas R. Mason , an author of several Space : 1999 novels , wrote a novelisation of Johnny Byrne 's script for The Day After Tomorrow . Mason 's publisher , Futurama Publications , had originally intended to release additional books , since Anderson had conceived The Day After Tomorrow as the pilot episode for a prospective TV series . When Anderson abandoned this idea , Futurama cancelled Mason 's novelisation , which currently remains unpublished .
= Richard Cordray =
Richard Cordray ( born May 3 , 1959 ) is an American lawyer and Democratic Party politician who currently serves as the first Director of the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau . Prior to his appointment in January 2012 , Cordray served in various positions in the State of Ohio .
A Marshall Scholar at the University of Oxford from 1981 to 1983 , Cordray was editor @-@ in @-@ chief of the University of Chicago Law Review and subsequently served as a law clerk for Judge Robert Bork on the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit , and after that , Justice Anthony Kennedy of the Supreme Court of the United States . In 1987 he became an undefeated five @-@ time Jeopardy ! champion .
Cordray was elected to the Ohio House of Representatives in 1990 . After redistricting , Cordray decided to run for the United States House of Representatives in 1992 but was defeated . The following year he was appointed by the Ohio Attorney General as the first Solicitor General of Ohio . His experience as Solicitor led to his appearance before the United States Supreme Court to argue six cases , where he had previously clerked . Following Republican victories in Ohio statewide elections in 1994 , Cordray left his appointed position and entered the private practice of law . While in private practice he unsuccessfully ran for Ohio Attorney General in 1998 and the United States Senate in 2000 . He was elected Franklin County treasurer in 2002 and re @-@ elected in 2004 before being elected Ohio State Treasurer in 2006 .
Cordray was elected Ohio Attorney General in November 2008 to fill the remainder of the unexpired term ending January 2011 . In 2010 , Cordray lost his bid for re @-@ election to former U.S. Senator Mike DeWine . On July 17 , 2011 , President Barack Obama announced he would nominate Cordray to lead the United States Consumer Financial Protection Bureau . On January 4 , 2012 , the White House announced that it would make a recess appointment of Cordray to the post . On July 16 , 2013 , the U.S. Senate confirmed Cordray to a five @-@ year term as Director in a 66 – 34 vote .
= = Early life , education , and early law career = =
Cordray was raised in Grove City , Ohio , where he attended public schools . While attending Grove City High School , Cordray became a champion on the high school quiz show In The Know and worked for minimum wage at McDonald 's . He graduated from high school in 1977 as co @-@ valedictorian of his class . His first job in politics was as an intern for United States Senator John Glenn as a junior at Michigan State University 's James Madison College . Cordray earned Phi Beta Kappa honors and graduated summa cum laude with a BA in Legal & Political Theory in 1981 . As a Marshall Scholar , he earned an MA with first class honours in Economics from the University of Oxford and earned a Varsity Blue in basketball in 1983 . At the University of Chicago Law School , where he earned his Juris Doctor with honors in 1986 , he served as editor @-@ in @-@ chief of the University of Chicago Law Review . After starting work as a law clerk at the U.S. Supreme Court , he came back to his high school to deliver the commencement speech for the graduating class in 1988 .
Cordray began his career clerking for Judge Robert Bork and Supreme Court associate justices Byron White and Anthony Kennedy . After clerking for White in 1987 – 1988 , he was hired by the international law firm Jones Day to work in its Cleveland office .
= = Early political career ( 1990 – 1995 ) = =
He also taught various courses at The Ohio State University Moritz College of Law and at Georgetown University .
= = = Ohio House of Representatives = = =
In 1990 Cordray ran for an Ohio State House of Representatives seat , in the 33rd District ( southern and western Franklin County ) , against six @-@ term incumbent Republican Don Gilmore . Unopposed for the Democratic nomination , he defeated Gilmore by an 18 @,@ 573 – 11 @,@ 944 ( 61 – 39 % ) margin .
= = = 1992 congressional election = = =
In 1991 the state Apportionment Board , controlled by a 3 – 2 Republican majority despite the party 's 61 – 38 minority in the state House of Representatives , redrew state legislative districts following the results of the 1990 Census , in the hope of retaking control of the state House . The new boundaries created nine districts each with two resident incumbent Democrats , pairing Cordray with the twenty @-@ two @-@ year incumbent Mike Stinziano . Unable to be elected in another district due to a one @-@ year residency requirement , Cordray opted not to run for re @-@ election . Instead , he decided to run for Ohio 's 15th congressional district in the 1992 U.S. House of Representatives elections , a seat being vacated by retiring thirteen @-@ term Republican Chalmers Wylie , and being challenged by Republican Deborah D. Pryce .
Cordray won the Democratic nomination over Bill Buckel by an 18 @,@ 731 – 5 @,@ 329 ( 78 – 22 % ) margin , following the withdrawal of another candidate , Dave Sommer . Cordray 's platform included federal spending cuts , term limits for Congress and a line @-@ item veto for the president . When Pryce announced that she would vote to support abortion rights , Linda S. Reidelbach entered the race as an independent . Thus , the general election was a three @-@ way affair , with Pryce taking a plurality of 110 @,@ 390 votes ( 44 @.@ 1 % ) , Cordray taking 94 @,@ 907 votes ( 37 @.@ 9 % ) and Linda Reidelbach taking 44 @,@ 906 votes ( 17 @.@ 9 % ) .
= = = Ohio Solicitor General = = =
While in private practice in 1993 , Cordray co @-@ wrote a legal brief for the Anti @-@ Defamation League , in a campaign supported by Ohio 's attorney general , for the reinstatement of Ohio 's hate crime laws . This was considered by the U.S. Supreme Court , but not ruled on because of its similarity to a previous Wisconsin ruling .
In 1993 the government of Ohio created the office of state solicitor general to handle the state 's appellate work . The state solicitor , appointed by the Ohio attorney general , is responsible for cases that are to be argued before the Ohio Supreme Court and the United States Supreme Court . Until 1998 , the Solicitor worked without any support staff . Cordray , who had earlier worked for a summer in the office of the United States solicitor general , was the first Solicitor to be appointed , in September 1993 . He held the position until he resigned after Ohio Attorney General Lee Fisher was defeated by Betty Montgomery in 1994 . His cases before the Supreme Court included Wilson v. Layne ( 526 U.S. 603 ( 1999 ) ) and Hanlon v. Berger ( 526 U.S. 808 ( 1999 ) ) . Though he lost his first case , he won his second case , which garnered a substantial amount of media attention for its consideration of the constitutionality of media ride @-@ alongs with police . Other cases included Household Credit Services v. Pfennig ( 541 U.S. 232 ( 2004 ) ) , Brown v. Legal Foundation of Washington ( 538 U.S. 216 ( 2003 ) ) , Demore v. Kim ( 538 U.S. 510 ( 2003 ) ) , and Groh v. Ramirez ( 540 U.S. 551 ( 2004 ) ) .
Cordray contested the Ku Klux Klan 's right to erect a cross at the Ohio Statehouse after the state 's Capitol Square Review and Advisory Board denied the Klan 's request during the 1993 Christmas holiday . He argued that the symbolic meaning of the cross was different from the Christmas tree and menorah , which the state permits . The Klan prevailed in the 6th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals on December 21 , 1993 , and erected a 10 @-@ foot ( 3 m ) cross the following day . The same board denied the Klan a permit to rally on Martin Luther King Day ( January 15 , 1994 ) due to the group 's failure to pay a $ 15 @,@ 116 bill from its Oct. 23 rally and its refusal to post a bond to cover expenses for the proposed rally . When the same 6th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals overturned the decision to deny the 1994 permit , the state chose not to appeal . The following year the Klan again applied to erect a cross for the Christmas holiday season , and the 6th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals concurred with the prior ruling . The United States Supreme Court did not agree to hear arguments on the topic until a few weeks after Cordray resigned from his solicitor general position . After his resignation in 1994 he several times represented the federal government in the U.S. Supreme Court : two of Cordray 's appearances before were by appointment of the Democratic Bill Clinton Justice Department and two were by the Republican George W. Bush Justice Department .
Cordray was granted a ruling by the Ohio Supreme Court that lower courts could not grant a stay of execution for a death row inmate . At the same time , Fisher , Cordray 's boss , sought a referendum to mandate that appeals in death penalty cases be made directly to the Supreme Court . In 1994 the 6th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals in Steffen v. Tate ( 39 F.3d 622 1994 ) limited death row inmates to a single federal appeal and said that federal courts cannot stay an execution if the case is still in a state court .
= = Latter political career ( 1995 – 2007 ) = =
In early 1996 , Cordray was elected to the Ohio Democratic Party Central Committee from the 15th district by a 5 @,@ 472 – 1 @,@ 718 margin over John J. Kulewicz .
In late 1996 Cordray , who was in private practice at the time , was a leading contender and finalist for a United States Attorney position during the second term of the Clinton Administration , along with Kent Markus and Sharon Zealey . Zealey was eventually selected .
= = = 1998 Ohio Attorney General election = = =
During the 1998 election for Ohio attorney general , Cordray ran unopposed in the Democratic primary but was defeated , 62 % – 38 % , by one @-@ term Republican incumbent Betty Montgomery .
= = = 2000 U.S. Senate election = = =
Cordray entered the U.S. Senate elections in a race that began as a three @-@ way contest for the Democratic nomination to oppose first @-@ term Republican incumbent Mike DeWine . The three @-@ way race was unusual since the three candidates ( Cordray , Rev. Marvin McMickle , and Ted Celeste ) were encouraged to campaign together in order to promote name recognition , conserve resources and lessen infighting . Ohio Democratic party leaders believed Cordray was better suited for an Ohio Supreme Court seat and urged him to drop out of the Senate race . Despite the Ohio Democrats not endorsing any candidate in the primary election , the entry of Dan Radakovich as a fourth competitor , and the anticipated entry of former Mayor of Cincinnati and television personality Jerry Springer , Cordray persisted in his campaign . Celeste , the younger brother of former Ohio governor Dick Celeste , won with 369 @,@ 772 votes . He was trailed by McMickle ( the only black Senate candidate in the country in 2000 ) with 204 @,@ 811 votes , Cordray with 200 @,@ 157 , and Radakovich with 69 @,@ 002 .
= = = Franklin County Treasurer = = =
Cordray was unopposed in the May 7 , 2002 , primary election for the Democratic nomination as Franklin County treasurer . He defeated Republican incumbent Wade Steen , who had been appointed in May 2001 to replace Bobbie M. Hall . The election was close , unofficially 131 @,@ 199 – 128 @,@ 677 ( 50 @.@ 5 % – 49 @.@ 5 % ) , official margin of victory 3 @,@ 232 . Cordray was the first Democrat to hold the position since 1977 , and he assumed office on December 9 , 2002 , instead of after January 1 because he was filling Hall 's unexpired term .
In the 2004 race for re @-@ election , the Franklin County Republican party made no endorsement , but Republican Jim Timko challenged Cordray . Cordray defeated him and was elected to a four @-@ year term by a 272 @,@ 593 – 153 @,@ 625 ( 64 % – 36 % ) margin .
As Franklin County treasurer , Cordray focused on four major initiatives : collection of delinquent tax revenue through a tax lien certificate sale , creation of a land bank , personal finance education , and the development of a community outreach program . He managed a portfolio that averages $ 650 million and consistently beat its benchmarks , and he set new records for delinquent tax collection in Franklin County , which was the only Ohio county with a AAA credit rating . He also served as president of the Board of Revision and chair of the Budget Commission . In 2005 , Cordray was named the national " County Leader of the Year " by American City & County magazine .
= = Statewide office ( 2007 – 2011 ) = =
= = = Ohio Treasurer = = =
In the 2006 Democratic party primary election for state treasurer he was set to face Montgomery County Treasurer Hugh Quill who filed an entry , but in the end , he was unopposed . He defeated Republican nominee Sandra O 'Brien for state treasurer in the 2006 election . Cordray succeeded Jennette Bradley in a near @-@ statewide sweep by the Democratic Party . Cordray noted that when he assumed statewide office , Ohio was challenged with restoring public trust after the misdeeds of former Ohio Governor Bob Taft . Referring to what in a similar way would be required to follow Ohio Attorney General Marc Dann and his interim successor Nancy Rogers he said : " ... we have been patiently rebuilding the public trust there [ in the state government ] and I think it would be a very similar task there in the Attorney General 's office . "
= = = Ohio Attorney General = = =
= = = = 2008 election = = = =
Cordray announced his 2008 candidacy for Ohio state attorney general on June 11 , 2008 . He was endorsed by Ohio Governor Ted Strickland . The vacancy in the office of the attorney general was created by the May 14 , 2008 , resignation of Marc Dann who was embroiled in a sex scandal . Several leading Republican party contenders such as Montgomery , Jim Petro , DeWine , Maureen O 'Connor , and Rob Portman declined to enter the race . Cordray 's opponents in the race were Michael Crites ( Republican ) , and Robert M. Owens ( Independent ) . Cordray had a large financial advantage over his opponents with approximately 30 times as much campaign financing as Crites . Crites ' campaign strategies included attempts to link Cordray with Dann — an association The Columbus Dispatch called into question — and promoting himself as having more years of prosecutorial experience . Cordray asserted that he managed the state 's money safely despite the turbulence of the financial crisis of 2007 – 2008 .
Ohio statewide offices are regularly contested every four years in the midterm election years . 2008 is Class 2 senatorial election year , and Ohio is a state with class 1 and class 3 senators . Thus , the Attorney General race was the only non @-@ presidential race in the 2008 election aside from contests for two seats on the Ohio Supreme Court . Cordray defeated Republican Mike Crites , 57 % -38 % .
= = = = Tenure = = = =
Bank of America
In July 2009 , Denny Chin , a judge on the United States district court for the Southern District of New York , granted lead plaintiff status to a group of five public pension funds for investor class @-@ action lawsuits against the Bank of America Corporation over its acquisition of Merrill Lynch & Company . The claim is that Bank of America misled investors about Merrill 's financial well @-@ being prior to the January 1 , 2009 acquisition despite awareness that Merrill was headed toward a significant loss that amounted to $ 15 @.@ 84 billion in its fourth quarter . The suit also alleges that significant bonus payments were concealed .
The curious dealings led to congressional hearings about why the merger commenced without any disclosures . In September 2009 , Cordray , on behalf of Ohio 's largest public employee pension funds ( State Teachers Retirement System of Ohio and the Ohio Public Employees Retirement System ) , the Teacher Retirement System of Texas and pension funds from Sweden and the Netherlands , filed suit alleging that Bank of America , its directors and four executives ( Bank of America Chief Executive Kenneth Lewis , Bank of America Chief Financial Officer Joe Price , accounting chief Neil Cotty and former Merrill chairman and CEO John Thain ) acted to conceal Merrill 's growing losses from shareholders voted to approve the deal the prior December .
Prior to the filing the five funds had filed individual complaints , but the September filing of an amended complaint joined the actions with Cordray representing the lead plaintiff . The amended complaint includes details about conversations and communications between Bank of America and Merrill Lynch executives that were revealed in media reports , congressional testimony and investigations by the Securities and Exchange Commission . The filing is an attempt to recover losses endured when Bank of America 's share price fell after the transaction . The damages are sought from Bank of America , individual executives , the bank 's board of directors , including any insurers that cover directors ' legal liabilities . Among the specifics of the claim are that Bank of America agreed to allow Merrill Lynch to pay as much as $ 5 @.@ 8 billion in undisclosed year @-@ end discretionary bonuses to executives and employees and that Bank of America and Merrill Lynch executives were aware of billions of dollars in losses suffered by Merrill Lynch in the two months before the merger vote but failed to disclose them .
Bid rigging case
In April 2010 , he reached a 1 billion dollar settlement with American International Group ( AIG ) , one of four remaining named defendants ( along with Marsh & McLennan , Hartford Financial Services and Chubb Corp. ) , in a 2007 antitrust case regarding business practices between 2001 and 2004 . The settlement is to be divided among 26 Ohio universities , cities and schools . Zurich Financial Services settled in 2006 . Cordray believes that Marsh was the organizing company for the illegal practices and notes that a trial could commence in 2011 . AIG admitted no wrongdoing and that the settlement was to avoid risks and prolonged expenses .
= = = = 2010 election = = = =
On November 2 , 2010 , Cordray lost his re @-@ election bid to former U.S. senator Mike DeWine by two points .
Cordray was repeatedly mentioned as a potential 2014 candidate for Governor of Ohio . However , he upon being confirmed to a five @-@ year term to head the CFPB , he was effectively eliminated from contention .
= = Consumer Financial Protection Bureau ( 2012 – present ) = =
On Wednesday , December 15 , 2010 , Special Advisor to President Barack Obama , Elizabeth Warren announced that she had selected Richard Cordray to lead the enforcement arm of the newly created United States Consumer Financial Protection Bureau ( CFPB ) . She added that " Richard Cordray has the vision and experience to help us build a team that ensures every lender in the marketplace is playing by the rules . " In announcing his appointment to this position Cordray also stated that he intends to once again run for statewide office in Ohio in 2014 . Cordray described the opportunity to The Wall Street Journal as a chance to resume " ... in many ways doing on a 50 @-@ state basis the things I cared most about as a state attorney general , with a more robust and a more comprehensive authority . "
On July 17 , 2011 , Cordray was selected over Warren as the head of the entire CFPB . However , his nomination was immediately in jeopardy because 44 Senate Republicans had previously vowed to derail any nominee in order to push for a decentralized structure to the organization . This was part of a pattern of conflict between Republicans in the Senate and the Obama administration that had led to record numbers of blocked and failed nominations . On July 21 , 2011 , Senator Richard Shelby wrote an op @-@ ed article for The Wall Street Journal affirming continued opposition ( that went back to a May 5 letter to the President ) to a centralized structure , noting that both the Securities Exchange Commission and Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation had executive boards and that the CFPB should be no different . Politico interpreted Shelby 's statements as saying that Cordray 's nomination was " Dead on Arrival " . In October , as the nomination continued to be on hold , the National Association of Attorneys General endorsed Cordray . On December 8 , 2011 , the Senate failed to secure cloture on Cordray 's nomination . The final vote was 53 @-@ 45 , with 50 out of 51 Democrats voting for cloture , and 45 out of 47 Republicans voting against .
On January 4 , 2012 , a White House communications director announced in a tweet that President Obama would be giving Cordray a recess appointment to the post , bypassing the Senate . The move was criticized by Republican senators , who argued that Congress had not officially been in recess , and that Obama did not have the authority to bypass Congressional approval . Writing for The New Republic , Timothy Noah , a supporter of Cordray , wrote , " As someone who strongly supported a recess appointment for Richard Cordray to run the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau , I 'm confused as to why President Obama chose to act today . ... The trouble is that the Senate isn 't in recess . "
The United States Supreme Court unanimously vacated Cordray 's recess appointment as unconstitutional as the U.S. Senate was not in recess . On January 24 , 2013 , Obama renominated Cordray to the Director of the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau position .
Amid a push by Senate Democrats in July 2013 to eliminate the filibuster for all executive @-@ branch nominees , senators struck a deal to pave the way for a final , up @-@ or @-@ down vote on Cordray 's nomination . With that senators voted 71 – 29 on July 16 , 2013 to invoke cloture on Cordray 's nomination . The U.S. Senate confirmed Cordray in a 66 – 34 vote on July 16 , 2013 .
= = Personal life = =
Cordray was born in Columbus , Ohio , the middle child between brothers Frank , Jr. and Jim . He was married in 1992 to Margaret " Peggy " Cordray , a law professor at Capital University Law School . The Cordrays have twins , a daughter and son , and currently reside near Grove City , Ohio . His father retired as an Orient Developmental Center program director for mentally retarded residents after 43 years of service . His mother , from Dayton , Ohio , died in 1980 @.@ was a social worker , teacher and founder of Ohio 's first foster grandparent program for individuals with developmental disabilities . Richard Cordray carried the Olympic Flame through Findlay , Ohio , as part of the nationwide torch relay to the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta , Georgia and has served as a member of the Advisory Board for the Friends of the Homeless and part of Al Gore 's select group known as Leadership ' 98 .
= = = Appearances on Jeopardy ! = = =
Cordray has the distinction of being an undefeated five @-@ time champion and Tournament of Champions semifinalist on Jeopardy ! In 1987 , he won $ 45 @,@ 303 from the show , which he used to pay law school debt , to pay taxes and to buy a used car . The total winnings came from $ 40 @,@ 303 in prize money during his five @-@ contest streak and $ 5 @,@ 000 for a first round win on the Tournament of Champions . His campaign for public office in 1990 precluded him from participating in the Super Jeopardy ! elimination tournament of champions . ABC , the network that carried the tournament , had a policy against political contestants appearing on the show ( excluding Celebrity Jeopardy ! ) . He did , however , compete in the Battle of the Decades tournament , appearing in the show aired February 5 , 2014 , but finished second to aerospace consultant Tom Nosek . Because of his duties as a federal employee , however , he turned down the $ 5 @,@ 000 consolation money he won in the match .
= Merritt A. Edson =
Major General Merritt Austin Edson ( April 25 , 1897 – August 14 , 1955 ) , known as " Red Mike " , was a general in the United States Marine Corps . Among the decorations he received were the Medal of Honor , two Navy Crosses , the Silver Star , and two Legions of Merit . He is best known by Marines for the defense of Lunga Ridge during the Guadalcanal Campaign in World War II .
He received a commission as a second lieutenant in the Marines in October 1917 , and served in France and Germany in World War I. After the war he held several positions until going to flight school in 1922 . After graduating flight school and being designated a Naval Aviator , he performed several assignments in Central America and China . It was in Central America where he received his first Navy Cross and the Nicaraguan Medal of Merit with Silver Star .
When World War II started Edson was sent as the Commanding officer of the Marine Raiders and earned his second Navy Cross on Tulagi . When his unit was sent to fight on Guadalcanal , Edson led his men in fighting for which he would later receive the Medal of Honor .
After World War II Edson held several commands until retiring from the Marine Corps August 1 , 1947 . After retirement he had several jobs including the Director of the National Rifle Association .
= = Early years = =
Edson was born in Rutland , Vermont but grew up in Chester , Vermont and after graduating from high school he attended the University of Vermont for two years . On June 27 , 1916 he left college as a member of the First Vermont National Guard Regiment and was sent to Eagle Pass , Texas , for duty on the Mexican border . He returned to the University in September 1916 , but joined the Marine Corps Reserve on June 26 , the following year .
= = Early career = =
He was commissioned a second lieutenant in the Marine Corps on October 9 , 1917 and in September of the next year he sailed for France with the 11th Marines . This regiment saw no combat , but during the last six months of his European tour , he commanded Company D , 15th Separate Marine Battalion , which had been organized for the express purpose of assisting in the holding of a plebiscite in Schleswig @-@ Holstein , Germany . Owing to the failure of the United States to ratify the Treaty of Versailles , this mission , however , was never carried out .
Following the end of World War I , he was assigned to several positions that would qualify him for the high commands he was to hold in later years . He was promoted to first lieutenant on June 4 , 1920 and spent two years at Marine Barracks , Quantico , Virginia , as the Adjutant @-@ Registrar of the Marine Corps Institute , after which he was sent on a short tour in Louisiana guarding the mail . His interest in military aviation prompted him to apply for flight training at NAS Pensacola , Florida and he earned his gold wings as a Naval Aviator in 1922 . Soon after , he was ordered to the Marine Air Station at Guam where he had his introduction to the semitropical islands of the Marianas with which his name was later to become so closely linked .
Upon returning to the United States in 1925 , he first took an extensive course in advanced aviation tactics with the U.S. Army Air Service at Kelly Field , Texas , and then attended the Company Officers ' Course at Marine Corps Base Quantico , Virginia . He graduated with the highest grades ever attained by any student up to that time . For physical reasons , however , he had to give up his flying status in 1927 and continue his career as a ground officer . He was then assigned to duty as Ordnance Officer at the Philadelphia Navy Yard .
= = Central America and China = =
Late in the same year , he was ordered to sea duty as Commanding Officer of the Marine Detachment on the USS Denver ( CL @-@ 16 ) and was promoted to captain on December 21 , 1927 . During service in Central American waters , his detachment was ashore in Nicaragua during the period February 1928 - 1929 . In command of 160 hand picked and specially trained Marines , he fought twelve separate engagements with the Sandino @-@ led bandits and denied them the use of the Poteca and Coco River valleys . Here , he received his first Navy Cross for actions in which " his exhibition of coolness , intrepidity , and dash so inspired his men that superior forces of bandits were driven from their prepared positions and severe losses inflicted upon them . " From a grateful Nicaraguan government , he was also awarded the Nicaraguan Medal of Merit with Silver Star .
In September 1929 , he returned to the United States and was assigned as tactics instructor to fledgling Marine lieutenants at The Basic School in Philadelphia . Upon detachment from that duty , he became Ordnance and War Plans Officer at the Philadelphia Depot of Supplies for the next four years .
This ordnance duty was not new to him since he had been closely associated with the development of small arms marksmanship within the Marine Corps . In 1921 , he had been a firing member of the winning Marine Corps Team at the National Matches at Camp Perry , Ohio . In 1927 , 1930 , and 1931 , he served with the rifle and pistol teams as assistant coach . During the regional matches of 1932 and 1933 , he acted as team coach and captain , respectively . Upon the resumption of the National Matches in 1935 , he was captain of the Marine Corps national rifle and pistol teams of 1935 and 1936 , winning the national trophies in both years .
After short tours at Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island and Marine Corps Headquarters in Washington , D.C. , he was enrolled in the Senior Officers ' Course at the Marine Corps Schools , Quantico , Virginia in 1936 . He was promoted to major on February
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located to the northeast of Carla produced hostile conditions that prevented significant strengthening , and Carla had a structure which resembled a subtropical storm . An approaching cold front turned the storm to the northeast , and despite the unfavorable atmosphere , Carla intensified , reaching peak winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) late on September 9 . The interaction between the storm and a high pressure system over the Great Lakes yielded a strong pressure gradient that produced gale force winds over New England . After Carla passed to the north of Bermuda , it became extratropical on September 10 , according to HURDAT — the official hurricane database — and the annual report in the Monthly Weather Review . As a post @-@ tropical cyclone , ex @-@ Carla strengthened to 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) before weakening and dissipating by September 16 .
= = = Tropical Storm Dora = = =
On September 10 , a tropical depression developed over the Bay of Campeche . Later that day , Hurricane Hunters observed winds of tropical storm force , indicating that the depression had become Tropical Storm Dora , with winds of about 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . Dora moved generally westward due to a ridge to its north . A reconnaissance flight on September 11 estimated hurricane @-@ force winds , but reanalysis assessed these as being unrepresentative of Dora 's true strength . Early on September 12 , Dora peaked at 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) shortly before striking land near Tuxpan with a minimum central pressure of 1 @,@ 000 mb ( 29 @.@ 53 inHg ) . It quickly dissipated early the next day , although the storm produced heavy rains across the region . The deluge caused a landslide as well as flooding , including along a river near San Andrés Tuxtla . In Puebla , there were 13 deaths and 20 injuries after a bus crashed into a washed out portion of the highway from Tuxpan to Mexico City . Overall , Dora caused 27 deaths in the country , but minor damage .
= = = Tropical Storm Ethel = = =
On September 11 , a tropical depression developed along the southern end of a quasi @-@ stationary cold front over Grand Exuma Island in the Bahamas . It moved to the northeast and encountered cold air from the north . This resulted in significant instability that allowed in quick strengthening . A Hurricane Hunters flight on September 12 reported winds of 76 mph ( 122 km / h ) in the storm 's northeast quadrant ; as a result , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Ethel . The flight observed a well @-@ developed eye 20 mi ( 32 km ) in diameter , although they only observed hurricane @-@ force winds in one quadrant . Reassessment , however , discounted the observations of hurricane @-@ force winds from the aircraft as being unrepresentative of Ethel 's strength , and analyzed that Ethel peaked at 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) late on September 12 , with the lowest pressure reported being 999 mbar ( 29 @.@ 50 inHg ) . Shortly after reaching peak intensity , Ethel began weakening and dissipated on September 14 to the southwest of Bermuda .
= = = September tropical depression = = =
A vigorous tropical depression moved through the Cape Verde islands on September 13 , although the complete history of the cyclone is unknown . It dissipated before affecting the Lesser Antilles .
= = = Hurricane Flossy = = =
The origin of Flossy is uncertain ; one possibility is it developed from a system in the eastern Pacific , and the other is from a disturbance moving through the Caribbean . A tropical depression formed on September 20 just east of the Yucatán Peninsula and headed northwest across the landmass . Upon entering the Gulf of Mexico on September 22 , it quickly intensified into Tropical Storm Flossy . Continuing to intensify , the storm turned to the north and attained hurricane status on September 23 . Bearing winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) , Flossy struck near Venice , Louisiana , on September 24 after turning to the northeast , crossing the Mississippi River Delta . The hurricane again moved into the Gulf of Mexico , continuing to the northeast and intensifying further until moving ashore near Miramar Beach , Florida , on September 25 as a strong Category 1 hurricane with winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 974 mbar ( 28 @.@ 76 inHg ) . Later that day , Flossy became extratropical over Georgia after weakening into a tropical storm . The extratropical remnants moved through the southeast United States and emerged from North Carolina into the western Atlantic on September 27 . The storm was last observed on October 3 , near southernmost Newfoundland .
Flossy was the only hurricane of the season to strike the United States . Winds in Louisiana reached 84 mph ( 135 km / h ) , although an oil rig offshore Grand Isle reported a gust of 95 mph ( 153 km / h ) . The storm dropped heavy rainfall along its path , peaking at 16 @.@ 7 in ( 420 mm ) in Golden Meadow , Louisiana . The rainfall and the hurricane 's accompanying storm surge caused widespread flooding and beach erosion in southeast Louisiana . The flooding surmounted the eastern seawall in New Orleans , submerging an area of 2 @.@ 5 sq mi ( 6 @.@ 5 km2 ) . Across the region , the resulting flooding drowned cattle and caused heavy crop damage . Hurricane Flossy left about $ 27 @.@ 8 million in damage ( 1956 USD ) , mostly from crop damage , as well as 15 deaths . The rainfall extended through the Mid @-@ Atlantic states , which alleviated drought conditions .
= = = October South Atlantic depression = = =
On October 9 , a tropical depression developed about 1 @,@ 300 mi ( 2 @,@ 100 km ) east of Puerto Rico . Ships in the area reported winds as strong as 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) , although the system dissipated within 24 hours .
= = = October Mid @-@ Atlantic depression = = =
On October 10 , another tropical depression formed further to the north of the previous storm . It possibly developed from the same tropical wave that spawned the previous depression , although they were not the same system . The depression maintained a general northward movement throughout its duration , dissipating on October 12 .
= = = Tropical Storm Nine = = =
= = = Tropical Storm Ten = = =
A low pressure area formed along a dissipating cold front to the north of Puerto Rico . The system moved westward , developing some tropical characteristics by October 13 . The next day , the system became a tropical storm over the Straits of Florida . On October 15 , it crossed over South Florida near Homestead with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . The storm was never fully tropical , as its winds and precipitation extended far away from the center . The storm intensified further over the Florida peninsula , peaking at 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) early on October 16 . After affecting Florida , the storm crossed the western Atlantic and moved across the Outer Banks . The storm became extratropical on October 17 , and the next day it was absorbed by another extratropical storm .
The storm produced significant rainfall in a 50 mi ( 80 km ) region of Florida . The highest total in the state was 16 @.@ 28 in ( 414 mm ) in Kissimmee . There , the rains caused flash flooding that entered over 200 houses . The flooding flooded three state highways , and also left portions of Okeechobee inaccessible after reporting the heaviest rainfall in eight years . Large tomato fields were inundated , resulting in some crop damage . In portions of the state , the rains were beneficial due to previously dry conditions . The storm spawned a tornado in North Miami that injured one person . Damage throughout Florida was estimated at $ 3 million , mostly in the Kissimmee area . In addition , two surfers drowned during the storm . Precipitation extended as far north as New Jersey , and coastal areas experienced high tides and gusty winds .
= = = Hurricane Greta = = =
The intertropical convergence zone spawned a tropical depression on October 31 a short distance to south of easternmost Cuba . The system tracked northward and crossed over eastern Cuba , and the system initially had characteristics of an extratropical cyclone . It eventually acquired tropical features and intensified into Tropical Storm Greta on November 1 . A high pressure area east of the Mid @-@ Atlantic states caused the depression to turn to the south on November 2 and loop to the southeast . Later that day the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Greta to the northeast of the Bahamas . It attained hurricane status on November 4 while maintaining a large size ( in fact , becoming one of the largest tropical cyclones known in the Atlantic basin ) ; such strengthening is unusual in storms moving in a southeast trajectory . Greta turned to the east and later northeast , reaching its peak of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) late on November 4 due to the energy transfer between levels of the atmosphere . Cooler waters caused subsequent weakening and gradual loss of tropical characteristics , and Greta transitioned into an extratropical storm on November 6 , dissipating the next day .
The extremely large size of Greta , in conjunction with the high pressure system to its north , produced strong winds and high waves across a large area of the western Atlantic . In Puerto Rico , waves of 20 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) left heavy damage and killed one person who did not heed an evacuation order . Waves reached 25 ft ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) in the French West Indies , which destroyed 80 % of the structures at the port in Basse @-@ Terre , Guadeloupe . Further west , high waves left heavy damage in and around the beaches of Jacksonville , Florida . Overall damage was estimated at about $ 3 @.@ 58 million .
= = = Tropical Storm Twelve = = =
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms ( tropical storms and hurricanes ) that formed in the North Atlantic in 1956 . Storms were named Anna , Betsy , Carla , Dora , Ethel , Flossy and Greta for the first time in 1956 .
= KMFDM =
KMFDM ( originally Kein Mitleid Für Die Mehrheit , " loosely " translated by the band as " no pity for the majority " ) is an industrial band led by German multi @-@ instrumentalist Sascha Konietzko , who founded the group in 1984 as a performance art project .
The group 's earliest incarnation included German drummer En Esch and British vocalist Raymond Watts , the latter of whom left and rejoined the group several times over its history . The trio recorded the band 's earliest albums in Germany before Konietzko and Esch moved to the United States , where they found much greater success with seminal industrial record label Wax Trax ! . German guitarist Günter Schulz joined in 1990 ; both he and Esch continued with the band until KMFDM broke up in 1999 . Konietzko resurrected KMFDM in 2002 ( Esch and Schulz declined to rejoin ) on Metropolis Records , and by 2005 he had assembled a consistent line @-@ up that included American singer Lucia Cifarelli , British guitarists Jules Hodgson and Steve White , and British drummer Andy Selway . Konietzko and Cifarelli moved back to Germany in 2007 , while the rest of band stayed in the U.S. In addition to these core members , dozens of other musicians have worked with the group across its nineteen studio albums and two dozen singles , with sales totaling in excess of two million records worldwide .
Critics consider KMFDM to be one of the first bands to bring industrial music to mainstream audiences , though Konietzko refers to the band 's music as " The Ultra @-@ Heavy Beat " . The band incorporates heavy metal guitar riffs , electronic music , samples , and both male and female vocals in its music , which encompasses a variety of styles including industrial rock and electronic body music . The band is fiercely political , with many of its lyrics taking stands against violence , war , and oppression . KMFDM normally tours at least once after every major release , and band members are known for their accessibility to and interaction with fans , both online and at concerts . Members , singly or working together and with other musicians , have recorded under many other names , primarily Watts ' Pig , Konietzko 's Excessive Force , and Esch and Schulz 's Slick Idiot .
= = History = =
= = = Origin ( 1984 ) = = =
KMFDM was officially founded in Paris , France , on February 29 , 1984 , as a performance art project between Sascha Konietzko and German painter and multimedia artist Udo Sturm at the opening of an exhibition of young European artists at the Grand Palais . The first show consisted of Sturm playing an ARP 2600 synthesizer , Konietzko playing vacuum cleaners and bass guitars with their amplifiers spread throughout the building , and four Polish coal miners ( whom Konietzko had met at a bordello ) pounding on the foundations of the Grand Palais .
= = = = Name = = = =
KMFDM is an initialism for the nonsensical and grammatically incorrect German phrase Kein Mehrheit Für Die Mitleid , which literally translates as " no majority for the pity " , but is typically given the loose translation of " no pity for the majority " . In the original phrase , the articles preceding the nouns Mehrheit and Mitleid are inflected for the wrong gender , as the proper declension would be Keine Mehrheit für das Mitleid . Swapping the two nouns yields the grammatically correct Kein Mitleid für die Mehrheit , which translates directly as " no pity for the majority " . In a 2003 interview , Konietzko explained the origins of the phrase :
" On the morning of February 29th , 1984 I woke up and went down to breakfast at a hotel in Paris . We had a show that night opening for an exhibition for young European artists . ... we needed a motto for the night so that we could make up some fliers and post them around . There was a German newspaper on the table and so I started cutting out words and threw them all into a cap . We picked a few of them out and it read " Kein Mehrheit Für Die Mitleid " . It 's kinda improper German in regards to its translation but in the DA @-@ DA @-@ esque [ sic ] mindset of the early morning it made perfect sense . So when I was on my way back to Hamburg I 'd mentioned it to Raymond [ Watts ] . He liked it but he was having difficulty pronouncing it correctly . So finally he said , ' Why don 't you just call it KMFDM ? ' So that was it . We were KMFDM . "
= = = Early years in Germany ( 1984 – 89 ) = = =
Sturm left early on , but Konietzko continued performing , at one point having twenty people in his troupe , which by then was engaged in antics such as fire eating and throwing entrails at audiences . Konietzko then returned to Hamburg , where he joined up with Peter Missing in his new band Missing Foundation . Drummer Nicklaus Schandelmaier , who had recently moved to Hamburg from Frankfurt , also joined the group , and took the stage name En Esch . Although the group did some live performances , Konietzko and Esch dropped out of Missing Foundation before any recordings were made and went back to work as KMFDM , collaborating with Hamburg @-@ based studio owner Raymond Watts .
Cassette copies of the band 's first album , Opium , began circulating through the underground clubs and bars of Hamburg in 1984 . KMFDM released its next album , What Do You Know , Deutschland ? , in December 1986 . It was recorded from 1983 to 1986 , with some of the songs recorded by Konietzko and Watts before Esch was a member of the band , and indeed , before the band officially existed . Skysaw Records gave the album a second UK release in 1987 and introduced the band to visual artist Aidan Hughes , usually credited as Brute ! . Hughes redesigned the album 's cover , and went on to design almost every KMFDM album cover .
Watts left the group after working on just three songs on 1988 's Don 't Blow Your Top to start his own project , Pig . After working the Hamburg underground music scene and releasing albums on European labels , the band began its long @-@ standing relationship with Wax Trax ! Records when Don 't Blow Your Top was licensed to the label for US distribution . The album was produced by Adrian Sherwood , and was described by AllMusic critic Dave Thompson as " [ highlighting ] the producer as much as the band " .
= = = Success in America ( 1990 – 94 ) = = =
KMFDM recorded and released its fourth album , UAIOE , in early 1989 for distribution in both the U.S. and Europe , arrived in America for the first time on December 16 , and commenced touring the U.S. with Ministry . During KMFDM 's first US tour , band members started using the phrase " Kill Motherfucking Depeche Mode " for the acronym to tease journalists who did not understand German . The band signed directly to Wax Trax ! to distribute its fifth album , Naïve , which was recorded in Europe and featured the debut of guitarist Günter Schulz , known at the time as Svetlana Ambrosius . A remix of the album 's title track was the group 's first hit , reaching No. 21 on Billboard 's Dance / Club Play Songs Chart in March 1991 .
Konietzko moved to Chicago in 1991 , and Esch followed a year later . KMFDM quickly became a part of the Chicago industrial music scene that included Ministry , My Life with the Thrill Kill Kult , and Revolting Cocks . Konietzko later remarked , " We came from Germany and we all had to have day jobs and work our asses off to afford to be KMFDM and all of a sudden were in the states and were selling thousands of thousands of [ sic ] fucking records ! "
The band 's next club hit was " Split " , which was released in June 1991 and reached No. 46 on Billboard 's Dance / Club Play Songs Chart in July . During 1991 , Konietzko collaborated with Buzz McCoy of My Life With the Thrill Kill Kult to record an album under the name Excessive Force entitled Conquer Your World . Konietzko and Esch then began work on their halves of the intended sixth album , Apart , which was eventually released as two separate albums . Esch 's half became his solo album , Cheesy , while the official KMFDM album used Konietzko 's material and was renamed Money . This album spawned two more club hits in 1992 : " Vogue " , which reached No. 19 on the Billboard Dance / Club Play Songs Chart in April , and the title track , which reached No. 36 on that same chart in July .
After touring in 1992 with drummer Chris Vrenna , the then @-@ core of KMFDM ( Konietzko , Esch , Schulz , and second guitarist Mark Durante ) returned to Chicago and found that Wax Trax ! had filed Chapter 11 bankruptcy to begin corporate reorganization in November 1992 . The band went into the studio in 1993 as a group to record its seventh album , Angst , which sold more than 100 @,@ 000 copies over the next two years . Esch said after the album 's release , " I like this album way more . Money was done in a hurry , and I was doing a major Pigface tour , so I didn 't have much influence on the album . I really like Angst . I 'm totally down with it . We 've tried to involve guitar players , we tried to be like a real band , especially in the creative kind of aspect . " After the release of Angst , Wax Trax ! / TVT Records launched a promotion in which fans were encouraged to devise as many alternate meanings for KMFDM as possible , with more than a thousand submissions resulting .
Konietzko released a second album under the Excessive Force moniker in 1993 entitled Gentle Death . KMFDM received its first exposure to the mainstream with its single " A Drug Against War " . Despite the band 's anti @-@ MTV stance , the video of " A Drug Against War " received airplay on MTV and was shown on the MTV cartoon Beavis and Butt @-@ head . The track " Light " reached No. 31 on the Billboard Dance / Club Play Songs Chart in May 1994 .
The song " Liebeslied " from Naïve originally contained an unlicensed sample of " O Fortuna " from Carl Orff 's Carmina Burana . Orff 's publisher threatened the band with legal action , and the album was withdrawn from production in 1993 . A new version of the album , entitled Naïve / Hell to Go , was released the following year . It contained new mixes of several songs , including a version of " Liebeslied " with the offending sample removed .
Wax Trax ! was saved from bankruptcy by an infusion of funds from TVT Records , and in March 1994 announced plans to release the compilation set Black Box – Wax Trax ! Records : The First 13 Years , which includes the KMFDM songs " Virus " and " Godlike " , two songs which Thompson called " defining " .
= = = Peak popularity ( 1994 – 99 ) = = =
The mid @-@ to @-@ late 1990s were KMFDM 's most successful years in terms of album sales and mainstream awareness . Konietzko moved to Seattle in 1994 , while Esch moved to New Orleans . Watts rejoined the band to work on its eighth album , Nihil , which peaked at No. 16 on the Billboard Heatseekers chart and sold over 120 @,@ 000 copies . It marked the first contributions by drummer Bill Rieflin , who worked with the band on its next five albums . Nihil featured KMFDM 's most widely known song , " Juke Joint Jezebel " , versions of which appeared on both the Bad Boys and Mortal Kombat soundtracks , the latter of which peaked at No. 10 on the Billboard 200 and sold over 1 @.@ 8 million copies .
Commenting on the rotating cast of musicians shortly after Nihil 's release , Konietzko said , " It 's as if En and I are the suns and the other musicians at the time come and revolve around us . " Regarding the duo 's dynamic , Konietzko said , " En Esch and myself have always been the cornerstone of KMFDM 's existence . And we are diametrically opposed as writers . The angsty stuff generally comes from him . The poppy , hard stuff comes from me . " Esch commented in 1994 , " Sascha and myself are different , of course . But that 's why we can still make things happen . Our best and worst qualities are contrary . To put it simply , he 's more organized and stable , I 'm more complicated and abstract . "
In late 1995 , close friend and president of Chicago 's Wax Trax ! Jim Nash died of an illness complicated by AIDS , and Seattle became the official headquarters of KMFDM . Watts toured with KMFDM throughout 1995 in support of Nihil , but then left the group to return to recording under the Pig moniker . Esch also separated from the group , and Xtort was created in 1996 almost entirely without his input . Konietzko instead brought in a number of other industrial artists such as Chris Connelly to assist with the album . Xtort was the first KMFDM album to chart on the Billboard 200 and the highest @-@ charting and best @-@ selling album in the band 's history , reaching No. 92 and selling more than 200 @,@ 000 copies . " Power " , the album 's first single , was the most heavily promoted song in the band 's history , with almost 100 @,@ 000 copies included in a free Wax Trax ! sampler album in mid @-@ 1996 . Konietzko later said Xtort was his favorite album of the 1990s .
Esch returned for the Symbols album , which was released in 1997 and featured Abby Travis and Skinny Puppy 's Nivek Ogre . Symbols reached No. 137 on the Billboard 200 . Its first track , " Megalomaniac " , was featured in the film Mortal Kombat : Annihilation , and was the first song from its soundtrack to receive radio airplay . Tim Skold , formerly of the band Shotgun Messiah , made his first appearance as a band member , writing lyrics and performing vocals on " Anarchy " . Looking back on Symbols in 2002 , Konietzko said , " I listened to the Symbols album and heard exactly why KMFDM broke up in the first place . It told me the story of what went wrong . There were maybe two ( good ) songs on that album and the others were just a bunch of compromising tug @-@ of @-@ wars . That was something I was not going to do again . "
The band released a pair of compilation albums in 1998 . The first , Retro , was a greatest hits compilation which included most of the singles released up until Xtort . The second , Agogo , was a collection of rarities and previously unreleased tracks , including a cover of U2 's " Mysterious Ways " .
= = = Adios ( 1999 ) = = =
The album Adios was written and performed almost exclusively by Konietzko and Skold . Ogre again provided vocals , as did German musician Nina Hagen . Originally the fulfillment of the band 's ten record contract with Wax Trax ! / TVT , Adios later signaled the breakup of the band itself , which Esch 's and Schulz 's limited participation foreshadowed .
KMFDM disbanded , albeit temporarily , on January 22 , 1999 , with only Konietzko and Skold remaining together . Konietzko said the split was due to " lots of stress and pressure , as well as differences in vision and drive " . Esch said " There was a lot of negative energy between Sascha and Günter Schulz and myself and we all decided on the phone to call the band quits . " Adios was released three months later , and reached No. 189 on the Billboard 200 . Its title track was called " a bitter goodbye " .
In the wake of the Columbine High School massacre , it was revealed that lyrics to KMFDM songs ( " Son of a Gun " , " Stray Bullet " , " Waste " ) were posted on the website of shooter Eric Harris , and that the date of the massacre , April 20 , coincided with both the release date of the album Adios and the birthday of Adolf Hitler . Some journalists were quick to jump on the apparent connection of the massacre to violent entertainment and Nazism , though one wrote , " Lyrically , the band has written some songs that could easily be misconstrued by anyone lacking an ear for irony and looking for an excuse to commit violence . " In response , Konietzko issued a statement :
" First and foremost , KMFDM would like to express their deep and heartfelt sympathy for the parents , families and friends of the murdered and injured children in Littleton . We are sick and appalled , as is the rest of the nation , by what took place in Colorado yesterday .
" KMFDM are an art form — not a political party . From the beginning , our music has been a statement against war , oppression , fascism and violence against others . While some of the former band members are German as reported in the media , none of us condone any Nazi beliefs whatsoever . "
= = = MDFMK , Slick Idiot , and reformation ( 2000 – 02 ) = = =
After the group disbanded , Schulz and Esch formed the band Slick Idiot , while Konietzko and Skold regrouped as MDFMK , adding singer Lucia Cifarelli to form a trio . MDFMK released one self @-@ titled album with Republic / Universal Records , and toured North America . After being released from his contract with Universal due to a disagreement over who would produce the next album , Konietzko said he called Metropolis Records and asked if they 'd be interested in signing KMFDM . The label agreed , although at the time only Konietzko himself was certain to participate .
KMFDM reformed in 2002 with Konietzko , Skold , Cifarelli , and former collaborators Watts and Rieflin , due to " public demand " according to Konietzko , who said at the time , " I talked with the usual KMFDM suspects to see if they were interested , and what we came up with was something better than what we had before . " Recalled Esch in 2009 , " I was happy about my new creative freedom at that time and so I refused the concept of a fast reunion of the original KMFDM . " Konietzko said of the reformed band , " Not only is it fun again , but it 's devoid of all the personal confrontations due to egos and fractions that were once a part of the band , " but said , " I really miss En Esch , " in 2003 . KMFDM released its first album in three years , Attak , in March 2002 . The album was on the Billboard Independent Albums Chart for four weeks , peaking at No. 11 .
= = = New line @-@ up ( 2003 – 07 ) = = =
Skold left after Attak to join Marilyn Manson . Over the next few years , Watts ' bandmates from Pig joined KMFDM one by one . Jules Hodgson had already done guitar work for 2002 's Attak . Andy Selway first played drums for KMFDM on WWIII in 2003 , and Steve White contributed to 2005 's Hau Ruck after touring with the band . All three , along with Watts and Cifarelli , were mentioned as band members on " Intro " , the final track on WWIII , although that was to be the last album on which Watts performed . WWIII was on Billboard 's Dance / Electronic Albums Chart for seven weeks , and peaked at No. 3 .
Opium was re @-@ released in 2002 as KMFDM001 on the band 's new label , KMFDM Records , and a collection of songs recorded between 1984 – 86 was released in 2004 . Shortly after the release of WWIII , Konietzko began work on the soundtrack for 2004 's Spider @-@ Man 2 video game . Hau Ruck performed about as well WWIII , appearing on Billboard 's Dance / Electronic Albums Chart for eight weeks but only hitting No. 5 . Unlike WWIII , Hau Ruck showed up on the Billboard Independent Albums chart for a single week at No. 48 . A companion EP , Ruck Zuck , was released in 2006 .
Konietzko took a new approach for Tohuvabohu , released in 2007 . " Principally in the past , there used to be 2 people that would start songs : me and Jules . On this record I said to the other 2 guys , Andy ( Selway ) and Steve ( White ) , ' Why don 't you guys come up with something ? ' " Tohuvabohu was on Billboard 's Dance / Electronic Albums Chart for just three weeks and peaked at No. 4 . It appeared on the Independent Albums Chart for one week at No. 29 . Tohuvabohu also had a companion , Brimborium , a full length remix album released in 2008 that barely made it onto Billboard 's Dance / Electronic Albums Chart , hitting No. 20 for a single week .
Metropolis Records announced in mid @-@ 2006 it would reissue KMFDM 's entire Wax Trax ! -era studio album back catalog , which had been out of print since the early 2000s . The albums were released in chronological order in groups of two or three from September 2006 to May 2007 . Konietzko said the remastering was done over concerns about losing the rights to the back catalog after TVT defaulted on a loan , explaining , " The original agreement was that the catalog would have reverted back to me in 2008 , anyway , but TVT and Rykodisc were thinking of just making a KMFDM compilation , which would have eliminated my catalog , and I didn 't want that . " Konietzko commented in 2006 that the current line @-@ up was the best he had worked with , and said in a separate interview that his former bandmates were " looking at me for handouts " . Konietzko announced in October 2007 that he was packing up and moving back to Germany in the next three months .
= = = Back in Germany ( 2007 – present ) = = =
Following the Finnish school shootings of 2007 and 2008 , media reports again attempted to draw a connection between the shooters and the band , and noted that both listed KMFDM among their favorite bands . In an interview with Norwegian broadcaster NRK shortly after the 2008 incident , Konietzko responded to these claims by saying the recent shootings were a by @-@ product of the copycat mentality and the Finnish shooters ' desire to emulate the lifestyles and actions of the Columbine shooters . " One of my biggest concerns immediately following this incident [ the Columbine shooting ] was that there would be copycats repeating such things in the future , as there often are when people commit heinous crimes and acts of violence . I was , unfortunately , right . "
KMFDM re @-@ released all of its old singles and hard @-@ to @-@ find tracks from before the 1999 breakup in a series of three double albums called Extra — Vol . 1 , Vol . 2 , and Vol . 3 — in mid @-@ 2008 . KMFDM Records released Skold vs. KMFDM in early 2009 , which was a collaboration that Skold and Konietzko conducted over the Internet while on separate continents from June to October 2008 . A follow @-@ up is planned , but is not a high priority .
KMFDM 's sixteenth studio album , Blitz , released in March 2009 , showcased further collaboration with Skold , but less input from the band members not living in Germany . It reached No. 4 on Billboard 's Dance / Electronic Albums Chart , and was on the chart for four weeks . Its companion remix album , Krieg , was released in early 2010 . Two compilation albums , Würst and Greatest Shit , were released in September that same year .
On December 14 , 2010 , the official KMFDM website was changed to include a single image with the text " All Systems Have Been Ripped . The Internet Has Been Shut Down . " A new song titled " Rebels in Control " became available for listening and download on the site , posted in support of Julian Assange with regards to the controversy over WikiLeaks .
Former band members Durante , Esch , Schulz , and Watts appeared with Mona Mur at the April 2011 Wax Trax ! Retrospectacle in Chicago , a charity event celebrating the industrial music label . The group performed KMFDM songs from the Wax Trax ! era , including " Juke Joint Jezebel " , " Godlike , " Brute " , and " Don 't Blow Your Top " . Konietzko expressed a desire to perform with the current band line @-@ up , but was turned down by event organizers .
KMFDM released WTF ? ! in April 2011 , featuring what Konietzko called " a slew of guest musicians " including Rieflin , Koichi Fukuda , Free Dominguez , and William Wilson . The album 's first single , " Krank " , charted in both Germany and the United States . WTF ? ! was on Billboard 's Dance / Electronic Albums Chart for one week at No. 8 .
Work on KMFDM 's eighteenth album began in February 2012 . Titled Kunst , it was released on February 26 , 2013 . The band toured the United States in March and Europe in April 2013 . KMFDM reissued Opium and WWIII in October 2013 .
On May 24 , 2014 , Konietzko announced on the band 's Facebook page that a new album , entitled Our Time Will Come , would be released on October 14 , 2014 . A new live album entitled We Are KMFDM and a single called " Genau ( The German in You ) " were also announced . Our Time Will Come was released on October 14 , 2014 , on both CD and vinyl .
= = Musical style = =
KMFDM 's earliest output was performance art , as Konietzko incorporated not only visuals such as burning beds and exploding televisions , but also non @-@ musical devices used as instruments , e.g. vacuum cleaners . The 1980s albums featured heavy use of sampling and studio manipulations , and the primary instruments used were synthesizers and drum machines . Konietzko has cited T.Rex , David Bowie , and Frank Zappa as inspiration in the early stages of KMFDM . Before forming the band , he listened to punk music and " true industrial " bands such as Throbbing Gristle .
The band 's music has been described as industrial , industrial rock , industrial metal , and techno @-@ industrial . While recognized along with Ministry , Nine Inch Nails , and Skinny Puppy as pioneers in introducing industrial music to mainstream audiences , KMFDM describes its sound as " The Ultra @-@ Heavy Beat " . Konietzko once stated , " If I was to give myself a label it would be industrial @-@ alternative @-@ electronic @-@ crossover @-@ rock and danceabilly . "
The band has made heavy use of guitars since its inception , and pioneered their use during the band 's early days in Germany . Although not a metal fan , Konietzko said his " infatuation with ripping off metal licks " stemmed from his experiments with E @-@ mu 's Emax sampler in late 1986 , adding , " What I always hated most about heavy metal was that the best riffs came only once and were never repeated . So the fascination , actually , was to sample a great riff , loop it , and play it over and over again . " While the album Don 't Blow Your Top was more sparse in content , due to the influence of producer Sherwood , it was the exception rather than the rule . Ministry founder and frontman Al Jourgensen , on tour with the band in 1989 , described KMFDM as " a battalion of guitars marching through Europe . "
KMFDM 's music has since been a fusion of electronic and heavy metal , with occasional elements of dub , as well as orchestral samples and live horns . Many songs feature prominent backing vocals by female singers such as Dorona Alberti , Travis , and Cifarelli . Many of the musicians who have played in the band are multi @-@ instrumentalists , so there is a degree of versatility and freedom in the music .
Many albums feature one or more songs in which the band lampoons itself , notably in the lyrics to " Sucks " and " Inane " . The band 's " cynical detachment " has been compared to Steely Dan . Lyrics often express political concerns and call for the rejection of and resistance to terrorism , violence , oppression , censorship , and war . In the 1995 song " Terror " , Konietzko specifically warns , " Fundamentalist forces are undermining the integrity of liberal and democratic political structures " . Samples of news broadcasts and speeches by political leaders are sometimes featured in songs . Konietzko has said that while the 2003 album WWIII is critical of then @-@ president George W. Bush , who was sampled extensively for the album , " It 's not an anti @-@ Bush record per se , it 's an anti @-@ stupidity record " , and , " If we had a message , it would be : Think for Yourself and Don 't Believe the Bullshit . "
= = Reception = =
As of July 2007 , KMFDM had sold approximately two million records worldwide . Critics have been widely positive of KMFDM , though less enthusiastic about the band 's earliest work . What Do You Know , Deutschland ? was called " less energetic " and Don 't Blow Your Top was called " a little flimsy " in comparison to later albums by AllMusic critics Andy Hinds and Vincent Jeffries , respectively . UAIOE , when the band 's sound began to develop , was called " more assured " by Hinds and " more representative of KMFDM 's true motives " by Thompson , who added that KMFDM 's guitar @-@ heavy sound inspired Ministry 's own embrace of the instrument after the bands toured together in 1990 .
The first major breakthrough in the band 's critical reception was 1990 's Naïve , called " one of their strongest releases " by Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic , " brilliant " by fellow AllMusic critic Ned Raggett , " superb " by Hinds , and " the most fun ' industrial dance ' album ever " by Spin critic Chuck Eddy . The subsequent albums released in the 1990s were described as some of the band 's strongest by AllMusic critic Greg Prato , with their metal guitars , industrial beats , and dance floor sensibilities praised by Ira Robbins and CMJ New Music Monthly critic Heidi MacDonald . Michael Saunders of the Boston Globe said of the band : " It 's a small field , but KMFDM is tops in it : makers of dense , danceable , post @-@ industrial torrents of noise . The German band specializes in fabricating aural assaults that can be intimidating to the uninitiated . " MacDonald said in 1996 , " With Ministry gone grindcore , Skinny Puppy just gone , and Nine Inch Nails a brand name , KMFDM is now the standard bearer of industrial " , though Erlewine and Hinds felt the band was losing some steam towards the end of the decade .
Greg Rule declared in 1999 , after its temporary disbandment , that KMFDM had " produced nine high @-@ impact records that have earned them a large , loyal fanbase strewn across the planet . " Erlewine called the band " one of Wax Trax 's first industrial superstars " , " an underground sensation " , and " one of the major industrial bands of the ' 90s . " Most of the band 's albums released in the 21st century have been well @-@ received , although Prato and ReGen Magazine 's Ilker Yücel have commented on the sameness from one album to the next . Recent albums Blitz and WTF ? ! have been described as moving in an electronic , less guitar @-@ focused direction by Trey Spencer of Sputnikmusic and AllMusic 's David Jeffries .
= = Touring and fanbase = =
KMFDM has released on average an album every year and a half , and usually tours at least once in support of each album . At most concert venues , KMFDM mingles with the fans before and after the show to sign autographs , pose for photos , and answer questions . Konietzko , who keeps in contact with fans via e @-@ mail and the band 's website , and band representatives have experimented with ways for fans to interact more directly . KMFDM launched " Horde " in 2002 , an exclusive fan club which gave members the opportunity to attend a private meet @-@ and @-@ greet with the band before every show , and allowed access to members @-@ only music and footage online . A featurette on the Horde fan club appears on the WWIII Live 2003 DVD .
In the 2004 Fankam project , an audience member was selected at each concert to record that night 's show , as well as some back @-@ stage antics , with a hand @-@ held digital video camera . The resulting footage was incorporated into the following year 's 20th Anniversary World Tour DVD , which included fan photos submitted to the KMFDM official website . KMFDM encouraged fans to call a special " FanPhone " and leave a voice message in March 2007 . The song " Superpower " from 2007 's Tohuvabohu includes sound @-@ clips from these messages . The band used the Fankam project again for its 2011 " Kein Mitleid " tour in the United States .
= = = List of tours = = =
All tours featured KMFDM headlining , except where noted .
= = Album artwork = =
KMFDM has a long @-@ standing relationship with commercial artist Aidan " Brute ! " Hughes , who creates the artwork adorning almost all of the band 's albums and singles , which has been called " one of rock music 's most memorable cover art collections " . Hughes ' artwork is featured in KMFDM 's music videos for " A Drug Against War " and " Son of a Gun " , and on the band 's promotional t @-@ shirts . Art critic Brian Sherwin said Hughes is probably best known for the collection of KMFDM artwork he has created .
All of his work , which has been called " striking " , shares a distinct visual style inspired by Golden Age comic artists , Russian Constructivists , Italian Futurists , and woodcut artists . In an interview with Sherwin , Hughes stated , " KMFDM have cornered the market in industrial post @-@ modern angst and so my work reflects that . " Hughes said that initially he based his work on the music , which caused " artistic block " . Konietzko gave him more freedom to use whatever themes he wished , resulting in the cover to Money , which Hughes said " was based upon my disillusionment with the street lifestyle I was experiencing at the time , and the art carries with it the implication that no matter what temptation lies in your path , you still gotta pay ! "
The only studio album covers not designed by Hughes are Opium , which consists of a black and white photo , and Nihil , which was designed by Francesca Sundsten , wife of drummer Rieflin .
= = Members = =
= = = Official line @-@ up = = =
The official line @-@ up of KMFDM consists of :
Sascha Konietzko – vocals , guitar , bass , programming , keyboards , synthesizer , percussion
Lucia Cifarelli – vocals , keyboards
Jules Hodgson – guitar , bass , keyboards
Andy Selway – drums
Steve White – guitar
= = = Key former members = = =
En Esch – vocals , drums , guitar , programming
Raymond Watts – vocals , programming
Günter Schulz – guitar , programming
Mark Durante – guitar , steel guitar
Tim Skold – vocals , guitar , bass , drums , programming
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
= = Associated acts = =
Members of KMFDM have either founded , fronted , or supported a score of other bands throughout the band 's history , before , during , or after working in KMFDM .
Shotgun Messiah – Tim Sköld ( 1985 – 93 )
Pig – Raymond Watts ( 1988 – present ) ( Pig members Jules Hodgson , Andy Selway , and Steve White joined KMFDM in 2002 and 2003 ) , Günter Schulz ( touring guitarist 2006 – present )
Pigface – Bill Rieflin ( 1990 – 93 ) , En Esch ( 1990 – 93 , 1999 – 2005 ) , Schulz ( 1999 – 2005 )
Excessive Force – Sascha Konietzko , Esch , Schulz , Mark Durante ( 1991 – 93 )
Esch released two solo albums : Cheesy in 1993 and Spänk in 2014 .
Schaft – Watts ( 1994 )
Drill – was fronted by Lucia Cifarelli prior to her involvement MDFMK and KMFDM . ( 1995 – 96 )
Skold ( 1996 – present ) – Sköld has released material as a solo artist .
MDFMK – Formed by Konietzko , Skold , and Cifarelli during KMFDM 's hiatus ( 2000 – 01 )
Slick Idiot – Formed by Esch and Schulz following the 1999 break @-@ up of KMFDM ( 2001 – present )
Marilyn Manson – Skold ( 2002 – 2009 )
Schwein – Watts , Konietzko , Cifarelli ( 2001 )
Cifarelli released the solo album From the Land of Volcanos in 2003 .
Schulz – Schulz 's solo project ( 2004 – 06 )
R.E.M. – Rieflin ( 2004 – 11 )
KGC – Konietzko , Cifarelli ( 2006 )
Gare du Nord – Dorona Alberti ( 2006 – present )
Mona Mur & En Esch – Esch 's collaboration with German vocalist Mona Mur ( 2007 – present )
The Spittin ' Cobras – Hodgson , Selway ( 2009 – present )
PROLET • KULT ( 2011 ) – A solo album released by Konietzko under the name OK • ZTEIN • OK .
= Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition =
The Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition ( 1914 – 17 ) , also known as the Endurance Expedition , is considered the last major expedition of the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration . Conceived by Sir Ernest Shackleton , the expedition was an attempt to make the first land crossing of the Antarctic continent . After the conquest of the South Pole by Roald Amundsen in 1911 , this crossing remained , in Shackleton 's words , the " one great main object of Antarctic journeyings " . The expedition failed to accomplish this objective , but became recognised instead as an epic feat of endurance .
Shackleton had served in the Antarctic in Captain Scott 's Discovery Expedition , 1901 – 04 , and had led the British Antarctic Expedition , 1907 – 09 . In this new venture he proposed to sail to the Weddell Sea and to land a shore party near Vahsel Bay , in preparation for a transcontinental march via the South Pole to the Ross Sea . A supporting group , the Ross Sea party , would meanwhile establish camp in McMurdo Sound , and from there lay a series of supply depots across the Ross Ice Shelf to the foot of the Beardmore Glacier . These depots would be essential for the transcontinental party 's survival , as the group would not be able to carry enough provisions for the entire crossing . The expedition required two ships : Endurance under Shackleton for the Weddell Sea party , and Aurora , under Aeneas Mackintosh , for the Ross Sea party .
Endurance became beset in the ice of the Weddell Sea before reaching Vahsel Bay , and drifted northward , held in the pack ice , throughout the Antarctic winter of 1915 . Eventually the ship was crushed and sunk , stranding its 28 @-@ man complement on the ice . After months spent in makeshift camps as the ice continued its northwards drift , the party took to the lifeboats to reach the inhospitable , uninhabited Elephant Island . Shackleton and five others then made an 800 @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 287 km ) open @-@ boat journey in the James Caird to reach South Georgia . From there , Shackleton was eventually able to mount a rescue of the men waiting on Elephant Island and bring them home without loss of life . On the other side of the continent , the Ross Sea party overcame great hardships to fulfil its mission . Aurora was blown from her moorings during a gale and was unable to return , leaving the shore party marooned without proper supplies or equipment . Nevertheless , the depots were laid , but three lives were lost before the party 's eventual rescue .
= = Preparations = =
= = = Origins = = =
Despite the public acclaim that had greeted Shackleton 's achievements during the Nimrod Expedition in 1907 – 09 , the explorer was unsettled , becoming — in the words of British skiing pioneer Sir Harry Brittain — " a bit of a floating gent " . By 1912 his future Antarctic plans depended on the results of Scott 's Terra Nova Expedition , which had left Cardiff in July 1910 , and on the concurrent Norwegian expedition led by Roald Amundsen . The news of Amundsen 's conquest of the South Pole reached Shackleton on 11 March 1912 , to which he responded : " The discovery of the South Pole will not be the end of Antarctic exploration " . The next work , he said , would be " a transcontinental journey from sea to sea , crossing the pole " . He was aware that others were in the field pursuing this objective . On 11 December 1911 , a German expedition under Wilhelm Filchner had sailed from South Georgia , intending to penetrate deep into the Weddell Sea and establishing a base from which he would cross the continent to the Ross Sea . In late 1912 Filchner returned to South Georgia , having failed to land and set up his base . However , his reports of possible landing sites in Vahsel Bay , at around 78 ° latitude , were noted by Shackleton , and incorporated into his developing expedition plans .
News of the deaths of Captain Scott and his companions on their return from the South Pole reached London in February 1913 . Against this gloomy background Shackleton initiated preparations for his proposed journey . He solicited financial and practical support from , among others , Tryggve Gran of Scott ’ s expedition , and the former Prime Minister Lord Rosebery , but received no help from either . Gran was evasive , and Rosebery blunt : " I have never been able to care one farthing about the Poles " . Shackleton got support , however , from William Speirs Bruce , leader of the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition of 1902 – 04 , who had harboured plans for an Antarctic crossing since 1908 , but had abandoned the project for lack of funds . Bruce generously allowed Shackleton to adopt his plans , although the eventual scheme announced by Shackleton owed little to Bruce . On 29 December 1913 , having acquired his first promises of financial backing — a £ 10 @,@ 000 grant from the British Government — Shackleton made his plans public , in a letter to The Times .
= = = Shackleton 's plan = = =
Shackleton called his new expedition the Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition , because he felt that " not only the people of these islands , but our kinsmen in all the lands under the Union Jack will be willing to assist towards the carrying out of the ... programme of exploration . " To arouse the interest of the general public , Shackleton issued a detailed programme early in 1914 . The expedition was to consist of two parties and two ships . The Weddell Sea party would travel in the Endurance and continue to the Vahsel Bay area , where fourteen men would land of whom six , under Shackleton , would form the Transcontinental Party . This group , with 69 dogs , two motor sledges , and equipment " embodying everything that the experience of the leader and his expert advisers can suggest " , would undertake the 1 @,@ 800 @-@ mile ( 2 @,@ 900 km ) journey to the Ross Sea . The remaining eight shore party members would carry out scientific work , three going to Graham Land , three to Enderby Land and two remaining at base camp .
The Ross Sea party would set up its base in McMurdo Sound , on the opposite side of the continent . After landing they would lay depots on the route of the transcontinental party as far as the Beardmore Glacier , hopefully meeting that party there and assisting it home . They would also make geological and other observations .
= = = Finance = = =
Shackleton estimated that he would need £ 50 @,@ 000 ( current value £ 4 @,@ 327 @,@ 000 ) to carry out the simplest version of his plan . He did not believe in appeals to the public : " ( they ) cause endless book @-@ keeping worries " . His chosen method of fund @-@ raising was to solicit contributions from wealthy backers , and he had begun this process early in 1913 , with little initial success . The first significant encouragement came in December 1913 , when the Government offered him £ 10 @,@ 000 , provided he could raise an equivalent amount from private sources . The Royal Geographical Society , from which he had expected nothing , gave him £ 1 @,@ 000 — according to Huntford , Shackleton , in a grand gesture , advised them that he would only need to take up half of this sum . Lord Rosebery , who had previously expressed his lack of interest in polar expeditions , gave £ 50 . In February 1914 The New York Times reported that playwright J. M. Barrie – a close friend of Captain Scott – had confidentially donated $ 50 @,@ 000 ( about £ 10 @,@ 000 ) . With time running out , contributions were eventually secured during the spring and early summer of 1914 . Dudley Docker of the Birmingham Small Arms Company ( BSA ) gave £ 10 @,@ 000 , wealthy tobacco heiress Janet Stancomb @-@ Wills gave a " generous " sum ( the amount was not revealed ) , and , in June , Scottish industrialist Sir James Caird donated £ 24 @,@ 000 ( current value £ 2 @,@ 080 @,@ 000 ) . Shackleton informed the Morning Post that " this magnificent gift relieves me of all anxiety " .
Shackleton now had the money to proceed . He acquired , for £ 14 @,@ 000 ( current value £ 1 @,@ 210 @,@ 000 ) , a 300 @-@ ton barquentine called Polaris , which had been built for the Belgian explorer Adrien de Gerlache for an expedition to Spitsbergen . This scheme had collapsed and the ship became available . Shackleton changed her name to Endurance , reflecting his family motto " By endurance we conquer " . For a further £ 3 @,@ 200 ( current value £ 277 @,@ 000 ) , he acquired Douglas Mawson ’ s expedition ship Aurora , which was lying in Hobart , Tasmania . This would act as the Ross Sea party 's vessel .
How much money Shackleton raised to meet the total costs of the expedition ( later estimated by the Daily Mail to be around £ 80 @,@ 000 , is uncertain , since the size of the Stancomb @-@ Wills donation is not known . Money was a constant problem for Shackleton , who as an economy measure halved the funding allocated to the Ross Sea party , a fact which the party ’ s commander Aeneas Mackintosh only discovered when he arrived in Australia to take up his duties . Mackintosh was forced to haggle and plead for money and supplies to make his part of the expedition viable . Shackleton had , however , realised the revenue @-@ earning potential of the expedition . He sold the exclusive newspaper rights to the Daily Chronicle , and formed the Imperial Trans Antarctic Film Syndicate to take advantage of the film rights .
= = Personnel = =
According to legend , Shackleton posted an advertisement in a London paper , stating : " Men wanted for hazardous journey . Low wages , bitter cold , long hours of complete darkness . Safe return doubtful . Honour and recognition in event of success . " Searches for the original advertisement have proved unsuccessful , and the story is generally regarded as apocryphal . Shackleton received more than 5 @,@ 000 applications for places on the expedition , including a letter from " three sporty girls " who suggested that if their feminine garb was inconvenient they would " just love to don masculine attire . " Eventually the crews for the two arms of the expedition were trimmed down to 28 apiece , including William Bakewell , who joined the ship in Buenos Aires , his friend Perce Blackborow who stowed away when his application was turned down , and several last @-@ minute appointments made to the Ross Sea party in Australia . A temporary crewman was Sir Daniel Gooch , grandson of the renowned railway pioneer of the same name , who stepped in to help Shackleton as a dog handler at the last moment and signed up for an able seaman 's pay . Gooch agreed to sail with Endurance as far as South Georgia .
As his second @-@ in @-@ command , Shackleton chose Frank Wild , who had been with him on both the Discovery and Nimrod expeditions , and was one of the Furthest South party in 1909 . Wild had just returned from Mawson ’ s Australian Antarctic Expedition . To captain Endurance Shackleton had wanted John King Davis , who had commanded Aurora during the Australian Antarctic Expedition . Davis refused , thinking the enterprise was " foredoomed " , so the appointment went to Frank Worsley , who claimed to have applied to the expedition after learning of it in a dream . Royal Navy Chief Petty Officer Tom Crean , who had been awarded the Albert Medal for saving the life of Lieutenant Evans on the Terra Nova Expedition , took leave from the navy to sign on as Endurance 's Second Officer ; another experienced Antarctic hand , Alfred Cheetham , became Third Officer . Two Nimrod veterans were assigned to the Ross Sea party : Mackintosh who commanded it , and Ernest Joyce . Shackleton had hoped that the Aurora would be staffed by a naval crew , and had asked the Admiralty for officers and men , but was turned down . After pressing his case , Shackleton was given one officer from the Royal Marines , Captain Thomas Orde @-@ Lees , who was Superintendent of Physical Training at the Marines training depot .
The scientific staff of six accompanying Endurance comprised the two surgeons , Alexander Macklin and James McIlroy ; a geologist , James Wordie ; a biologist , Robert Clark ; a physicist Reginald James ; and Leonard Hussey , a meteorologist who would eventually edit Shackleton ’ s expedition account South . The visual record of the expedition was the responsibility of its photographer Frank Hurley and its artist George Marston . The final composition of the Ross Sea party was hurried . Some who left Britain for Australia to join Aurora resigned before it departed for the Ross Sea , and a full complement of crew was in doubt until the last minute . Within the party only Mackintosh and Joyce had any previous Antarctic experience ; Mackintosh had lost an eye as the result of an accident during the Nimrod expedition and had gone home early .
= = Expedition = =
= = = Weddell sea party = = =
= = = = Voyage through the ice = = = =
Endurance , without Shackleton ( who was detained in England by expedition business ) , left Plymouth on 8 August 1914 , heading first for Buenos Aires . Here Shackleton , who had travelled on a faster ship , rejoined the expedition . Hurley also came on board , together with Bakewell and the stowaway , Blackborow , while several others left the ship or were discharged . On 26 October the ship sailed for the South Atlantic , arriving in South Georgia on 5 November . Shackleton 's original intention was that the crossing would take place in the first season , 1914 – 15 . Although he soon recognised the impracticality of this , he neglected to inform Mackintosh and the Ross Sea party of his change of plan . According to the Daily Chronicle 's correspondent Ernest Perris , a cable intended for
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released an autobiographical documentary titled Katy Perry : Part of Me in 2012 , and voiced Smurfette in the 2011 film The Smurfs and its sequel in 2013 .
= = Life and career = =
= = = 1984 – 98 : Early life = = =
Katheryn Elizabeth Hudson was born in Santa Barbara , California , to Pentecostal pastors Mary Christine ( née Perry ) and Maurice Keith Hudson . Her parents are born again Christians , each having turned to God after a " wild youth " . Perry has English , German , Irish , and Portuguese ancestry . Through her mother , she is a niece of film director Frank Perry . She has a younger brother named David , who is a singer , and an older sister , Angela . From ages 3 to 11 , Perry often moved across the country as her parents set up churches before settling again in Santa Barbara . Growing up , she attended religious schools and camps , including Paradise Valley Christian School in Arizona and Santa Barbara Christian School in California during her elementary years . Her family struggled financially , sometimes using food stamps and eating from the food bank intended to feed the congregation at her parents ' church .
Growing up , Perry and her siblings were not allowed to eat Lucky Charms as the term " luck " reminded their mother of Lucifer , and had to call deviled eggs " angeled eggs " . Perry primarily listened to gospel music , as secular music was generally discouraged in the family 's home . She discovered popular music through CDs she sneaked from her friends . While not strictly identifying as religious , Perry has stated , " I pray all the time – for self @-@ control , for humility . " Following her sister Angela , Perry began singing by practicing with her sister 's cassette tapes . She performed the tracks in front of their parents , who suggested she take vocal lessons . She began training at age 9 , and was incorporated into her parents ' ministry , singing in church from ages 9 to 17 . At 13 , Perry was given her first guitar for her birthday , and publicly performed songs she wrote . She tried to " be a bit like the typical Californian girl " while growing up , and started rollerskating , skateboarding , and surfing as a teenager . David described her as a tomboy during her adolescence . She took dancing lessons and learned how to swing , Lindy Hop , and jitterbug .
= = = 1999 – 2006 : Career beginnings = = =
During her freshman year of high school , Perry completed her General Educational Development ( GED ) requirements at age 15 , and left Dos Pueblos High School to pursue a musical career . She briefly studied Italian opera at the Music Academy of the West in Santa Barbara . Her singing caught the attention of rock artists Steve Thomas and Jennifer Knapp from Nashville , Tennessee , who brought her there to improve her writing skills . In Nashville , she started recording demos and learned how to write songs and play guitar . After signing with Red Hill Records , Perry recorded her debut album , a gospel record titled Katy Hudson . She released the album on March 6 , 2001 , and went on tour that year as part of Phil Joel 's Strangely Normal Tour . Katy Hudson received positive reviews from critics , though was commercially unsuccessful and sold an estimated 200 copies before the label ceased operations in December . Transitioning from gospel music to secular music , Perry started writing songs with producer Glen Ballard , and moved to Los Angeles at age 17 . In 2003 , she briefly performed as Katheryn Perry to avoid confusion with actress Kate Hudson . She later adopted the stage name Katy Perry , using her mother 's maiden name .
In 2004 , Perry signed to Ballard 's label , Java , which was then affiliated with The Island Def Jam Music Group . She began work on a solo record , but the record was shelved after Java was dropped . Ballard then introduced Perry to Tim Devine , an A & R executive at Columbia Records , and she was signed as a solo artist . Over the course of the next two years , Perry wrote and recorded material for her Columbia debut , and worked with songwriters including Desmond Child , Greg Wells , Butch Walker , Scott Cutler / Anne Previn , The Matrix , Kara DioGuardi , and Max Martin and Dr. Luke . In addition , after Devine suggested they become a " real group " , she recorded with the Matrix . Perry was dropped from Columbia in 2006 as her record neared completion . After she was dropped from Columbia , Perry worked at an independent A & R company called Taxi Music .
Perry had minor success prior to her breakthrough . One of the songs she had recorded for her album with Ballard , " Simple " , was featured on the soundtrack to the 2005 film The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants . She provided backing vocals on Mick Jagger 's song " Old Habits Die Hard " , which was included on the soundtrack to the 2004 film Alfie . In September 2004 , Blender named Perry " The Next Big Thing " . She recorded background vocals on P.O.D. ' s single " Goodbye for Now " and was featured at the end of its music video in 2006 . That year , Perry also appeared in the music video for " Learn to Fly " by Carbon Leaf , and played the love interest of her then @-@ boyfriend , Gym Class Heroes lead singer Travie McCoy , in the band 's music video for " Cupid 's Chokehold " .
= = = 2007 – 09 : Breakthrough with One of the Boys = = =
After Columbia dropped Perry , Angelica Cob @-@ Baehler , then a publicity executive at the label , brought Perry 's demos to Virgin Records chairman Jason Flom . Flom was convinced that she could be a breakthrough star and she was signed to Capitol Records in April 2007 . The label arranged for her to work with Dr. Luke in order to add an " undeniable smash " to her existing material . Perry and Dr. Luke co @-@ wrote the songs " I Kissed a Girl " and " Hot n Cold " for her second album One of the Boys . A campaign was started with the November 2007 release of the video to " Ur So Gay " , aimed at introducing her to the music market . A digital EP led by " Ur So Gay " was later released to create interest . Madonna helped publicize the song by praising the track on the JohnJay & Rich radio show in April 2008 , stating it was her " favorite song " . In March 2008 , Perry made a cameo appearance as a club singer in the Wildfire episode " Life 's Too Short " , and appeared as herself during a photo shoot in June on The Young and the Restless for the show 's magazine Restless Style .
Perry released her first single with Capitol , " I Kissed a Girl " , on April 28 , 2008 , as the lead single from One of the Boys . The first station to pick up the song was WRVW in Nashville , who were inundated with enthusiastic calls the first three days they played it . The track reached number one on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 . One of the Boys , released on June 17 , garnered mixed critical reviews and reached number nine on the U.S. Billboard 200 . The album went on to sell 7 million copies worldwide . " Hot n Cold " was released in September and became the album 's second successful single , reaching number three on the Billboard Hot 100 , while topping charts in Germany , Canada , the Netherlands , and Austria . Later singles " Thinking of You " and " Waking Up in Vegas " were released in 2009 and reached the top 30 of the Hot 100 . The Matrix 's self @-@ titled debut album , which Perry had recorded with the band in 2004 , was released onto iTunes on January 27 , 2009 , as a result of her solo success .
After finishing the Warped Tour 2008 , Perry hosted the 2008 MTV Europe Music Awards in November 2008 , where she won the award for Best New Act . She embarked on her first headlining world tour , the Hello Katy Tour , from January to November 2009 to support One of the Boys . On August 4 , 2009 , she performed as opening act for one date of the band No Doubt 's Summer Tour 2009 . Perry also hosted the 2009 MTV Europe Music Awards in November 2009 , becoming the first person to host two consecutive ceremonies . On July 22 , 2009 , Perry recorded a live album titled MTV Unplugged , which featured acoustic performances of five tracks from One of the Boys , as well as two new songs , " Brick by Brick " and " Hackensack " . It was released on November 17 , 2009 . Perry also appeared on two singles with other artists ; she was featured on a remix of Colorado @-@ based band 3OH ! 3 's song " Starstrukk " in September 2009 , and on a duet with Timbaland entitled " If We Ever Meet Again " , from his album Shock Value II , in January 2010 . The Guinness World Records recognized her in its 2010 edition as the " Best Start on the U.S. Digital Chart by a Female Artist " , for digital single sales of over two million copies .
" I Kissed a Girl " created controversy among both religious groups and LGBT groups . The former criticized its homosexual themes while the latter accused her of using bi @-@ curiosity to sell records . In response to speculation that her parents opposed her music and career , Perry told MTV that they had no problems with her success . After her relationship with McCoy ended in December 2008 , Perry met her future husband Russell Brand in the summer of 2009 while filming a cameo appearance for his film Get Him to the Greek . Her scene , in which the two kiss , does not appear in the film . She began dating Brand after meeting him again that September at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards . The couple became engaged on December 31 , 2009 , while vacationing in Rajasthan , India .
= = = 2010 – 12 : Teenage Dream and marriage = = =
After serving as a guest judge on American Idol , Perry released " California Gurls " featuring rapper Snoop Dogg on May 7 , 2010 . The song was the lead single from her third studio album , Teenage Dream , and reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 in June . She also served as a guest judge on The X Factor UK later that month before releasing the album 's second single , " Teenage Dream " , in July . " Teenage Dream " reached number one on Billboard in September . Released on August 24 , 2010 , the album debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 . It received mixed reviews from music critics , and has since sold 6 million copies globally . In October , " Firework " was released as the album 's third single . It became the album 's third consecutive number one on the Hot 100 on December 8 , 2010 .
A remixed version of " E.T. " featuring rapper Kanye West was released as the fourth single from Teenage Dream on February 16 , 2011 . It topped the Hot 100 chart for five non @-@ consecutive weeks , making Teenage Dream the ninth album in history to produce four number one singles on the Hot 100 . " Last Friday Night ( T.G.I.F. ) " followed as the fifth single in June , and Perry became the first female artist to achieve five number @-@ one Hot 100 songs from one album when the single topped that chart on August 17 , and the second artist after Michael Jackson with his album Bad . For this record , she received an honorary American Music Award in November 2011 and a 2013 Guinness World Record . On September 7 , she set a new record by becoming the first artist to spend 69 consecutive weeks in the top ten of the Hot 100 . In October , " The One That Got Away " was released as the album 's sixth single . The song peaked at number three on the Hot 100 and number two in Canada . On February 13 , 2012 , Capitol released the lead single from Teenage Dream : The Complete Confection , " Part of Me " , which debuted at number one on the Hot 100 and became Perry 's seventh single overall to top the chart . Teenage Dream : The Complete Confection was released on March 23 . " Wide Awake " was released on May 22 as the re @-@ release 's second single , peaking at number two on the Hot 100 and number one in Canada and New Zealand . On January 5 , she was named the sixth best @-@ selling digital artist in the United States , with sales of 37 @.@ 6 million units according to Nielsen SoundScan . That month , she became the first artist to have four songs sell over 5 million digital units .
Perry embarked on her second tour , the California Dreams Tour , in support of Teenage Dream from February 2011 to January 2012 . The tour grossed $ 59 @.@ 5 million globally and won her the award for Best Live Act at the 2011 MTV Europe Music Awards . On September 23 , 2011 , she performed on the opening day of the 2011 Rock in Rio festival along with Elton John , Claudia Leitte , and Rihanna . In September 2010 , Perry was scheduled to appear on the 41st @-@ season premiere of Sesame Street . After her scene was uploaded to YouTube , viewers criticized Perry 's exposed cleavage . Four days before the scheduled airing , Sesame Workshop announced that the segment would not air on television , but would still be available to watch online . Perry subsequently mocked the controversy on Saturday Night Live , where she was a musical guest and wore an Elmo @-@ themed shirt showing large amounts of cleavage during one skit .
In December 2010 , Perry played Moe Szyslak 's girlfriend in the live @-@ action segment from a Christmas episode of The Simpsons titled " The Fight Before Christmas " . In February 2011 , she made a guest appearance on the How I Met Your Mother episode " Oh Honey " , playing a woman known as Honey . The role won her the People 's Choice Award for Favorite TV Guest Star in January 2012 . She made her film debut in the 3D family motion picture The Smurfs as Smurfette on July 29 , 2011 . The film was a financial success worldwide , while critics gave mostly negative reviews . She hosted Saturday Night Live on December 10 , 2011 , with Robyn as the episode 's musical guest . Perry 's work on the episode received generally positive reviews from critics , who praised her performance in the episode 's digital short featuring her and Andy Samberg . In March 2012 , she guest starred as a prison security guard named Rikki on the Raising Hope episode " Single White Female Role Model " . On July 5 , 2012 , Perry 's autobiographical documentary Katy Perry : Part of Me was released to theaters through Paramount Pictures . The film received positive reviews and grossed $ 32 @.@ 7 million worldwide at the box office .
Perry began to venture into business when she endorsed her first fragrance , Purr , in November 2010 . Her second fragrance , Meow ! , was released in December 2011 . Both perfumes were released through Nordstrom department stores . Electronic Arts recruited her to promote their new expansion pack for The Sims 3 : Showtime , before releasing a separate stuff pack featuring Perry @-@ inspired furniture , outfits , and hairstyles , titled The Sims 3 : Katy Perry 's Sweet Treats , in June 2012 . The following month , she became the spokesperson and ambassador for Popchips and made an investment in the company . Billboard dubbed her as their " Woman of the Year " for 2012 .
She married Russell Brand on October 23 , 2010 , in a traditional Hindu ceremony near the Ranthambhore tiger sanctuary in Rajasthan . Brand announced on December 30 , 2011 , that they were divorcing after 14 months of marriage . Perry later stated that conflicting career schedules and his desire to have children before she was ready led to the end of their marriage , and that he never spoke to her again after sending a text message that he was divorcing her while Brand asserted that he divorced her due to her commercial success and reluctance to engage in activism . She was initially distraught over their divorce , and said that she contemplated suicide . After the marriage ended in 2012 , Perry began a relationship with singer John Mayer that August .
= = = 2013 – 15 : Prism and Super Bowl XLIX halftime show = = =
In November 2012 , Perry began work on her fourth album , Prism . She told Billboard , " I know exactly the record I want to make next . I know the artwork , the coloring and the tone " and " I even know what type of tour I 'm doing next . I 'll be very pleased if the vision I have in my head becomes a reality . " Although she told L 'Uomo Vogue in June 2012 that she planned to have " darker elements " in Prism following the end of her marriage , Perry revealed to MTV during the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards that she changed the album 's direction after periods of self @-@ reflection . She commented " I felt very prismatic " , which inspired the album 's name . " Roar " was released as the lead single from Prism on August 10 , 2013 . It was promoted at the MTV Video Music Awards and reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 . " Unconditionally " was released as the second single from Prism on October 16 , 2013 , and peaked at number 14 in the United States .
Prism was released on October 18 , 2013 , and has sold 4 million copies as of August 2015 . It received positive reviews from critics and debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 chart . Four days later , Perry performed the songs from the album at the iHeartRadio Theater in Los Angeles . " Dark Horse " was released as the album 's third single on December 17 , 2013 , and became her ninth U.S. number @-@ one single on January 29 , 2014 . In 2014 , " Birthday " and " This Is How We Do " followed as the album 's fourth and fifth singles , and reached the top 25 on the Hot 100 . Prior to ending her relationship with Mayer in February 2014 , she recorded and co @-@ wrote a duet with him titled " Who You Love " for his album Paradise Valley . The song was released on August 12 , 2013 . Perry 's third headlining tour , The Prismatic World Tour , began in May 2014 and concluded in October 2015 . It grossed $ 204 @.@ 3 million worldwide and won Perry the award for " Top Package " at the 2014 Billboard Touring Awards . She also performed at the 2015 Rock in Rio festival on September 27 , 2015 .
On November 23 , 2014 , the NFL announced that Perry would perform at the Super Bowl XLIX halftime show on February 1 , 2015 . Lenny Kravitz and Missy Elliott served as special guests for the show . Two days after the halftime show , the Guinness World Records announced that Perry 's performance garnered 118 @.@ 5 million viewers in the United States , and became the most watched and highest rated show in Super Bowl history . The viewership was higher than the game itself , which was viewed by an audience of 114 @.@ 4 million .
The International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) ranked her fifth on the list of Top Global Recording Artists of 2013 . On June 26 , 2014 , she was declared the Top Certified Digital Artist Ever by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for certified sales of 72 million digital singles in the United States . In May 2014 , a portrait of Perry by painter Mark Ryden was featured in his exhibition " The Gay 90s " , and shown at the Kohn Gallery in Los Angeles . Along with several other artists , she also recorded a cover version of the song " Daisy Bell ( Bicycle Built for Two ) " on a limited @-@ edition concept album to accompany the exhibition . That month , a portrait of Perry by artist Will Cotton was included in the United States National Portrait Gallery . On November 23 , 2015 , Perry starred in H & M 's holiday advertising campaign , for which she wrote and recorded a song titled " Every Day Is a Holiday " .
On June 17 , 2014 , Perry announced that she had founded her own record label under Capitol Records , titled Metamorphosis Music . Ferras was the first artist to get signed to her label , and Perry served as an executive producer on his self @-@ titled EP . She also recorded a duet with him on the EP , titled " Legends Never Die " .
Outside of her music career , Perry reprised her role as Smurfette in The Smurfs 2 , which was released in theaters on July 31 , 2013 . Like its predecessor , The Smurfs 2 was a financial success but was panned by critics . In March 2014 , she made a guest appearance playing herself in the episode " Blisteritos Presents Dad Academy Graduation Congraduritos Red Carpet Viewing Party " of the Kroll Show . Killer Queen was released as her third fragrance in August 2013 through Coty , Inc . In January 2014 , she became a guest curator of Madonna 's Art for Freedom initiative . In March 2015 , she appeared in Brand : A Second Coming , a documentary following her ex @-@ husband Russell Brand 's transition from comedy work to activism , and released a concert film titled Katy Perry : The Prismatic World Tour through Epix , which took place during her tour of the same name . Perry also made a cameo appearance in the music video for Madonna 's song " Bitch I 'm Madonna " in June 2015 . The following month , she released another fragrance with Coty , entitled Mad Potion . In September 2015 , she appeared in the documentaries Katy Perry : Making of the Pepsi Super Bowl Halftime Show , which followed Perry 's preparation for her Super Bowl performance , and Jeremy Scott : The People 's Designer , which followed the life and career of designer Jeremy Scott . Perry released a mobile app titled Katy Perry Pop in December 2015 through Glu Mobile where her character helps players become famous musicians . She described it as " the most fun , colorful world that helps guide your musical dreams " . She later appeared as herself in the film Zoolander 2 , which was released in February 2016 .
= = = 2016 : New music = = =
In May 2016 , Perry confirmed she was working on new music . She recorded an anthem for NBC Sports 's coverage of the 2016 Summer Olympics titled " Rise " , which was released on July 14 , 2016 . Perry chose to release it as a standalone track rather than save it for an album " because now more than ever , there is a need for our world to unite " . NBC also felt is message spoke " directly to the spirit of the Olympics and its athletes " for its inspirational themes . The song debuted at number one in Australia and number eleven in the United States .
= = Artistry = =
= = = Influences = = =
During the early stages of her career , Perry 's musical style gravitated towards gospel and she aspired to be as successful as Amy Grant . At the age of 15 , she heard Queen 's " Killer Queen , " which inspired her to pursue a career in music . She cites the band 's frontman , Freddie Mercury , as her biggest influence and expressed how the " combination of his sarcastic approach to writing lyrics and his ' I don 't give a fuck ' attitude " inspired her music . She paid homage to the band by naming her third fragrance Killer Queen . Perry described The Beach Boys and their album Pet Sounds as having a considerable influence on her music : " Pet Sounds is one of my favorite records and it influenced pretty much all of my songwriting . All of the melody choices that I make are because of Pet Sounds . " The singer also holds the Beatles ' album The Beatles in high esteem , and described these two albums as " the only things I listened to for probably two years straight . "
Perry cites Alanis Morissette and her 1995 album Jagged Little Pill as a significant musical inspiration , and opted to work with Morissette 's frequent collaborator Ballard as a result . Perry stated , " Jagged Little Pill was the most perfect female record ever made . There 's a song for anyone on that record ; I relate to all those songs . They 're still so timeless . " Additionally , Perry borrows influence from Flaming Red by Patty Griffin and 10 Cent Wings by Jonatha Brooke . Perry intends to become " more of a Joni Mitchell " , releasing folk and acoustic music . Perry 's autobiographical documentary Katy Perry : Part of Me was largely influenced by Madonna : Truth or Dare . She admires Madonna 's ability to reinvent herself , saying " I want to evolve like Madonna " , and has credited Madonna for inspiring her to make Prism " darker " than her previous material .
Perry names Björk as an influence , particularly admiring her " willingness to always be taking chances " . Other musicians who have influenced Perry include ABBA , The Cardigans , Ace of Base , Cyndi Lauper , CeCe Peniston , C + C Music Factory , Black Box , Crystal Waters , Mariah Carey , Pink , and Gwen Stefani . " Firework " was inspired by a passage in the book On the Road by Jack Kerouac in which the author compares people who are full of life to fireworks that shoot across the sky and make people watch in awe . Her second concert tour , the California Dreams Tour , was reminiscent of Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland and The Wonderful Wizard of Oz . She also credits the 1996 movie The Craft for being the influence behind her song " Dark Horse " , and Eckhart Tolle 's book The Power of Now for influencing Prism .
= = = Musical style and themes = = =
While Perry 's music incorporates pop , rock , and disco , Katy Hudson contains gospel . Her subsequent releases , One of the Boys and Teenage Dream , involve themes of sex and love . One of the Boys is a pop rock record , while Teenage Dream features disco influences . Perry 's fourth album , Prism , is significantly influenced by dance and pop music . Lyrically , the album addresses relationships , self @-@ reflection , and everyday life . Many of her songs , particularly on Teenage Dream , reflect on love between teenagers ; W described the album 's sexual innuendos as " irresistible hook @-@ laden melodies " . Self @-@ empowerment is a common theme in Perry 's music .
Perry identifies as a " singer @-@ songwriter masquerading as a pop star " and maintains that honest songwriting is very important to her . She told Marie Claire : " I feel like my secret magic trick that separates me from a lot of my peers is the bravery to be vulnerable and truthful and honest . I think you become more relatable when you 're vulnerable . " Kristen Wiig commented that " as easy , breezy , and infectious as Perry 's songs can be , beneath the surface lurks a sea of mixed emotions , jumbled motives , and contradictory impulses complicated enough to fill a Carole King record . " According to Greg Kot of Chicago Tribune , " being taken seriously may be Perry 's greatest challenge yet . " The New York Times labeled her " the most potent pop star of the day – her hits are relatable with just a hint of experimentation " . Randall Roberts of Los Angeles Times criticized her use of idioms and metaphors in her lyrics and for frequent " clichés " . Throughout her career , Perry has co @-@ written songs recorded by other artists , including Selena Gomez & the Scene , Jessie James , Kelly Clarkson , Lesley Roy , Britney Spears , Iggy Azalea , and Nicki Minaj .
= = = Voice = = =
Perry has a contralto vocal range . Her singing has received both praise and criticism . Betty Clarke of The Guardian commented that her " powerful voice is hard @-@ edged " while Rob Sheffield from Rolling Stone described Perry 's vocals on Teenage Dream as " processed staccato blips " . Darren Harvey of musicOMH compared Perry 's vocals on One of the Boys to Alanis Morissette 's , both possessing a " perky voice shifting octaves mid @-@ syllable " . Alex Miller from NME felt that " Perry 's problem is often her voice " on One of the Boys , stating that " somewhere along the line someone convinced her she was like , well , a ballsy rock chick " . Conversely , Bernadette McNulty from The Daily Telegraph praised her " rock chick voice " in a review of a concert promoting Prism .
= = Public image = =
Perry is considered a sex symbol ; GQ labelled her a " full @-@ on male fantasy " , while Elle described her body " as though sketched by a teenage boy " . Vice described her as a " ' serious ' popstar / woman / sex symbol " . She was placed at number one on the Maxim Hot 100 in 2010 as the " most beautiful woman in the world " , with editor Joe Levy describing her as a " triple – no quadruple – kind of hot " . Men 's Health readers voted her the " sexiest woman of 2013 " . In November 2010 , Perry told Harper 's Bazaar that she was proud of and satisfied with her figure .
Perry 's fashion often incorporates humor , bright colors , and food @-@ related themes such as her trademark spinning peppermint swirl dress . Vogue described her as " never exactly one to shy away from the outrageous or the extreme in any realm " , while Glamour named her the " queen of quirk " . In February 2009 , Perry told Seventeen that her fashion style was " a bit of a concoction of different things " and stated she enjoyed humor in her clothing . She has also described herself as having " multipersonality disorder " for fashion . Perry lists Gwen Stefani , Shirley Manson , Chloë Sevigny , Daphne Guinness , Natalie Portman , and the fictional character Lolita as her style icons .
On social media , Perry surpassed Justin Bieber as the most followed person on Twitter in November 2013 . She won the 2015 Guinness World Record for most Twitter followers , and became the first person to gain 90 million followers on the site in July 2016 . Forbes writer Dorothy Pomerantz commended Perry on her social media usage , saying " Perry makes excellent use of Twitter , talking to her fans and sharing funny photos and videos in a way that makes them all feel like Perry is their best buddy . " Keith Caulfield of Billboard stated that she is " the rare celebrity who seems to have enormous popularity but genuine ground @-@ level interaction with her adoring KatyCats . "
In 2011 , Forbes ranked Perry third on their " Top @-@ Earning Women In Music " list with earnings of $ 44 million and fifth on their 2012 list with $ 45 million . She subsequently ranked seventh on the 2013 Forbes list for " Top @-@ Earning Women In Music " with $ 39 million earned , and fifth on their 2014 list with $ 40 million . With earnings of $ 135 million , Forbes also ranked Perry number one on their 2015 " Top @-@ Earning Women In Music " list as well as the " World 's Highest @-@ Paid Musicians " and declared her the highest earning female celebrity in 2015 , placing her at number 3 on the Forbes Celebrity 100 list . In June 2016 , Forbes estimated her net worth was $ 125 million .
= = Other ventures = =
= = = Philanthropy = = =
Perry has supported various charitable organizations and causes during her career . She has contributed to organizations aimed at improving the lives and welfare of children in particular . In April 2013 , she joined UNICEF to assist children in Madagascar with education and nutrition . On December 3 , 2013 , she was officially named a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador , " with a special focus on engaging young people in the agency 's work to improve the lives of the world 's most vulnerable children and adolescents . " She arranged for a portion of the money generated from tickets to her Prismatic World Tour to go to UNICEF . In September 2010 , she helped build and design the Boys Hope / Girls Hope foundation shelter for youth in Baltimore , Maryland along with Raven @-@ Symoné , Shaquille O 'Neal , and the cast of Extreme Makeover : Home Edition .
She has also supported children 's education and well @-@ being . In May 2014 , Perry and a selection of other artists recorded a cover version of the song " Daisy Bell ( Bicycle Built for Two ) " for a concept album to accompany painter Mark Ryden 's art exhibition , titled " The Gay 90s " . All profits from sales of the album were donated to the charity Little Kids Rock , which supports musical education in underprivileged elementary schools . In June 2014 , she teamed up with Staples Inc. for a project entitled " Make Roar Happen " which donated $ 1 million to DonorsChoose , an organization that supports teachers and funds classroom resources in public schools . In May 2016 , she worked with UNICEF to improve child care quality in Vietnam , hoping to " break the cycle of poverty and drastically improve children 's health , education and well @-@ being " . The following month , UNICEF announced that Perry would receive the Audrey Hepburn Humanitarian Award " for her work as a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador in support of the world 's most vulnerable children " at their annual Snowflake Ball in November .
Perry has supported organizations aimed at aiding people suffering with diseases including cancer and HIV / AIDS . During the 2008 Warped Tour , she had a cast made of her breasts to raise money for the Keep A Breast Foundation . She hosted and performed at the We Can Survive concert along with Bonnie McKee , Kacey Musgraves , Sara Bareilles , Ellie Goulding , and duo Tegan and Sara at the Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles , California , on October 23 , 2013 . The concert 's profits were donated to Young Survival Coalition , an organization aiding breast cancer in young women . In June 2009 , she designed an item of clothing for H & M 's " Fashion Against AIDS " campaign , which raises money for HIV / AIDS awareness projects .
The proceeds from Perry 's single " Part of Me " were donated to the charity MusiCares , which helps musicians in times of need . During her California Dreams Tour , she raised over $ 175 @,@ 000 for the Tickets @-@ For @-@ Charity fundraiser . The money was divided between three charities : the Children 's Health Fund ( CHF ) , Generosity Water , and The Humane Society of the United States . On her 27th birthday , Perry set up a donations page for the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Auckland , and set up a similar page benefiting the David Lynch Foundation for her 28th birthday . On March 29 , 2014 , she helped raise $ 2 @.@ 4 million for the Museum of Contemporary Art in Los Angeles along with other celebrities such as Ryan Seacrest , Pharrell Williams , Tim Allen , Lisa Edelstein , and Riley Keough .
= = = Politics = = =
Perry is a gay rights activist . She supported Stonewall during their " It gets better ..... today " campaign to prevent homophobic bullying , and dedicated the music video to her song " Firework " to the It Gets Better Project . Perry told Do Something in November 2008 she was proud to be a gay activist , saying " I 've always been a very open @-@ minded person , but I definitely believe in equality . " She confirmed that she voted against Proposition 8 , an amendment ( ultimately ruled unconstitutional ) that legally defined marriage as a union solely between a man and a woman in California . In June 2012 , Perry expressed her hopes for LGBT equality , commenting " hopefully , we will look back at this moment and think like we do now concerning [ other ] civil rights issues . We 'll just shake our heads in disbelief , saying , ' Thank God we 've evolved . ' That would be my prayer for the future . " In December 2012 , Perry was awarded the Trevor Hero Award by The Trevor Project for her work and activism on behalf of LGBT youth . She identifies as a feminist , and appeared in April 2013 in a video clip for the " Chime For Change " campaign that aims to spread female empowerment . She has also said that America 's lack of free health care drove her " absolutely crazy " . Following the shooting at the Pulse nightclub in Orlando in June 2016 , Perry and nearly 200 other artists and executives in music signed an open letter organized by Billboard addressed to United States Congress demanding increased gun control in the United States .
Through Twitter and by performing at his rallies , Perry supported President Barack Obama in his run for re @-@ election and praised his support for same @-@ sex marriage and equality . She performed at three rallies for Obama , in Los Angeles , Las Vegas , and Wisconsin , singing a rendition of " Let 's Stay Together " as well as a number of her songs . During her Las Vegas performance she wore a dress made to replicate a voting ballot , with Obama 's box filled in . On Twitter , she encouraged her followers to vote for Obama . In August 2013 , Perry voiced criticism of Tony Abbott , then a candidate for Prime Minister of Australia , due to his opposition to gay marriage and told Abbott , " I love you as a human being but I can 't give you my vote . " In April 2014 , she publicly supported Marianne Williamson in her campaign for California 's 33rd congressional district by attending a political press event . Perry has also endorsed former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton for president in 2016 , and contributed $ 2 @,@ 700 to Clinton 's campaign . She performed at a rally for Clinton in Iowa in October 2015 , and alongside Elton John at a fundraising concert for Clinton in New York City in March 2016 . Perry will speak at the 2016 Democratic National Convention in Philadelphia to endorse Hilliary Clinton .
= = Achievements = =
Throughout her career , Perry has won five American Music Awards , fourteen People 's Choice Awards , and four Guinness World Records . In September 2012 , Billboard dubbed her the " Woman of the Year " . From May 2010 to September 2011 , she spent a record @-@ breaking total of 69 consecutive weeks in the top ten of the Billboard Hot 100 . Teenage Dream became the first album by a female artist to produce five number @-@ one Billboard Hot 100 singles , and the second album overall after Michael Jackson 's Bad . She has accumulated a total of nine number @-@ one singles on the Hot 100 , her most recent being " Dark Horse " . In June 2015 , her music video for " Dark Horse " became the first video by a female artist to reach 1 billion views on Vevo . The following month , her music video for " Roar " reached 1 billion views on Vevo , making her the first artist to have multiple videos with 1 billion views .
Perry was declared the Top Global Female Recording Artist of 2013 by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) . According to Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , she is the third best @-@ selling digital singles artist in the United States , with certified sales of 83 @.@ 5 million digital singles including on @-@ demand streaming . Her songs " Firework " , " E.T. " , " California Gurls " , " Hot n Cold " , " Roar " , and " Dark Horse " have each sold over 5 million digital copies . Throughout her career , Perry has sold 100 million records globally , and is one of the best @-@ selling musical artists of all time .
= = Discography = =
Katy Hudson ( 2001 )
One of the Boys ( 2008 )
Teenage Dream ( 2010 )
Prism ( 2013 )
= = Filmography = =
The Smurfs ( 2011 )
Katy Perry : Part of Me ( 2012 )
The Smurfs 2 ( 2013 )
Brand : A Second Coming ( 2015 )
Katy Perry : The Prismatic World Tour ( 2015 )
Katy Perry : Making of the Pepsi Super Bowl Halftime Show ( 2015 )
Jeremy Scott : The People 's Designer ( 2015 )
Zoolander 2 ( 2016 )
= = Tours = =
Headlining
Hello Katy Tour ( 2009 )
California Dreams Tour ( 2011 – 12 )
The Prismatic World Tour ( 2014 – 15 )
Co @-@ headlining
Strangely Normal Tour ( 2001 )
Warped Tour ( 2008 )
= History of Liverpool F.C. ( 1959 – 85 ) =
The history of Liverpool Football Club from 1959 to 1985 covers the period from the appointment of Bill Shankly as manager of the then @-@ Second Division club , to the Heysel Stadium disaster and its aftermath .
Overhauling the team during his first year at Liverpool , Shankly released 24 players and converted a boot storage room into a meeting place where he and his coaches discussed strategy . The club won the Second Division title in 1961 – 62 and were promoted to the First Division . Two seasons later , Liverpool won their first League championship since 1946 – 47 , thereby qualifying for participation in European competition for the first time . The following season , Liverpool won their first FA Cup . Further League championships followed in 1965 – 66 and 1972 – 73 . 1973 saw them win their first European trophy — the UEFA Cup . The following season was Shankly 's last , in which the club won the FA Cup once more .
Shankly 's assistant Bob Paisley took over in 1974 ; his first season in charge saw Liverpool finish second , before winning the League championship and UEFA Cup the following season . Three European Cups and four League championships followed before Paisley retired at the end of 1982 – 83 , to be replaced by his assistant , Joe Fagan .
Liverpool won a treble of trophies during Fagan 's first season as manager , winning the League championship for the third year in succession , the Football League Cup for the fourth year in succession and a fourth European Cup . The following season , the club was involved in one of the worst disasters to occur at a football stadium . Before the start of the 1985 European Cup Final against Juventus , Liverpool fans breached a fence separating the two groups of supporters , and charged the Juventus fans . The resulting weight of people caused a retaining wall to collapse , killing 39 fans , mostly Italians . The incident became known as the Heysel Stadium disaster and resulted in the expulsion of English clubs from European competition for five years .
= = 1959 – 65 : Rebuilding = =
Huddersfield Town 's Bill Shankly was appointed Liverpool manager midway through the 1959 – 60 season . He was approached by Liverpool chairman Tom Williams , who asked Shankly if he would like to manage " the best club in the country " , to which he replied , " Why , is Matt Busby packing up ? " A perceived lack of ambition at Huddersfield Town and the potential at Liverpool led Shankly to accept the offer . When he arrived , the club was in the Second Division , having played at this level since relegation in 1953 – 54 . During his first season in charge , Shankly gave debuts to two players : Ian Callaghan , who would go on to become the club 's record appearance maker , and Roger Hunt , the club 's future leading goalscorer in the League .
Despite their introduction , Shankly 's impact was not immediate , as the club finished the season in third place , outside the promotion spots . Shankly had been musing on which players to keep and which to move on , and he eventually decided that 24 players should be released ; by the end of his first season they had all left the club . Shankly retained the existing backroom staff , and converted a boot storage room into a meeting place where he and his coaches could discuss strategy . The Boot Room , as it came to be known , was to be an integral part of the club 's future success . Bob Paisley was clear on the significance of the Boot Room : " You got a more wide @-@ ranging discussion in the Boot Room than the boardroom . What went on was kept within those four walls . There was a certain mystique about the place . "
The club again finished third the following season , despite a run of 14 games without defeat ; 5 defeats in the opening 11 matches had cost Liverpool the chance of promotion . Shareholder John Moores believed the club needed to spend more money on players to be successful and encouraged chairman T. V. Williams to do so . The following season , Shankly signed Ian St John from Motherwell and Ron Yeats from Dundee United . Shankly was confident his signings would be a success , challenging the board of directors to " sack me if they can 't play . " St John and Yeats helped the club win promotion to the First Division ; they won the Second Division with 62 points , and were unbeaten at their home ground Anfield all season . Liverpool were back in the First Division for the first time in eight years in 1962 – 63 . Despite an uneasy start , they were in fifth place by March 1963 , after a 13 @-@ match unbeaten run . Liverpool 's form suffered following their 1 – 0 loss to Leicester City in the FA Cup semi @-@ final , and a poor run of results including a 7 – 2 defeat to Tottenham Hotspur saw the club finish the season in eighth place .
The following season , Shankly signed Peter Thompson from Preston North End as he could play wide on the right @-@ hand side of midfield . Liverpool started 1963 – 64 poorly , garnering only nine points from the first nine games . A 2 – 1 victory over Everton , their first win over their local rivals since 1950 , instigated Liverpool 's move up the table . They won 47 points from their next 30 games to secure their sixth League championship . Success led to the average attendance at Anfield increasing to more than 50 @,@ 000 . The fans also became more vocal , and it was around this time that the fans on the Kop adopted You 'll Never Walk Alone as their anthem .
Liverpool 's League championship qualified them to participate in European competition for the first time , in the 1964 – 65 European Cup . For their second round tie against Belgian team Anderlecht , Shankly decided to change from red shirts , white shorts and socks to an all @-@ red kit . Shankly felt the players would be more intimidating to the opposition as a result . Liverpool reached the semi @-@ final , but were beaten by Italian club Internazionale . The tie was not without controversy ; Shankly felt that the referee showed bias towards Internazionale , as he had allowed questionable goals by the Italians to stand . Liverpool 's form in the European Cup carried over into the FA Cup , in which they reached the final against Leeds United . The game was goalless for the first 90 minutes , but Liverpool took the lead in extra time , courtesy of a goal by Hunt . Leeds equalised shortly afterwards , but a St John goal secured a 2 – 1 victory for Liverpool , and their first FA Cup triumph . Liverpool 's form in cup competitions did not translate to their performance in the League , as the defence of their championship ended with the club finishing in seventh place .
= = 1965 – 70 : Stability = =
Victory in the FA Cup meant Liverpool would participate in the European Cup Winners ' Cup during 1965 – 66 . They went one stage further than the previous season , as they reached the final , facing German team Borussia Dortmund . The two sides were level at 1 – 1 at the end of 90 minutes and the match went into extra time . Liverpool were unable to score and conceded a goal to Dortmund , who won the match 2 – 1 . Shankly was unimpressed with his team 's performance , stating : " We didn 't play well and we gave away two silly goals . " Their defence of the FA Cup ended in the third round , after defeat to Chelsea . Their lack of success in cup competitions was offset by regaining the League championship on the last day of April 1966 when they beat Chelsea , courtesy of two goals from Hunt .
The next few seasons were not as successful . A return to the European Cup in 1966 – 67 saw Liverpool eliminated 7 – 3 on aggregate by Dutch side Ajax in the second round . The League campaign was equally disappointing , as the team finished the season in fifth place , winning only 2 of their last 11 games . One significant event during the season was the arrival of future captain Emlyn Hughes from Blackpool for a £ 65 @,@ 000 fee . The 1967 – 68 season started well , with Liverpool league leaders through much of September , October and November 1967 . An accumulation of matches due to participation in the Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup , FA Cup and Football League Cup impacted negatively on Liverpool 's League form . They finished the season in third place behind champions Manchester City . The 59 games Liverpool played during the season did not result in success . The furthest the club progressed in any competition was the quarter @-@ final of the FA Cup .
The following season saw an improvement in League form , but there was no reward . Poor performances in the cup competitions meant Liverpool had less fixture congestion than the previous season , but that did not translate into a League championship as they finished in second place , six points behind Leeds United . Shankly 's team was beginning to age , and several players had moved on or retired . Gerry Byrne , who had been the club 's left back for 12 seasons , retired after making 333 appearances . Shankly now had the task of replacing the players in his squad . He started the process with the purchase of Hughes and then Ray Clemence the season before , but his signings did not always work out . Tony Hateley joined for a club record fee of £ 96 @,@ 000 from Chelsea , but injury and poor form meant he was sold to Coventry City after a year . During the 1968 – 69 season Shankly signed Alun Evans for £ 100 @,@ 000 from Wolverhampton Wanderers , a record fee for a teenager at the time . Despite a good start , Evans suffered a series of injuries that cut his career short .
The 1969 – 70 season was the beginning of a transitional period for Liverpool , as players such as Hunt , St John and Yeats made their last appearances for the club . A sixth @-@ round loss to Watford in the FA Cup convinced Shankly that some of his older players should be moved on . Liverpool nevertheless started the season well , and were unbeaten in their first ten League matches until a 1 – 0 defeat to Manchester United . They were unable to maintain their early season form and finished in fifth place . Success in the other cup competitions was not forthcoming , as Liverpool exited in the early rounds of the Football League Cup and Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup .
= = 1970 – 75 : Transition = =
Shankly 's new squad began to take shape during 1970 – 71 , with many of the young players he had signed playing in the first team . As a result , the average age of the team was 22 . Players such as Clemence , Steve Heighway , Alec Lindsay and Larry Lloyd , began to establish themselves in the team . John Toshack was also signed from Cardiff City to replace Hunt . Liverpool were unable to improve upon the previous season 's League position , finishing in fifth place , but they had more success in cup competitions . They reached the semi @-@ finals of the Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup , but lost to Leeds United over two @-@ legs . Liverpool progressed to the final of the FA Cup , and played Arsenal . Although Liverpool took the lead in extra time after a goalless 90 minutes , Arsenal won 2 – 1 to complete a League and cup double .
Before the final against Arsenal , Shankly signed Kevin Keegan from Scunthorpe United . Keegan became a key player for Liverpool and his impact was immediate , as he scored 12 minutes into his Liverpool debut . The addition of Keegan almost helped Liverpool regain the League championship . They went into the final day of the season a point behind Derby County , who had already finished their campaign , but were unable to secure the victory they needed against Arsenal , finishing in third place . The 1972 – 73 season was when Shankly 's new Liverpool team delivered , winning the League and the club 's first European trophy , the UEFA Cup . They started the season well and were top of the League after a 5 – 0 victory over Sheffield United . They maintained that position throughout the remainder of the season , securing the League championship after a 0 – 0 draw against Leicester City . It was the club 's eighth League title , equalling the record held by Arsenal . Further success followed in the UEFA Cup , as the club reached the final against German team Borussia Mönchengladbach . A 3 – 0 victory in the first leg and a 2 – 0 loss in the second leg meant Liverpool won the tie 3 – 2 on aggregate , claiming their first European trophy . They became the first English team to win the League and a European trophy in the same season .
John Smith became chairman in 1973 ; his appointment was based around his business experience , with the idea of developing of a more corporate approach to the club 's decision making . He believed in continuity and ended the club 's policy of changing chairman every three years . The biggest development at Anfield in recent years occurred in 1973 , as the old Main Stand was demolished and a new one constructed . The stand was officially opened by the Duke of Kent on 10 March 1973 . Their triumph in the League meant Liverpool would compete in the 1973 – 74 European Cup . They were not as successful as the previous season and were eliminated in the second round by Yugoslav team Red Star Belgrade . Liverpool made a poor start to their League campaign , losing early on to Coventry City and Derby County , as opposed to Leeds United , who were unbeaten in their first 29 games of the season . Liverpool reduced the gap , but a poor end to the season , in which they won only one of their last eight matches , meant they finished second to Leeds . Despite their lack of success in other competitions , Liverpool reached the final of the FA Cup , beating Newcastle United 3 – 0 to win the cup for the second time . Shankly bought Ray Kennedy from Arsenal at the end of the season , which was his last act as Liverpool manager . He resigned soon afterwards , citing the need for a break , and was replaced by his assistant Bob Paisley .
Shankly continued to turn up at Melwood , the club 's training ground , where the players still referred to him as ' boss ' . Reluctantly , Paisley asked him to stay away from training , in order to assert his authority as manager . Liverpool started 1974 – 75 well ; they were unbeaten in their first six League matches , and recorded their biggest ever win when they beat Strømsgodset 11 – 0 in the 1974 – 75 European Cup Winners ' Cup . Liverpool were nevertheless knocked out by Hungarian side Ferencváros on the away goals rule in the next round . The club 's participation in domestic cup competitions ended early as well , being eliminated in the fourth round in the FA Cup and Football League Cup . Liverpool 's good start to the season in the League was not sustained and they eventually finished in second place . Paisley made some important signings during the course of the season . He signed Phil Neal , Terry McDermott and Jimmy Case , who would become regulars in the successful team that Paisley was to build .
= = 1975 – 81 : Sustained success = =
The 1975 – 76 season did not start well , as Liverpool lost 2 – 0 to Queens Park Rangers in their first match . Their form had not improved by mid @-@ October 1975 , by which time they had won only six of their first twelve matches . Liverpool 's form picked up in the second half of the season ; a late @-@ season run in which they dropped only one point in nine matches left them a point behind Queens Park Rangers going into their final match . Victory over Wolverhampton Wanderers would secure the League championship as Queens Park Rangers had already finished their league campaign . The match did not start well , and Liverpool were a goal behind at half @-@ time , but won the match 3 – 1 with three second @-@ half goals to win the League championship . Liverpool were eliminated early from the FA Cup and League Cup but fared better in Europe , progressing to the final of the UEFA Cup . A 4 – 3 aggregate victory over Belgian team Club Brugge meant the club won the trophy for the second time .
Before the start of 1976 – 77 , Keegan revealed Liverpool 's primary aim was to flourish in Europe : " There 's a tremendous ambition among all the lads to win the European Cup . We 've won everything else in the last five years and there 's a feeling that the European Cup is going to be next . " Liverpool started the season in good form , losing only 2 of their first 16 games in the League , a run that put them top by September 1976 . A blip during the Christmas period , which included a 5 – 1 defeat to Aston Villa , did not prevent Liverpool from winning their tenth League championship . Liverpool were again successful in Europe , reaching the final of the European Cup for the first time and beating Borussia Mönchengladbach 3 – 1 to become the champions of Europe . Paisley 's team were denied a treble of trophies when they lost the FA Cup final to Manchester United .
Keegan had been sold to German club Hamburg for a £ 500 @,@ 000 fee before the start of 1977 – 78 . Paisley signed Kenny Dalglish from Celtic as Keegan 's replacement . His impact was immediate , as he scored 20 goals in 42 league games . Dalglish scored the winning goal in Liverpool 's 1 – 0 victory over Club Brugge in the 1978 European Cup Final , as the club retained the trophy , becoming the first British team to do so . Despite their success in Europe , Liverpool were unsuccessful in domestic competitions . They finished seven points behind Nottingham Forest in the League , who were also their opponents in the 1978 Football League Cup Final . After ending 0 – 0 the match went to a replay , which Nottingham Forest won 1 – 0 .
Liverpool began 1978 – 79 in contrasting fashion . They were drawn against Nottingham Forest in the first round of the European Cup and were eliminated after a 2 – 0 aggregate defeat . There was also an early exit from the League Cup , as they lost 1 – 0 to Sheffield United in the second round . But those setbacks were offset by Liverpool 's start in the League ; they won their first six games and did not lose until their twelfth — a 1 – 0 loss to Everton . Their form continued over the season and they won the League , finishing eight points ahead of Nottingham Forest . Their performance in the League broke several records ; the 68 points they gained surpassed the 67 earned by Leeds United in 1968 – 69 . The 16 goals conceded was another record .
Liverpool retained the League championship in the following season . Despite early defeats to Southampton and Nottingham Forest , they were top by January 1980 and stayed there for the remainder of the season . A 4 – 1 victory over Aston Villa in the penultimate game of the season secured the League championship . Key to the club 's success was their home form ; they were unbeaten at Anfield all season , and only conceded eight goals . Their impressive form in the League did not translate to Europe , as Liverpool were knocked out in the first round of the European Cup by Soviet team Dinamo Tbilisi . They fared better in the FA Cup and League Cup , but were unable to progress past the semi @-@ final stage in either competition . During the season , Liverpool became the first British club to wear the name of a sponsor , Hitachi , on their shirts . Chairman John Smith was clear about the club 's need for extra income : " The days are gone when a club like ours can control its destiny on the money coming through the turnstiles . "
The 1980 – 81 season was a contrast to previous seasons as the club struggled in the League , but excelled in cup competitions . Despite losing 8 games , the same as eventual winners Aston Villa , Liverpool drew 17 to finish in fifth place , their worst position for 16 years . Liverpool 's form in the cups was much better ; an early elimination in the FA Cup withstanding , they reached the finals of the Football League Cup and European Cup . They won the Football League Cup for the first time , beating West Ham United 2 – 1 in a replay after the final ended in a draw . Real Madrid were Liverpool 's opponents in the 1981 European Cup Final , and they won the competition for the third time , courtesy of an Alan Kennedy goal in a 1 – 0 victory .
= = 1981 – 85 : Triumph and tragedy = =
Following their fifth @-@ place League finish the previous season , Liverpool were eager to regain the League championship . Their goalkeeper , Clemence , had signed for Tottenham Hotspur , and was replaced by Bruce Grobbelaar . Liverpool did not perform well in their early games , losing their first match and drawing several others . Their poor form continued , and by the end of December 1981 they had won only 6 of 17 games , and were in the bottom half of the League . Their form in the second half of the season improved , and a run of 11 successive wins towards the end of the season meant they won the League with four points more than Ipswich Town . Liverpool retained the League championship in 1982 – 83 , winning the title 11 points ahead of Watford . Liverpool were eliminated from the FA Cup and European Cup in the fifth round and quarter @-@ final respectively , but were successful in the Football League Cup . A 2 – 1 victory over Manchester United in the final meant Liverpool won the competition for the third year in succession . Before the start of the season , Paisley had announced his intention to retire from management aged 64 . Paisley had won six League championships , three European Cups and League Cups during his reign , making him the most successful manager in the club 's history . He was replaced by his assistant Joe Fagan .
Liverpool continued their success into 1983 – 84 , as they won three competitions to secure a unique treble . The club began the campaign indifferently , but by November 1983 they were top of the table and stayed there to win the League three points ahead of Southampton . As a result , they equalled the record of three consecutive League championships held by Huddersfield Town and Arsenal . Key to their success was striker Ian Rush , who scored 32 goals over the league campaign , and a further 13 in other competitions . Liverpool again reached the final of the Football League Cup , where they faced Everton . A 0 – 0 draw in the first match at Wembley Stadium meant that the match was replayed at Maine Road the following week . A Graeme Souness goal secured a 1 – 0 victory and the club 's fourth successive League Cup triumph . Liverpool performed well in Europe , reaching the final of the European Cup . They faced Italian team Roma at their home stadium , the Stadio Olimpico . A 1 – 1 draw after 90 minutes and extra time meant the match went to a penalty shoot @-@ out , which Liverpool won . Alan Kennedy scored the winning penalty after Grobbelaar had distracted Roma player Francesco Graziani , causing him to miss his own penalty .
Fagan 's second season in charge was less successful , as Liverpool failed to win trophy for the first time in nine years . The defence of their League championship was all but over in October 1984 when Liverpool were in the relegation places . The club 's form picked up afterwards , but they were unable to catch Everton and finished 13 points behind in second place . Their defence of the Football League Cup ended in the third round and Fagan 's team played no further part in the FA Cup , after defeat to Manchester United at the semi @-@ final . Liverpool did fare better in Europe , reaching their fifth European Cup final . Before the match against Juventus at the Heysel Stadium commenced , Liverpool fans had breached a fence separating the two sets of supporters . As the Juventus fans fled to safety , the accumulation of people against a perimeter wall caused it to collapse , killing 39 fans , most of whom were Italians . The collapse of the wall led to rioting by Juventus fans at the other end of the ground . As a result , the match was delayed by two hours , but was played regardless , as it was feared its abandonment would lead to further violence . Juventus won the final 1 – 0 .
In the aftermath of the match , the blame for the Heysel Stadium disaster was laid on the Liverpool fans . UEFA official Günter Schneider stated , " Only the English fans were responsible . Of that , there is no doubt . " As a result , The Football Association withdrew English clubs from European competition , and two days later UEFA banned English clubs for " an indeterminate period of time " . A condition was added , stipulating that Liverpool would serve another three @-@ year ban once the ban on English clubs was lifted . Fagan had decided to retire before the match ; he felt the team needed rebuilding and he was not the ideal man to do this with his 64th birthday approaching . He was replaced by Dalglish , who became the club 's first player @-@ manager .
= Gregor MacGregor =
General Gregor MacGregor ( 24 December 1786 – 4 December 1845 ) was a Scottish soldier , adventurer and confidence trickster who from 1821 to 1837 attempted to draw British and French investors and settlers to " Poyais " , a fictional Central American territory he claimed to rule as " Cazique " . Hundreds invested their savings in supposed Poyaisian government bonds and land certificates , while about 250 emigrated to MacGregor 's invented country in 1822 – 23 to find only an untouched jungle ; over half of them died . MacGregor 's Poyais scheme has been called one of the most brazen confidence tricks in history .
From the Clan Gregor , MacGregor was an officer in the British Army from 1803 to 1810 , and served in the Peninsular War . He joined the republican side in the Venezuelan War of Independence in 1812 , quickly became a general and over the next four years operated against the Spanish on behalf of both Venezuela and its neighbour New Granada — his successes included a difficult month @-@ long fighting retreat through northern Venezuela in 1816 . Under a mandate from revolutionary agents to conquer Florida from the Spanish , MacGregor captured Amelia Island in 1817 and there proclaimed a short @-@ lived " Republic of the Floridas " . He then oversaw two calamitous operations in New Granada during 1819 that each ended with him abandoning British volunteer troops under his command .
On his return to Britain in 1821 , MacGregor claimed that King George Frederic Augustus of the Mosquito Coast in the Gulf of Honduras had created him Cazique of Poyais , which he described as a developed colony with an existing community of British settlers . When the British press reported on MacGregor 's deception following the return of fewer than 50 survivors in late 1823 , some of his victims leaped to his defence , insisting that the general had been let down by those he had put in charge of the emigration party . A French court tried MacGregor and three others for fraud in 1826 after he attempted a variation on the scheme there , but convicted only one of his associates . Acquitted , MacGregor attempted lesser Poyais schemes in London over the next decade . In 1838 he moved to Venezuela , where he was welcomed back as a hero . He died in Caracas in 1845 , aged 58 , and was buried with full military honours in Caracas Cathedral .
= = Early life = =
= = = Family and childhood = = =
Gregor MacGregor was born on Christmas Eve 1786 at his family 's ancestral home of Glengyle , on the north shore of Loch Katrine in Stirlingshire , Scotland , the son of Daniel MacGregor , an East India Company sea captain , and his wife Ann ( née Austin ) . The family was Roman Catholic and part of the Clan Gregor , whose proscription by King James VI and I in 1604 had been repealed only in 1774 . During the proscription the MacGregors had been legally ostracised to the extent that they were forbidden to use their own surname — many of them , including Gregor 's celebrated great @-@ great @-@ uncle Rob Roy , had participated in the Jacobite risings of 1715 and 1745 . MacGregor would assert in adulthood that a direct ancestor of his had survived the Darien scheme of 1698 , the ill @-@ fated Scottish attempt to colonise the Isthmus of Panama . Gregor 's grandfather , also called Gregor and nicknamed " the Beautiful " , served with distinction in the British Army under the surname Drummond , and subsequently played an important role in the clan 's restoration and rehabilitation into society .
Little is recorded of MacGregor 's childhood . After his father 's death in 1794 , he and his two sisters were raised primarily by his mother with the help of various relatives . MacGregor 's biographer David Sinclair speculates that he would probably have spoken mainly Gaelic during his early childhood , and learned English only after starting school around the age of five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half . MacGregor would claim in later life to have studied at the University of Edinburgh between 1802 and 1803 ; records of this do not survive as he did not take a degree , but Sinclair considers it plausible , citing MacGregor 's apparent sophistication and his mother 's connections in Edinburgh .
= = = British Army = = =
MacGregor joined the British Army at 16 , the youngest age it was possible for him to do so , in April 1803 . His family purchased him a commission as an ensign in the 57th ( West Middlesex ) Regiment of Foot , probably for around £ 450 . MacGregor 's entrance to the military coincided with the start of the Napoleonic Wars following the breakdown of the Treaty of Amiens . Southern England was fortified to defend against a possible French invasion ; the 57th Foot was at Ashford , Kent . In February 1804 , after less than a year in training , MacGregor was promoted without purchase to lieutenant — an advancement that usually took up to three years . Later that year , after MacGregor had spent some months in Guernsey with the regiment 's 1st Battalion , the 57th Foot was posted to Gibraltar .
MacGregor was introduced to Maria Bowater , the daughter of a Royal Navy admiral , around 1804 . Maria commanded a substantial dowry and , apart from her by @-@ now @-@ deceased father , was related to two generals , a member of parliament and the botanist Aylmer Bourke Lambert . Gregor and Maria married at St Margaret 's Church , Westminster in June 1805 and set up home in London , at the residence of the bride 's aunt . Two months later , having rejoined the 57th Foot in Gibraltar , MacGregor bought the rank of captain for about £ 900 , choosing not to wait the seven years such a promotion might take without purchase . The 57th Foot remained in Gibraltar between 1805 and 1809 . During this time MacGregor developed an obsession with dress , rank insignia and medals that made him unpopular in the regiment ; he forbade any enlisted man or non @-@ commissioned officer to leave his quarters in anything less than full dress uniform .
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from year to year , it did not seem so implausible that there might be a country called Poyais or that a decorated general like MacGregor might be its leader . The Cazique became " a great adornment for the dinner tables and ballrooms of sophisticated London " , Sinclair writes — rumours abounded that he was partially descended from indigenous royalty . His exotic appeal was enhanced by the arrival of the striking " Princess of Poyais " , Josefa , who had given birth to a girl named Josefa Anna Gregoria at MacGregor 's sister 's home in Ireland . The MacGregors received countless social invitations , including an official reception at Guildhall from the Lord Mayor of London .
MacGregor said that he had come to London to attend King George IV 's coronation on the Poyers ' behalf , and to seek investment and immigrants for Poyais . He claimed to have inherited a democratic system of government there , with a basic civil service and military . To those interested MacGregor showed what he said was a copy of a printed proclamation he had issued to the Poyers on 13 April 1821 . He therein announced the 1820 land grant , his departure for Europe to seek investors and colonists — " religious and moral instructors ... and persons to guide and assist you " — and the appointment of Brigadier @-@ General George Woodbine to be " Vice @-@ Cazique " during his absence . " POYERS ! " , the document concluded , " I now bid you farewell for a while ... I trust , that through the kindness of Almighty Providence , I shall be again enabled to return amongst you , and that then it will be my pleasing duty to hail you as affectionate friends , and yours to receive me as your faithful Cazique and Father . " There is no evidence that such a statement was ever actually distributed on the Mosquito Coast .
So began what has been called one of the most brazen confidence tricks in history — the Poyais scheme . MacGregor devised a tricameral parliament and other convoluted constitutional arrangements for Poyais , drew up commercial and banking mechanisms , and designed distinctive uniforms for each regiment of the Poyaisian Army . His imaginary country had an honours system , landed titles , a coat of arms — doubly supported by Poyers and unicorns — and the same Green Cross flag he had used in Florida . By the end of 1821 Major William John Richardson had not only accepted MacGregor 's fantasy as true but become an active ally , providing his attractive estate at Oak Hall , Wanstead to be a British base for the supposed Poyaisian royal family . MacGregor gave Richardson the Order of the Green Cross , commissioned him into the Poyaisian " Royal Regiment of Horse Guards " and appointed him chargé d 'affaires of the Poyaisian legation at Dowgate Hill in the City of London — the top representative of Poyais in Britain . Richardson 's letter of credence from " Gregor the First , Sovereign Prince of the State of Poyais " was presented to George IV . MacGregor had Poyaisian offices set up in London , Edinburgh and Glasgow to sell impressive @-@ looking land certificates — initially hand @-@ written , but later printed — to the general public , and to co @-@ ordinate prospective emigrants .
= = = Land of opportunity = = =
The consensus among MacGregor 's biographers is that Britain in the early 1820s could hardly have suited him and his Poyais scheme better . Amid a general growth in the British economy following the Battle of Waterloo and the end of the Napoleonic Wars , interest rates were dropping and the British government bond , the " consol " , offered rates of only 3 % per annum on the London Stock Exchange . Those wanting a higher return invested in more risky foreign debt . After continental European bonds were popular in the immediate post @-@ Waterloo years , the Latin American revolutions brought a raft of new alternatives to the London market , starting with the £ 2 million loan issued for Gran Colombia ( incorporating both New Granada and Venezuela ) in March 1822 . Bonds from Colombia , Peru , Chile and others , offering interest rates as high as 6 % per annum , made Latin American securities extremely popular on the London market — a trend on which a nation like the Poyais described by MacGregor would be ideally positioned to capitalise .
MacGregor mounted an aggressive sales campaign . He gave interviews in the national newspapers , engaged publicists to write advertisements and leaflets , and had Poyais @-@ related ballads composed and sung on the streets of London , Edinburgh and Glasgow . His proclamation to the Poyers was distributed in handbill form . In mid @-@ 1822 there appeared in Edinburgh and London a 355 @-@ page guidebook " chiefly intended for the use of settlers " , Sketch of the Mosquito Shore , Including the Territory of Poyais — ostensibly the work of a " Captain Thomas Strangeways " , aide @-@ de @-@ camp to the Cazique , but actually written either by MacGregor himself or by accomplices .
The Sketch mostly comprised long , reprinted tracts from older works on the Mosquito Coast and other parts of the region . The original material ranged from misleading to outright made up . MacGregor 's publicists described the Poyaisian climate as " remarkably healthy ... agree [ ing ] admirably with the constitution of Europeans " — it was supposedly a spa destination for sick colonists from the Caribbean . The soil was so fertile that a farmer could have three maize harvests a year , or grow cash crops such as sugar or tobacco without hardship ; detailed projections at the Sketch 's end forecast profits of millions of dollars . Fish and game were so plentiful that a man could hunt or fish for a single day and bring back enough to feed his family for a week . The natives were not just co @-@ operative but intensely pro @-@ British . The capital was St Joseph , a flourishing seaside town of wide paved boulevards , colonnaded buildings and mansions , inhabited by as many as 20 @,@ 000 . St Joseph had a theatre , an opera house and a domed cathedral ; there was also the Bank of Poyais , the Poyaisian houses of parliament and a royal palace . Reference was made to a " projected Hebrew colony " . The Sketch went so far as to claim the rivers of Poyais contained " globules of pure gold " .
This was almost all fiction , but MacGregor 's calculation that official @-@ looking documents and the printed word would convince many people proved correct . The meticulous detail in the leather @-@ bound Sketch , and the cost of having it printed , did much to dispel lingering doubts . Poyaisian land certificates at two shillings and threepence per acre , roughly equivalent to a working man 's daily wage at the time , were perceived by many as an attractive investment opportunity . There was enough demand for the certificates that MacGregor was able to raise the price to two shillings and sixpence per acre in July 1822 , then gradually to four shillings per acre , without diminishing sales ; according to MacGregor , about 500 had bought Poyaisian land by early 1823 . The buyers included many who invested their life savings . MacGregor became , to quote one 21st @-@ century financial analyst , the " founding father of securities fraud " .
Alongside the land certificate sales , MacGregor spent several months organising the issue of a Poyaisian government loan on the London Stock Exchange . As a precursor to this he registered his 1820 land grant at the Court of Chancery on 14 October 1822 . Sir John Perring , Shaw , Barber & Co . , a London bank with a fine reputation , underwrote a £ 200 @,@ 000 loan , secured on " all the revenues of the Government of Poyais " including the sale of land , and offered provisional certificates or " scrip " for the Poyaisian bonds on 23 October . The bonds were in denominations of £ 100 , £ 200 and £ 500 , and offered at a marked @-@ down purchase price of 80 % . The certificate could be acquired for 15 % , with the rest due over two instalments on 17 January and 14 February 1823 . The interest rate was 6 % per annum . If the Poyaisian issue successfully emulated its Colombian , Peruvian and Chilean counterparts , MacGregor stood to amass a fortune .
= = = Eager settlers = = =
For settlers , MacGregor deliberately targeted his fellow Scots , assuming that as a Scotsman himself they would be more likely to trust him . Their emigration served to reassure potential investors in the Poyaisian bonds and land certificates firstly that the country was real , and secondly that it was being developed and would provide monetary returns . In Sinclair 's assessment , this aspect of the scheme " turn [ ed ] what would have been an inspired hoax into a cruel and deadly one " . Tamar Frankel posits in her analysis that , at least to some degree , MacGregor " probably believed his own story " and genuinely hoped to forge these people into a Poyaisian society . MacGregor told his would @-@ be colonists that he wished to see Poyais populated with Scots as they possessed the necessary hardiness and character to develop the new country . Alluding to the rivalry with England and the Darien episode — which , he stressed , had involved a direct ancestor of his — MacGregor suggested that in Poyais they might right this historic wrong and salvage Scottish pride . Skilled tradesmen and artisans were promised free passage to Poyais , supplies , and lucrative government contracts . Hundreds , mostly Scots , signed up to emigrate — enough to fill seven ships . They included a City of London banker named Mauger ( who was to head the Bank of Poyais ) , doctors , civil servants , young men whose families had bought them commissions in the Poyaisian Army and Navy , and an Edinburgh cobbler who accepted the post of Official Shoemaker to the Princess of Poyais .
Leadership of the Cazique 's first emigration party was given to an ex @-@ British Army officer , Hector Hall , who was commissioned into the Poyaisian " 2nd Native Regiment of Foot " with the rank of lieutenant @-@ colonel , and created " Baron Tinto " with a supposed 12 @,@ 800 @-@ acre ( 20 @-@ square @-@ mile ; 52 @-@ square @-@ kilometre ) estate . Hall would sail with 70 emigrants on the Honduras Packet , a vessel MacGregor had encountered in South America . MacGregor saw them off from London on 10 September 1822 , entrusting to Mauger 5 @,@ 000 Bank of Poyais dollar notes produced by the Bank of Scotland 's official printer . " The new world of their dreams suddenly became a very real world as the men accepted the Cazique 's dollar notes , " Sinclair writes . " The people who had bought land , and who had planned to take their savings with them in coin , were also delighted to exchange their gold for the legal currency of Poyais . " After MacGregor spoke briefly to each of the settlers to wish them luck , he and Hall exchanged salutes and the Honduras Packet set sail , flying the Green Cross flag .
A second emigrant ship — the Kennersley Castle , a merchantman docked at Leith , near Edinburgh — was hired by MacGregor in October 1822 , and left Leith on 22 January 1823 with almost 200 emigrants aboard . MacGregor again saw the settlers off , coming aboard to see that they were well quartered ; to their delight , he announced that since this was the maiden emigrant voyage from Scotland to Poyais , all the women and children would sail free of charge . The Cazique was rowed back to shore to rousing cheers from his colonists . The ship 's captain Henry Crouch fired a six @-@ gun broadside salute , hoisted the supposed flag of Poyais , then steered the ship out of port .
While claiming royal status as Cazique , MacGregor attempted to dissociate himself from the Latin American republican movement and his former comrades there , and from late 1822 made discreet overtures towards the Spanish government regarding co @-@ operation in Central America . The Spanish paid him little notice . The Poyaisian bonds ' price remained fairly steady until they were crippled by developments elsewhere in the market during November and December 1822 . Amid the general instability in South America , the Colombian government suggested that its London agent might have exceeded his authority when he arranged the £ 2 million loan . When this representative suddenly died , the frantic buying of South American securities was abruptly replaced by equally restless selling . The Cazique 's cash flow was all but wiped out when most of those who had bought the Poyaisian scrip did not make the payments due in January . While the price of the Colombian bonds steadied and eventually rose again , the Poyaisian securities never recovered ; by late 1823 they were traded for less than 10 % of their face value .
= = = Disappointment = = =
The Honduras Packet reached the Black River in November 1822 . Bemused to find a country rather different from the Sketch 's descriptions , and no sign of St Joseph , the emigrants set up camp on the shore , assuming that the Poyaisian authorities would soon contact them . They sent numerous search parties inland ; one , guided by natives who recognised the name St Joseph , found some long @-@ forgotten foundations and rubble . Hall quickly came to the private conclusion that MacGregor must have duped them , but reasoned that announcing such concerns prematurely would only demoralise the party and cause chaos . A few weeks after their arrival , the captain of the Honduras Packet abruptly and unilaterally sailed away amid a fierce storm ; the emigrants found themselves alone apart from the natives and two American hermits . Comforting the settlers with vague assurances that the Poyaisian government would find them if they just stayed where they were , Hall set out for Cape Gracias a Dios , hoping to make contact with the Mosquito king or find another ship . Most of the emigrants found it impossible to believe that the Cazique had deliberately misled them , and posited that blame must lie elsewhere , or that there must have been some terrible misunderstanding .
The second set of colonists disembarked from the Kennersley Castle in late March 1823 . Their optimism was quickly extinguished . Hall returned in April with disheartening news : he had found no ship that could help and , far from considering them any responsibility of his , King George Frederic Augustus had not even been aware of their presence . The Kennersley Castle having sailed , MacGregor 's victims could count on no assistance in the near future . The emigrants had brought ample provisions with them , including medicines , and had two doctors among them , so they were not in a totally hopeless situation , but apart from Hall none of the military officers , government officials or civil servants appointed by MacGregor made any serious attempt to organise the party .
Hall returned to Cape Gracias a Dios several times to seek help , but did not explain his constant absences to the settlers — this exacerbated the general confusion and anger , particularly when he refused to pay the wages promised to those supposedly on Poyaisian government contracts . With the coming of the rainy season insects infested the camp , diseases such as malaria and yellow fever took hold , and the emigrants sank into utter despair . James Hastie , a Scottish sawyer who had brought his wife and three children with him , later wrote : " It seemed to be the will of Providence that every circumstance should combine for our destruction . " The would @-@ be royal shoemaker , who had left a family in Edinburgh , shot himself .
The settlers were discovered in early May 1823 by the Mexican Eagle , a schooner from British Honduras carrying the Chief Magistrate of Belize , Marshal Bennet , to the Mosquito king 's court . Seven adult male colonists and three children had died , and many more were sick . Bennet informed them that Poyais did not exist and that he had never heard of this Cazique they spoke of . He advised them to return with him to British Honduras , as they would surely die if they stayed where they were . The majority preferred to wait for Hall to come back , hopefully with news of passage back to Britain . About half a week later Hall returned with the Mosquito king , who announced that MacGregor 's land grant was revoked forthwith . He had never granted MacGregor the title of Cazique , he said , nor given him the right to sell land or raise loans against it ; the emigrants were in fact in George Frederic Augustus 's territory illegally and would have to leave unless they pledged allegiance to him . All the settlers left except for about 40 who were too weakened by disease to make the journey .
Transported aboard the cramped Mexican Eagle — the lack of space necessitated three trips — the emigrants were in miserable shape when they reached Belize , and in most cases had to be carried from the ship . The weather in British Honduras was even worse than that at the Black River , and the colony 's authorities , doctors and residents could do little to help the new arrivals . Disease spread rapidly among the settlers and most of them died . The colony 's superintendent , Major @-@ General Edward Codd , opened an official investigation to " lay open the true situation of the imaginary State of Poyais and ... the unfortunate emigrants " , and sent word to Britain of the Poyais settlers ' fate . By the time the warning reached London , MacGregor had five more emigrant ships on the way ; Royal Navy vessels intercepted them . The surviving colonists variously settled in the United States , remained in British Honduras , or sailed for home aboard the Ocean , a British vessel that left Belize on 1 August 1823 . Some died during the journey back across the Atlantic . Of the roughly 250 who had sailed on the Honduras Packet and the Kennersley Castle , at least 180 had perished . Fewer than 50 ever returned to Britain .
= = = Poyais scheme in France = = =
MacGregor left London shortly before the small party of Poyais survivors arrived home on 12 October 1823 — he told Richardson that he was taking Josefa to winter in Italy for the sake of her health , but in fact his destination was Paris . The London press reported extensively on the Poyais scandal over the following weeks and months , stressing the colonists ' travails and charging that MacGregor had orchestrated a massive fraud . Six of the survivors — including Hastie , who had lost two of his children during the ordeal — claimed that they were misquoted in these articles , and on 22 October signed an affidavit insisting that blame lay not with MacGregor but with Hall and other members of the emigrant party . " [ W ] e believe that Sir Gregor MacGregor has been worse used by Colonel Hall and his other agents than was ever a man before , " they declared , " and that had they have done their duty by Sir Gregor and by us , things would have turned out very differently at Poyais " . MacGregor asserted that he himself had been defrauded , alleged embezzlement by some of his agents , and claimed that covetous merchants in British Honduras were deliberately undermining the development of Poyais as it threatened their profits . Richardson attempted to console the Poyais survivors , vigorously denied the press claims that the country did not exist , and issued libel writs against some of the British newspapers on MacGregor 's behalf .
In Paris , MacGregor persuaded the Compagnie de la Nouvelle Neustrie , a firm of traders that aspired to prominence in South America , to seek investors and settlers for Poyais in France . He concurrently intensified his efforts towards King Ferdinand VII of Spain — in a November 1823 letter the Cazique proposed to make Poyais a Spanish protectorate . Four months later he offered to lead a Spanish campaign to reconquer Guatemala , using Poyais as a base . Spain took no action . MacGregor 's " moment of greatest hubris " , Matthew Brown suggests in his biographical portrait , came in December 1824 when , in a letter to the King of Spain , he claimed to be himself " descendent of the ancient Kings of Scotland " . Around this time Josefa gave birth to the third and final MacGregor child , Constantino , at their home in the Champs @-@ Élysées . Gustavus Butler Hippisley , a friend of Major Richardson and fellow veteran of the British Legions in Latin America , accepted the Poyais fantasy as true and entered MacGregor 's employ in March 1825 . Hippisley wrote back to Britain refuting " the bare @-@ faced calumnies of a hireling press " ; in particular he admonished a journalist who had called MacGregor a " penniless adventurer " . With Hippisley 's help , MacGregor negotiated with the Nouvelle Neustrie company , whose managing director was a Frenchman called Lehuby , and agreed to sell the French company up to 500 @,@ 000 acres ( 781 square miles ; 2 @,@ 023 square kilometres ) in Poyais for its own settlement scheme ; " a very clever way of distancing himself " , Sinclair comments , as this time he would be able to say honestly that others were responsible and that he had merely made the land available .
Lehuby 's company readied a ship at Le Havre and began to gather French emigrants , of whom about 30 obtained passports to travel to Poyais . Discarding the idea of co @-@ operation with Spain , MacGregor published a new Poyaisian constitution in Paris in August 1825 , this time describing it as a republic — he remained head of state , with the title Cazique — and on 18 August raised a new £ 300 @,@ 000 loan through Thomas Jenkins & Company , an obscure London bank , offering 2 @.@ 5 % interest per annum . No evidence survives to suggest that the relevant bonds were issued . The Sketch was condensed and republished as a 40 @-@ page booklet called Some Account of the Poyais Country . French government officials became suspicious when an additional 30 people requested passports to travel to this country they had never heard of , and ordered the Nouvelle Neustrie company 's ship to be kept in port . Some of the would @-@ be emigrants became concerned themselves and made complaints to the police , which led to the arrest of Hippisley and MacGregor 's secretary Thomas Irving in Paris in the early hours on 4 September 1825 . Lehuby 's ship never left Le Havre , and his colonists gradually dispersed .
= = = 1826 acquittal of fraud = = =
MacGregor went into hiding in the French provinces , while Lehuby fled to the southern Netherlands . Hippisley and Irving were informed on 6 September that they were being investigated for conspiracy to defraud , and to sell titles to land they did not own . Both insisted that they were innocent . They were taken that evening to La Force Prison . MacGregor was arrested after three months and brought to La Force on 7 December 1825 . He speculated to his confederates that the charges against them must be the result of some abrupt change of policy by France , or of some Spanish intrigue calculated to undermine Poyaisian independence . The three men remained imprisoned without trial while the French attempted to extradite Lehuby from the Netherlands . Attempting to re @-@ associate himself and Poyais with the republican movement in Latin America , MacGregor issued a French @-@ language declaration from his prison cell on 10 January 1826 , claiming that he was " contrary to human rights , held prisoner ... for reasons of which he is not aware " and " suffering as one of the founders of independence in the New World " . This attempt to convince the French that he might have some kind of diplomatic immunity did not work . The French government and police simply ignored the announcement .
The three Britons were brought to trial on 6 April 1826 . Lehuby , still in the Netherlands , was tried in absentia . The Crown prosecution 's case was seriously hampered by his absence , particularly because many key documents were with him in the Netherlands . The prosecutor alleged a complex conspiracy between MacGregor , Lehuby and their associates to profit personally from a fraudulent land concession and loan prospectus . MacGregor 's lawyer , a Frenchman called Merilhou , asserted that if anything untoward had occurred , the missing managing director should be held culpable ; there was no proof of a conspiracy , he said , and MacGregor could have been himself defrauded by Lehuby . The prosecutor conceded that there was insufficient evidence to prove his case , complimented MacGregor for co @-@ operating with the investigation fairly and openly , and withdrew the charges . The three judges confirmed the defendants ' release — " a full and perfect acquittal " , Hippisley would write — but days later the French authorities succeeded in having Lehuby extradited , and the three men learned they would have to stand trial again .
The fresh trial , scheduled for 20 May , was postponed when the prosecutor announced that he was not ready . The delay gave MacGregor and Merilhou time to prepare an elaborate , largely fictional 5 @,@ 000 @-@ word statement purporting to describe the Scotsman 's background , activities in the Americas , and total innocence of any endeavour to defraud . When the trial finally began on 10 July 1826 , Merilhou was present not as MacGregor 's defence counsel but as a witness for the prosecution , having been called as such because of his links with the Nouvelle Neustrie company . Merilhou entrusted MacGregor 's defence to a colleague called Berville , who read the 5 @,@ 000 @-@ word submission in full before the court . " Maître Merilhou , as the author of the address the court had heard , and Maître Berville , as the actor who read the script , had done their work extremely well , " Sinclair writes ; Lehuby was convicted of making false representations regarding the sale of shares , and sentenced to 13 months ' imprisonment , but the Cazique was found not guilty on all charges , while the imputations against Hippisley and Irving were stricken from the record .
= = = Return to Britain ; lesser Poyais schemes = = =
MacGregor quickly moved his family back to London , where the furore following the Poyais survivors ' return had died down . In the midst of a serious economic downturn , some investors had subscribed to the £ 300 @,@ 000 Poyais loan issued by Thomas Jenkins & Company — apparently believing the assertion of the Cazique 's publicists that the previous loans had defaulted only because of embezzlement by one of his agents . MacGregor was arrested soon after his arrival back in Britain , and held at Tothill Fields Bridewell in Westminster for about a week before being released without charge . He initiated a new , less ornate version of the Poyais scheme , describing himself simply as the " Cacique of the Republic of Poyais " . The new Poyaisian office at 23 Threadneedle Street made none of the claims to diplomatic status the old Poyaisian legation at Dowgate Hill had done .
MacGregor persuaded Thomas Jenkins & Company to act as brokers for an £ 800 @,@ 000 loan , issued on 20 @-@ year bonds at 3 % interest , in mid @-@ 1827 . The bonds , produced at nominal values of £ 250 , £ 500 and £ 1 @,@ 000 , did not become popular . An anonymous handbill was circulated in the City of London , describing the previous Poyais loans and warning readers to " Take Care of your Pockets — Another Poyais Humbug " . The loan 's poor performance compelled MacGregor to pass most of the unsold certificates to a consortium of speculators for a small sum . Sinclair stresses that the Poyais bonds were perceived as " humbug " not because MacGregor 's hoax had been fully unravelled , but simply because the prior securities had failed to deliver profitable returns . " Nobody thought to question the legitimacy of Poyais itself " , he elaborates . " Some investors had begun to understand that they were being fleeced , but almost none realised how comprehensively . "
Other variants on the Poyais scheme were similarly unsuccessful . In 1828 MacGregor began to sell certificates entitling the holders to " land in Poyais Proper " at five shillings per acre . Two years later King Robert Charles Frederic , who had succeeded his brother George Frederic Augustus in 1824 , issued thousands of certificates covering the same territory and offered them to lumber companies in London , directly competing with MacGregor . When the original investors demanded their long @-@ overdue interest , MacGregor could only pay with more certificates . Other charlatans soon caught on and set up their own rival " Poyaisian offices " in London , offering land debentures in competition with both MacGregor and the Mosquito king . By 1834 MacGregor was back in Scotland and living in Edinburgh . He paid some unredeemed securities by issuing yet another series of Poyaisian land certificates . Two years later he published a constitution for a smaller Poyaisian republic , centred on the region surrounding the Black River , and headed by himself as President . It was clear , however , that " Poyais had had its day , " as Sinclair puts it . An attempt by MacGregor to sell some land certificates in 1837 marks the last record of any Poyais scheme .
= = Return to Venezuela , and death = =
Josefa MacGregor died at Burghmuirhead , near Edinburgh , on 4 May 1838 . MacGregor almost immediately left for Venezuela , where he resettled in Caracas and in October 1838 applied for citizenship and restoration to his former rank in the Venezuelan Army , with back pay and a pension . He stressed his travails on Venezuela 's behalf two decades earlier and asserted that Bolívar , who had died in 1830 , had effectively deported him ; he described several unsuccessful requests to return and being " [ forced to ] remain outside the Republic ... by causes and obstacles out of my control " while losing his wife , two children and " the best years of my life and all my fortune " .
The Defence Minister Rafael Urdaneta , who had served alongside MacGregor during the Aux Cayes expedition of 1816 , asked the Senate to look upon the Scotsman 's application favourably as he had " enlisted in our ranks from the very start of the War of Independence , and ran the same risks as all the patriots of that disastrous time , meriting promotions and respect because of his excellent personal conduct " — MacGregor 's contributions had been " heroic with immense results " . President José Antonio Páez , another former revolutionary comrade , approved the application in March 1839 .
MacGregor was duly confirmed as a Venezuelan citizen and divisional general in the Venezuelan Army , with a pension of one @-@ third of his salary . He settled in the capital and became a respected member of the local community . After his death at home in Caracas on 4 December 1845 , he was buried with full military honours in Caracas Cathedral , with President Carlos Soublette , Cabinet ministers and the military chiefs of Venezuela marching behind his coffin . Obituaries in the Caracas press extolled General MacGregor 's " heroic and triumphant retreat " to Barcelona in 1816 and described him as " a valiant champion of independence " . " There was not a word about Amelia Island , Porto Bello or Rio de la Hacha , and there was no reference to the Cazique of Poyais , " Sinclair concludes . The part of today 's Honduras that was supposedly called Poyais remains undeveloped in the 21st century . Back in Scotland , at the MacGregor graveyard near Loch Katrine , the clan memorial stones make no mention of Gregor MacGregor or the country he invented .
= Elle Bishop =
Eleanor Zoe Bishop , mostly known as Elle , is a fictional character on the NBC series Heroes . She is portrayed by Kristen Bell . Elle appeared as one of the new characters introduced in Season Two and according to contract , would continue on the series for at least 13 episodes into Season Three .
Elle is introduced in the episode " Fight or Flight " as an agent of the Company , an organization whose primary purpose is to identify , monitor and study those individuals with special abilities . The daughter of Company head Bob Bishop , she possesses the power to generate and manipulate electricity . Elle is portrayed as mentally unstable , which is attributed to extensive " testing " condoned by her father to research her abilities when she was young .
= = Concept and creation = =
In 2007 , following the cancellation of Veronica Mars , actress Kristen Bell had voiced interest in appearing on Heroes because she was a fan . In July 2007 , during a train ride back from the San Diego Comic Con with Heroes actors Zachary Quinto and Masi Oka , and writers from the series , the writers had mentioned that if Bell " ever want [ ed ] to come on Heroes , give us [ writers ] a call " , to which Bell said she would love to . Announced in August 2007 , Bell was to portray Elle , a " mysterious young lady " with an " awesome power " for a total of thirteen episodes . Heroes creator Tim Kring and the writers had created the character of Elle with the idea that she was a " cautionary tale " of what could happen if the other characters had known of their abilities for the duration of their lives as Elle did . Kring pitched Bell the idea for the character " which she loved " and soon they were " off and running . " The casting of Bell , as Kring explains , " was not easy to pull off , " but because of the large ensemble cast of the series and multiple story arcs , " we found a way to jump into a small window in [ Bell ’ s ] schedule . "
The character Elle was created long before Bell was cast ; however , Kring noted " when you do cast an actor ... you try to tailor that character a little closer to who the actor is . So it 's hard to know when one starts to influence the other " .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Main series = = =
= = = = Generations = = = =
Elle 's first chronological appearance is in " Four Months Ago ... " . During this time , the Company made Peter Petrelli their willing prisoner and in those months he was held , Elle seems to have developed a cute crush on him . Peter confesses that he likes the little jolts which Elle gives him as a tease and kisses her . She confides in Peter that she has lived in the Company 's holding facility for 16 years . She also admits to being diagnosed as a sociopath ; she explains at age six , she accidentally set her grandmother 's house on fire and , at age eight , caused a major blackout in Ohio . She also says that she spent her ninth birthday in a glass room with an IV of lithium in her arm . She also explains that she has never been on a date and has never been swimming . When he escapes from the facility , Elle is upset and angry to the point that she blasts Peter , setting him ablaze during his escape . She then chases after Adam Monroe while the Haitian goes after Peter .
Elle first appears in the episode " Fight or Flight " searching for Peter in Ireland . Peter has no recollection of his past and is staying with the owner of Wandering Rocks Pub , Ricky . Elle questions Rick about Peter 's whereabouts and when he pretends not to know Peter , she kills him with a large bolt of electricity on her way out the door . Later on , during a telephone conversation with Bob Bishop , her father and Company head , she dismisses the murder as trivial and insists she can find Peter . However , she is pulled off the assignment , much to her frustration .
In " Cautionary Tales " , Elle comes back to the United States . Former Company employee Noah Bennet captures Elle for collateral , as Bob had captured his daughter , Claire . He ties Elle 's hands to a chair and ties her bare feet together and puts them in a metal dog bath which is full with water . Elle tries to use her abilities while in the dog bath , but she shocks herself . During this time , Noah tells Elle that Bob allowed the Company to perform tests on her which had begun as early as the age of seven . This included subjecting her to high doses of electricity , which scarred her emotionally for life . Elle has no recollection of the tests , and Noah suggests the Haitian had a role in causing Elle to forget her experiences . After an agreement is made , she is reunited with Bob and Claire momentarily reunited with Noah . However , Elle attacks Claire and West as they leave . She tries to attack Noah , but he shoots Elle in the arm before she can hurt him or anyone else . As it seems Noah is going to kill Bob , Mohinder Suresh , a scientist working with Noah and the Company , shoots and kills Noah . Elle leaves with Bob and Mohinder , giving Bob a look of distrust .
In the episode " Truth & Consequences " , Bob chastises Elle for allowing West and Claire to escape . He then assigns Elle to perform surveillance on Claire and her family as they prepare to leave town . Claire , however , spots Elle from a distance , leading to a physical confrontation , which leads Claire to threaten to expose the Company
Elle 's last appearance in season two is in " Powerless " . Her father reprimands her for her mistakes ; to redeem herself , she attempts to re @-@ capture the now powerless Sylar for the Company . She uses her ability to confront Sylar in Mohinder 's research lab , but Sylar is armed with a gun and shoots at Elle . Sylar manages to slip away , leaving Elle unharmed . She comes out somewhat defeated , but is informed by Mohinder that if not for her arrival , Sylar would have killed him , Maya Herrera and Molly Walker . He says the three of them owe her their lives , to which she replies , " Cool " .
The episode marked Bell 's previously expressed interest in performing in scenes with the character Sylar , as she and Zachary Quinto had been good friends for almost ten years . Bell had said that she " would love to see him and Elle face off one day " . In November 2007 , Bell and Quinto filmed scenes at a restaurant in Los Angeles , which was set as a " New Jersey Diner " and had involved police and paramedics . The filmed scenes are part of the untold stories which are a special feature of the season 2 DVD set .
= = = = Villains = = = =
Returning in the episode , " The Butterfly Effect " , following her failure to stop Sylar , Elle seeks assistance from Noah Bennet . He is detained in Level 5 , a high security ward for the Company 's most dangerous prisoners . However , Sylar is already there , having killed her father . He attempts to take her ability , but the pain of being scalped causes her to involuntarily release a massive electrical surge . This knocks Sylar out , but also disables security for the entire facility , allowing the prisoners to escape . Elle is later fired by Angela Petrelli , the new head of the Company , who tells Elle that the only reason the Company kept her was because of her father 's influence .
In the episode " Eris Quod Sum " , Elle makes her way to Claire 's house to seek help from Noah , having lost control of her ability . She attacks Claire out of anger , but is subdued when Lyle throws water on her . She is told that an organization called Pinehearst could help her with her condition , so Claire agrees to escort her there . They reach Pinehearst just in time to see Peter Petrelli thrown from a seventh story window . Claire takes him away from the building , but Elle refuses to leave after learning from Peter that they can take her powers away .
In the episode " Villains " , Elle 's life a year earlier is explored , revealing that she had been partnered with Noah Bennet at one point . The two are assigned to watch Sylar ( still Gabriel Gray ) in order to discover how he transfers abilities . Elle saves Gabriel after he attempts to kill himself out of guilt for killing his first victim . She is told to befriend him , and Gabriel develops an attraction to her that suppresses his hunger . Using a list of people with abilities Gabriel had compiled , Noah arranges to introduce Gabriel to one of them to see his power in action . However , Elle does not agree with the plan , revealing she has developed feelings for Gabriel . She reluctantly goes along with it when Noah threatens to fire her.They then introduce Gabriel to Trevor , an evolved human with a kinetic projection ability . Her repeated references to Trevor being " special " anger Gabriel , and he orders her to leave while he kills Trevor . Elle is left with guilt as she caused an event that helped to create " Sylar " .
In the following episode , " It 's Coming " , set in the present , Arthur Petrelli , head of Pinehearst , arranges for Sylar to speak with Elle . His aim is to have Sylar use his latent empathic abilities to take powers , rather than doing so through killing . Elle is chained to the floor in a metal room , still in pain from her ability . She repeatedly attacks him , furious at Sylar for her father 's murder , eventually begging him to kill her so that her pain will go away . He forgives her for turning him into a monster and convinces her to forgive herself for her crimes , wanting to take away her pain without killing her . At that moment , Elle 's pain disappears and she regains control of her ability . Likewise , Sylar is able to absorb her power . The two appear to rekindle their old feelings for each other as Elle teaches Sylar how to use her ability .
In " The Eclipse Part I " , she and Sylar are sent to retrieve Claire who is revealed to be the catalyst , the unknown part of the formula that would allow someone to produce abilities . On assignment , Elle challenges Sylar and he shows her that he can still be a killer , and not just a " daddy 's boy " by killing a rental car assistant . Eventually , they find Claire and Noah , and a fight ensues , however , Elle and Sylar find themselves powerless ; the result of the eclipse . Elle aims a gun at Noah but Claire jumps in and takes the bullet . Noah knocks Elle out and dislocates Sylar 's arm , while he escapes with injured Claire . After awakening , Sylar explains to a shocked Elle that losing his abilities is a bit of a relief . She tells him that they can 't just take what they want anymore , then Sylar retorts and grabs Elle , kissing her passionately . Outside , Noah aims a rifle at them .
In " The Eclipse Part II " , Sylar and Elle sleep together but then are confronted by Noah . Elle is shot in the thigh in the ensuing struggle . Both Elle and Sylar flee while Noah follows Elle 's blood trail to a grocery store . There , Elle and Sylar plan to ambush Noah in the rear of the store . Sylar pushes Elle into a cargo elevator , in an attempt to hide her from Noah . Elle watches as Noah slits Sylar 's throat with a box cutter . When the eclipse ends , their abilities are returned and Sylar is revived . He and Elle go to the Bennet residence and overcome Noah and Claire while holding Claire 's mother , Sandra , hostage . Suddenly , Hiro teleports in and takes both Sylar and Elle to Coste Verde beach , leaving them there before disappearing . Sylar and Elle kiss , and he explains that he and Elle are " damaged goods " and that they will " never change " . Sylar then begins to slice Elle 's skull open .
In the following episode " Our Father " , Sylar , covered in Elle 's blood , is shown pouring lighter fluid on Elle 's body . He painfully says , " Goodbye Elle , " then sets her ablaze with the electric ability he inherited from her .
= = = = Redemption = = = =
In the episode " Tabula Rasa " , Elle is seen in flashbacks as Sylar witnesses his real memories reflecting in the Hall of Mirrors .
In " The Art of Deception " , Matt reverts Sylar 's memories of his kills , including the ones of Elle .
= = = In Heroes graphic novels = = =
Elle also appears in the Heroes webcomics . Her appearances in the online series occur before her introduction on the television series . Elle 's first webcomic appearance is in " Elle 's First Assignment , Part 1 " , which reveals her first assignment for the Company . Elle monitors Claire Bennet , posing as a student at Union Wells High School . After following Claire home , Elle ends up confronting Eden McCain
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, and bound Machinima Inc. to “ not portray [ Microsoft ] , the Xbox One , or the Launch Titles in a negative manner ” . Ryse : Son of Rome was specifically listed in the FTC document as being one of the titles to receive fake reviews , and price quotes for these reviews range between $ 15 @,@ 000 and $ 30 @,@ 000 .
= = Sequel = =
According to Yerli , Ryse : Son of Rome is not a " one @-@ off " title and will serve as the beginning of a new franchise . However , several reports claimed that Ryse 2 was cancelled because of a conflict between Crytek and Microsoft over who would own the rights to the franchise . In exchange for funding Ryse 2 's development , Microsoft wanted to take over the Ryse intellectual property . Crytek would not agree to these terms , so the project was cancelled . Cevat Yerli , however , denied that the game was cancelled in an interview with Eurogamer , adding that the relationship between Microsoft and Crytek remained strong and positive . Ryse was among one of the last titles developed by Crytek before the company entered financial crisis and re @-@ construction . The new Crytek is focused on developing free @-@ to @-@ play games and being a " game service " instead of a video game developer . Despite this , Ryse is still an intellectual property owned by Crytek .
= Zong massacre =
The Zong massacre was the mass murder of 133 enslaved Africans by the crew of the slave ship Zong in the days following 29 November 1781 . The ship was owned by the Gregson slave @-@ trading syndicate , based in Liverpool , which participated in the Atlantic slave trade . As was common business practice , they had taken out insurance on the lives of the slaves as cargo . When the ship ran low on potable water following navigational mistakes , the crew threw slaves overboard into the sea to drown , partly in order to ensure the survival of the rest of the ship 's inhabitants , and in part to cash in on the insurance on the slaves , thus not losing money on the slaves which would have died from the lack of drinking water .
After the slave ship reached port at Black River , Jamaica , the owners of the Zong made a claim to their insurers for the loss of the slaves . When the insurers refused to pay , the resulting court cases ( Gregson v Gilbert ( 1783 ) 3 Doug . KB 232 ) held that in some circumstances , the deliberate killing of slaves was legal and that insurers could be required to pay for the slaves ' deaths . The judge , Lord Chief Justice , the Earl of Mansfield , ruled against the syndicate owners in this case , due to new evidence being introduced suggesting the captain and crew were at fault .
Following the first trial , freed slave Olaudah Equiano brought news of the massacre to the attention of the anti @-@ slavery campaigner Granville Sharp , who worked unsuccessfully to have the ship 's crew prosecuted for murder . Because of the legal dispute , reports of the massacre received increased publicity , stimulating the abolitionist movement in the late 18th and early 19th centuries ; the Zong events were increasingly cited as a powerful symbol of the horrors of the Middle Passage of slaves to the New World .
The non @-@ denominational Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade was founded in 1787 . The next year Parliament passed the first law regulating the slave trade , to limit the number of slaves per ship . The massacre has also inspired works of art and literature . It was commemorated in London in 2007 , among events to mark the bicentenary of the British Slave Trade Act 1807 , which abolished the African slave trade . A monument to the killed slaves of the Zong was installed at Black River , Jamaica , their intended port .
= = The Zong = =
The Zong was originally named Zorg ( meaning " Care " in Dutch ) by its owners , the Middelburgsche Commercie Compagnie . It operated as a slave ship based in Middelburg , Netherlands , and made a voyage in 1777 , delivering slaves to the coast of Suriname , South America . The Zong was a " square stern ship " of 110 tons burden . It was captured by a British 16 @-@ gun ship named Alert on 10 February 1781 . By 26 February , the Alert and Zong arrived at Cape Coast Castle , in modern @-@ day Ghana , which was maintained and staffed , along with other forts and castles , by the Royal African Company . The Castle was used as the regional headquarters of the RAC .
In early March 1781 , the Zong was purchased by the master of the William , on behalf of a syndicate of Liverpool merchants . The members of the syndicate were Edward Wilson , George Case , James Aspinall and William , James and John Gregson . William Gregson had an interest in 50 slaving voyages between 1747 and 1780 . He served as mayor of Liverpool in 1762 . By the end of his life , vessels in which Gregson had a financial stake had carried 58 @,@ 201 enslaved people from Africa to slavery in the Americas .
The Zong was paid for with bills of exchange , and the 244 slaves already on board were part of the transaction . The ship was not insured until after it started its voyage . The insurers , a syndicate from Liverpool , underwrote the ship and slaves for up to £ 8 @,@ 000 , approximately half the slaves ' potential market value . The remaining risk was borne by the owners .
= = = Crew = = =
The Zong was the first command of Luke Collingwood , formerly the surgeon on the William . While Collingwood lacked experience in navigation and command , ship 's surgeons were typically involved in selecting slaves for purchase in Africa , so their medical expertise supported the determination of " commodity value " for a captive . If the surgeon rejected a captive , that individual suffered " commercial death , " being of no value and was liable to be killed by African handlers . Sometimes these killings happened in the presence of the surgeon . It is likely that Collingwood had already witnessed the mass @-@ murder of slaves . As the historian Jeremy Krikler commented , this may have prepared him psychologically to condone the massacre which took place on the Zong . The Zong 's first mate was James Kelsall , who had also served on the William .
The vessel 's only passenger , Robert Stubbs , was a former captain of slave ships . In early 1780 he was appointed by the African Committee of the Royal African Company , as the governor of Anomabu , a British fortification near Cape Coast Castle in Ghana . This position made him also vice @-@ president of the RAC Council of the Castle . Due to his ineptitude and enmity incurred with John Roberts , governor of the Castle , Stubbs was forced out of the governorship of Anomabu by the RAC Council after nine months . Witness statements gathered by the African Committee of the RAC , accused him of being a semi @-@ literate drunkard who mismanaged the slave @-@ trading activities of the fort . Stubbs was aboard to return to Britain ; Collingwood may have thought his earlier experience on slave ships would be useful .
The Zong had a 17 @-@ man crew when it left Africa , which was far too small to maintain adequate sanitary conditions on the ship . Mariners willing to risk disease and slave rebellions on slave ships were difficult to recruit within Britain and were harder to find for a vessel captured from the Dutch off the coast of Africa . The Zong was manned with remnants of the previous Dutch crew , the crew of the William and with unemployed sailors hired from the settlements along the African coast .
= = The Middle Passage = =
The Zong had taken on more than twice the number of people that it could safely transport , when it sailed from Accra with 442 enslaved people on 18 August 1781 . In the 1780s , British @-@ built ships typically carried 1 @.@ 75 enslaved people per ton of the ship 's capacity ; on the Zong , the ratio was 4 @.@ 0 per ton . A British slave ship of the period would carry around 193 enslaved and it was extremely unusual for a ship of the Zong 's relatively small size to carry so many .
After taking on drinking water at São Tomé , the Zong began its voyage across the Atlantic Ocean to Jamaica on 6 September . On 18 or 19 November , the ship neared Tobago in the Caribbean but failed to stop there to replenish its water supplies .
It is unclear who , if anyone , was in charge of the ship at this point . The captain Luke Collingwood had been gravely ill for some time . The man who would normally have replaced him , first mate James Kelsall , had been previously suspended from duty following an argument on 14 November . Robert Stubbs had captained a slave ship several decades earlier and he temporarily commanded the Zong in Collingwood 's absence but he was not a registered member of the vessel 's crew . According to historian James Walvin , the breakdown of the command structure on the ship might explain why subsequent navigational errors were committed and why checks on supplies of drinking water were not made .
= = = Massacre = = =
On 27 or 28 November , the crew sighted Jamaica at a distance of 27 nautical miles ( 50 km ; 31 mi ) but misidentified it as the French colony of Saint @-@ Domingue on the island of Hispaniola . The Zong continued on its westward course , leaving Jamaica behind . This mistake was recognised only after the ship was 300 miles ( 480 km ) leeward of the island . Overcrowding , malnutrition , accidents and disease had already killed several mariners and approximately 62 enslaved Africans . James Kelsall later claimed that there was only four days ' water remaining on the ship , when the navigational error was discovered and Jamaica was still 10 – 13 sailing days away .
If the enslaved died onshore , the Liverpool ship @-@ owners would have had no redress from their insurers . Similarly , if the slaves died a " natural death " ( as the contemporary term put it ) at sea , then insurance could not be claimed . If some slaves were jettisoned in order to save the rest of the " cargo " or the ship , then a claim could be made under the notion of " general average " . The ship 's insurance covered the loss of slaves at £ 30 a head .
On 29 November , the crew assembled to consider the proposal that some of the slaves should be thrown overboard . James Kelsall later claimed that he had disagreed with the plan at first but it was soon unanimously agreed . On 29 November , 54 women and children were thrown through cabin windows into the sea . On 1 December , 42 male slaves were thrown overboard ; 36 slaves followed in the next few days . Another ten , in a display of defiance at the inhumanity of the slavers , jumped into the sea . Having heard the shrieks of the victims as they were thrown into the water , one slave requested that the remaining Africans be denied all food and drink rather than be thrown into the sea . This request was ignored by the crew . The account of the King 's Bench trial reports that one slave managed to climb back onto the ship .
The crew claimed that the slaves had been jettisoned because the ship did not have enough water to keep all the slaves alive for the rest of the voyage . This claim was later disputed , as the ship had 420 imperial gallons ( 1 @,@ 900 l ) of water left when it arrived in Jamaica on 22 December . An affidavit later made by Kelsall , stated that on 1 December , when 42 slaves were killed , it rained heavily for more than a day , allowing six casks of water ( sufficient for eleven days ) to be collected .
= = = Subsequent history of the Zong = = =
On 22 December 1781 , the Zong arrived at Black River , Jamaica , with 208 enslaved people on board , less than half the number taken from Africa . The enslaved people sold for an average price of £ 36 each . The Jamaican Vice @-@ Admiralty court upheld the legality of the British capture of the Zong from the Dutch , and the syndicate renamed the ship Richard of Jamaica . Luke Collingwood died three days after the Zong reached Jamaica , two years before the 1783 court proceedings about the case .
= = Legal proceedings = =
When the news of the Zong 's voyage reached Britain , the ship 's owners claimed compensation from their insurers for the loss of the slaves . The insurers refused to honour the claim and were taken to court by the Liverpool syndicate . The logbook of the Zong went missing after the ship reached Jamaica , two years before the hearings started . The legal proceedings provide almost all the documentary evidence about the massacre but there is no formal record of the first trial other than what is referred to in the appeals hearing . The ship 's insurers claimed that the log had been deliberately destroyed , which the Gregson syndicate denied .
Almost all the surviving source material is of questionable reliability . The two witnesses who gave evidence , Robert Stubbs and James Kelsall , were strongly motivated to exonerate themselves from blame . It is possible that the figures concerning the number of slaves killed , the amount of water that remained on the ship and the distance beyond Jamaica that the Zong had mistakenly sailed are inaccurate .
= = = First trial = = =
Legal proceedings began when the insurers refused to compensate the owners of the Zong . The dispute was initially tried at the Guildhall in London on 6 March 1783 , with the Lord Chief Justice , the Earl of Mansfield , overseeing the trial before a jury . Mansfield was previously the judge in Somersett 's Case in 1772 , which concerned the legality of keeping slaves in Britain . He had ruled that slavery had never been established by statute in Britain and was not supported by common law .
Robert Stubbs was the only witness in the first Zong trial and the jury found in favour of the owners , under an established protocol in maritime insurance that considered slaves as cargo . On 19 March 1783 , Olaudah Equiano , a freed slave , told the anti @-@ slave @-@ trade activist Granville Sharp of the events aboard the Zong and a newspaper soon carried a lengthy account , reporting that the captain had ordered the slaves killed in three batches . Sharp sought legal advice the next day , about the possibility of prosecuting the crew for murder .
= = = King 's Bench appeal = = =
The insurers of the Zong applied to the Earl of Mansfield to have the previous verdict set aside and for the case to be tried again . A hearing was held at the Court of King 's Bench in Westminster Hall from 21 – 22 May 1783 , before Mansfield and two other King 's Bench judges , Mr Justice Buller and Mr Justice Willes . The Solicitor General , John Lee , appeared on behalf of the Zong 's owners , as he had done previously in the Guildhall trial . Granville Sharp was also in attendance , together with a secretary he had hired to take a written record of the proceedings .
Summing up the verdict reached in the first trial , Mansfield said that the jury ,
had no doubt ( though it shocks one very much ) that the Case of Slaves was the same as if Horses had been thrown over board ... The Question was , whether there was not an Absolute Necessity for throwing them over board to save the rest , [ and ] the Jury were of opinion there was ...
Collingwood had died in 1781 soon after the ship reached Jamaica and the only witness of the Zong massacre to appear at Westminster Hall was passenger Robert Stubbs , although a written affidavit by first mate James Kelsall was made available to the lawyers . Stubbs claimed that there was " an absolute Necessity for throwing over the Negroes " , because the crew feared all the slaves would die if they did not throw some into the sea . The insurers of the Zong argued that Collingwood had made " a Blunder and Mistake " in sailing beyond Jamaica and that the slaves had been killed so their owners could claim compensation . They alleged that Collingwood did this , because he did not want his first voyage as a slave ship captain to be unprofitable .
John Lee responded by saying that the slaves " perished just as a Cargo of Goods perished " and were jettisoned for the greater good of the ship . The insurers ' legal team replied that Lee 's argument could never justify the killing of innocent people ; each of the three addressed issues of humanity in the treatment of the slaves and said that the actions of the Zong 's crew were nothing less than murder . As historian James Walvin has argued , it is possible that Granville Sharp directly influenced the strategy of the insurers ' legal team .
At the hearing , new evidence was heard , that heavy rain had fallen on the ship on the second day of the killings but a third batch of slaves was killed after that . This led Mansfield to order another trial , because the rainfall meant that the killing of those slaves , after the water shortage had been eased , could not be justified in terms of the greater necessity of saving the ship and the rest of its human cargo . One of the justices in attendance also said that this evidence invalidated the findings of the jury in the first trial , as the jury had heard testimony that the water shortage resulted from the poor condition of the ship , brought on by unforeseen maritime conditions , rather than from errors committed by its captain . Mansfield concluded that the insurers were not liable for losses resulting from errors committed by the Zong 's crew .
There is no evidence that another trial was held on this issue . Despite Granville Sharp 's efforts , no member of the crew was prosecuted for the murder of the slaves . A summary of the appeal on the Zong case , was eventually published in the nominate reports prepared from the contemporaneous manuscript notes of Sylvester Douglas , Baron Glenbervie , and others . It was published in 1831 as Gregson v Gilbert ( 1783 ) 3 Doug . KB 232 .
= = = Mansfield 's motivations = = =
Jeremy Krikler has argued that Mansfield wanted to ensure that commercial law remained as helpful to Britain 's overseas trade as possible and as a consequence was keen to uphold the principle of " general average " , even in relation to the killing of humans . This principle holds that a captain who jettisons part of his cargo in order to save the rest can claim for the loss from his insurers . For Mansfield to have found in favour of the insurers would have greatly undermined this idea . The revelation that rain had fallen during the period of the killings enabled Mansfield to order a retrial , while leaving the notion of " general average " intact . He emphasised that the massacre would have been legally justified and the owners ' insurance claim would have been valid , if the water shortage had not arisen from mistakes made by the captain .
Krikler comments that Mansfield 's conclusions ignored the ruling precedent of his predecessor , Matthew Hale , that the killing of innocents in the name of self @-@ preservation was unlawful . This ruling was to prove important a century later in R v Dudley and Stephens , which also concerned the justifiability of acts of murder at sea . Mansfield also failed to acknowledge another important legal principle — that no insurance claim can be legal if it arose from an illegal act .
= = Effect on the abolitionist movement = =
Granville Sharp campaigned to raise awareness of the massacre , writing letters to newspapers , the Lords Commissioners of Admiralty and the Prime Minister ( the Duke of Portland ) . Neither Portland nor the Admiralty sent him a reply . The first Zong trial in March 1783 , had been reported only by a single London newspaper but it provided details of events . Little about the massacre appeared in print before 1787 . The newspaper article in March 1783 was the first public report of the massacre , and it was published nearly 18 months after the event .
Despite these setbacks , Sharp 's efforts did have some success . In April 1783 , he sent an account of the Zong massacre to William Dillwyn , a Quaker , who had asked to see evidence that was critical of the slave trade . The London Yearly Meeting of the Society of Friends decided shortly after to begin campaigning against slavery , and a petition signed by 273 Quakers was submitted to parliament in July 1783 . Sharp also sent letters to Anglican bishops and clergy and to those already sympathetic to the abolitionist cause .
The immediate effect of the Zong massacre on public opinion was limited , demonstrating — as the historian of abolitionism Seymour Drescher has noted — the challenge that the early abolitionists faced . Following Sharp 's efforts , the Zong massacre became an important topic in abolitionist literature and the massacre was discussed in works by Thomas Clarkson , Ottobah Cugoano , James Ramsay and John Newton . These accounts often omitted the names of the ship and its captain , thereby creating , in the words of Srividhya Swaminathan , " a portrait of abuse that could be mapped onto any ship in the Middle Passage " .
The Zong killings offered a powerful example of the horrors of the slave trade , stimulating the development of the abolitionist movement in Britain , which dramatically expanded in size and influence in the late 1780s . In 1787 , the Society for the Abolition of the Slave Trade was founded .
Parliament received numerous petitions against the slave trade and examined the issue in 1788 . With strong support by Sir William Dolben , who had toured a slave ship , it passed the Slave Trade Act 1788 ( Dolben 's Act ) , which was its first legislation to regulate the slave trade . It restricted the number of slaves that could be transported , to reduce problems of overcrowding and poor sanitation . Its renewal in 1794 included an amendment that limited the scope of insurance policies concerning slaves , rendering illegal such generalised phrases that promised to insure against " all other Perils , Losses , and Misfortunes . " ( The Zong owners ' representatives had highlighted such a phrase in seeking their claim at the King 's Bench hearing . ) The act had to be renewed annually and Dolben led these efforts , speaking frequently to parliament in opposition to slavery . The Slave Trade Act of 1799 was passed to make these provisions permanent .
Abolitionists , notably William Wilberforce , continued their effort to end the slave trade . Britain passed the Slave Trade Act 1807 , which prohibited the Atlantic slave trade , and the Royal Navy enforced the Blockade of Africa . The United States also prohibited the Atlantic slave trade in 1808 and helped intercept illegal slave ships at sea , predominately after 1842 .
In 1823 , the Anti @-@ Slavery Society was founded in Britain , dedicated to abolishing slavery throughout the British Empire , later achieved through the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 . The massacre on the Zong was frequently cited in abolitionist literature in the 19th century ; in 1839 , Thomas Clarkson published his History of the Rise , Progress , and Accomplishment of the Abolition of the African Slave Trade , which included an account of the Zong killings .
Clarkson 's book had an important influence on the artist J. M. W. Turner , who displayed a painting at the Royal Academy summer exhibition in 1840 entitled The Slave Ship . The painting depicts a vessel , from which a number of manacled slaves have been thrown into the sea , to be devoured by sharks . Some of the details in the painting , such as the shackles worn by the slaves , appear to have been influenced by the illustrations in Clarkson 's book . The painting was shown at an important time in the movement to abolish slavery worldwide , as the Royal Academy exhibition opened one month before the first World Anti @-@ Slavery Convention in London . The painting was admired by its owner , John Ruskin . It has been described by the 20th @-@ century critic Marcus Wood as one of the few truly great depictions in Western art of the Atlantic slave trade .
= = In modern culture = =
The Zong has inspired several works of literature . Fred D 'Aguiar 's novel Feeding the Ghosts ( 1997 ) tells the story of an enslaved African who survives being thrown overboard from the Zong . In the novel , the journal of the slave — Mintah — is lost , unlike that of Granville Sharp . According to the cultural historian Anita Rupprecht , this signifies the silencing of African voices about the massacre .
M. NourbeSe Philip 's 2008 poetry book , Zong ! is based on the events surrounding the massacre and uses the account of the King 's Bench hearing as its source .
Margaret Busby 's play An African Cargo , staged by Nitro theatre company at Greenwich Theatre in 2007 , dealt with the massacre and the 1783 trials , making use of the legal transcripts .
An episode of the television programme Garrow 's Law ( 2010 ) is loosely based on the legal events arising from the massacre . The historical William Garrow did not take part in the case , and because the Zong 's captain died shortly after arriving in Jamaica , his appearance in court for fraud is also fictional .
= = = 2007 abolition commemorations = = =
In 2007 , a memorial stone was erected at Black River , Jamaica , near where the Zong would have landed . A sailing ship representing Zong was sailed to Tower Bridge in London in March 2007 to commemorate the 200th anniversary of the Abolition of the Slave Trade Act , at a cost of £ 300 @,@ 000 . The vessel housed depictions of the Zong massacre and the slave trade . It was accompanied by HMS Northumberland , with an exhibition on board commemorating the role of the Royal Navy in the suppression of the slave trade after 1807 .
= Einsteinium =
Einsteinium is a synthetic element with symbol Es and atomic number 99 . It is the seventh transuranic element , and an actinide .
Einsteinium was discovered as a component of the debris of the first hydrogen bomb explosion in 1952 , and named after Albert Einstein . Its most common isotope einsteinium @-@ 253 ( half life 20 @.@ 47 days ) is produced artificially from decay of californium @-@ 253 in a few dedicated high @-@ power nuclear reactors with a total yield on the order of one milligram per year . The reactor synthesis is followed by a complex process of separating einsteinium @-@ 253 from other actinides and products of their decay . Other isotopes are synthesized in various laboratories , but at much smaller amounts , by bombarding heavy actinide elements with light ions . Owing to the small amounts of produced einsteinium and the short half @-@ life of its most easily produced isotope , there are currently almost no practical applications for it outside of basic scientific research . In particular , einsteinium was used to synthesize , for the first time , 17 atoms of the new element mendelevium in 1955 .
Einsteinium is a soft , silvery , paramagnetic metal . Its chemistry is typical of the late actinides , with a preponderance of the + 3 oxidation state ; the + 2 oxidation state is also accessible , especially in solids . The high radioactivity of einsteinium @-@ 253 produces a visible glow and rapidly damages its crystalline metal lattice , with released heat of about 1000 watts per gram . Difficulty in studying its properties is due to einsteinium @-@ 253 's conversion to berkelium and then californium at a rate of about 3 % per day . The isotope of einsteinium with the longest half life , einsteinium @-@ 252 ( half life 471 @.@ 7 days ) would be more suitable for investigation of physical properties , but it has proven far more difficult to produce and is available only in minute quantities , and not in bulk . Einsteinium is the element with the highest atomic number which has been observed in macroscopic quantities in its pure form , and this was the common short @-@ lived isotope einsteinium @-@ 253 .
Like all synthetic transuranic elements , isotopes of einsteinium are very radioactive and are considered highly dangerous to health on ingestion .
= = History = =
Einsteinium was first identified in December 1952 by Albert Ghiorso and co @-@ workers at the University of California , Berkeley in collaboration with the Argonne and Los Alamos National Laboratories , in the fallout from the Ivy Mike nuclear test . The test was carried out on November 1 , 1952 at Enewetak Atoll in the Pacific Ocean and was the first successful test of a hydrogen bomb . Initial examination of the debris from the explosion had shown the production of a new isotope of plutonium , 244
94Pu , which could only have formed by the absorption of six neutrons by a uranium @-@ 238 nucleus followed by two beta decays .
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At the time , the multiple neutron absorption was thought to be an extremely rare process , but the identification of 244
94Pu indicated that still more neutrons could have been captured by the uranium nuclei , thereby producing new elements heavier than californium .
Ghiorso and co @-@ workers analyzed filter papers which had been flown through the explosion cloud on airplanes ( the same sampling technique that had been used to discover 244
94Pu ) . Larger amounts of radioactive material were later isolated from coral debris of the atoll , which were delivered to the U.S. The separation of suspected new elements was carried out in the presence of a citric acid / ammonium buffer solution in a weakly acidic medium ( pH ≈ 3 @.@ 5 ) , using ion exchange at elevated temperatures ; fewer than 200 atoms of einsteinium were recovered in the end . Nevertheless , element 99 ( einsteinium ) , namely its 253Es isotope , could be detected via its characteristic high @-@ energy alpha decay at 6 @.@ 6 MeV . It was produced by the capture of 15 neutrons by uranium @-@ 238 nuclei followed by seven beta @-@ decays , and had a half @-@ life of 20 @.@ 5 days . Such multiple neutron absorption was made possible by the high neutron flux density during the detonation , so that newly generated heavy isotopes had plenty of available neutrons to absorb before they could disintegrate into lighter elements . Neutron capture initially raised the mass number without changing the atomic number of the nuclide , and the concomitant beta @-@ decays resulted in a gradual increase in the atomic number :
<formula>
Some 238U atoms , however , could absorb another two neutrons ( for a total of 17 ) , resulting in 255Es , as well as in the 255Fm isotope of another new element , fermium . The discovery of the new elements and the associated new data on multiple neutron capture were initially kept secret on the orders of the U.S. military until 1955 due to Cold War tensions and competition with Soviet Union in nuclear technologies . However , the rapid capture of so many neutrons would provide needed direct experimental confirmation of the so @-@ called r @-@ process multiple neutron absorption needed to explain the cosmic nucleosynthesis ( production ) of certain heavy chemical elements ( heavier than nickel ) in supernova explosions , before beta decay . Such a process is needed to explain the existence of many stable elements in the universe .
Meanwhile , isotopes of element 99 ( as well as of new element 100 , fermium ) were produced in the Berkeley and Argonne laboratories , in a nuclear reaction between nitrogen @-@ 14 and uranium @-@ 238 , and later by intense neutron irradiation of plutonium or californium :
<formula>
These results were published in several articles in 1954 with the disclaimer that these were not the first studies that had been carried out on the elements . The Berkeley team also reported some results on the chemical properties of einsteinium and fermium . The Ivy Mike results were declassified and published in 1955 .
In their discovery of the elements 99 and 100 , the American teams had competed with a group at the Nobel Institute for Physics , Stockholm , Sweden . In late 1953 – early 1954 , the Swedish group succeeded in the synthesis of light isotopes of element 100 , in particular 250Fm , by bombarding uranium with oxygen nuclei . These results were also published in 1954 . Nevertheless , the priority of the Berkeley team was generally recognized , as its publications preceded the Swedish article , and they were based on the previously undisclosed results of the 1952 thermonuclear explosion ; thus the Berkeley team was given the privilege to name the new elements . As the effort which had led to the design of Ivy Mike was codenamed Project PANDA , element 99 had been jokingly nicknamed " Pandamonium " but the official names suggested by the Berkeley group derived from two prominent scientists , Albert Einstein and Enrico Fermi : " We suggest for the name for the element with the atomic number 99 , einsteinium ( symbol E ) after Albert Einstein and for the name for the element with atomic number 100 , fermium ( symbol Fm ) , after Enrico Fermi . " Both Einstein and Fermi died before the names were announced . The discovery of these new elements was announced by Albert Ghiorso at the first Geneva Atomic Conference held on 8 – 20 August 1955 . The symbol for einsteinium was first given as " E " and later changed to " Es " by IUPAC .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Physical = = =
Einsteinium is a synthetic , silvery @-@ white , radioactive metal . In the periodic table , it is located to the right of the actinide californium , to the left of the actinide fermium and below the lanthanide holmium with which it shares many similarities in physical and chemical properties . Its density of 8 @.@ 84 g / cm3 is lower than that of californium ( 15 @.@ 1 g / cm3 ) and is nearly the same as that of holmium ( 8 @.@ 79 g / cm3 ) , despite atomic einsteinium being much heavier than holmium . The melting point of einsteinium ( 860 ° C ) is also relatively low – below californium ( 900 ° C ) , fermium ( 1527 ° C ) and holmium ( 1461 ° C ) . Einsteinium is a soft metal , with the bulk modulus of only 15 GPa , which value is one of the lowest among non @-@ alkali metals .
Contrary to the lighter actinides californium , berkelium , curium and americium which crystallize in a double hexagonal structure at ambient conditions , einsteinium is believed to have a face @-@ centered cubic ( fcc ) symmetry with the space group Fm3m and the lattice constant a
= 575 pm . However , there is a report of room @-@ temperature hexagonal einsteinium metal with a =
398 pm and c = 650 pm , which converted to the fcc phase upon heating to 300 ° C.
The self @-@ damage induced by the radioactivity of einsteinium is so strong that it rapidly destroys the crystal lattice , and the energy release during this process , 1000 watts per gram of 253Es , induces a visible glow . These processes may contribute to the relatively low density and melting point of einsteinium . Further , owing to the small size of the available samples , the melting point of einsteinium was often deduced by observing the sample being heated inside an electron microscope . Thus the surface effects in small samples could reduce the melting point value .
The metal is divalent and has a noticeably high volatility . In order to reduce the self @-@ radiation damage , most measurements of solid einsteinium and its compounds are performed right after thermal annealing . Also , some compounds are studied under the atmosphere of the reductant gas , for example H2O + HCl for EsOCl so that the sample is partly regrown during its decomposition .
Apart from the self @-@ destruction of solid einsteinium and its compounds , other intrinsic difficulties in studying this element include scarcity – the most common 253Es isotope is available only once or twice a year in sub @-@ milligram amounts – and self @-@ contamination due to rapid conversion of einsteinium to berkelium and then to californium at a rate of about 3 @.@ 3 % per day :
<formula>
Thus , most einsteinium samples are contaminated , and their intrinsic properties are often deduced by extrapolating back experimental data accumulated over time . Other experimental techniques to circumvent the contamination problem include selective optical excitation of einsteinium ions by a tunable laser , such as in studying its luminescence properties .
Magnetic properties have been studied for einsteinium metal , its oxide and fluoride . All three materials showed Curie – Weiss paramagnetic behavior from liquid helium to room temperature . The effective magnetic moments were deduced as 10 @.@ 4 ± 0 @.@ 3 µB for Es2O3 and 11 @.@ 4 ± 0 @.@ 3 µB for the EsF3 , which are the highest values among actinides , and the corresponding Curie temperatures are 53 and 37 K.
= = = Chemical = = =
Like all actinides , einsteinium is rather reactive . Its trivalent oxidation state is most stable in solids and aqueous solution where it induced pale pink color . The existence of divalent einsteinium is firmly established , especially in solid phase ; such + 2 state is not observed in many other actinides , including protactinium , uranium , neptunium , plutonium , curium and berkelium . Einsteinium ( II ) compounds can be obtained , for example , by reducing einsteinium ( III ) with samarium ( II ) chloride . The oxidation state + 4 was postulated from vapor studies and is yet uncertain .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Nineteen nuclides and three nuclear isomers are known for einsteinium with atomic weights ranging from 240 to 258 . All are radioactive and the most stable nuclide , 252Es , has a half @-@ life of 471 @.@ 7 days . Next most stable isotopes are 254Es ( half @-@ life 275 @.@ 7 days ) , 255Es ( 39 @.@ 8 days ) and 253Es ( 20 @.@ 47 days ) . All of the remaining isotopes have half @-@ lives shorter than 40 hours , and most of them decay within less than 30 minutes . Of the three nuclear isomers , the most stable is 254mEs with half @-@ life of 39 @.@ 3 hours .
= = = Nuclear fission = = =
Einsteinium has a high rate of nuclear fission that results in a low critical mass for a sustained nuclear chain reaction . This mass is 9 @.@ 89 kilograms for a bare sphere of 254Es isotope , and can be lowered to 2 @.@ 9 by adding a 30 centimeter thick steel neutron reflector , or even to 2 @.@ 26 kilograms with a 20 cm thick reflector made of water . However , even this small critical mass greatly exceeds the total amount of einsteinium isolated thus far , especially of the rare 254Es isotope .
= = = Natural occurrence = = =
Because of the short half @-@ life of all isotopes of einsteinium , any primordial einsteinium , that is einsteinium that could possibly be present on the Earth during its formation , has decayed by now . Synthesis of einsteinium from naturally occurring actinides uranium and thorium in the Earth crust requires multiple neutron capture , which is an extremely unlikely event . Therefore , most einsteinium is produced on Earth in scientific laboratories , high @-@ power nuclear reactors , or in nuclear weapons tests , and is present only within a few years from the time of the synthesis . The transuranic elements from americium to fermium , including einsteinium , occurred naturally in the natural nuclear fission reactor at Oklo , but no longer do so . Einsteinium was observed in Przybylski 's Star in 2008 .
= = Synthesis and extraction = =
Einsteinium is produced in minute quantities by bombarding lighter actinides with neutrons in dedicated high @-@ flux nuclear reactors . The world 's major irradiation sources are the 85 @-@ megawatt High Flux Isotope Reactor ( HFIR ) at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee , U.S. , and the SM @-@ 2 loop reactor at the Research Institute of Atomic Reactors ( NIIAR ) in Dimitrovgrad , Russia , which are both dedicated to the production of transcurium ( Z > 96 ) elements . These facilities have similar power and flux levels , and are expected to have comparable production capacities for transcurium elements , although the quantities produced at NIIAR are not widely reported . In a " typical processing campaign " at Oak Ridge , tens of grams of curium are irradiated to produce decigram quantities of californium , milligram quantities of berkelium ( 249Bk ) and einsteinium and picogram quantities of fermium .
The first microscopic sample of 253Es sample weighing about 10 nanograms was prepared in 1961 at HFIR . A special magnetic balance was designed to estimate its weight . Larger batches were produced later starting from several kilograms of plutonium with the einsteinium yields ( mostly 253Es ) of 0 @.@ 48 milligrams in 1967 – 1970 , 3 @.@ 2 milligrams in 1971 – 1973 , followed by steady production of about 3 milligrams per year between 1974 and 1978 . These quantities however refer to the integral amount in the target right after irradiation . Subsequent separation procedures reduced the amount of isotopically pure einsteinium roughly tenfold .
= = = Laboratory synthesis = = =
Heavy neutron irradiation of plutonium results in four major isotopes of einsteinium : 253Es ( α @-@ emitter with half @-@ life of 20 @.@ 03 days and with a spontaneous fission half @-@ life of 7 × 105 years ) ; 254mEs ( β @-@ emitter with half @-@ life of 38 @.@ 5 hours ) , 254Es ( α @-@ emitter with half @-@ life of about 276 days ) and 255Es ( β @-@ emitter with half @-@ life of 24 days ) . An alternative route involves bombardment of uranium @-@ 238 with high @-@ intensity nitrogen or oxygen ion beams .
Einsteinium @-@ 247 ( half @-@ life 4 @.@ 55 minutes ) was produced by irradiating americium @-@ 241 with carbon or uranium @-@ 238 with nitrogen ions . The latter reaction was first realized in 1967 in Dubna , Russia , and the involved scientists were awarded the Lenin Komsomol Prize .
The isotope 248Es was produced by irradiating 249Cf with deuterium ions . It mainly decays by emission of electrons to 248Cf with a half @-@ life of 25 ( ± 5 ) minutes , but also releases α @-@ particles of 6 @.@ 87 MeV energy , with the ratio of electrons to α @-@ particles of about 400 .
<formula>
The heavier isotopes 249Es , 250Es , 251Es and 252Es were obtained by bombarding 249Bk with α @-@ particles . One to four neutrons are liberated in this process making possible the formation of four different isotopes in one reaction .
<formula>
Einsteinium @-@ 253 was produced by irradiating a 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 2 milligram 252Cf target with a thermal neutron flux of ( 2 – 5 ) × 1014 neutrons · cm − 2 · s − 1 for 500 – 900 hours :
<formula>
= = = Synthesis in nuclear explosions = = =
The analysis of the debris at the 10 @-@ megaton Ivy Mike nuclear test was a part of long @-@ term project . One of the goals of which was studying the efficiency of production of transuranium elements in high @-@ power nuclear explosions . The motivation for these experiments was that synthesis of such elements from uranium requires multiple neutron capture . The probability of such events increases with the neutron flux , and nuclear explosions are the most powerful man @-@ made neutron sources , providing densities of the order 1023 neutrons / cm2 within a microsecond , or about 1029 neutrons / ( cm2 · s ) . In comparison , the flux of the HFIR reactor is 5 × 1015 neutrons / ( cm2 · s ) . A dedicated laboratory was set up right at Enewetak Atoll for preliminary analysis of debris , as some isotopes could have decayed by the time the debris samples reached the mainland U.S. The laboratory was receiving samples for analysis as soon as possible , from airplanes equipped with paper filters which flew over the atoll after the tests . Whereas it was hoped to discover new chemical elements heavier than fermium , none of these were found even after a series of megaton explosions conducted between 1954 and 1956 at the atoll .
The atmospheric results were supplemented by the underground test data accumulated in the 1960s at the Nevada Test Site , as it was hoped that powerful explosions conducted in confined space might result in improved yields and heavier isotopes . Apart from traditional uranium charges , combinations of uranium with americium and thorium have been tried , as well as a mixed plutonium @-@ neptunium charge , but they were less successful in terms of yield and was attributed to stronger losses of heavy isotopes due to enhanced fission rates in heavy @-@ element charges . Product isolation was problematic as the explosions were spreading debris through melting and vaporizing the surrounding rocks at depths of 300 – 600 meters . Drilling to such depths to extract the products was both slow and inefficient in terms of collected volumes .
Among the nine underground tests that were carried between 1962 and 1969 , the last one was the most powerful and had the highest yield of transuranium elements . Milligrams of einsteinium that would normally take a year of irradiation in a high @-@ power reactor , were produced within a microsecond . However , the major practical problem of the entire proposal was collecting the radioactive debris dispersed by the powerful blast . Aircraft filters adsorbed only about 4 × 10 − 14 of the total amount , and collection of tons of corals at Enewetak Atoll increased this fraction by only two orders of magnitude . Extraction of about 500 kilograms of underground rocks 60 days after the Hutch explosion recovered only about 1 × 10 − 7 of the total charge . The amount of transuranium elements in this 500 @-@ kg batch was only 30 times higher than in a 0 @.@ 4 kg rock picked up 7 days after the test which demonstrated the highly non @-@ linear dependence of the transuranium elements yield on the amount of retrieved radioactive rock . Shafts were drilled at the site before the test in order to accelerate sample collection after explosion , so that explosion would expel radioactive material from the epicenter through the shafts and to collecting volumes near the surface . This method was tried in two tests and instantly provided hundreds kilograms of material , but with actinide concentration 3 times lower than in samples obtained after drilling . Whereas such method could have been efficient in scientific studies of short @-@ lived isotopes , it could not improve the overall collection efficiency of the produced actinides .
Although no new elements ( apart from einsteinium and fermium ) could be detected in the nuclear test debris , and the total yields of transuranium elements were disappointingly low , these tests did provide significantly higher amounts of rare heavy isotopes than previously available in laboratories .
= = = Separation = = =
Separation procedure of einsteinium depends on the synthesis method . In the case of light @-@ ion bombardment inside a cyclotron , the heavy ion target is attached to a thin foil , and the generated einsteinium is simply washed off the foil after the irradiation . However , the produced amounts in such experiments are relatively low . The yields are much higher for reactor irradiation , but there , the product is a mixture of various actinide isotopes , as well as lanthanides produced in the nuclear fission decays . In this case , isolation of einsteinium is a tedious procedure which involves several repeating steps of cation exchange , at elevated temperature and pressure , and chromatography . Separation from berkelium is important , because the most common einsteinium isotope produced in nuclear reactors , 253Es , decays with a half @-@ life of only 20 days to 249Bk , which is fast on the timescale of most experiments . Such separation relies on the fact that berkelium easily oxidizes to the solid + 4 state and precipitates , whereas other actinides , including einsteinium , remain in their + 3 state in solutions .
Separation of trivalent actinides from lanthanide fission products can be done by a cation @-@ exchange resin column using a 90 % water / 10 % ethanol solution saturated with hydrochloric acid ( HCl ) as eluant . It is usually followed by anion @-@ exchange chromatography using 6 molar HCl as eluant . A cation @-@ exchange resin column ( Dowex @-@ 50 exchange column ) treated with ammonium salts is then used to separate fractions containing elements 99 , 100 and 101 . These elements can be then identified simply based on their elution position / time , using α @-@ hydroxyisobutyrate solution ( α @-@ HIB ) , for example , as eluant .
Separation of the 3 + actinides can also be achieved by solvent extraction chromatography , using bis- ( 2 @-@ ethylhexyl ) phosphoric acid ( abbreviated as HDEHP ) as the stationary organic phase , and nitric acid as the mobile aqueous phase . The actinide elution sequence is reversed from that of the cation @-@ exchange resin column . The einsteinium separated by this method has the advantage to be free of organic complexing agent , as compared to the separation using a resin column .
= = = Preparation of the metal = = =
Einsteinium is highly reactive and therefore strong reducing agents are required to obtain the pure metal from its compounds . This can be achieved by reduction of einsteinium ( III ) fluoride with metallic lithium :
EsF3 + 3 Li → Es + 3 LiF
However , owing to its low melting point and high rate of self @-@ radiation damage , einsteinium has high vapor pressure , which is higher than that of lithium fluoride . This makes this reduction reaction rather inefficient . It was tried in the early preparation attempts and quickly abandoned in favor of reduction of einsteinium ( III ) oxide with lanthanum metal :
Es2O3 + 2 La → 2 Es + La2O3
= = Chemical compounds = =
= = = Oxides = = =
Einsteinium ( III ) oxide ( Es2O3 ) was obtained by burning einsteinium ( III ) nitrate . It forms colorless cubic crystals , which were first characterized from microgram samples sized about 30 nanometers . Two other phases , monoclinic and hexagonal , are known for this oxide . The formation of a certain Es2O3 phase depends on the preparation technique and sample history , and there is no clear phase diagram . Interconversions between the three phases can occur spontaneously , as a result of self @-@ irradiation or self @-@ heating . The hexagonal phase is isotypic with lanthanum ( III ) oxide where the Es3 + ion is surrounded by a 6 @-@ coordinated group of O2 − ions .
= = = Halides = = =
Einsteinium halides are known for the oxidation states + 2 and + 3 . The most stable state is + 3 for all halides from fluoride to iodide .
Einsteinium ( III ) fluoride ( EsF3 ) can be precipitated from einsteinium ( III ) chloride solutions upon reaction with fluoride ions . An alternative preparation procedure is to exposure einsteinium ( III ) oxide to chlorine trifluoride ( ClF3 ) or F2 gas at a pressure of 1 – 2 atmospheres and a temperature between 300 and 400 ° C. The EsF3 crystal structure is hexagonal , as in californium ( III ) fluoride ( CfF3 ) where the Es3 + ions are 8 @-@ fold coordinated by fluorine ions in a bicapped trigonal prism arrangement .
Einsteinium ( III ) chloride ( EsCl3 ) can be prepared by annealing einsteinium ( III ) oxide in the atmosphere of dry hydrogen chloride vapors at about 500 ° C for some 20 minutes . It crystallizes upon cooling at about 425 ° C into an orange solid with a hexagonal structure of UCl3 type , where einsteinium atoms are 9 @-@ fold coordinated by chlorine atoms in a tricapped trigonal prism geometry . Einsteinium ( III ) bromide ( EsBr3 ) is a pale @-@ yellow solid with a monoclinic structure of AlCl3 type , where the einsteinium atoms are octahedrally coordinated by bromine ( coordination number 6 ) .
The divalent compounds of einsteinium are obtained by reducing the trivalent halides with hydrogen :
2 EsX3 + H2 → 2 EsX2 + 2 HX , X = F , Cl , Br , I
Einsteinium ( II ) chloride ( EsCl2 ) , einsteinium ( II ) bromide ( EsBr2 ) , and einsteinium ( II ) iodide ( EsI2 ) have been produced and characterized by optical absorption , with no structural information available yet .
Known oxyhalides of einsteinium include EsOCl , EsOBr and EsOI . They are synthesized by treating a trihalide with a vapor mixture of water and the corresponding hydrogen halide : for example , EsCl3 + H2O / HCl to obtain EsOCl .
= = = Organoeinsteinium compounds = = =
The high radioactivity of einsteinium has a potential use in radiation therapy , and organometallic complexes have been synthesized in order to deliver einsteinium atoms to an appropriate organ in the body . Experiments have been performed on injecting einsteinium citrate ( as well as fermium compounds ) to dogs . Einsteinium ( III ) was also incorporated into beta @-@ diketone chelate complexes , since analogous complexes with lanthanides previously showed strongest UV @-@ excited luminescence among metallorganic compounds . When preparing einsteinium complexes , the Es3 + ions were 1000 times diluted with Gd3 + ions . This allowed reducing the radiation damage so that the compounds did not disintegrate during the period of 20 minutes required for the measurements . The resulting luminescence from Es3 + was much too weak to be detected . This was explained by the unfavorable relative energies of the individual constituents of the compound that hindered efficient energy transfer from the chelate matrix to Es3 + ions . Similar conclusion was drawn for other actinides americium , berkelium and fermium .
Luminescence of Es3 + ions was however observed in inorganic hydrochloric acid solutions as well as in organic solution with di ( 2 @-@ ethylhexyl ) orthophosphoric acid . It shows a broad peak at about 1064 nanometers ( half @-@ width about 100 nm ) which can be resonantly excited by green light ( ca . 495 nm wavelength ) . The luminescence has a lifetime of several microseconds and the quantum yield below 0 @.@ 1 % . The relatively high , compared to lanthanides , non @-@ radiative decay rates in Es3 + were associated with the stronger interaction of f @-@ electrons with the inner Es3 + electrons .
= = Applications = =
There is almost no use for any isotope of einsteinium outside of basic scientific research aiming at production of higher transuranic elements and transactinides .
In 1955 , mendelevium was synthesized by irradiating a target consisting of about 109 atoms of 253Es in the 60 @-@ inch cyclotron at Berkeley Laboratory . The resulting 253Es ( α , n ) 256Md reaction yielded 17 atoms of the new element with the atomic number of 101 .
The rare isotope einsteinium @-@ 254 is favored for production of ultraheavy elements because of its large mass , relatively long half @-@ life of 270 days , and availability in significant amounts of several micrograms . Hence einsteinium @-@ 254 was used as a target in the attempted synthesis of ununennium ( element 119 ) in 1985 by bombarding it with calcium @-@ 48 ions at the superHILAC linear accelerator at Berkeley , California . No atoms were identified , setting an upper limit for the cross section of this reaction at 300 nanobarns .
<formula>
Einsteinium @-@ 254 was used as the calibration marker in the chemical analysis spectrometer ( " alpha @-@ scattering surface analyzer " ) of the Surveyor 5 lunar probe . The large mass of this isotope reduced the spectral overlap between signals from the marker and the studied lighter elements of the lunar surface .
= = Safety = =
Most of the available einsteinium toxicity data originates from research on animals . Upon ingestion by rats , only about 0 @.@ 01 % einsteinium ends in the blood stream . From there , about 65 % goes to the bones , where it remains for about 50 years , 25 % to the lungs ( biological half @-@ life about 20 years , although this is rendered irrelevant by the short half @-@ lives of einsteinium isotopes ) , 0 @.@ 035 % to the testicles or 0 @.@ 01 % to the ovaries – where einsteinium stays indefinitely . About 10 % of the ingested amount is excreted . The distribution of einsteinium over the bone surfaces is uniform and is similar to that of plutonium .
= True Blue ( Madonna album ) =
True Blue is the third studio album by American singer @-@ songwriter Madonna , released on June 30 , 1986 , by Sire Records . She co @-@ wrote and co @-@ produced the entire album with Stephen Bray and Patrick Leonard . Deemed Madonna 's most girlish album , True Blue deals with her visions of love , work , dreams as well as disappointments , and was inspired by her then husband Sean Penn , to whom Madonna dedicated the album . Musically , the songs on the album took a different direction from her previous endeavours , incorporating classical music in order to engage an older audience who had been skeptical of her music .
The album features instrumentation from acoustic guitars , drums , synthesizers and Cuban musical instruments . The topic for the songs range from love , freedom , and in the case of " Papa Don 't Preach " , social issues like teenage pregnancy . After its release , True Blue received generally positive reviews from critics , who complimented the album as the archetype of the late 1980s and early 1990s pop albums . They also praised the fact that Madonna 's voice sounded stronger than it did on her previous efforts , while commending Madonna 's skills as a singer , songwriter and entertainer .
True Blue was an immediate global success , reaching number one in then record @-@ breaking 28 countries across the world , including Australia , Canada , France , Germany , the United Kingdom and the United States . It spent 34 consecutive weeks at the top of the European Top 100 Albums chart , longer than any other album in history . It became the world 's top @-@ selling album of 1986 , as well as the best @-@ selling album of the 1980s by a female artist . With estimated sales of over 25 million copies worldwide , True Blue remains one of the best @-@ selling albums of all time . All five singles released from the album reached the top five on the Billboard Hot 100 , with " Live to Tell " , " Papa Don 't Preach " , and " Open Your Heart " peaking at number one .
The album was promoted on Madonna 's second concert tour , the Who 's That Girl World Tour , which visited cities of North America , Europe and Asia in 1987 . True Blue is credited as being the album which established Madonna 's position as the biggest female artist of the 1980s , rivaling male musicians Michael Jackson and Prince . The album 's singles and their accompanying music videos have sparked debates among scholars and social groups . She became the first female artist to receive the Video Vanguard Award at the 1986 MTV Video Music Awards in recognition of her impact on popular culture . The album also gave her first appearance on the Guinness Book of World Records .
= = Background and development = =
On March 6 , 1986 , at the Kensington Roof Gardens in London , during a press conference for Shanghai Surprise , Madonna confirmed that she was working on a new album named Live to Tell , which would be later changed to True Blue . She again collaborated with Stephen Bray who had worked on her previous album Like a Virgin , and began to work with Patrick Leonard for the first time . Madonna wrote or co @-@ wrote every song on the album , although writing involvement on some songs such as " Papa Don 't Preach " and " Open Your Heart " was limited to adding lyrics . She was also credited with co @-@ producing every track . The album was recorded from December 1985 to April 1986 , during the first year of Madonna 's marriage to American actor Sean Penn . She dedicated the album to Penn saying , " This is dedicated to my husband , the coolest guy in the universe . " With this album Madonna tried to appeal to an older audience who had previously been sceptical of her music by experimenting with her image , adopting a more ' traditional ' look , and incorporating classical music in her songs .
Deemed Madonna 's most girlish album yet , True Blue deals with Madonna 's view of love , work and dreams as well as disappointments . According to Madonna , True Blue takes its title from a favorite expression of her then husband Sean Penn and his very pure vision of love . The album was a direct tribute to him as well and was inspired by her " unabashed valentine " for Penn . Most of the songs on the album reflect this idea . Each song on True Blue was developed separately . The album 's first track , " Papa Don 't Preach " , was written by Brian Elliot , who described it as " a love song , maybe framed a little bit differently " . The song is based on teenage gossip Elliot heard outside his studio , which had a large front window that doubled as a mirror where schoolgirls from the North Hollywood High School in Los Angeles regularly stopped to fix their hair and chat .
" Open Your Heart " was the first recorded cut for the album , as early as December 1985 and ultimately made it to the final released tracklist ; it was originally intended for Cyndi Lauper . The third track " White Heat " was dedicated to actor James Cagney and named after the film of the same name from 1949 . Two quotations from the original soundtrack were included in the song . The fourth track " Live to Tell " was originally written by Patrick Leonard for the soundtrack of Paramount 's romantic drama film Fire with Fire , but after the company declined it , Leonard showed the song to Madonna . She decided to use it for At Close Range , the new film of her then @-@ husband , actor Sean Penn . Madonna made a demo of the song and , when the film 's director , James Foley , heard it he asked Leonard to write the score for the film , as suggested by Madonna .
True Blue was the first album where Madonna included Spanish themes as evident in the song " La Isla Bonita " . The song was previously written for Michael Jackson 's Bad album , but he had turned it down . While working with Leonard on the album , Madonna accepted it in Jackson 's place and re @-@ wrote the song 's lyrics , thus earning herself a co @-@ writing credit . Madonna described the song as her tribute to the " beauty and mystery of Latin American people " . Originally intended as the first single , " Love Makes the World Go Round " closes the album and was first performed at Live Aid a year earlier in July 1985 . The song recalled the antiwar music of the sixties .
= = Composition = =
Musically True Blue was a different direction for Madonna . Her previous efforts had her singing in a high pitched voice . With this album , Madonna toned it down for a more bubblegum @-@ pop voice . The songs on the album reflect this and a number of instruments were used in the songs to bring out the different moods which the lyrics emphasized . " Papa Don 't Preach " features acoustic , electric , and rhythm guitars , keyboards , and string arrangements . The song samples Beethoven 's Appassionata sonata . A continuous percussion filled structure was used in " Open Your Heart " . " White Heat " ' s sampling of the film 's quotation was included with speech and gunshots . It is an uptempo dance song with synth bass and double @-@ tracked vocals supported by male voices in the chorus .
On ballads like " Live to Tell " there is background instrumentation from a keyboard , a synthesizer , a funk guitar and a mix of synthesized and real drumming . " Where 's the Party " is a standard Madonna dance track with arrangements of bass drums , synthesizer , clattering rhythms and a remixed approach to the whole composition . The title track featured instrumentation from a rhythm guitar , a synthesizer , keyboards , and drums for the bassline , with a backing track that employed a chord progression commonly used in doo @-@ wop Cuban drums and Spanish guitar , maracas and harmonicas are used in " La Isla Bonita " . " Jimmy Jimmy " has an early sixties pop influence and the lyrics were a tribute to pop star James Dean .
Lyrically True Blue reflects Madonna 's ideas about love . " Where 's the Party " tells about a working girl enjoying her day on the dance @-@ floor after work . " Jimmy Jimmy " talks about Madonna 's admiration for the neighbourhood bad boy . Other songs like the Spanish " La Isla Bonita " and " Love Makes the World Go Round " have lyrics dealing with escapism from normal life with the latter talking about anti @-@ war and anti @-@ poverty and using Latin drums and samba influenced rhythms . The lyrics of " White Heat " deal with firmness and Madonna included Clint Eastwood 's infamous " make my day " quote in the song . " Papa Don 't Preach " , dealt with lyrics talking about a young woman who tells her father that she is pregnant out of wedlock , but is going to keep her baby .
" Live to Tell " portraits the complexity of deceit and mistrust . The song also is about childhood scars and had an extreme emotional pitch , achieving it in a divine sense . The title track had Madonna talking about romance
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ase ( tTG ) are found in the blood of the majority of people with classic symptoms and complete villous atrophy , but only in 70 % of the cases with partial villous atrophy and 30 % of the cases with minor mucosal lesions . Tissue transglutaminase modifies gluten peptides into a form that may stimulate the immune system more effectively . These peptides are modified by tTG in two ways , deamidation or transamidation .
Deamidation is the reaction by which a glutamate residue is formed by cleavage of the epsilon @-@ amino group of a glutamine side chain . Transamidation , which occurs three times more often than deamidation , is the cross @-@ linking of a glutamine residue from the gliadin peptide to a lysine residue of tTg in a reaction which is catalysed by the transglutaminase . Crosslinking may occur either within or outside the active site of the enzyme . The latter case yields a permanently covalently linked complex between the gliadin and the tTg . This results in the formation of new epitopes which are believed to trigger the primary immune response by which the autoantibodies against tTg develop .
Stored biopsies from people with suspected coeliac disease have revealed that autoantibody deposits in the subclinical coeliacs are detected prior to clinical disease . These deposits are also found in people who present with other autoimmune diseases , anaemia , or malabsorption phenomena at a much increased rate over the normal population . Endomysial components of antibodies ( EMA ) to tTG are believed to be directed toward cell @-@ surface transglutaminase , and these antibodies are still used in confirming a coeliac disease diagnosis . However , a 2006 study showed that EMA @-@ negative people with coeliac tend to be older males with more severe abdominal symptoms and a lower frequency of " atypical " symptoms , including autoimmune disease . In this study , the anti @-@ tTG antibody deposits did not correlate with the severity of villous destruction . These findings , coupled with recent work showing that gliadin has an innate response component , suggest that gliadin may be more responsible for the primary manifestations of coeliac disease , whereas tTG is a bigger factor in secondary effects such as allergic responses and secondary autoimmune diseases . In a large percentage of people with coeliac , the anti @-@ tTG antibodies also recognise a rotavirus protein called VP7 . These antibodies stimulate monocyte proliferation , and rotavirus infection might explain some early steps in the cascade of immune cell proliferation .
Indeed , earlier studies of rotavirus damage in the gut showed this causes a villous atrophy . This suggests that viral proteins may take part in the initial flattening and stimulate self @-@ crossreactive anti @-@ VP7 production . Antibodies to VP7 may also slow healing until the gliadin @-@ mediated tTG presentation provides a second source of crossreactive antibodies .
Other intestinal disorders may have biopsy that look like coeliac disease including lesions caused by Candida .
= = = Villous atrophy and malabsorption = = =
The inflammatory process , mediated by T cells , leads to disruption of the structure and function of the small bowel 's mucosal lining and causes malabsorption as it impairs the body 's ability to absorb nutrients , minerals and fat @-@ soluble vitamins A , D , E and K from food . Lactose intolerance may be present due to the decreased bowel surface and reduced production of lactase but typically resolves once the condition is treated .
Alternative causes of this tissue damage have been proposed and involve release of interleukin 15 and activation of the innate immune system by a shorter gluten peptide ( p31 – 43 / 49 ) . This would trigger killing of enterocytes by lymphocytes in the epithelium . The villous atrophy seen on biopsy may also be due to unrelated causes , such as tropical sprue , giardiasis and radiation enteritis . While positive serology and typical biopsy are highly suggestive of coeliac disease , lack of response to diet may require these alternative diagnoses to be considered .
= = Diagnosis = =
Diagnosis is often very difficult so that most cases are diagnosed with great delay . There are several tests that can be used . The level of symptoms may determine the order of the tests , but all tests lose their usefulness if the person is already eating a gluten @-@ free diet . Intestinal damage begins to heal within weeks of gluten being removed from the diet , and antibody levels decline over months . For those who have already started on a gluten @-@ free diet , it may be necessary to perform a rechallenge with some gluten @-@ containing food in one meal a day over 6 weeks before repeating the investigations .
= = = Blood tests = = =
Serological blood tests are the first @-@ line investigation required to make a diagnosis of coeliac disease . Its sensitivity correlates with the degree of histological lesions . People who present minor damage of the small intestine may have seronegative findings so many patients with coeliac disease often are missed . In patients with villous atrophy , anti @-@ endomysial ( EMA ) antibodies of the immunoglobulin A ( IgA ) type can detect coeliac disease with a sensitivity and specificity of 90 % and 99 % , respectively . Serology for anti @-@ transglutaminase antibodies ( anti @-@ tTG ) was initially reported to have a higher sensitivity ( 99 % ) and specificity ( > 90 % ) . However , it is now thought to have similar characteristics to anti @-@ endomysial antibody . Both anti @-@ transglutaminase and anti @-@ endomysial antibodies have high sensitivity to diagnose people with classic symptoms and complete villous atrophy , but they are only found in 30 @-@ 89 % of the cases with partial villous atrophy and in less than 50 % of the people who have minor mucosal lesions ( duodenal lymphocytosis ) with normal villi .
Tissue transglutaminase modifies gluten peptides into a form that may stimulate the immune system more effectively . These peptides are modified by tTG in two ways , deamidation or transamidation . Modern anti @-@ tTG assays rely on a human recombinant protein as an antigen. tTG testing should be done first as it is an easier test to perform . An equivocal result on tTG testing should be followed by anti @-@ endomysial antibodies .
Guidelines recommend that a total serum IgA level is checked in parallel , as people with coeliac with IgA deficiency may be unable to produce the antibodies on which these tests depend ( " false negative " ) . In those people , IgG antibodies against transglutaminase ( IgG @-@ tTG ) may be diagnostic .
If all these antibodies are negative , then it should be determined anti @-@ DGP antibodies ( antibodies against deamidated gliadin peptides ) . IgG class anti @-@ DGP antibodies may be useful in people with IgA deficiency . In children younger than two years , anti @-@ DGP antibodies perform better than anti @-@ endomysial and anti @-@ transglutaminase antibodies tests .
Because of the major implications of a diagnosis of coeliac disease , professional guidelines recommend that a positive blood test is still followed by an endoscopy / gastroscopy and biopsy . A negative serology test may still be followed by a recommendation for endoscopy and duodenal biopsy if clinical suspicion remains high .
Historically three other antibodies were measured : anti @-@ reticulin ( ARA ) , anti @-@ gliadin ( AGA ) and anti @-@ endomysial ( EMA ) antibodies . ARA testing , however , is not accurate enough for routine diagnostic use . Serology may be unreliable in young children , with anti @-@ gliadin performing somewhat better than other tests in children under five . Serology tests are based on indirect immunofluorescence ( reticulin , gliadin and endomysium ) or ELISA ( gliadin or tissue transglutaminase , tTG ) .
Antibody testing may be combined with HLA testing if the diagnosis is unclear . TGA and EMA testing are the most sensitive serum antibody tests , but as a negative HLA @-@ DQ type excludes the diagnosis of coeliac disease , testing also for HLA @-@ DQ2 or DQ8 maximises sensitivity and negative predictive values . However , widespread use of HLA typing to rule out coeliac disease is not currently recommended .
= = = Endoscopy = = =
An upper endoscopy with biopsy of the duodenum ( beyond the duodenal bulb ) or jejunum is performed to obtain multiple samples ( four to eight ) from the duodenum . Not all areas may be equally affected ; if biopsies are taken from healthy bowel tissue , the result would be a false negative . Even in the same bioptic fragment , different degrees of damage may be present .
Most people with coeliac disease have a small intestine that appears to be normal on endoscopy before the biopsies are examined . However , five findings have been associated with a high specificity for coeliac disease : scalloping of the small bowel folds ( pictured ) , paucity in the folds , a mosaic pattern to the mucosa ( described as a " cracked @-@ mud " appearance ) , prominence of the submucosa blood vessels , and a nodular pattern to the mucosa .
European guidelines suggest that in children and adolescents with symptoms which are compatible with coeliac disease , the diagnosis can be made without the need for intestinal biopsy if anti @-@ tTG antibodies titres are very high ( 10 times the upper limit of normal ) .
Until the 1970s , biopsies were obtained using metal capsules attached to a suction device . The capsule was swallowed and allowed to pass into the small intestine . After x @-@ ray verification of its position , suction was applied to collect part of the intestinal wall inside the capsule . Often @-@ utilised capsule systems were the Watson capsule and the Crosby – Kugler capsule . This method has now been largely replaced by fibre @-@ optic endoscopy , which carries a higher sensitivity and a lower frequency of errors .
Capsule endoscopy ( CE ) allows identification of typical mucosal changes observed in coeliac disease but has a lower sensitivity compared to regular endoscopy and histology . CE is therefore not the primary diagnostic tool for coeliac disease . However , CE can be used for diagnosing T @-@ cell lymphoma , ulcerative jejunoileitis and adenocarcinoma in refractory or complicated coeliac disease .
= = = Pathology = = =
The classic pathology changes of coeliac disease in the small bowel are categorised by the " Marsh classification " :
Marsh stage 0 : normal mucosa
Marsh stage 1 : increased number of intra @-@ epithelial lymphocytes ( IELs ) , usually exceeding 20 per 100 enterocytes
Marsh stage 2 : proliferation of the crypts of Lieberkühn
Marsh stage 3 : partial or complete villous atrophy and crypt hypertrophy
Marsh stage 4 : hypoplasia of the small intestine architecture
Marsh 's classification , introduced in 1992 , was subsequently modified in 1999 to six stages , where the previous stage 3 was split in three substages . Further studies demonstrated that this system was not always reliable and that the changes observed in coeliac disease could be described in one of three stages :
A representing lymphocytic infiltration with normal villous appearance ;
B1 describing partial villous atrophy ; and
B2 describing complete villous atrophy .
The changes classically improve or reverse after gluten is removed from the diet . However , most guidelines do not recommend a repeat biopsy unless there is no improvement in the symptoms on diet . In some cases , a deliberate gluten challenge , followed by biopsy , may be conducted to confirm or refute the diagnosis . A normal biopsy and normal serology after challenge indicates the diagnosis may have been incorrect .
In untreated coeliac disease , villous atrophy is more common in children younger than three years , but in older children and adults , it is common to find minor intestinal lesions ( duodenal lymphocytosis ) with normal intestinal villi .
= = = Other diagnostic tests = = =
At the time of diagnosis , further investigations may be performed to identify complications , such as iron deficiency ( by full blood count and iron studies ) , folic acid and vitamin B12 deficiency and hypocalcaemia ( low calcium levels , often due to decreased vitamin D levels ) . Thyroid function tests may be requested during blood tests to identify hypothyroidism , which is more common in people with coeliac disease .
Osteopenia and osteoporosis , mildly and severely reduced bone mineral density , are often present in people with coeliac disease , and investigations to measure bone density may be performed at diagnosis , such as dual @-@ energy X @-@ ray absorptiometry ( DXA ) scanning , to identify risk of fracture and need for bone protection medication .
= = = Gluten withdrawal = = =
Although blood antibody tests , biopsies , and genetic tests usually provide a clear diagnosis , occasionally the response to gluten withdrawal on a gluten @-@ free diet is needed to support the diagnosis . Currently , gluten challenge is no longer required to confirm the diagnosis in patients with intestinal lesions compatible with coeliac disease and a positive response to a gluten @-@ free diet . Nevertheless , in some cases , a gluten challenge with a subsequent biopsy may be useful to support the diagnosis , for example in people with a high suspicion for coeliac disease , without a biopsy confirmation , who have negative blood antibodies and are already on a gluten @-@ free diet . Gluten challenge is discouraged before the age of 5 years and during pubertal growth . The alternative diagnosis of non @-@ coeliac gluten sensitivity may be made where there is only symptomatic evidence of gluten sensitivity . Gastrointestinal and extraintestinal symptoms of people with non @-@ coeliac gluten sensitivity can be similar to those of coeliac disease , and improve when gluten is removed from the diet , after coeliac disease and wheat allergy are reasonably excluded .
A careful interpretation of the symptomatic response is needed , as a lack of response in a person with coeliac disease may be due to continued ingestion of small amounts of gluten , either voluntary or inadvertent , or be due to other commonly associated conditions such as small intestinal bacterial overgrowth ( SIBO ) , lactose intolerance , fructose , sucrose , and sorbitol malabsorption , and exocrine pancreatic insufficiency , among others . In untreated coeliac disease , these are often transient conditions derived from the intestinal damage . They normally revert or improve several months after starting a gluten @-@ free diet , but may need temporary interventions such as supplementation with pancreatic enzymes , dietary restrictions of lactose , fructose , sucrose or sorbitol containing foods , or treatment with oral antibiotics in the case of associated bacterial overgrowth . In addition to gluten withdrawal , some people need to follow a low @-@ FODMAPs diet or avoid consumption of commercial gluten @-@ free products , which are usually rich in preservatives and additives ( such as sulfites , glutamates , nitrates and benzoates ) and which might have a role in triggering functional gastrointestinal symptoms .
= = Screening = =
There is significant debate as to the benefits of screening . Some studies suggest that early detection would decrease the risk of osteoporosis and anaemia . In contrast , a cohort study suggested that people with undetected coeliac disease had a beneficial risk profile for cardiovascular disease ( less overweight , lower cholesterol levels ) . There is limited evidence that screen @-@ detected cases benefit from a diagnosis in terms of morbidity and mortality ; hence , population @-@ level screening is not presently thought to be beneficial .
In the United Kingdom , the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence ( NICE ) recommends screening for coeliac disease in people with newly diagnosed chronic fatigue syndrome and irritable bowel syndrome , as well as in type 1 diabetics , especially those with insufficient weight gain or unexplained weight loss . It is also recommended in autoimmune thyroid disease , dermatitis herpetiformis , and in the first @-@ degree relatives of those with confirmed coeliac disease .
In 2016 the United States Preventative Services Task Force found inadequate evidence for benefits or harms from screening people at any age who do not have symptoms .
Serology has been proposed as a screening measure , because the presence of antibodies would detect some previously undiagnosed cases of coeliac disease and prevent its complications in those people . However , serologic tests have high sensitivity only in people with total villous atrophy and have very low ability to detect cases with partial villous atrophy or minor intestinal lesions . Testing for coeliac disease may be offered to those with commonly associated conditions .
= = Treatment = =
= = = Diet = = =
At present , the only effective treatment is a lifelong gluten @-@ free diet . No medication exists that will prevent damage or prevent the body from attacking the gut when gluten is present . Strict adherence to the diet allows the intestines to heal , leading to resolution of all symptoms in most cases and , depending on how soon the diet is begun , can also eliminate the heightened risk of osteoporosis and intestinal cancer and in some cases sterility . The diet can be cumbersome ; failure to comply with the diet may cause relapse .
Dietitian input is generally requested to ensure the person is aware which foods contain gluten , which foods are safe , and how to have a balanced diet despite the limitations . In many countries , gluten @-@ free products are available on prescription and may be reimbursed by health insurance plans . Gluten @-@ free products are usually more expensive and harder to find than common gluten @-@ containing foods . Since ready @-@ made products often contain traces of gluten , some coeliacs may find it necessary to cook from scratch .
The term gluten @-@ free is generally used to indicate a supposed harmless level of gluten rather than a complete absence . The exact level at which gluten is harmless is uncertain and controversial . A recent systematic review tentatively concluded that consumption of less than 10 mg of gluten per day is unlikely to cause histological abnormalities , although it noted that few reliable studies had been done . Regulation of the label gluten @-@ free varies . In the European Union , the European Commission issued regulations in 2009 limiting the use of " gluten @-@ free " labels for food products to those with less than 20 mg / kg of gluten , and " very low gluten " labels for those with less than 100 mg / kg . In the United States , the FDA issued regulations in 2013 limiting the use of " gluten @-@ free " labels for food products to those with less than 20 ppm of gluten . The current international Codex Alimentarius standard allows for 20 ppm of gluten in so @-@ called " gluten @-@ free " foods . Several organisations , such as the Gluten @-@ Free Certification Organization ( GFCO ) , the Celiac Sprue Association ( CSA ) , and the National Foundation for Celiac Awareness ( NFCA ) , also certify products and companies as gluten @-@ free .
Even while on a diet , health @-@ related quality of life ( HRQOL ) may be lower in people with coeliac disease . Studies in the United States have found that quality of life becomes comparable to the general population after staying on the diet , while studies in Europe have found that quality of life remains lower , although the surveys are not quite the same . Men tend to report more improvement than women . Some have persisting digestive symptoms or dermatitis herpetiformis , mouth ulcers , osteoporosis and resultant fractures . Symptoms suggestive of irritable bowel syndrome may be present , and there is an increased rate of anxiety , fatigue , dyspepsia and musculoskeletal pain .
= = = Refractory disease = = =
Up to 5 % of people have refractory disease , which means they do not improve on a gluten @-@ free diet . This may be because the disease has been present for so long that the intestines are no longer able to heal on diet alone , or because the person is not adhering to the diet , or because the person is consuming foods that are inadvertently contaminated with gluten . If alternative causes have been eliminated , steroids or immunosuppressants ( such as azathioprine ) may be considered in this scenario .
= = Epidemiology = =
Globally coeliac diseases affects between 1 in 100 and 1 in 170 people . Rates , however , vary between different regions of the world from as few as 1 in 300 to as many as 1 in 40 . In the United States it is thought to affect between 1 in 1750 ( defined as clinical disease including dermatitis herpetiformis with limited digestive tract symptoms ) to 1 in 105 ( defined by presence of IgA TG in blood donors ) . Due to variable signs and symptoms it is believed that about 85 % of people affected are undiagnosed . The percentage of people with clinically diagnosed disease ( symptoms prompting diagnostic testing ) is 0 @.@ 05 – 0 @.@ 27 % in various studies . However , population studies from parts of Europe , India , South America , Australasia and the USA ( using serology and biopsy ) indicate that the percentage of people with the disease may be between 0 @.@ 33 and 1 @.@ 06 % in children ( but 5 @.@ 66 % in one study of children of the predisposed Sahrawi people ) and 0 @.@ 18 – 1 @.@ 2 % in adults . Among those in primary care populations who report gastrointestinal symptoms , the rate of coeliac disease is about 3 % . The rate amongst adult blood donors in Iran , Israel , Syria and Turkey is 0 @.@ 60 % , 0 @.@ 64 % , 1 @.@ 61 % and 1 @.@ 15 % , respectively .
People of African , Japanese and Chinese descent are rarely diagnosed ; this reflects a much lower prevalence of the genetic risk factors , such as HLA @-@ B8 . People of Indian ancestry seem to have a similar risk to those of Western Caucasian ancestry . Population studies also indicate that a large proportion of coeliacs remain undiagnosed ; this is due , in part , to many clinicians being unfamiliar with the condition and also due to the fact it can be asymptomatic . Coeliac disease is slightly more common in women than in men . A large multicentre study in the U.S. found a prevalence of 0 @.@ 75 % in not @-@ at @-@ risk groups , rising to 1 @.@ 8 % in symptomatic people , 2 @.@ 6 % in second @-@ degree relatives ( like grandparents , aunt or uncle , grandchildren , etc . ) of a person with coeliac disease and 4 @.@ 5 % in first @-@ degree relatives ( siblings , parents or children ) . This profile is similar to the prevalence in Europe . Other populations at increased risk for coeliac disease , with prevalence rates ranging from 5 % to 10 % , include individuals with Down and Turner syndromes , type 1 diabetes , and autoimmune thyroid disease , including both hyperthyroidism ( overactive thyroid ) and hypothyroidism ( underactive thyroid ) .
Historically , coeliac disease was thought to be rare , with a prevalence of about 0 @.@ 02 % . The reason for the recent increases in the number of reported cases is unclear . It may be at least in part due to changes in diagnostic practice . There also appears to be an approximately 4 @.@ 5 fold true increase that may be due to less exposure to bacteria and other pathogens in Western environments .
= = History = =
Humans first started to cultivate grains in the Neolithic period ( beginning about 9500 BCE ) in the Fertile Crescent in Western Asia , and it is likely that coeliac disease did not occur before this time . Aretaeus of Cappadocia , living in the second century in the same area , recorded a malabsorptive syndrome with chronic diarrhoea , causing a debilitation of the whole body . His " Cœliac Affection " ( coeliac from Greek κοιλιακός koiliakos , " abdominal " ) gained the attention of Western medicine when Francis Adams presented a translation of Aretaeus 's work at the Sydenham Society in 1856 . The patient described in Aretaeus ' work had stomach pain and was atrophied , pale , feeble and incapable of work . The diarrhoea manifested as loose stools that were white , malodorous and flatulent , and the disease was intractable and liable to periodic return . The problem , Aretaeus believed , was a lack of heat in the stomach necessary to digest the food and a reduced ability to distribute the digestive products throughout the body , this incomplete digestion resulting in the diarrhoea . He regarded this as an affliction of the old and more commonly affecting women , explicitly excluding children . The cause , according to Aretaeus , was sometimes either another chronic disease or even consuming " a copious draught of cold water . "
The paediatrician Samuel Gee gave the first modern @-@ day description of the condition in children in a lecture at Hospital for Sick Children , Great Ormond Street , London , in 1887 . Gee acknowledged earlier descriptions and terms for the disease and adopted the same term as Aretaeus ( coeliac disease ) . He perceptively stated : " If the patient can be cured at all , it must be by means of diet . " Gee recognised that milk intolerance is a problem with coeliac children and that highly starched foods should be avoided . However , he forbade rice , sago , fruit and vegetables , which all would have been safe to eat , and he recommended raw meat as well as thin slices of toasted bread . Gee highlighted particular success with a child " who was fed upon a quart of the best Dutch mussels daily . " However , the child could not bear this diet for more than one season .
Christian Archibald Herter , an American physician , wrote a book in 1908 on children with coeliac disease , which he called " intestinal infantilism . " He noted their growth was retarded and that fat was better tolerated than carbohydrate . The eponym Gee @-@ Herter disease was sometimes used to acknowledge both contributions . Sidney V. Haas , an American paediatrician , reported positive effects of a diet of bananas in 1924 . This diet remained in vogue until the actual cause of coeliac disease was determined .
While a role for carbohydrates had been suspected , the link with wheat was not made until the 1940s by the Dutch paediatrician Dr. Willem Karel Dicke . It is likely that clinical improvement of his patients during the Dutch famine of 1944 ( during which flour was scarce ) may have contributed to his discovery . Dicke noticed that the shortage of bread led to a significant drop in the death rate among children affected by coeliac disease from greater than 35 % to essentially zero . He also reported that once wheat was again available after the conflict , the mortality rate soared to previous levels . The link with the gluten component of wheat was made in 1952 by a team from Birmingham , England . Villous atrophy was described by British physician John W. Paulley in 1954 on samples taken at surgery . This paved the way for biopsy samples taken by endoscopy .
Throughout the 1960s , other features of coeliac disease were elucidated . Its hereditary character was recognised in 1965 . In 1966 , dermatitis herpetiformis was linked to gluten sensitivity .
= = Social and culture = =
May has been designated as " Coeliac Awareness Month " by several celiac organizations .
= = = Christian churches and the Eucharist = = =
Speaking generally , the various denominations of Christians celebrate a Eucharist in which a wafer or small piece of sacramental bread from wheat bread is blessed and then eaten . A typical wafer weighs about half a gram . Wheat flour contains around 10 to 13 % gluten , so a single communion wafer may have more than 50 mg of gluten , an amount which will harm the health of many people with coeliac especially if consumed every day ( see Diet above ) .
Many Christian churches offer their communicants gluten @-@ free alternatives , usually in the form of a rice @-@ based cracker or gluten @-@ free bread . These include the United Methodist , Christian Reformed , Episcopal , the Anglican Church ( Church of England , UK ) and Lutheran . Catholics may receive from the Chalice alone , or ask for gluten @-@ reduced hosts ; gluten @-@ free ones however are not considered to still be wheat bread , and hence invalid matter .
= = = = Roman Catholic position = = = =
Roman Catholic doctrine states that for a valid Eucharist , the bread to be used at Mass must be made from wheat . In 2002 , the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith approved German @-@ made low @-@ gluten hosts , which meet all of the Catholic Church 's requirements , for use in Italy ; although not entirely gluten @-@ free , they were also approved by the Italian Celiac Association . Some Catholics with coeliac have requested permission to use rice wafers ; such petitions have always been denied . As Catholic doctrine affirms that Christ is wholly and equally present under both species , it is possible to receive under the species of wine alone .
The issue is more complex for priests . As a celebrant , a priest is , for the fullness of the sacrifice of the Mass , absolutely required to receive under both species . On 24 July 2003 , the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith stated , " Given the centrality of the celebration of the Eucharist in the life of a priest , one must proceed with great caution before admitting to Holy Orders those candidates unable to ingest gluten or alcohol without serious harm . "
By January 2004 , extremely low @-@ gluten Church @-@ approved hosts had become available in the United States , Italy and Australia .
= = = Passover = = =
The Jewish festival of Pesach ( Passover ) may present problems with its obligation to eat matzo , which is unleavened bread made in a strictly controlled manner from wheat , barley , spelt , oats , or rye . This rules out many other grains that are normally used as substitutes for people with gluten sensitivity , especially for Ashkenazi Jews , who also avoid rice . Many kosher @-@ for @-@ Passover products avoid grains altogether and are therefore gluten @-@ free . Potato starch is the primary starch used to replace the grains . Consuming matzo is mandatory on the first night of Pesach only . Jewish law holds that one should not seriously endanger one 's health in order to fulfill a commandment . Thus , a person with severe coeliac disease is not allowed , let alone required , to eat any matzo other than gluten @-@ free matzo . The most commonly used gluten @-@ free matzo is made from oats .
= = Research directions = =
Various other approaches are being studied that would reduce the need of dieting . All are still under development , and are not expected to be available to the general public for a while .
Three main approaches have been proposed as new therapeutic modalities for coeliac disease : gluten detoxification , modulation of the intestinal permeability , and modulation of the immune response .
Using genetically engineered wheat species , or wheat species that have been selectively bred to be minimally immunogenic , may allow the consumption of wheat . This , however , could interfere with the effects that gliadin has on the quality of dough . Alternatively , gluten exposure can be minimised by the ingestion of a combination of enzymes ( prolyl endopeptidase and a barley glutamine @-@ specific cysteine endopeptidase ( EP @-@ B2 ) ) that degrade the putative 33 @-@ mer peptide in the duodenum .
Alternative treatments under investigation include the inhibition of zonulin , an endogenous signalling protein linked to increased permeability of the bowel wall and hence increased presentation of gliadin to the immune system . One inhibitor of this pathway is larazotide acetate , which is currently scheduled for phase 3 clinical trials . Other modifiers of other well @-@ understood steps in the pathogenesis of coeliac disease , such as the action of HLA @-@ DQ2 or tissue transglutaminase and the MICA / NKG2D interaction that may be involved in the killing of enterocytes .
Attempts to modulate the immune response with regard to coeliac disease are mostly still in phase I of clinical testing ; one agent ( CCX282 @-@ B ) has been evaluated in a phase II clinical trial on the basis of small @-@ intestinal biopsies taken from people with coeliac disease before and after gluten exposure .
= Our Lady Star of the Sea and St Winefride , Amlwch =
Our Lady Star of the Sea and St Winefride , Amlwch is a Roman Catholic church in Amlwch , a town on the island of Anglesey , north Wales . It was built in the 1930s to a design by an Italian architect , Giuseppe Rinvolucri , using reinforced concrete . The church is in the shape of an upturned boat , reflecting Amlwch 's maritime heritage , and is dedicated to Our Lady , Star of the Sea ( a title of St Mary ) and St Winefride , a Welsh saint .
The church is a Grade II * listed building , a designation given to " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " , because it is a " remarkable inter @-@ war church " , built to " a highly unusual and experimental design " . The Twentieth Century Society has called it " a rare and unique church " , and it has also been called " one of Britain 's most avant @-@ garde churches " .
= = Location and history = =
The church is on the A5025 road , about 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) to the west of Amlwch , a town on the north coast of Anglesey , Wales . It is dedicated to St Mary ( under the title Our Lady , Star of the Sea ) and to St Winefride , a 7th @-@ century Welsh noblewoman who is also venerated at St Winefride 's Well , Flintshire . Construction of the church began in 1932 , when the foundations were excavated . It was completed in 1937 , and the church was consecrated in the same year . The architect was Giuseppe Rinvolucri , an Italian engineer from Piedmont , who settled in Conwy , north Wales , because his English wife was suffering from tuberculosis . His specialist field was the design of Roman Catholic churches , and other – more conventional – examples of his work can be found in Abergele and Porthmadog , also in north Wales .
The church is part of Caernarfon Deanery within the Diocese of Wrexham . As of 2012 , the parish priest is Father Michael Ryan , of the Missionary Oblates of Mary Immaculate . The parish of Amlwch also includes the churches of St David , Cemaes Bay , and Our Lady of Lourdes , Benllech .
Damage from the weather and deterioration in the concrete meant that the church closed for worship in 2004 , requiring worshippers to attend services elsewhere on Anglesey . Demolition was a possibility in 2006 . An appeal launched raised the estimated £ 1 @.@ 2 million to £ 1 @.@ 4 million necessary for repairs , which included replacing the roof coverings , redecorating internally and externally , and repairing the steps . An application for planning permission for the work was submitted in May 2008 to the Isle of Anglesey County Council . An application for a grant of £ 840 @,@ 000 from the Heritage Lottery Fund was rejected on 18 March 2009 , with the committee concerned about the proposed new extension ( terming it " inappropriate " ) , although recognising the " high heritage merit " of the proposal . Cadw ( the Welsh Assembly Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales ) made a grant of £ 150 @,@ 000 in 2007 ; the National Churches Trust made a grant of £ 10 @,@ 000 in June 2010 ; and other bodies and individuals made donations to the appeal . The church reopened after its restoration on 1 May 2011 with a Mass celebrated by the Bishop of Wrexham , Edwin Regan .
= = Architecture and fittings = =
Built of reinforced concrete , the building is designed in the style of an upturned boat , and the design has a " nautical theme " with elements such as porthole windows . This is a deliberate reference to Amlwch 's history as a port town and its position on the coast . The church has six concrete parabolic arch " ribs " along the outside , with portholes on the base plinth between each rib .
The main entrance is at the south end of the church at the top of some stone steps on either side . A window ( shaped , like all the others in the church , like a star ) set in mosaic is positioned above the door , and there is a stone cross at the top of the facade . The concrete of the church is dressed with stone on the south side , nearest the main road . The ribs on the outside are visible inside the building ; in between them , there are patterns of lights and coloured marble panels on the lower parts of the interior walls . The vestry is to the rear of the church , and there is a parish hall , built from masonry , underneath the church . The altar was replaced in 1995 and again on the reopening of the church in 2011 , when a carved crucifix , which was brought to Amlwch from a former convent in Liverpool , was also dedicated . The porch houses a sepulchral slab , dating from the latter half of the 13th century .
= = Assessment = =
The church is a Grade II * listed building – the second @-@ highest of the three grades of listing , designating " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " . It was given this status on 12 December 2000 , and has been listed as " a remarkable inter @-@ war church " . Cadw describes it as " striking and individual " , and " a highly unusual and experimental design which exploits the plastic qualities of its constructional material to create a powerfully expressive religious building . "
A 2006 guide to the churches of Anglesey describes it as " a very impressive building " , that " must surely be the most unusual church in Anglesey . " A 2009 guide to the buildings of north Wales describes it as " a piece of Italian architectural daring " . Referring to the French structural engineer Eugène Freyssinet , who worked with concrete , the guide rhetorically asks , " What inspired this Futurist church , closer to Freyssinet 's 1920s airship hangars at Orly , Paris , than to Catholic church design , and so unlike the conservatism of Anglesey building ? " Writing before the church reopened , the heritage writer and journalist Simon Jenkins has said that the church was worth a visit for the exterior alone , even though it was closed . He noted the " sweeping parabolic arches , perhaps inspired by airship hangars or by upturned boats in Amlwch harbour " , as well as the " bold gable with sloping sides " at the west end , concluding " This church must be saved . " It has also been described as " one of Britain 's most avant @-@ garde churches " . The Twentieth Century Society has said that it is " by far [ Rinvolucri 's ] best work " , calling it " a rare and unique church " . It noted the " highly individual interpretation of its seaside setting " , with a " strikingly modern " parabolic design and a " monumental almost pyramidal aesthetic " at the entrance . A 2011 guide to religious buildings in Wales ( written before the church reopened ) described it as " most unusual " , but added that the fittings were " not worthy of the building " . It also noted one writer 's words that " no Catholic church ( nor any church of another denomination ) built in Britain between the wars has the frankly radical character of Amlwch . "
= Hyōgo @-@ ku , Kobe =
Hyogo ( 兵庫区 , Hyōgo @-@ ku ) is one of nine wards of Kobe in Japan . It has an area of 14 @.@ 56 km2 and a population of 106 @,@ 322 ( as of January 1 , 2015 ) .
The area 's location with a natural harbour near the Akashi Strait which links Osaka Bay and the Seto inland sea has been an important location throughout the history of Japan . The capital of Japan was located in the area for a short period in the 12th century . Today the area is an important manufacturing zone .
The modern ward of Hyogo was formed as Sōsai @-@ ku ( 湊西区 , , lit . " Minato West Ward " ) when the City of Kobe adopted the system of wards in 1931 . Its name was changed to Hyogo in 1933 and its current boundaries were settled in 1971 . The floral emblem of the ward is the pansy .
= = Etymology = =
The literal meaning of the two kanji that make up the name Hyogo is " weapons warehouse " . From the Heian period , the area was also known as Ōwada @-@ no @-@ Tomari ( 大輪田泊 , Ōwada @-@ no @-@ tomari ) .
= = History = =
= = = Pre Edo period = = =
The features of the natural harbour around Wadamisaki peninsula has meant the port in Hyogo has been an important gateway to the Seto inland sea since the 8th century Nara period . In the 12th century , in the latter part of the Heian period , Taira no Kiyomori recognized the strategic benefit of the location and developed the harbor , including the building of Kyogashima ( ja : 経が島 ) , a man @-@ made island completed in 1173 and described as 37 hecatres in size in the The Tale of the Heike . Kiyomori , the de facto ruler of Japan between 1160 and 1180 , moved his official residence to Fukuhara , in what is modern @-@ day Hyogo . Fukuhara became the capital of Japan for a brief period near the end of Kiyomori 's rule . A monument erected shortly after his death , the Kiyomori @-@ zuka , stands in the gardens of a shrine opposite Kiyomori Bridge , also named in his honour .
= = = Edo @-@ Meiji periods = = =
During the Edo period Hyogo was within the Yatabe District of Settsu Province . Although Japan was placed under isolation by the ruling Tokugawa shogunate , Hyogo Port remained an important route for domestic trade . Given its importance , Hyogo Port was under the direct administration of the Shogunate via the Osaka machi @-@ bugyō . In 1868 , at the end of the Edo period , Hyogo port was one of the first to be opened to foreign vessels , ending Japan 's 250 @-@ year long isolation .
As part of the Shogunate 's efforts to protect Japan from Western colonial forces , the defence of Hyogo Port was upgraded with the construction of the Wadamisaki Battery , one of six land batteries built around Osaka Bay under the design of Count Katsu Kaishū . It was completed in 1864 after 18 months of construction at a cost of 25 @,@ 000 ryō . The outer enceinte was built of granite from the Shiwaku Islands and the inner two @-@ storey structure was made of keyaki ( Japanese elm ) wood harvested from the Nunobiki and Tekkai Mountains in Kobe . In 1921 the battery was the first place in Hyogo Prefecture to be designated as a historic site by the prefectural government .
Also , the Wadamisaki Lighthouse was completed in 1871 under the guidance of the " father of Japanese lighthouses " , Englishman Richard Henry Brunton , who was brought to Japan by the Shogunate under an 1867 agreement with the United Kingdom to build five western @-@ style lighthouses around Osaka Bay . The original lighthouse , which was first illuminated in 1872 , was a wooden octagonal structure . This was replaced with a 17m tall , three @-@ story , steel hexagonal structure in 1884 . The steel lighthouse was moved to the Suma Kaihin ( Seaside ) Park in Suma @-@ ku in 1967 and in September 1998 it was registered as a national tangible cultural asset under the name Old Wadamisaki Lighthouse ( 旧和田岬灯台 , Kyū @-@ Wadamisaki Tōdai ) .
= = = Modern period = = =
On 1 September 1931 the city of Kobe was the 6th city in Japan to adopt the system of dividing the city into wards . The area of the previous Hyogo town which lay west of the Minato River became Sōsai @-@ ku ( 湊西区 , , lit . " Minato West Ward " ) . The area of Hyogo town which lay east of the Minato River became part of Sōtō @-@ ku ( 湊東区 , , lit . " Minato East Ward " ) . On 1 January 1933 Sōsai 's name was changed to Hyogo in recognition of the area 's historic name .
= = = Bombing during World War II = = =
The concentration of military and industrial manufacturing facilities including Kobe Steel , Kawanishi Aircraft Company Kawasaki Aircraft Industries and the Kawasaki and Mitsubishi Shipyards made the city of Kobe a primary target of bombing by the United States during World War II . It suffered the highest fatality rate of the five major Japanese cities ( the others being Tokyo , Yokohama , Nagoya and Osaka ) .
The first attack upon Kobe was by one B @-@ 25 bomber as a part of the Dolittle Raid on 18 April 1942 . With Japan 's success in expanding its territory through south @-@ east Asia at the time , an attack by foreign aircraft was not expected at the time and it was reported that some residents even waved flags at the plane as it flew overhead , thinking it was a Japanese aircraft . One resident of Hyogo ward was the only fatality of the bombing of Kobe on that day .
In 1945 the United States changed tactics from strategic bombing of military sites to indiscriminate bombing of cities , including the use of incendiary cluster bombs . The first successful firebombing raid against Japan was an attack on Kobe on 4 February 1945 . The bombing was centred upon Hyogo and Minato wards .
With the final attack upon eastern Kobe in June 1945 , the United States command determined that Kobe had been destroyed to the extent that further attacks upon the city were not required . By the end of the war , Kobe had suffered more than 8 @,@ 000 deaths due to the air raids . Hyogo suffered the highest toll in terms of both lives lost and buildings destroyed .
= = = 1995 Kobe Earthquake = = =
At 5 : 46 on 17 January 1995 the Great Hanshin earthquake ( 阪神 ・ 淡路大震災 , Hanshin Awaji daishinsai ) ( also known as the Kobe earthquake ) devastated Kobe and the surrounding cities of the Hanshin region . Along with buildings that collapsed due to the earthquake , large areas of wooden houses and buildings burnt uncontrolled for many days , particularly in Nagata and Hyogo wards . A total of 6 @,@ 434 people died in the earthquake , of which the city of Kobe recorded fire as the cause of death of 528 people .
Infrastructure in Hyogo was also significantly damaged by the earthquake . The underground Daikai Station collapsed and brought down National Route 28 that runs above it . The loss of lives and infrastructure saw Hyogo lose a significant portion of its population ; the ward 's population has failed to return to its 1994 level twenty years later .
= = Geography = =
Hyogo is bounded by Osaka Bay to the south , Kita Ward to the north , Nagata Ward to the west and Chūō Ward to the east . It features the eastern portion of a network of canals named the " Hyogo Canals " ( Hyogo Unga ) in the south , and its northern border is at the base of the Rokko mountains .
= = = Hyogo Canals = = =
The Hyogo Unga is the generic name for the network of five canals located along the southern coast of Hyogo and Nagata Wards , facing Osaka Bay . The canals have a total length of 6 @,@ 470 metres and total area of almost 34 hectares , making it one of the largest canal netowrks in Japan . They were first planned in the 1870s and completed in December 1899 .
The five canals are :
Niigawa Canal – The first canal to be completed , it was built between 1874 and 1876 .
Hyogo Canal
Hyogo Feeder Canal
Karumojima Canal – The longest canal at 2,200m .
Shinminatogawa Canal – The shortest canal at 320m .
= = = Boundary changes = = =
Sōsai @-@ ku was one of seven wards established when the system of wards was adopted by the city on 1 September 1931 . Following the name change to Hyogo in 1933 , the next change occurred on 1 May 1945 when the city restructured the wards , with Hyogo expanded to include Minato @-@ ku , the western portion of Sōtō @-@ ku , and the portion of Hayashida @-@ ku that lay east of the Hyogo Canals .
On 1 March 1947 the city of Kobe expanded due to the merger of the town of Arima and nine other villages from the districts of Muko , Arima and Akashi . Of these , Arima town and the villages Yamada in Muko and Arino in Arima District became a part of Hyogo ward . On 1 July 1951 the villages of Hata , Dōjō and Ōzō that were located in Arima District merged into Kobe and Hyogo ward . On 15 October 1955 Nagao village in Arima merged into Kobe and Hyogo ward . This was followed by the village Ōgo of Minō District on 1 February 1958 . This expansion northwards made Hyogo the largest of Kobe 's wards in size , encompassing 256.4km2 of Kobe 's 557km2 .
On 1 August 1973 the area of Hyogo north of the Rokko mountains , consisting of all of the former villages from the districts of Arima , Minō and Muko , were split from Hyogo to create the new Kita @-@ ku . This reduced Hyogo to its current size of 14 @.@ 56 km2 .
= = Economy = =
= = = Industry = = =
Hyogo is one of the main industrial areas of Kobe . Fujitsu Ten is headquartered within the ward , and other large corporations including Kawasaki Heavy Industries , Mitsubishi Electric and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries have manufacturing facilities in Hyogo . In particular , railcars for the bullet train are manufactured in Hyogo by Kawasaki .
= = Arts and culture = =
= = = Temples and shrines = = =
= = = = Buddhist temples = = = =
As well as several monuments to Kiyomori , Hyogo is also the location of Nōfuku @-@ ji temple , home of the Hyogo Daibutsu , an 11 @-@ metre tall statue of Buddha .
= = = = Shinto shrines and festivals = = = =
Yanagihara Ebisu Shrine is in the centre of Hyogo , close to Hyogo Station . It hosts the Tōka @-@ Ebisu Festival ( 十日恵比寿大祭 , Tōka @-@ Ebisu Taisai , " 10th Day Ebisu Grand Festival " ) , an annual festival held from 9 to 11 January in honour of Ebisu , the Shinto god of commerce . At the event people pray for success in their business , the health and safety of their family , and success in studies and obtaining employment . Tōka @-@ Ebisu is the most important cultural event in Hyogo throughout the year .
A yakuyoke festival ( 厄除大祭 , yakuyoke taisai ) is held annually from 18 to 19 January at two Hachiman shrines within Hyogo , the Minatogawa Hachiman Shrine and Misaki Hachiman Shrine . People who are approaching an " unlucky age " ( yakudoshi ) attend the shrine during the two days in order to undergo a yakuharai ritual to ward off unlucky spirits .
= = = = Other places of worship = = = =
A Soka Gakkai church is located in the Misaki neighbourhood , close to the eastern end of the Hyogo canal . A Jehovah 's Witnesses church is also located in the Misaki @-@ Honmachi neighbourhood .
= = = Entertainment = = =
The Shinkaichi area in eastern Hyogo , with its numerous cinemas , theatres and restaurants , was known as the " Western Asakusa " in the period before World War II .
= = Sports = =
Misaki Park Stadium is the home of the Vissel Kobe professional soccer and Kobelco Steelers professional rugby teams . The stadium hosted matches during the 2002 FIFA World Cup and will also be one of the hosts of the 2019 Rugby World Cup .
It was built on the site of the former Kobe Central Stadium , which occupied the location from 1970 until 1999 . At the time of its construction , the Central Stadium was the first rectangular ball sports stadium built in Japan with lighting for night matches . It hosted one of the groups 1979 FIFA World Youth Championship as well as a quarter final and semi final of the tournament . The Kobe Keirin Stadium previously occupied the site and was in use from 1949 until 1960 .
= = Government = =
Hyogo is administered by the Hyogo ward office , which is located next to Minatogawa Station and Minatogawa Park . The Hyogo Police Station of the Hyogo Prefectural Police is located in the same vicinity and is responsible for policing the ward ( excluding the marine areas that fall within the Kobe Water Police 's jurisdiction ) . It maintains 14 kōban ( " police boxes " ) within the ward and a substation near Hyogo Station .
The ward is represented by 5 councilors in the 69 @-@ seat Kobe City council assembly . In the April 2015 unified local elections , two candidates from the Liberal Democratic Party and one each from the Komeito , Communist and Innovation / Democratic ( joint endorsement ) were elected to the council . Takashi Moriya , an LDP member elected to his sixth term in the council , was subsequently elected by the council 's members to serve as the council 's chairman .
Hyogo has two representatives on the 89 @-@ seat Hyogo Prefectural Assembly . At the April 2015 election Issei Matsuda of the Komeito Party was elected to his fourth term and Shigetoshi Fukushima of the Liberal Democratic Party was elected to his first term .
At the national level , the wards of Hyogo , Nagata and Kita form Hyogo No.2 District in the House of Representatives . Kazuyoshi Akaba of the Komeito Party has represented the district from 1993 to 2009 and again from 2012 until present , most recently elected to his 7th term in the December 2014 general election . Upon his return to the Diet in 2012 Akaba served as a Senior Vice @-@ Minister for Economy , Trade and Industry and Senior Vice @-@ Minister for the Cabinet Office in Prime Minister Shinzo Abe 's second cabinet from December 2012 until September 2014 . Voter turnout at the December 2014 general election was 45 @.@ 7 % of Hyogo 's 89 @,@ 848 eligible voters , the second lowest percentage in Kobe and below the national turnout rate of 52 @.@ 66 % . Electors in Hyogo also vote to elect members to the House of Representatives as part of the Kinki proportional representation block . For the House of Councillors , Hyogo is within the Hyogo at @-@ large district , which covers the entire prefecture and elects a total of 4 councilors , while residents also vote for the national PR block .
= = Education = =
The following educational institutions are located in Hyogo :
= = = High schools = = =
Kobe Technical High School ( operated by the Hyogo Prefectural Government )
Hyogo Technical High School ( operated by the Hyogo Prefectural Government )
Kobe Gakuin University High School ( operated by Kobe Gakuin University )
Kusunoki Senior High School ( operated by the City of Kobe )
Shinko Senior High School ( operated by the City of Kobe )
= = = Junior high schools = = =
All junior high schools in Hyogo are operated by the City of Kobe :
= = = Elementary schools = = =
All elementary schools in Hyogo are operated by the City of Kobe :
= = = Special education = = =
Kobe Yuusei Special Education School : A school for physically and mentally handicapped children , it has classes for children from kindergarten to high school .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Transportation = = =
= = = = Rail = = = =
Hyogo is served by the JR Kobe Line and Wadamisaki spur line , the Kaigan and Seishin @-@ Yamate lines of the Kobe Municipal Subway , Shintetsu Arima Line of the Kobe Electric Railway , and the Tozai Line ( which carries Hankyu , Hanshin and Sanyo services ) .
= = = = Road = = = =
Japan National Route 2 is the main arterial road through the area . Route 3 ( Kobe Route ) of the Hanshin Expressway runs above National Route 2 and the Yanagihara entrance / exit ramp provides a connection point . Other highways that run through the ward include National Routes 28 and 428 .
= = = Utilities = = =
Water utilities in the ward are under the responsibility of the Kobe city water bureau . The Okuhirano Water Purification Plant , located in Kusudani @-@ cho in the north of the ward , was opened in 1900 and was the 7th modern waterworks plant to be constructed in Japan . It occupies a 65,000m2 site and is capable of processing 60,000m3 of water per day . The Kobe Water Science Museum is also located on the site .
Hyogo Post Office is the main office of Japan Post within the ward . It is located in Daikaidōri , in the centre of the ward , and operates a further 19 offices within the ward .
= = = Wholsale market = = =
The Kobe City Central Wholesale Market ( ja : 神戸市中央卸売市場 ) is located on Nakanojima Island , in the southeastern corner of the ward . The market was first built in Hyogo port in 1932 and was the fifth such market to be opened in Japan . The market sells seafood , fruit and vegetables via wholesale and auction , and operates a further two markets in Nagata and Higashinada wards . There are restaurants and retail shops on site and an Aeon shopping mall is planned to open opposite the market in September 2016 . The Chūō @-@ Ichibamae Station of the Kaigan subway line is located beneath the market .
= = Notable people = =
Takeo Azuma ( 1878 @-@ unknown ) - silent film actor
Kazume Iritani ( 1961- ) - rakugo musician
Karumogawa Shinjiro ( 1886 @-@ unknown ) - sumo wrestler
Hide Kawanishi ( 1
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USS New Mexico ( BB @-@ 40 ) was a battleship in service with the United States Navy from 1918 to 1946 . She was the lead ship of a class of three battleships , and the first ship to be named for the state of New Mexico . Her keel was laid down on 14 October 1915 at the New York Navy Yard , she was launched on 23 April 1917 , and was commissioned on 20 May 1918 . She was the first ship with a turbo @-@ electric transmission , which helped her reach a cruising speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Shortly after completing initial training , New Mexico escorted the ship that carried President Woodrow Wilson to Brest , France to sign the Treaty of Versailles . The interwar period was marked with repeated exercises with the Pacific and Atlantic Fleets , use as a trial ship for PID controllers , and a major modernization between March 1931 and January 1933 .
The ship 's first actions during World War II were neutrality patrols in the Atlantic Ocean . She returned to the Pacific after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor , and participated in shore bombardments during operations at Attu and Kiska , Tarawa , the Marshall Islands , the Mariana and Palau islands , Leyte , Luzon , and Okinawa . These were interspersed with escort duties , patrols , and refits . The ship was attacked by kamikazes on several occasions . New Mexico was present in Tokyo Bay for the signing of the Japanese Instrument of Surrender on 2 September 1945 . Four days later , she sailed for the United States , and arrived in Boston on 17 October .
New Mexico was decommissioned in Boston on 19 July 1946 , and struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 25 February 1947 . The ship was sold for scrapping to the Lipsett Division of Luria Bros in November 1947 , but attempts to bring the ship to Newark , New Jersey for breaking up were met by resistance from city officials . City fireboats were sent to block the passage of the battleship and the Lipsett tugboats , while the United States Coast Guard declared intentions to guarantee safe passage . The Under Secretary of the Navy Department was sent to defuse what the media began to call the " Battle of Newark Bay " , with the city agreeing to the breaking up of New Mexico and two other battleships before scrapping operations in Newark Bay ceased , and Lipsett under instructions to dismantle the ships in a set timeframe or suffer financial penalties . Scrapping commenced in November and was completed by July 1948 .
= = Description = =
New Mexico was 624 feet ( 190 m ) long overall and had a beam of 97 ft 5 in ( 29 @.@ 69 m ) and a draft of 30 ft ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) . She displaced 31 @,@ 000 long tons ( 32 @,@ 000 t ) as designed and up to 32 @,@ 000 long tons ( 33 @,@ 000 t ) at full load . She had a crew of 1 @,@ 084 officers and enlisted men . The ship 's main armament comprised twelve 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) / 50 caliber guns mounted three guns in each of four turrets , with each turret weighing 980 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 080 short tons ) . The secondary battery consisted of fourteen 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) / 51 caliber guns , with all of them being removed in May 1942 . The anti @-@ aircraft defense consisted of four 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) / 50 caliber guns , which were soon replaced by a battery of eight 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) / 25 caliber guns . As was standard for capital ships of the period , she carried two 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes in deck mounted torpedo launchers .
New Mexico 's main armored belt was 13 @.@ 5 in ( 343 mm ) thick over the magazines and the machinery spaces and 8 in ( 203 mm ) elsewhere . The main battery gun turrets had 18 @-@ inch ( 460 mm ) thick faces , and the supporting barbettes had 13 in ( 330 mm ) of armor plating on their exposed sides . Armor that was 3 @.@ 5 in ( 89 mm ) thick protected the decks . The conning tower had 11 @.@ 5 in ( 290 mm ) thick sides .
= = = Propulsion system = = =
Unlike the other two battleships of this class which used geared turbines , New Mexico had turbo @-@ electric transmission , in which the high @-@ speed steam turbine drove a set of generators providing electricity to electric motors turning the propeller shafts . The engines were rated at 27 @,@ 500 shaft horsepower ( 20 @,@ 500 kW ) and had nine Babcock & Wilcox boilers , generating a top speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . She had a range of 8 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 9 @,@ 200 mi ) at a cruising speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
General Electric ran an advertisement titled " The " Constitution " of To @-@ day — Electronically Propelled " with a drawing of New Mexico next to USS Constitution . The ad touted the battleship as " the first of any nation to be electrically propelled " . The electrical generating plant was said to put out 27 @,@ 500 shaft horsepower ( 20 @,@ 500 kW ) for a cruising speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . GE called it one of the most important achievements of the scientific age and related it to consumer products noting that " so general are the applications of electricity to the needs of mankind that scarcely a home or individual today need be without the benefits of General Electric products and service . " An illustrated booklet titled " The Electric Ship " was offered free of charge upon request .
A comparison of the turbo @-@ electric propulsion with the more conventional direct @-@ drive turbine design used on her sister ships showed that the conventional design generated 2 @.@ 5 times the power per ton of machinery and required 1 / 3 the floor area although at the cost of 20 % greater fuel consumption , always a concern for the U.S. Navy given Pacific distances . The turbo @-@ electric design allowed for the equipment to be split between smaller watertight compartments , which was a potential benefit should parts of the engine space be attacked and flooded . There was a design weakness in that all electrical connections went through a single switch room , which could entirely disable the ship were that room to be hit . Saratoga , which used a similar propulsion design , lost power for five minutes when it was hit by a torpedo in 1942 . The scheme of watertight subdivisions was further weakened by large ventilation trunks passing through bulkheads and glass windows in the generator room bulkhead .
= = Service history = =
New Mexico 's keel was laid down on 14 October 1915 by the New York Navy Yard . She was launched on 23 April 1917 . The ship was sponsored by Miss Margaret Cabeza De Baca , the daughter of the recently deceased Governor of New Mexico , Ezequiel Cabeza De Baca ( died on 28 February 1917 ) . She was commissioned on 20 May 1918 , with Captain Ashley Herman Robertson in charge .
After New Mexico passed her initial trials , she left New York Harbor on 15 January 1919 for Brest , to escort the ship George Washington . The George Washington was carrying President Woodrow Wilson on his return from the Versailles Peace Conference to the U.S. She returned to the Hampton Roads area on 27 February . New Mexico became the flagship of the newly created United States Pacific Fleet on 16 July and three days later she left Hampton for San Pedro , California . She passed through the Panama Canal and arrived at San Pedro on 9 August . Two of her 5 @-@ inch ( 130 mm ) / 51 caliber guns were removed in a later overhaul , in 1922 .
The next twelve years consisted of training exercises and maneuvers in the Pacific and the Caribbean , with the Pacific and the Atlantic Fleets . She also took several cruises to South American ports and was used for the early development of PID controllers . Invented by the Russian @-@ American engineer Nicolas Minorsky for the automated steering of ships , the devices have since become widespread in control engineering . After that , in 1925 , she took a cruise to Australia and New Zealand .
After her training exercises in the Atlantic and the Pacific were finished , New Mexico was overhauled and modernized at the Philadelphia Harbor by the Navy from March 1931 to January 1933 . The overhaul included the replacement of her turbo @-@ electric drive with more conventional geared turbines , which were made by Curtis . In addition , New Mexico received eight 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) / 25 caliber anti @-@ aircraft guns , replacing the four 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) guns that had been previously installed . After the overhaul , she returned the Pacific to continue training exercises and the development of tactical operations .
Even in 1936 during Fleet Problem XVII , she was one of the fastest battleships in the Navy , having a maximum speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) , higher than most U.S. battleships , but only 1 @.@ 5 knots ( 2 @.@ 8 km / h ; 1 @.@ 7 mph ) faster than Japan 's slowest battleships . This led to the development of the North Carolina @-@ class battleship and South Dakota @-@ class battleship . In 1937 , she arrived in Hawaii to sail to Dutch Harbor , Alaska , where she and several other ships were sent to help the Navy evaluate fighting in sub @-@ arctic conditions .
= = = World War II = = =
= = = = 1940 – 43 = = = =
As the prospect of war grew , New Mexico 's was based at Pearl Harbor , Hawaii , from 6 December 1940 to 20 May 1941 . She then left Pearl Harbor to join the Atlantic fleet at Norfolk on 16 June for neutrality patrol duty along the Atlantic coast . In the Atlantic , she served on three 7 – 14 day " shifts " following destroyers to escort convoys across the Atlantic . On 10 December , while headed to Hampton Roads ( en route to the west coast after the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor ) , she accidentally rammed and sank the U.S. freighter Oregon south of the Nantucket Lightship off Boston Harbor . She managed to reach the Panama Canal by 17 January 1942 .
During an overhaul in May 1942 , at the Puget Sound Navy Yard , she had her secondary battery of twelve 5 in / 51 guns removed to make space for more anti @-@ aircraft guns . After the overhaul , which was completed on 1 August , she departed San Francisco to Hawaii to prepare for action . From 6 December to 22 March 1943 , she escorted convoys and transports to the Fiji Islands . After that , she patrolled the southwestern Pacific , before returning to Pearl Harbor to get ready for the Aleutian Islands Campaign . After her training , on 17 May , she steamed to Adak , which would be her base for the attack on Attu . She later participated in the shelling of Kiska on 21 July , which led to the Japanese evacuation of the island a week later .
After the Aleutian Islands Campaign , a refit was undertaken at the Puget Sound Navy Yard . On 25 October , New Mexico returned to Pearl Harbor to practice for the invasion of the Gilbert Islands . On 20 November , while the invasion was underway , she shelled Makin Atoll . During the fighting on the islands the ship was tasked with guarding transports at night when they retreated from the islands , providing anti @-@ aircraft fire for the unloading of supplies and troops , and providing screening fire for the aircraft carriers . After U.S. troops captured the Gilbert Islands on 5 December , New Mexico returned to Pearl Harbor .
= = = = 1944 = = = =
New Mexico was part of the Marshall Islands invasion force on 12 January 1944 . She shelled Kwajalein and Ebeye from 31 January to 1 February . Replenishing at Majuro , on 20 February the ship shelled Wotje , and then the following month also shelled New Ireland and Kavieng . After that , she sailed to the Solomon Islands to practice the attack on the Mariana Islands , stopping at Sydney , in Australia , on the way .
In mid @-@ June , New Mexico joined the shelling of Tinian , and also bombarded Saipan and Guam . On 18 June , she helped drive away two air attacks . Later , on 20 June , she escorted transports off the Mariana Islands . Meanwhile , the carrier task force destroyed the Japanese carrier force at the Battle of the Philippine Sea . Later , she escorted troop transports to the naval base of Eniwetok . On 9 July , she sailed to guard escort carriers until 12 July . Her guns later hit Guam on 21 July and kept on shelling the island until 30 July .
After the invasion of the Mariana Islands , she received an overhaul at Bremerton , Washington , from October to November . After the overhaul , she arrived in Leyte Gulf to escort reinforcement and supply transports and convoys . She dealt with daily air attacks , as the Japanese put up heavy resistance to the liberation of the Philippines . She departed Leyte Gulf on 2 December to the Palaus , where she later joined a Mindoro @-@ bound convoy . She provided anti @-@ aircraft fire for the convoy and provided cover fire for invading forces . She provided cover for two more days before retiring to the Palaus .
= = = = 1945 = = = =
New Mexico 's next task in the Philippines was the liberation of Luzon . She took part in the pre @-@ invasion shelling of Lingayen Gulf on 6 January . During the bombardment she came under heavy kamikaze attack , one of which hit her bridge , killing her commanding officer , Captain Robert Walton Fleming , and 29 others . The dead included Lieutenant General Herbert Lumsden , the British representative to General of the Army Douglas MacArthur . A further 87 of her crew were wounded . Bruce Fraser , the commander of the British Pacific Fleet , narrowly escaped death while on her bridge , although his secretary was killed . The guns remained in action as the ship 's crew repaired the damage while the invasion troops were landing on the beaches .
More extensive repairs were completed at Pearl Harbor , after which New Mexico sailed to the island of Ulithi to rehearse the invasion of Okinawa as part of a large fire @-@ support group . Her heavy guns opened up on Okinawa on 26 March , and for the next month she continued to support the US troops ashore . On 11 May , she destroyed eight Shinyo suicide boats .
While she was approaching her berth in the Hagushi anchorage , just after sunset on 12 May , she was attacked by two kamikazes . One of them plunged into her , the other managed to hit her with its bomb . She was set on fire and 54 members of New Mexico 's crew were killed , while a further 119 were wounded . Swift action led to the fires being extinguished within 30 minutes . On 28 May , she departed for repairs at Leyte , followed by rehearsals for the planned invasion of the Japan . Word of the war 's end reached her when she was at Saipan on 15 August . The next day she sailed for Okinawa to join the occupation force . She entered Sagami Wan on 27 August to support the airborne occupation of Atsugi Airfield . The next day New Mexico passed into Tokyo Bay to witness the Japanese surrender , which took place on 2 September . She departed Tokyo Bay on 6 September , passing Okinawa , Hawaii , and the Panama Canal , before arriving at Boston on 17 October .
= = = Postwar = = =
New Mexico was decommissioned in Boston on 19 July 1946 , and was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 25 February 1947 . On 9 November 1947 , she was sold for scrapping to the Lipsett Division of Luria Bros , for $ 381 @,@ 600 .
Lipsett decided to tow New Mexico for scrapping at Newark , New Jersey . The proximity of Newark to rail lines made it an ideal location for dismantling the ship and hauling away the steel . In early November 1947 New Mexico departed Boston , towed by two tugs . On 12 November , while off the coast of New York , the tugs pulling the battleship encountered heavy weather and were forced to cut the tow lines . Running lights were kept on aboard New Mexico along with three crewmembers , but the tugs eventually lost sight of the battleship . New Mexico then drifted as a derelict until spotted by a Coast Guard plane the next day , 35 miles off the coast . The two tugs then secured tow lines and continued the journey to the scrapyard .
Newark city officials decided they did not want any more ships scrapped along the city 's waterfront . Newark was implementing a beautification plan for the waterfront , and had allocated $ 70 million for improvements . As such , the city declared that any attempt to bring New Mexico to Newark would be blocked . Two city fireboats , Michael P. Duffy and William T. Brennan , were dispatched and were prepared to use their fire hoses and chemical sprayers to halt Lipsett and New Mexico . In response , Lipsett organized its own force of four tugs , and the United States Coast Guard declared it would guarantee safe passage of New Mexico , provided legal entry was permitted . This showdown was dubbed by the press as the " Battle of Newark Bay " , while the Santa Fe Chamber of Commerce announced it would protest Newark 's " slur " of New Mexico 's namesake , through its refusal to admit the battleship .
As New Mexico awaited suitable tidal conditions to make the final tow into Newark , the Navy Department sent Under Secretary W. John Kenney to negotiate . After several sessions , he arranged a tenuous agreement between the City of Newark and Lipsett . Newark would allow New Mexico and two other battleships , Idaho and Wyoming , to be scrapped at Newark , but there would be no permanent ship dismantling facility . Lipsett had nine months to dispose of the three ships , or would be subjected to a fine of $ 1 @,@ 000 per day after the deadline .
New Mexico finally entered Newark Channel on 19 November , and was greeted by the same Newark fireboats that had earlier been sent to oppose the ship . Newark also arranged to have school children honor the old battleship dockside , with a marching band . New Mexico was subsequently joined by Idaho and Wyoming , where all three were finally dismantled . Scrapping of New Mexico began on 24 November and was completed by July 1948 .
= = Awards = =
The following awards were presented to the ship for its service during World War II :
American Defense Service Medal with " Fleet " clasp
American Campaign Medal
Asiatic @-@ Pacific Campaign Medal with six battle stars
World War II Victory Medal
Navy Occupation Medal with " Asia " clasp
Philippine Liberation Medal with two stars
= Dunder Mifflin =
Dunder Mifflin Paper Company , Inc. is a paper sales company featured in the United States television series The Office . It is analogous to Wernham Hogg in the British original of the series , and Papiers Jennings and Cogirep in the French Canadian and French adaptations respectively . Originally , the company was completely fictitious , but eventually the brand was used to sell products at Staples and other office supply outlets .
Two websites have been created to support the fictional company , NBC sold branded merchandise at its NBC Universal Store website . Its logo was prominently displayed in several locations in downtown Scranton , Pennsylvania , where the show is set . Scranton has been associated internationally with Dunder Mifflin due to the show 's international reach . In a 2008 St. Patrick 's Day speech in the suburb of Dickson City , then @-@ Prime Minister of Ireland Bertie Ahern made a reference to the city 's fictional branch office .
= = Overview = =
A fourth @-@ season episode , " Dunder Mifflin Infinity " , said the company was founded in 1949 by Robert Dunder and Robert Mifflin , originally to sell brackets for use in construction . The fifth @-@ season episode " Company Picnic " said that the co @-@ founders met on a tour of Dartmouth College . U.S. News and World Report likens it to many real companies in its size range : " It is facing an increasingly competitive marketplace . Like many smaller players , it just can 't compete with the low prices charged by big @-@ box rivals like Staples , OfficeMax and Office Depot , and it seems to be constantly bleeding corporate customers that are focused on cutting costs themselves . " The show 's creators share this assessment — " It 's basically a Staples , just not as big " , says co @-@ producer Kent Zbornak — as do some of those companies . " Since Dunder Mifflin could be considered among our competitors " , says Chuck Rubin , an Office Depot executive , " I think Michael Scott is actually the perfect person to run their Scranton office . "
The company was depicted as based in New York City , with branches in smaller Northeastern cities . Episodes are set in the Scranton branch , but other branches have been mentioned and seen . The now @-@ closed Stamford , Connecticut , branch was seen when Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) transferred there during the first half of the third season . Another episode , " Branch Wars " , gave viewers a brief glimpse of the Utica branch , one of several purportedly in upstate New York . Zbornak says that city was on the short list for where to base the show , with some of its writers having ties to Central New York , and that they always intended for at least a branch office to be located there , for reasons of phonetics . " Utica was just such a different @-@ sounding name than Scranton , " Zbornak says . But also , " we had done a little research and thought our kind of business could survive in Utica . "
A Buffalo branch has been mentioned in several episodes , and a Rochester office was also mentioned in the episode titled " Lecture Circuit " . The Dunder Mifflin website also lists a Yonkers branch . Albany rounds out the New York locations , which in a deleted scene in " Stress Relief " is revealed to have closed , leaving three other branches in other states : Akron , Ohio ; Camden , New Jersey ; and Nashua , New Hampshire . In " Company Picnic " , it is announced that the Camden and Yonkers branches have closed , and that the Buffalo branch is about to close . In " Boys and Girls " , a Pittsfield branch was mentioned , until Jan shut it down when their warehouse workers unionized . The episode " Turf War " focuses on the closing of the Binghamton branch , and how reps from the Syracuse branch are competing with Scranton employees for Binghamton 's old clients .
Business writer Megan Barnett has pointed out parallels between Dunder Mifflin and the real @-@ life W.B. Mason paper company , based near Boston , in Brockton , Massachusetts . It is similarly regional in focus , serving corporate customers in New England and the Mid @-@ Atlantic states . Like Dunder Mifflin , its original product line ( rubber stamps ) was something other than paper , and it faces stiff competition from national and international chains . It , too , has a branch office in Stamford , but Mason 's has remained open . In 2009 , it had an accounting scandal that resulted in a $ 545 @,@ 000 payment to corporate customers , much as Dunder Mifflin had to deal with the arrest of Ryan Howard for fraud the year before .
= = = Depiction of corporate culture = = =
The company 's " clearly dysfunctional " top @-@ down management style is a major source of tension on the show , notes Chicago @-@ based writer Ramsin Canon . Corporate headquarters rejects the television commercial Michael created , as he in turn insisted on his own ideas for the commercial and ignored his employees . Ryan Howard ( B. J. Novak ) , who began as a temp , becomes Michael 's new boss because he has an M.B.A. despite never having sold any paper or paper products . Michael , in turn , treats his own employees the same way . The show 's depiction of a dysfunctional corporate culture has led some commentators to liken Dunder Mifflin to the software maker Initech in Mike Judge 's cult comedy Office Space and the nameless company in which the Dilbert comic strip is set .
Dunder Mifflin is also depicted as struggling to accommodate the demands of a diverse workforce . Episodes have focused on sensitivity training sessions and other informal efforts . Sexual harassment has occurred often enough , however , that it has lent its name to an episode . Employment lawyer Julie Elgar started a blog analyzing each episode for plot developments likely to be actionable if they occurred in real life and estimating the legal bill and / or possible verdict the company would incur should a suit be filed — as Michael 's former supervisor , Jan Levenson ( Melora Hardin ) did in one episode , alleging wrongful termination . Greg Daniels , the show 's creator , said many episode plotlines are in fact based on anecdotes recounted during the sensitivity training he and the other members of the show 's cast and crew are required to take annually as employees of NBC , a General Electric subsidiary . The episode " Boys and Girls " showed that the company strongly resisted unionization efforts by its employees , to the point of closing down a branch , as many real companies do or threaten to do in the same situation .
= = Locations and sets used = =
The office and warehouse of the Scranton branch office are sets on the production company 's office in Van Nuys , California ( a real office was used in the show 's first season ) . The parking lots and exterior of the building are likewise the exterior of the building ( except in the first season , when the building 's exterior was different because a different shooting location was used ) . Since the stage set had no windows , writer Jennifer Celotta 's office was dressed to look like Michael Scott 's when the script called for him or someone else to look out the window into the parking lot . In the second and subsequent seasons , the office interiors and exteriors are at a different location in Van Nuys .
Some viewers have presumed that the Pennsylvania Paper & Supply Company 's tower , a downtown Scranton landmark which appears in video footage shot by cast member John Krasinski for the show 's opening credits , is the Dunder Mifflin office . The real company , which also sells paper and office supplies , has welcomed the exposure ( and increase in business ) and has a ground @-@ floor showroom where it sells both its products and T @-@ shirts with the tower . It plans to add a Dunder Mifflin logo to the circular insets near the top of the tower . Mifflin Avenue ends adjacent to the Penn Paper & Supply building .
= = Presence in real world = =
The success of the show has led to the sale of actual products with the Dunder Mifflin logo as souvenirs . NBC sells branded T @-@ shirts , mugs , calendars and other items at its website , as well as in the NBC store located in New York City . In 2006 , the website 80stees.com ranked Dunder Mifflin second only to Duff Beer from The Simpsons as the best fictional brand .
At the first annual The Office convention in Scranton in 2007 , fans who had paid for reserved seating at an " uncommon stockholders meeting " in the Mall at Steamtown received an annual report and complimentary ream of paper . A nearby elevator shaft is also decorated with the company logo . While the Scranton branch 's address , 1725 Slough Avenue , does not actually exist ( the street name was invented as a tribute to the original British version of the show , set in Slough , near London ) , the company logo can be seen two places in the city 's downtown section outside the mall : on one of the pedestrian overpasses along Lackawanna Avenue , and a lamppost banner in front of City Hall .
Two websites purporting to be the company 's exist. dundermifflin.com is the main site , with basic information about the company , and dundermifflininfinity.com , which is allegedly the company intranet , serves as an official NBC fansite . The latter site was shut down around January 2014 but is viewable through the Wayback Machine
In November 2011 , Staples Inc. announced that they are selling their own product of manufactured paper under the " Dunder Mifflin " name , under license from NBC 's parent company , Comcast . The Dunder Mifflin products are produced and sold by Quill.com , a wholly owned subsidiary of Staples . The brand expanded its paper product line beyond manufactured paper in November 2012 .
= = Dunder Mifflin appearances = =
= = = Video games = = =
In Randal 's Monday , a Dunder Mifflin Warehouse 42 sign is visible in a city scene .
= Battle of San Domingo =
The Battle of San Domingo was a naval battle of the Napoleonic Wars fought on 6 February 1806 between squadrons of French and British ships of the line off the southern coast of the French @-@ occupied Spanish colonial Captaincy General of Santo Domingo ( San Domingo in contemporary British English ) in the Caribbean . The French squadron , under Vice @-@ Admiral Corentin Urbain Leissègues in the 120 @-@ gun Impérial , had sailed from Brest in December 1805 , one of two squadrons intending to raid British trade routes as part of the Atlantic campaign of 1806 .
Separating from the squadron under Contre @-@ Admiral Jean @-@ Baptiste Willaumez in the mid @-@ Atlantic , Leissègues sailed for the Caribbean . After winter storms near the Azores damaged and scattered his squadron , Leissègues regrouped and repaired his ships at the city of Santo Domingo , where a British squadron under Vice @-@ Admiral Sir John Thomas Duckworth discovered them on 6 February 1806 . Duckworth had abandoned his assigned station off Cadiz in pursuit of Willaumez during December and traveled so far across the Atlantic in pursuit that he was forced to resupply at St. Kitts in the Leeward Islands , where news had reached him of Leissègues ' arrival .
By the time French lookouts at Santo Domingo had spotted Duckworth approaching from the southeast , it was too late for Leissègues to escape . Sailing with the wind westwards along the coast , Leissègues formed a line of battle to meet the approaching British squadron , which had split into two divisions . Although his divisions separated during the approach , Duckworth 's lead ships remained in a tight formation and successfully engaged the head of the French line , targeting the flagship Impérial . Under pressure , the French squadron broke apart with the British isolating and capturing three ships before concentrating on the main combat around the French flagship . Severely damaged and surrounded , Leissègues drove Impérial ashore to avoid capture . The remaining French ship of the line , Diomède , followed him . Although most of the crew of these ships scrambled ashore , British boarding parties captured both vessels and set them on fire . The only French ships to escape the battle were three smaller warships , which Duckworth 's squadron had ignored ; they eventually returned to France .
Willaumez 's squadron remained at large in the Atlantic until July 1806 , when a hurricane scattered the vessels along the American Seaboard where British patrols were waiting to intercept them . Of the 11 ships that set out in December 1805 , just four eventually returned to France . The crews of the British squadron were decorated for their success , with the exception of Duckworth , who shared in the general thanks but was otherwise unrewarded . By leaving his post off Cadiz he had provoked the anger of Vice @-@ Admiral Lord Collingwood , commander in the Mediterranean ; only his victory enabled Duckworth to escape a court martial .
The battle of San Domingo was the last fleet engagement of the war between French and British capital ships in open water . The Royal Navy 's dominance off every French port made the risks involved in putting to sea insurmountable . The only subsequent breakout attempt , by the Brest fleet in 1809 , ended with the defeat of the French fleet close to its own anchorage at the Battle of the Basque Roads .
= = Background = =
In late 1805 , First Lord of the Admiralty Lord Barham withdrew the Royal Navy blockade of the French Atlantic ports following the Trafalgar Campaign , in which the French Navy had lost 14 ships of the line . Barham believed that the French , having suffered such heavy losses , would be unable and unwilling to launch a major offensive in the Atlantic until after the winter . However , he had miscalculated the strength of the fleet at Brest , the principal French Atlantic seaport . The Brest fleet had not been engaged in the 1805 campaign and was therefore intact .
Taking advantage of the withdrawal of the British blockade , Emperor Napoleon ordered two squadrons to put to sea with orders to raid the British trade routes that crossed the Atlantic . These forces were to inflict as much economic damage to Britain as possible without engaging an equivalent British naval squadron and risking defeat and capture . The cruise was expected to last as long as 14 months , sustained by captured food supplies from British merchant ships . Sailing unopposed on 13 December 1805 , the squadrons separated two days later in pursuit of British merchant convoys , one squadron steering for the South Atlantic under Contre @-@ Admiral Jean @-@ Baptiste Willaumez and the other , under Vice @-@ Admiral Corentin @-@ Urbain Leissègues , sailing for the Caribbean . The Admiralty in London did not discover that the French had sailed until 24 December , and the two squadrons they prepared in pursuit , under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Richard Strachan and Rear @-@ Admiral Sir John Borlase Warren , did not sail until January 1806 , by which time the French had disappeared into the Atlantic .
There was however one British squadron that had maintained contact with the French : since the Battle of Trafalgar in October 1805 , the Admiralty had stationed a squadron under Vice @-@ Admiral Sir John Thomas Duckworth off Cadiz to watch the remnants of the combined fleet . In November 1805 , reports reached Duckworth of a French squadron operating against British convoys off the Savage Islands between Madeira and the Canary Islands . This squadron , which belonged to Contre @-@ Admiral Zacharie Allemand , had left France in July 1805 . Immediately sailing to investigate , Duckworth abandoned Cadiz , leaving just two frigates to watch the Allied fleet at anchor . Passing the Savage and Canary Islands , Duckworth continued to the Cape Verde Islands before conceding that the French had escaped him and turning northwards again . Allemand was already far to the north . He eventually returned to France without incident on 23 December .
= = = Duckworth 's cruise = = =
During his return journey to Cadiz , on 23 December Duckworth encountered HMS Arethusa under Captain Charles Brisbane escorting a small group of merchant ships . Leissègues had intercepted , chased and dispersed Brisbane 's convoy in the Bay of Biscay on 15 December , Brisbane retaining only the largest merchant ships to help cover the flight of the smaller vessels . Once he had escaped Leissègues ' pursuit , Brisbane sailed in search of support at Cadiz , continuing southwards after realizing that Duckworth was not at his appointed station . Immediately setting a course that he believed would intercept Leissègues , Duckworth turned to the northwest and on 25 December discovered an enemy squadron approximately 200 nautical miles ( 370 km ) northwest of the Canary Islands . Duckworth ordered his squadron to pursue , the chase lasting throughout the day and continuing into 26 December , by which time it had become clear that his quarry was not Allemand . In fact , Duckworth had discovered Willaumez 's squadron . However , the French admiral ordered his ships to run before Duckworth rather than give battle . By 13 : 00 on 26 December , it seemed certain that the British flagship , HMS Superb , would outstrip the rearmost French ship , when Duckworth suddenly called off the pursuit . He later claimed that he was concerned that the leading ships of his squadron would be overwhelmed by the concentrated French squadron before the stragglers , some of which were more than 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ) behind Superb , could join the battle .
As Willaumez escaped into the South Atlantic , Duckworth ordered his squadron to sail for Barbados to resupply before making the long journey back to Cadiz . When he arrived on 12 January 1806 , he ordered the frigate HMS Acasta to St. Kitts to arrange the required water supplies , and moved the squadron to an anchorage off Basseterre on 19 January . There two ships of the Leeward Islands squadron , HMS Northumberland and HMS Atlas , joined him . Northumberland was the flagship of Rear @-@ Admiral Alexander Cochrane , commander of the station . Cochrane 's arrival raised the number of admirals in the squadron to three , as Duckworth 's second in command was Rear @-@ Admiral Thomas Louis in HMS Canopus . Leissègues was also en route to the Caribbean , winter storms off the Azores having delayed him , separated Alexandre and Brave and inflicted damage on Jupiter and Diomède . Arriving at the French @-@ held city of Santo Domingo on the island of Hispaniola on 20 January , Leissègues disembarked over 1 @,@ 000 soldiers as reinforcements for the garrison , and made hasty repairs as he awaited the arrival of his missing ships , which appeared on 29 January . During his time in the harbour , Leissègues moved ashore and gave orders for the ships to be recaulked following their Atlantic voyage , a difficult and time @-@ consuming process .
On 1 February the small sloop HMS Kingfisher arrived at Basseterre with information that three French ships of the line had been sighted off Santo Domingo . Duckworth gave orders for the fleet to sail immediately . On 3 February the brig HMS Epervier joined him at St. Thomas and on 5 February the frigate HMS Magicienne under Captain Adam Mackenzie joined near the Mona Passage . Mackenzie was accompanied by a Danish schooner that had sailed from Santo Domingo a few days before , and whose crew were able to provide a detailed account of the French squadron 's composition . Before the schooner had sailed , a number of French officers had commented on the risk involved in allowing the vessel to leave port , but the admiral had refused their demands that he burn the Danish ship . Duckworth was now confident that he outnumbered and outgunned Leissègues . During the night of 5 February the British squadron slowly approached Santo Domingo , Acasta and Magicienne scouting ahead of the main fleet .
= = Battle = =
= = = Duckworth 's attack = = =
At 06 : 00 on 6 February Duckworth 's scouts sighted the French , observing two frigates , five ships of the line and one large merchant ship anchored in line at the entrance to Santo Domingo . Leissègues had reportedly issued orders for the squadron to sail for Jamaica , even though several of the French ships were not yet ready for sea , and two frigates were already under sail when the British arrived . Leissègues was not aboard Impérial ; he and a number of his officers were still conducting their business in the town and were therefore forced to join the squadron in small boats , which delayed the squadron . Several officers , possibly including Leissègues , did not reach their ships until after the engagement had begun . Recognising that his enemy was in a vulnerable position , Duckworth raised all sail in an effort to close with the French . Leissègues too recognised the danger his ships were in and ordered them to raise anchor and then to sail westwards along the coast in the direction of Nizao . [ Note A ] Maintaining close formation , the French formed a line of battle , Captain Pierre @-@ Elie Garreau in Alexandre leading , with Impérial , Diomède , Jupiter and Brave following . The frigates and corvette took a position between the battle line and the shore . Duckworth was concerned that there might be other French forces to the west . He therefore angled his line of attack to pass across the front of the French line and signaled to his squadron to direct their fire at the front three ships : Alexandre , Impérial and Diomède .
At 08 : 00 Duckworth 's ships divided into two divisions , a westerly line to windward under Duckworth with Superb , Northumberland , HMS Spencer and HMS Agamemnon , and an eastern line under Louis with Canopus , HMS Donegal and Atlas . The British frigates were gathered in formation to the west of the British lines , awaiting orders to assist if required . Over the next two hours the British slowly closed with the French squadron , the British divisions breaking up as the faster ships outpaced the slower . Louis ' squadron fell behind Duckworth 's , while Agamemnon dropped behind the other three vessels in her division , which otherwise remained in a tight formation . A slight shift in the wind allowed Leissègues to adjust his direction to the southwest , but the close presence of the land restricted French movements and at 10 : 10 Superb was able to open fire on Alexandre .
With the British flagship engaged with the leading French vessel , Northumberland opened fire on the next in line , Leissègues ' flagship Impérial . The French ship carried 120 guns to Northumberland 's 74 , but Cochrane engaged closely , rapidly supported by Spencer , which opened fire on Impérial and Diomède simultaneously . For 15 minutes the British continued to close , both squadrons sailing westwards along the coast with the wind . At 10 : 25 , the damaged Alexandre suddenly swung out of the line in an attempt to drive between Spencer and Northumberland and rake them both . Captain Robert Stopford on Spencer responded rapidly , turning across Alexandre 's bow and raking her , before pulling along the opposite side of Garreau 's Alexandre and opening fire from close range . In the smoke and confusion neither Superb nor Northumberland noticed Spencer 's move ; both fired several shots into Spencer before they realized their mistake . With Spencer and Alexandre out of the way , Impérial was able to engage both of the leading British ships , threatening to overwhelm them . Cochrane moved to defend the flagship by pulling Northumberland between Impérial and Superb , suffering terrible damage but preserving Duckworth 's ship intact . Impérial 's fire was so heavy that several shot passed straight through Northumberland into Superb .
= = = Destruction of the French rear = = =
As the combat raged at the head of the line , the remainder of both squadrons strained to join the battle . The British eastern division under Louis reached the battling Alexandre and Spencer at 10 : 35 , the two ships locked together to the south of the main engagement . As they passed , Canopus , Donegal and Atlas all raked the French ship , bringing down all of her masts and leaving her in a crippled state . Canopus then steered directly towards the battle around Impérial , as Donegal and Atlas turned northwest to intercept Brave and Jupiter respectively . At 11 : 00 , Spencer followed Canopus while Alexandre 's crew were preoccupied with extinguishing a fire that had broken out on board . Alexandre was so badly damaged that she was unable to either escape or continue the action ; she formally surrendered ten minutes later .
Captain Pulteney Malcolm on Donegal attacked Brave directly , firing his starboard guns and then crossing Brave 's stern , inflicting severe damage with a raking broadside , before pulling alongside again and engaging from close range . Badly damaged , Brave surrendered . Malcolm then ordered Captain Richard Dunn in Acasta to take possession as Donegal moved forward to engage Jupiter . With Donegal alongside Jupiter , Captain Samuel Pym in Atlas abandoned his brief engagement with the French ship and steered for the melee surrounding the increasingly isolated Impérial . Taking advantage of his ship 's superior speed , Malcolm pulled ahead of Jupiter and then rammed her bow , securing the ships together to prevent the French vessel from escaping . Recognising that further resistance was hopeless , Captain Gaspard Laignel surrendered immediately . Malcolm then sent 100 men on board as a prize crew and attached a towline to the French ship , just as the trailing Agamemnon finally reached the battle .
= = = Leissègues drives ashore = = =
Under the shroud of heavy smoke that confused the positions and identities of the ships at the head of the line , manoeuvering became hazardous : Atlas fired two broadsides into Impérial as she arrived and then raked the French flagship before her tiller jammed just as Diomède loomed out the smoke . Receiving a heavy broadside from the French ship , Atlas subsequently collided with Canopus as she too appeared immediately ahead , tearing off her bowsprit in the collision . Turning back into the battle , Atlas engaged Diomède at close range as the rest of the British squadron concentrated their fire on the beleaguered Impérial , with the exception of the damaged Northumberland , which was drifting out of the line .
With his main and mizzen masts collapsed and escape impossible , Leissègues turned his ship towards the shore at 11 : 30 , outdistancing the fire from the drifting Northumberland and leaving Superb behind , Duckworth reluctant to risk his ship in the shallow coastal shoals . Canopus maintained the pressure , pursuing the French flagship until it was clear at 11 : 40 that Impérial was hard aground on a coral reef , less than a mile from the beach . Diomède , under attack by Atlas and the recently returned Spencer , followed Impérial ashore . As they struck the reef , both French ships lost their remaining masts and suffered severe damage to their hulls . Their crews then gathered on deck and made preparations to abandon ship as the British squadron pulled back out of range of fire from the shore . During the engagement the French frigates and corvette had all slipped between the battling squadrons and the shoreline and escaped to the westwards . The British frigates were too preoccupied with boarding and towing prizes to initiate a chase .
= = = Destruction of Impérial and Diomède = = =
As Duckworth gathered his squadron , Northumberland 's mainmast collapsed across the deck , causing severe damage to the ship 's fittings . Although Cochrane 's flagship was the most severely damaged of the squadron , all had suffered to a degree : Superb 's men counted 60 shot holes while Atlas was out of control and Donegal had lost one of her topmasts . Casualties were also distributed throughout the fleet , with Northumberland and Spencer suffering the worst and Atlas the least except for the barely engaged Agamemnon . Total losses were 74 killed and 264 wounded and several ships were damaged , but Duckworth was rapidly able to effect repairs as his ships remained on station to observe the situation ashore .
Impérial and Diomède had both run aground between Nizao and Point Catalan , their hulls broadside to the beach and their bottoms stove in by the reefs that lay offshore . Using the remaining ship 's boats and with assistance from the shore , the wounded and survivors were ferried to the beach . These operations continued uninterrupted until 8 February , when Duckworth sent boats from Acasta and Magicienne to the wrecks . Boarding unopposed , the boat parties removed the remaining French crewmen as prisoners and set both ships on fire to deny their potential use to the French , although Leissègues had in fact already issued orders for them to be burnt once the last men had been evacuated . Her captain , Jean @-@ Baptiste Henry , was among the 150 prisoners the British took from Diomède . By contrast , the British found only six men still aboard Impérial , none of them officers . French casualties in the engagement were very heavy , with over 500 men estimated to have been killed or wounded on Impérial alone and over 1 @,@ 000 additional casualties shared among the rest of the fleet . Jupiter had not been severely damaged in the engagement and Brave , although damaged in the hull , was in a sailing condition . Both ships had surrendered early in the engagement after losing their captains killed or wounded , in the initial exchanges . Alexandre , by contrast , was a shattered wreck . Her British prize crew only just prevented the gaping holes smashed in her hull from sinking her .
Duckworth remained at anchor off Santo Domingo for several more days until his entire squadron and their prizes were ready for the voyage to Jamaica , sending Commander Nathaniel Day Cochrane to Britain in Kingfisher with the official despatches . Admiral Cochrane separated from the fleet on the day of departure and Northumberland and Agamemnon sailed for Barbados in case other French forces should appear in the Leeward Islands while the main fleet was repairing at Jamaica . Duckworth was received at Jamaica with " rapturous acknowledgments " and his prizes were refitted for the journey back to Britain . In the event , Brave foundered off the Azores with the loss of three men , and Alexandre was too badly damaged for further service , being broken up on arrival . Only Jupiter , renamed HMS Maida after the recent French defeat at the battle of Maida in Italy , had any continued career in the Royal Navy . The only surviving French ships , the frigates Comète and Félicité , and the corvette Diligente all returned to France without incident over the following months .
= = Aftermath = =
The victory , just four months after the success at Trafalgar , was celebrated in Britain and across the Empire , particularly in the Caribbean . Mere rumours of Leissègues ' presence had stifled trade and caused panic among the merchant houses of the West Indies and Duckworth 's victory helped to restore confidence in commercial ocean travel once more . In Britain both the House of Commons and the House of Lords voted their thanks to the entire squadron when Duckworth 's account of the action was read out , the motions led by Lord Grenville and Charles Grey , who both made expansive speeches in praise of Duckworth . Head money , a bounty on enemy servicemen killed , wounded or captured , was paid for 4 @,@ 268 men , even though records showed that the French fleet carried significantly fewer men than that . Additional prize money was paid for the captured Jupiter and awards of money , ceremonial plate and ornate swords were made by patriotic societies and Lloyd 's of London insurers . Admiral Louis was made a baronet and Cochrane a Knight Companion of the Order of the Bath , while a number of promotions were distributed among the first lieutenants . Duckworth , however , received nothing beyond his share of the general rewards . Vice @-@ Admiral Lord Collingwood , commander in chief of the Mediterranean , was furious that Duckworth had deserted his post off Cadiz , failed to bring Willaumez to battle in December and then sailed for the West Indies to resupply rather than returning to the Spanish coast . Historians William James and William Laird Clowes both considered that if Duckworth had not defeated Leissègues he would probably have faced a court martial . Duckworth 's absence forced Collingwood to divert some of his own ships to the Cadiz blockade . The force provided still proved inadequate – on 26 February a French frigate squadron broke out of the port and escaped to Rochefort . Collingwood 's influence was enough to block additional rewards to Duckworth , who subsequently returned to the Mediterranean and in 1807 commanded the fleet at the ineffectual Dardanelles Operation . Over four decades later the battle was among the actions recognised by a clasp attached to the Naval General Service Medal , awarded upon application to all British participants still living in 1847 .
In France , the government press misrepresented the battle . Le Moniteur Universel published a report purportedly written by Captain Raymond Cocault of the corvette Diligente . The report began by inaccurately claiming that the British squadron consisted of nine ships of the line . The report concluded with the information that two British ships had been destroyed on the San Domingo coast alongside three French and that two others had been dismasted and were badly damaged . The official French report , written by Leissègues but not published in France , contradicted this version of events . Leissègues stated that Cocault , with the other smaller warships , had made all sail to the westwards at the start of the engagement and that by the time the flagship drove ashore , Diligente was already out of sight . Leissègues remained on Santo Domingo for some time , but had returned to Europe by the time the colony fell to a joint English and Spanish force in July 1809 . He later received a regional command in the Ionian Sea and took part in the Adriatic campaign .
The Atlantic campaign continued throughout the spring and summer . Willaumez was able to avoid the British squadrons searching for him by remaining deep in the South Atlantic . However , on 13 March 1806 the British under Warren intercepted and defeated an unrelated French squadron under Contre @-@ Admiral Charles @-@ Alexandre Durand Linois while he was returning from the Indian Ocean . Eventually forced north in search of additional food supplies , Willaumez entered the Caribbean , where he hoped to intercept the Jamaica convoy to Britain . The disobedience of one of his own captains foiled Willaumez 's plan and he ordered his squadron to its final cruising ground , off Newfoundland . On 18 August 1806 , while it was deep in the Central Atlantic , a ferocious hurricane caught the squadron and scattered it . Willaumez eventually found shelter in Havana ; a number of his ships reached ports in the United States , some too badly damaged to ever sail again . Only four of the 11 ships of the line that left Brest in December 1805 ever returned to France . San Domingo was the last fleet battle of the Wars to be fought in open water ; the only subsequent engagement between fleets was the Battle of Basque Roads , fought in the narrow , shallow waters at the mouth of the Charente River .
= Ryan White =
Ryan Wayne White ( December 6 , 1971 – April 8 , 1990 ) was an American teenager from Kokomo , Indiana , who became a national poster child for HIV / AIDS in the United States after being expelled from middle school because of his infection . As a hemophiliac , he became infected with HIV from a contaminated blood treatment and , when diagnosed in December 1984 , was given six months to live . Doctors said he posed no risk to other students , but AIDS was poorly understood at the time . When White tried to return to school , many parents and teachers in Kokomo rallied against his attendance due to concerns of the disease spreading through bodily fluid transfer . Western School was actually located in Russiaville outside of Kokomo and was not part of the local Kokomo school system . A lengthy legal battle with the school system ensued , and news of the court case turned White into a popular celebrity and advocate for AIDS research and public education . Surprising his doctors , White lived five years longer than predicted but died in April 1990 , one month before his high school graduation .
Before White , AIDS was a disease widely associated with the male gay community , because it was first diagnosed among gay men . That perception shifted as White and other prominent HIV @-@ infected people such as Magic Johnson , Arthur Ashe , the Ray brothers , and Kimberly Bergalis appeared in the media to advocate for more AIDS research and public education to address the epidemic . The U.S. Congress passed a major piece of AIDS legislation , the Ryan White CARE Act , shortly after White 's death . The Act has been reauthorized twice ; Ryan White Programs are the largest provider of services for people living with HIV / AIDS in the United States .
= = Early life and illness = =
Ryan White was born at St. Joseph Memorial Hospital in Kokomo , Indiana , to Jeanne Elaine Hale and Hubert Wayne White . When he was circumcised , the bleeding would not stop . When he was three days old , doctors diagnosed him with severe hemophilia A , a hereditary blood coagulation disorder associated with the X chromosome , which causes even minor injuries to result in severe bleeding . For treatment , he received weekly transfusions of Factor VIII , a blood product created from pooled plasma of non @-@ hemophiliacs , an increasingly common treatment for hemophiliacs at the time .
Healthy for most of his childhood , he became extremely ill with pneumonia in December 1984 . On December 17 , 1984 , during a partial @-@ lung removal procedure , White was diagnosed with AIDS . The scientific community knew little about AIDS at the time : scientists had only realized earlier that year that HTLV @-@ III , now called HIV , was the cause of AIDS . White had apparently received a contaminated treatment of Factor VIII that was infected with HTLV @-@ III , although exactly when he was infected remains unknown to this day . At that time , because the retrovirus that causes AIDS had been recently identified , much of the pooled Factor VIII concentrate supply in hospitals was tainted because doctors did not know how to test for the disease , and donors often did not know they were infected or that blood was a factor in the transmission of the virus . Among hemophiliacs treated with blood @-@ clotting factors between 1979 and
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